MODULE NAME: .

EXPLORE THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: 1.3.3 Discuss the factors influencing weather.

WEATHER ELEMENT: RAINFALL- measured in millimeters(mm)

INSTRUMENT: RAINGAUGE

Characteristics of a rain gauge

-Made of copper to prevent rust.
-Has a brass funnel that is between 13-20cm in diameter
How to use a rain gauge to measure rainfall
-Pour water from the copper can or jar into a measuring cylinder.
- Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface.
-Take the reading at an eye level.
-Take the reading at the lowest meniscus.
-Record the amount in millimetres
Position of a rain gauge
-Place it in an open space to prevent run off from trees. Away from buildings because they can shelter
it and then it does not receive rain drops.
-it must be sunk into the ground to keep it stable.
-The top of the funnel must be 30cm above the ground to prevent splashes from raindrops.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTING RAINFALL

Geographical Location: Areas near large bodies of water, such as oceans, seas, and lakes, generally
receive more rainfall due to the availability of moisture. Inland areas, especially those far from water
bodies, tend to be drier.
Relief: Mountains act as a wall that moist uses to ascend and cool down to form clouds, leading to
precipitation on the windward side. The leeward side, however, often experiences a rain shadow
effect, resulting in much less rainfall.

Prevailing Winds: Winds that blow from the ocean towards the land (onshore winds) carry moist air,
leading to increased rainfall. Offshore winds (from land to ocean) usually bring drier conditions.

Atmospheric Pressure Systems: High-pressure systems typically hinder cloud formation and
rainfall, while low-pressure systems encourage it.

Cloud Type an: Different types of clouds produce varying amounts of rainfall.

WEATHER ELEMENT: SUNSHINE

INSTRUMENT: SUNSHINE RECORDER-Uses hours and minutes

Characteristics of a sunshine recorder

-It is a glass sphere which is partially surrounded by a metal frame.
-The metal frame is the one that hold the sensitized card
- The card is graduated in hours and minutes.
How to use a sunshine recorder to measure sunshine
- When the sun shines, the glass shere focuses the rays on the sensitized card.
-As the sun moves across the sky, the rays burn a trace/line on the card.
-At the end of the day, the card is taken out and the length of trace is turned into hours and minutes.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTING THE SUNSHINE
Latitude: The closer a location is to the equator, the more direct sunlight it receives throughout the
year. This is because the sun rays hit the equator more directly compared to higher altitudes.

Season: The tilt of the Earth’s axis causes seasonal variations in sunlight. Summers have longer days
and more direct sunlight while winters have shorter days with less direct sunlight.

Altitude: Higher altitudes can receive more sunshine because there is less atmosphere to scatter and
absorb the sunlight.

Cloud Cover: The presence of clouds can significantly reduce the amount of sunshine reaching the
ground.
Air Quality: Pollution and particulates in the air can scatter and absorb sunlight, reducing the amount
of sunshine that reaches the surface. Cleaner air allows more sunlight to pass through.

Physical geographic features: Physical features such as hills and mountains can block sun ray
making an area to be under a shadow.

WEATHER ELEMENT: TEMPERATURE

INSTRUMENT: SIX’s THERMOMETER- measured in degrees Celsius (⸰c)

Characteristics of the thermometer

Maximum
- Has a glass tube with a bulb at on end
- Contains liquid mercury
- Has a piece of metal called index
Minimum
- Has a glass tube with a bulb at one end
- Contains liquid alcohol
- Has a piece of metal called index
How to use a Six’s thermometer to measure temperature
Maximum thermometer
As the temperature rises, the mercury expands and moves up the capillary tube, pushing the steel
index along with it.
When the temperature drops, the mercury contracts and moves back down the tube. However, the
steel index remains at the highest point reached by the mercury. The maximum temperature is read
from the position of the steel index that had contact with mercury. The reading is recorded in ⸰c.
 Minimum thermometer

As the temperature drops, the alcohol contracts and pulls the steel index down the tube. The index
remains at the lowest point reached by the alcohol.
When the temperature rises again, the alcohol expands and moves up the tube, but the steel index
stays in place, marking the minimum temperature. The reading is taken at the end of the metal index
that is furthest from the bulb. The reading is recorded in ⸰c.

The Six’s thermometer is kept in a Stevenson screen

1. Its sides are louvered- to allow for free air circulation.

2. White in color: The exterior is painted white to reflect solar radiation, minimizing heat
absorption.
3. Raised 121cm above the ground: to prevent ground-level influences on temperatures.
4. Made up of wood: wood is a poor insulator of heat.
5. The faces against East and West: to prevent direct sun rays from heating the box.
6. It has sloping roof; to shed rain.

Calculating Mean daily temperature

The maximum and minimum temperatures for one day are added together then divided by two.
Eg if the maximum temperature of the day is 31⸰c and the minimum temperature of the day is 19⸰c
50⸰𝑐
Then the mean daily is: 31⸰c +19⸰c = 2 =25⸰c

Calculating daily or diurnal temperature range

Subtract the minimum temperature from the maximum temperature for one day.
eg Eg if the maximum temperature of the day is 31⸰c and the minimum temperature of the day is 19⸰c
Then the daily or diurnal temperature range is: 31⸰c -19⸰c= 12⸰c

Calculating Monthly temperature

Add the mean daily temperature for 1 month and divide them by number of days of that month.
Eg if the minimum and maximum temperature of the month February were as follows

Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Maximum 31 29 33 32 31 31 26 28 26 29 27 25 27 29 33 34 34 36 32 30 35 38 36 38 37 35 34 36
Minimum 19 17 21 20 19 17 16 18 16 19 17 15 17 17 19 20 22 26 22 20 21 26 24 26 23 21 18 22
Mean 25 23 27 26 25 24 21 23 21 24 22 20 22 23 26 27 28 31 26 25 28 32 30 32 30 28 26 29
daily

Mean monthly temperature is

25+23+27+26+25+24+21+23+21+24+22+20+22+23+26+27+28+31+26+25+28+32+30+32+30+28+
724
26+29= = =25.9⸰c
28
Calculating mean annual temperature
Add the mean monthly temperature and divide by 12
Eg
Date Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Maximum 31 29 33 32 31 31 26 28 26 29 27 25
Minimum 19 17 21 20 19 17 16 18 16 19 17 15
Mean 25 23 27 26 25 24 21 23 21 24 22 20
monthly

281
25+23+27+26+25+24+21+23+21+24+22+20= 12
= 23.4⸰c
Calculating mean annual temperature range
The highest mean monthly temperature minus the lowest mean monthly temperature
Eg
Date Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Maximum 31 29 33 32 31 31 26 28 26 29 27 25
Minimum 19 17 21 20 19 17 16 18 16 19 17 15
Mean 25 23 27 26 25 24 21 23 21 24 22 20
monthly

The highest mean monthly temperature = 27⸰c

-
The lowest mean monthly temperature = 20⸰c
= 7⸰c

FACTORS THAT AFFECTING TEMPERATURE

1.Latitude:
Tropical latitude where mid-day sun is almost overhead, are hotter than temperate latitudes where the
sun’s altitude is generally lower.. leading to warm temperature compared to polar latitude that are
cooler.

The illustration above, shows two bands of rays coming from the sun to two different latitudes on the

earth’s surface. At band XB the sun rays pass through a greater of air before it reaches place B. This

means that the amount of heat from the sun that falls on B will be lower than place A. At XA sun

rays travels through a shorter distance and its concentrated solar insolation heats up area A quickly

hence high temperature

2. Altitude
Places nearer to the earth’s surface are warmer than those higher up. Water vapour and dust in the air
prevent heat formed on the earth surface from rapidly passing back into space.Places of high altitude
eg mountain tops have air that contains very little dust or water vapour so it can easy get cold.

3. Distance away from the sea/ continentality: Land surfaces heat and cool more quickly than sea
surfaces. This means that water heats more slowly but retains its heat for longer period than the land
This characteristics influeneces temperature, especially in temperate latitudes where the sea warms
coastal regions in winter, but cools them in summer.In summer, land surfaces are warmer thatsea
surfaces therefore is warmer that the sea areas.

4. Aspect/slope: A steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle one.
Mountain areas have an east-west alignment like the Alps show a higher temperature on the south-
facing “sunny slope” than the north-facing slope.

5. Natural vegetation: There is a difference in temperature between forested regions and open
ground. In forested regions. In forested areas the forest act as canopy against direct sun rays. It is
therefore cool in these areas and again the is high evapo transpiration so the air above is cooled.

6. Humidity; Humid air absorbs heat during the day and retains it during the night. It helps to prevent
loss of heat from the lower layers of the air. Thus in the humid tropics, the air remains warm at night,
even on days when ther is little or no clouds.

7. Cloud cover: Clouds reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth surface and the
amount of earth radiation leaving the earth surface. When there are no clouds both types of radiation
are at maximum.

WEATHER ELEMENT: WIND SPEED

INSTRUMENT: ANEMOMETER measured in Kilometere per hour

Characteristics of An anemometer
-Consists of three or four metal cups fixed to metal arms mounted on a high vertical shaft

- It is also has a meter/ caliberated dial.

How to use an anemometer to measure wind speed

-When the wind blows, the cups rotate.

-The stronger the winds, the faster the cups rotate.

-The number of rotations are recorded on the dial or meter.

-The speed is given in kilometer per hour

Position of an anemometer
-Placed high above the ground(10m) to avoid gusts.

-In an open space to avoid obstructions.

-Above buildings to avoid obstructions.

FACTORS THAT AFFECTING WIND SPEED

Pressure Gradient Force: Wind moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure. The greater
the pressure difference, the stronger the wind speed.

Friction: The Earth’s surface creates friction that slows down wind speed. Over smooth surfaces
like oceans, friction is minimal, leading to higher wind speeds. Over rough terrain, friction is
greater, reducing wind speed.

Altitude: Wind speeds generally increase with altitude because there is less friction from the
Earth’s surface.

WEATHER ELEMENT: WIND DIRECTION

INSTRUMENT: WIND VANE- uses cardinal points

Characteristics of a wind vane

- Consists of horizontal rotating arm that is attached to the vertical shaft.

- The rotating arm has a tail and a pointer

- The 4 cardinal points arm are attached to the vertical shaft.

How to use a windvane to show wind direction

-When the wind blows, the arm swings until the pointer faces the wind.

-The pointer points to the direction from which the wind blows

Position of a wind vane

- Consists of horizontal rotating arm that is attached to the vertical shaft.

- The rotating arm has a tail and a pointer

- The 4 cardinal points arm are attached to the vertical shaft.

RECORDING OF WINDS

A wind rose is a chart used to record wind direction

- It consists of an octagon with the eight compass points

- Each of the small rectangles represents the date in which the wind comes from that direction
- Those days which are without any wind are recorded in the box of the calms and the number of
calm days are indicated in the centre of the octago

- FACTORS THAT AFFECTING WIND DIRECTION

Pressure Gradient Force: Wind moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure. The direction
of the wind is determined by the orientation of the pressure gradient1.

Coriolis Effect: Due to the Earth’s rotation, winds are deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection alters the wind’s path1.

Friction: The Earth’s surface creates friction that affects wind direction. Over smooth surfaces
like oceans, friction is minimal, allowing winds to follow a more direct path. Over rough terrain,
friction is greater, causing winds to change direction1.

Centripetal Force: In curved paths, such as around high and low-pressure systems, centripetal
force acts to change the direction of the wind, keeping it moving along curved surface.

WEATHER ELEMENT: HUMIDITY OF THE AIR

INSTRUMENT: HYGROMETER—measured inPercentage(%)

Relative humidity: The ratio between the actual amount of water vapour and the total amount
the air can hold at a given temperature.
Absolute humidity: The actual amount of water vapour present in the air at a particular
temperature
How to use a hygrometer is used to measure humidity
Wet bulb
The bulb is covered in muslin, which dips into a small bath containing distilled water.
When the air is not saturated, water evaporates from the muslin and this produces a cooling effect.
This causes the mercury to contract.
The wet thermometer therefore always shows a lower reading than the dry bulb
Dry bulb

-As the temperature rises, the mercury expands and moves up the capillary tube, pushing the steel
index along with it.
When the temperature drops, the mercury contracts and moves back down the tube. However, the
steel index remains at the highest point reached by the mercury. The maximum temperature is read
from the position of the steel index that had contact with mercury. The reading is recorded in ⸰c
INTERPRETING THE TWO THERMOMETERS READINGS
-No difference means the air is saturated
- Small difference means humidity is high
- Large difference means humidity is low
HOW TO CALCULATE RELATIVE HUMIDITY
- Subtract the wet bulb reading from the dry bulb
- Use the wet bulb depression and dry bulb reading to find the relative humidity on the relative
humidity table/chart.
Example if dry bulb reading is 25⸰c and wet bulb reading is 23.5⸰c
- Subtract 23.5⸰c from 25⸰c. The wet bulb depression is 1.5⸰c
- Now look at the table of relative humidity values.
- Down the left sde are the dry bulbs thermometer. Look for 25⸰c
- Along the top is the difference between the dry and wet bulb temperature(wet bulb depression).
Find 1.5
- Now read the number where the line from 25⸰c meets the column for 1.5. Read the answer. It is
88%
- This means that the air holds 88% of all the water vapour that it can hold.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY VALUES
WET BULB DEPRESSION ⸰C
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
DRY BULB
TEMP ⸰C
16 95 90 85 81 76 71 67 63 58
17 95 90 86 81 76 72 68 64 60
18 95 91 86 82 77 73 69 65 61
19 95 91 87 82 78 74 70 65 62
20 96 91 87 83 78 74 70 66 63
21 96 91 87 83 79 75 71 67 64
22 96 92 87 83 80 76 72 68 64
23 96 92 88 84 80 76 72 69 63
 24 96 92 88 84 80 77 73 69 66
25 96 92 88 84 81 77 74 70 67
26 9 92 88 84 81 78 74 71 67

FACTORS THAT AFFECTING HUMIDITY

Altitude: Higher altitudes typically have lower humidity because the air is cooler and less capable
of holding moisture2.

Vegetation: Regions with dense vegetation, such as forests, have higher humidity due to
transpiration, where plants release water vapor into the air2.

Air Circulation: Wind patterns and atmospheric circulation can transport moist air from one
region to another, affecting local humidity levels3.temper

Temperature: Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. Therefore, regions with higher
temperatures generally have higher humidity levels1.

Proximity to Water Bodies: Areas near oceans, seas, and large lakes tend to have higher
humidity due to the evaporation of water from these bodies.

WEATHER ELEMENT: ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

INSTRUMENT: BAROMETER-measured in Milibars(Mb)
Atmospheric pressure referes to the pressure exerted on the earth surface by the weight of the
air.. There are 2 types of barometer
-Aneroid barometer
- Mercury Barometer
Mercury Barometer

Characteristics of a Barometer
-Consists of a long glass tube, sealed at the upper end and open at the lower part.
-The lower end is inverted in a bowl of mercury.
-The mercury is exposed to the air
How to use a Mercury Barometer to measure atmospheric pressure
-When atmospheric pressure increases, pushes down on the mercury in the basin, causing the
mercury in the tube to rise along the tube.

-The height of the mercury column in the tube corresponds to the atmospheric pressure.

-Higher pressure pushes the mercury higher, while lower pressure allows it to drop2.

Aneroid Barometer

- Consists of a small metal box which contains very little air.

- The top of the box has a lid.
- There is also an indicator/ meter to register the pressure.
How to use Aneroid Barometer to measure atmospheric pressure
- When the pressure increases, the lid bends inwards and registers high pressure by the indicator.
- When the pressure decreases the lid is pushed out by a spring registering low pressure.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Altitude: Atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in altitude. At higher elevations, the air is less
dense, leading to lower pressure.
Temperature: There is a relationship between temperature and atmospheric pressure. Warm air expands
and rises leading to lower atmospheric pressure while cold air contracts and descend resulting in high
atmospheric pressure.
Water Vapor: The amount of water vapor in the air affects atmospheric pressure. Water vapour is lighter
than dry air, so an increase in humidity can lower the atmospheric pressure.
Earth’s Rotation: Due to rotation of the earth, the bulk of the air at the north pole is thrown towards the
equator.The great amount of heat at the equator warms the air making light and then it rises. That means
that the equotorial area experiences low atmospheric pressure.The air that rises from the equator heads to
the poles where it cools and gains weight. That means that the north and south poles experience high
atmospheric pressure’s

WEATHER ELEMENT: CLOUD COVER

INSTRUMENT: EYE OBSERVATION-Measured in Oktas