Principles of Communications 1936 Maj.

Edwin Armstrong developed the

Dr. R.A.Napud Diagonal Peak Clipping a form of distortion Historical Perspective first successful FM radio system.
that occurs when the time constant of the RC load
is too long, thus preventing the output voltage 1820 Hans Christian Oersted discovered the
from following the modulation envelope. relation between electricity and magnetism. HISTORY OF COMMUNICATIONS
Important Terminology:
Flywheel Effect refers to the action of a 1821 Andre Marie Ampere already
Amplitude Limiters are amplifier circuits resonant, parallel LC circuit. observed momentarily the phenomenon we now 1440 Gutenberg invents the printing press.
that are used to eliminate amplitude modulation call electromagnetic induction and hypothesized
and AM noise from received FM signals before Frequency Deviation the amount by which the existence of magnetic field around a current- 1844 Morse patents the telegraph.
detection. the carrier frequency is varied from its carrying conductor.
unmodulated value. 1866 First successful use of transatlantic
AM a modulation technique that involves 1822 Michael Faraday discovered telegraph cable.
varying the amplitude of the line’s carrier Frequency Shift refers to the instantaneous electromagnetic induction, the reverse of Oersted
frequency. changes of oscillator frequency due to discovery. 1876 Bell invents and patents the telephone.
corresponding changes of plate and screen grid
Balanced Modulator a multiplying device voltages of the oscillator tubes, and is caused by 1830 Joseph Henry demonstrated 1879 Eastman develops photographic film.
used to generate a DSB signal improper regulation of the power supply. It is also telecommand by sending an electronic current
known as dynamic instability. over one mile of wire to activate an 1887 Hertz discovers radio waves.
Capture Effect refers to the selection of the electromagnet which caused a bell to strike, thus
stronger of two FM signals of the same frequency. Modulation the modification of some wire telegraphy was born. 1895 Marconi demonstrates wireless
characteristics of an otherwise continuous signal telegraphy.
Capture Ratio the ability of an FM tuner to called a carrier. 1866 James Clerk Maxwell put together
reject the weaker of two stations on the same the principles of Oersted, Faraday and 1901 Marconi makes first trans-atlantic radio
frequency. Pilot Carrier is used at the receiver to hypothesized the existence of electromagnetic transmission.
synchronize the local oscillator used for the waves.
Carrier Frequency the frequency of the demodulator, thus eliminating any modulation 1903 The “Fleming” valve is invented.
carrier wave. distortion due to incorrect carrier frequency. 1886 Heinrich Hertz performed an
experiment on spark gap transmission verifying 1906 De forest invents the triode vacuum tube
Channel used to refer to the frequency range Percentage of Modulation the amplitude Maxwell statement. Hertz experimentally showed & the 1st radiotelephone broadcast.
allocated to a particular service or transmission. of the peaks of modulation, expressed as a the existence of such waves which he called radio
percentage of the carrier amplitude. waves that paved the way for wireless 1923 Television is invented.
CTCSS Continuous-Tone Coded Squelch System communication.
is an automatic squelch system used in FM two- Pre-emphasis the boosting or emphasizing of 1931 Radio astronomy is discovered.
way radio communications. the higher modulating frequencies, in accordance 1896 Guglielmo Marconi developed the
with a prearranged curve. first wireless telegraph and successful sent a 1940 Radar is perfected and helps win World
Demodulation a detection process of message over a distance of few kilometers using a War II.
converting a modulated waveform back to the Pulse Modulation a modulation in which spark gap transmitter.
original signal. the unmodulated carrier is a series of regularly 1948 The transistor is invented.
recurrent pulses. 1900 Reginald Aubrey Fessenden
Deviation the ratio of the maximum invented AM and successfully transmits a 1954 Color television broadcasting begins.
permissible frequency deviation to the maximum few words using a spark gap transmitter.
permissible audio modulating frequency. 1959 The integrated circuit is invented.

R.A.Napud2025
 Extremely Low Frequency It is used in the UFH television channels Sun. Ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths below
1962 First communications satellite. 14 through 83. It is widely used for land mobile 300 nm is used to sterilize surfaces because it kills
These include ac power line frequencies communications and services such as cellular bacteria and viruses.
(50 & 60 Hz are common) as well as those telephones. Some RADAR and navigation services
frequencies in the low end of the human hearing occupy this portion of the frequency spectrum. X-Rays
Frequency Band Nomenclature range. Incidentally, frequencies above 1000-MHz range
are called microwaves. Since its accidental discovery in 1896, the
Voice Frequency X-ray has been a vital diagnostic and therapeutic
2 30-300 Hz ELF Super High Frequencies tool. Produced by bombarding a target made of
This is the normal range of human tungsten with high-speed electrons, X-rays are
3 0.3-3 kHz VF speech. These are microwave frequencies that absorbed by dense bone and pass through the
are widely used for satellite communications and soft tissue of internal organs.
4 3-30 kHz VLF Very Low Frequencies radar.
Gamma Rays
5 30-300 kHz LF Is used in some government and military Extremely High Frequencies
communications; i.e., VLF radio transmission used Gamma rays, or high-energy photons, are
6 0.3-3 MHz MF by the navy to communicate with submarines. Satellite communications and other emitted from the nucleus of an atom when it
specialized RADAR are used in this range. Signals undergoes radioactive decay. Gamma rays
7 3-30 MHz HF Low Frequencies directly above this range are generally referred to typically have about the same energy as a high-
as millimeter waves. energy X-ray.
8 30-300 MHz VHF The primary communications services in
this range are those used in aeronautical and Infrared Cosmic Rays
9 0.3-3 GHz UHF marine navigation.
Band of light wavelengths that are too Cosmic rays are extremely energetic
10 3-30 GHz SHF Medium Frequencies long to be seen by the human eye. It also refers to subatomic particles that travel through outer
radiation generally associated with heat. Anything space at nearly the speed of light. Scientists learn
11 30-300 GHz EHF The major application of frequencies in
that produces heat generates infrared signals. Is about deep space by studying galactic cosmic
this range is AM radio broadcasting ( 535 to 1605
12 0.3-3 THz Infrared light used in astronomy to detect stars and other rays, which originate many light-years away (a
kHz).
physical bodies in the heavens. Infrared is also light-year represents the distance light travels in
13 3-30 THz Infrared light High Frequencies used to guide weapons and for TV remote control one year).
units.
14 30-300 THz Infrared light Generally known as short waves. Bandwidth
Amateur radio and CB communications occur in Visible Spectrum
15 0.3-3 PHz Visible light Is that portion of the electromagnetic
this part of the spectrum.
Band of light wavelengths that our eye spectrum occupied by the signal. It is also the
16 3-30 PHz Ultraviolet Very High Frequencies responds to. Light wavelengths are usually frequency range over which an information signal
expressed in terms of angstrom (Ǻ). An angstrom is transmitted or over which a receiver or other
17 30-300 PHz X-rays Is used by many services including mobile is one ten-thousandth of a micron. The visible electronic circuit operates.
radio, marine and aeronautical communications, range is approximately 8000Ǻ to 4000Ǻ.
18 0.3-3 EHz Gamma rays
FM radio broadcasting ( 88 to 108 MHz), and
television channels 2 to 13. Ultraviolet
19 3-30 EHz Cosmic rays
Ultra High Frequencies Band of light wavelength that are too
short to be seen by the human eye. Natural
ultraviolet radiation is produced principally by the

R.A.Napud2025
 Modes of Transmission CHANNEL is the medium by which AM ( Amplitude Modulation) Notes:
electronic signal is sent from one place to the
Simplex One-way transmission. Sometimes In AM, the instantaneous value of the
other. In its simplest form, the medium my simply
referred to as a transmit only or receive only carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the
system. be pair of wires that carry a voice signal from a
microphone to a headset. The communications amplitude variation of the modulating signal.
Ex. AM & FM radio broadcasting medium may also be a fiber-optic cable or light
FM ( Frequency Modulation)
pipe that carries the message on a light wave.
Half-Duplex Two-way transmission but not
simultaneous. In FM, the carrier amplitude remains
RECEIVER is another collection of electronic
constant, while the carrier frequency is changed
Ex. CB radios components and circuits that accept the
by the modulating signal. As the amplitude of the
transmitted message from the channel and
information signal varies, the carrier frequency
Full Duplex Tansmission is possible in both convert it back into a form understandable by
ways simultaneously. will shift in proportion.
humans.
Ex. Telephone system
NOISE is random, undesirable electric energy that
Full-Full Duplex Two-way transmission is enters the communications system via Modulator – a transmitter circuit or device that
possible in both directions but not within the the communicating medium and varies the amplitude, frequency, phase,
same two stations. interferes with the transmitted
message. or other characteristics of the carrier signal in
Ex. US Postal System
proportion to the waveform of the modulating
MODULATION signal that contains useful information.
THE ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEM: Is the process of having the information The characteristics of the carrier that can be
to be transmitted alter a high-frequency signal for varied:
the purpose of transmitting the information
Transmitter Receiver somewhere in the electromagnetic spectrum via - amplitude
radio, wire, or fiber optic cable. - frequency
Medium - phase
Is the process of changing/altering one of Types of Continuous Wave Modulation:
the characteristics of the carrier signal with
Noise - Amplitude Modulation
respect to the amplitude of the modulating signal. - Frequency Modulation
- Phase modulation

TRANSMITTER is a collection of electronic Types of Digital Modulation Techniques

components and circuits designed to convert the
information into a signal more suitable for - Amplitude Shift Keying
transmission over a given communications - Frequency Shift Keying
- Phase Shift Keying
medium.
- Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
- Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying

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Amplitude Modulation R = resistance 1 + m2
sinxsiny = [ cos(x-y) / 2 – cos (x+y) / 2] Simultaneous Tone Modulation 2
 the information or AF signal changes the
amplitude of the carrier wave without BW = fUSB - fLSB Pc = 10 x 103 = 8.47 kW
changing its frequency or phase. Therefore: = fC + fmN – ( fC – fmN) [ 1 + (0.6)2 / 2 ]
 is the process of altering the amplitude BW = 2fmN 3. The antenna current of an AM broadcast
of the carrier signal with respect to the υ = Vc sin ωt + mVc/2 cos (ωc – ωm)t – mVc/2 transmitter, modulated to a depth of 40% by an
amplitude of the modulating signal cos (ωc + ωm)t Where: audio sine wave is 11A. It increases to 12A as a
BW = Total Bandwidth result of simultaneous modulation by another
fmN = max. intelligence frequency sinewave. What is the modulation index due to
Modulation Index this second wave?
AM Frequency Spectrum Note:
it indicates the degree to which the AF fc For modulation by several sinewaves: Sol’n:
signal modulates the carrier wave. lsb usb m T 2 = m 12 + m 22
2 2 2
m T = √ m1 + m2 + m3 + ....
m = Vm / Vc fm fm @ 40% modulation:
Solving for total current:
where: Bandwidth = 2fm It = Ic √ 1 + m2/2
Representation of AM 2
It = Ic √ 1 + m /2
Vm = modulating voltage 11 = Ic √ 1 + (0.4)2/2
Vm = (Vmax –Vmin) / 2 where:
Vc = carrier voltage Vc = ( Vmax + Vmin ) / 2 It = total transmit current Ic = 10.58 A
Ic = carrier current
Therefore: Therefore:
m = (Vmax – Vmin) / ( Vmax + Vmin) Example:
Amplitude Modulation Theory: 12 = 10.58 √ 1 + mT 2/2
1. A 400 W carrier is modulated to a depth of
Solving for Total Transmit Power Pt: 75%. Calculate the total power in the modulated mT = 0.757
wave.
Pt = Pc + PLSB + PUSB m T 2 = m 12 + m 22
Pc = (Vc2) / 2R Sol’n:
Pt = Pc ( 1 + m2/2 ) m22 = 0.58 – (0.4)2
2 2
PLSB = PUSB = (m /4 ) x ( Vc / 2R) Pt = 400 [ 1 + ( 0.75)2/2 ]
Pt = 512.5 W m2 = 0.643
A = Vc + Vm sin ω t Pt = Pc ( 1 + m2 /2 )
2. A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10kW
Instantaneous voltage, υ where: when the modulation percentage is 60. How 3. A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the
Pt = total power much of this is carrier power? carrier unmodulated and 10.125kW when the
υ = A sin θ Pc = carrier power carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the
where: PLSB = lower sideband power Sol’n: modulation index. If another sinewave
θ = ωc t ; ω = 2Пf PUSB = upper sideband power Pt = Pc ( 1 + m2/2 ) corresponding to 40% modulation is transmitted
Vc = carrier voltage simultaneously. Determine the total radiated
υ = Vc ( 1 + m sin ωm t) sin ωc t m = modulation index Pc = Pt power.
recall:
R.A.Napud2025
Sol’n: 6. An AM transmitter is modulated by two audio PEP = (Vpk/√2)2/R
2
Pt = Pc ( 1 + m /2 ) tones at 1kHz and 2.5kHz, with modulation
depthsof0.25 and 0.5 respectively. Find the Where : Important:
m2 = ( Pt / Pc -1) (2) effective modulation index. PEP = peak envelope power
Vpk = peak envelope voltage  amplitude modulation is produced by a
m2 = [ ( 10.125 / 9) -1] (2) Sol’n: R = antenna resistance circuit called a modulator which has two
mt=√ (0.25)2 + ( 0.5)2 inputs and an output
m = 0.5 mt = 0.56 Examples:  the modulator performs a mathematical
multiplication of the carrier and
let : 7. (ECE Board Problem, March 1996) 1. For a 500-W carrier modulated to a depth of information signals. The output is their
0.5 = m1 Three audio waves with 100, 200 and 80%, find the total power in each of the analog product.
0.4 = m2 300 volts, respectively, simultaneously modulate following forms of AM.  The ratio of the peak voltage of the
a 450-V carrier. What is the total percent a.) A3E modulating signal Vm to the peak value
Pt = Pc ( 1 + mT 2/2 ) modulation of the AM wave? b.) H3E of the carrier Vc is called the modulation
c.) J3E index. It is also referred to as the
m T 2 = m 12 + m 22 modulation coefficient or factor and the
Sol’n: Sol’n: degree of modulation.
mT = √ ( 0.5)2 + (0.4)2 = 0.64 mt = √m12 + m22 + m32  The ideal value for m = 1. Typically m is
m1 = 100/450 a.) A3E: less than 1. The condition where m is
Pt = 9 [ 1 + ( 0.64)2 / 2 ] m1 = 0.22 Pt = Pc ( 1 + m2/2) greater than 1 should be avoided as it
Pt = 500 ( 1 + (0.8)2/2) introduces serious distortion of the
Pt = 10.84 kW m2 = 200/450 Pt = 660W modulating signal. This is called
m2 = 0.44 overmodulation.
4. (ECE Board Problem, Nov. 2002)  The new signals generated by the
What is the modulation index for an AM m3 = 300/450 b.) H3E: modulation process are called sidebands
signal having Vmax and Vmin of 2.6 and 0.29 m3 = 0.67 Pt = Pc + Pc m2/4 and occur at frequencies above and
respectively? = 500 + 500 (0.8)2/4 below the carrier frequency.
mt = √ (0.22)2 + (0.44)2 + (0.67)2 = 580W  The upper fusb and lower flsb sideband
mt = 0.83 frequencies are the sum and difference
Sol’n: %m = 83% c.) J3E: of the frequency fc, and the modulating
m = ( Vmax – Vmin)/(Vmax + Vmin) Pt = Pc m2/4 frequency fm.
= (2.6 – 0.29)/(2.6 + 0.29) Forms of Amplitude Modulation: = 500 (0.8)2/4  The higher the percentage of
= 0.7993 = 80W modulation, the greater the sideband
A3E Double Sideband Full Carrier power and the stronger and more
5. What is the bandwidth of an AM signal whose H3E Single Sideband Full Carrier 2. An SSB transmission drives 110 Vpk into a 75-Ω intelligible the transmitted and received
carrier is modulated by 1 kHz, 3kHz and 5 kHz, B8E Independent Sideband antenna. Calculate the PEP. signal.
simultaneously? J3E Single Sideband Suppressed  An AM signal with suppressed carrier is
Carrier Sol’n: called a double-sideband (DSB) signal.
Sol’n: C3F Vestigial Sideband PEP = (Vpk/√2)2/R  An AM signal with no carrier and one
BW = 2fmN = (110)2/( 2)(75) sideband is called a single-sideband
= 2(5K) = 80.67W (SSB) signal. The upper and lower
= 10 kHz Single Sideband (SSB) Transmitter Rating: sidebands contain the same information.

R.A.Napud2025
  The main advantage of an SSB AM signal index if it used to amplitude modulate a
over an AM or DSB signal is that it carrier of peak voltage 10V.
occupies one-half the spectrum space. 2. What will be the total sideband power of
 Power in an SSB transmitter is rated in an AM transmitting station whose carrier
terms of peak envelope power (PEP), the power is 1200W and a modulation of
power that is produced on voice peaks. 95%?
PEP output is computed using the 3. Calculate the power in one sideband of
expression an AM signal whose carrier power is
50W. The unmodulated current is 2A
while the modulated current is 2.4A?
PEP= V2 / R 4. Calculate the modulation index and the
resulting side frequency if a carrier wave
where PEP is in watts and V is the voltage of frequency 10MHz with a peak value of
across the antenna load impedance R. 10V is amplitude modulated by a 5kHz
sinewave of amplitude 6V.
 the average output of an SSB transmitter 5. Determine the power saving for a J3E
is ¼ to 1/3 of the PEP value. system at 80% modulation.
 The mixer performs analog multiplication 6. Find the percent modulation of an AM
of the input signal and a local oscillator signal if 8V signal carrier is modulated by
signal. Performs frequency conversion. three different frequencies of 2kHz,
 The process of mixing is also called 3kHz,4kHz with amplitudes 1V, 2V and
heterodyning. 3V.
 The simplest and best amplitude 7. Refer to #6, compute for the bandwidth.
demodulator is the diode detector. 8. An SSB transmission drives 110-Vpk into a
 Most SSB filters are made with quartz 75-ohm antenna. Calculate the peak
crystals. envelope power (PEP).
 The standard AM broadcast band starts 9. 100% modulation in AM means a
at 535kHz and ends at 1605kHz. corresponding increase in total power by
 Carrier assignments start at 540kHz and ______.
continue in a succession of 10-kHz
increments until the upper limit of the
broadcast band is reached (1610 kHz).
This adds up to a total of 107 carrier
assignments, or channels, over the
entire broadcast band.

Guide Problems:

1. A modulating signal consists of a

symmetrical triangular wave having zero
dc component and peak-to-peak voltage
of 11V. Calculate the value of modulation

R.A.Napud2025
 k = deviation sensitivity (Hz/V) Solution:
FM – is the process of changing/ varying the Em = peak intelligence signal amplitude
frequency of the carrier signal with respect to the (V) a. ωc = 2Пfc
amplitude of the modulating signal. fc = ωc / 2П
FM Percent Modulation = 2П x 108 / 2П
Note: By varying the amount of phase shift that a = actual carrier deviation x 100% = 108 Hz = 100MHz
carrier experiences, information can be impressed maximum carrier deviation
upon the carrier. This is known as phase b. P = V2 / R
modulation (PM). As it turns out, varying the = (2000 / √2 )2 / 50
phase shift of the carrier produces FM. Carrier Swing : = 40 kW
CS = 2 x frequency deviation
Frequency Deviation – the amount of change in c. by inspection:
carrier frequency produced by the modulating Example: m=2
signal. Maximum frequency deviation occurs at If the modulating signal is d. ωm = 2Пfm
the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal. producing only a maximum deviation of 60kHz, = П x 104 / 2 П
what is the FM percentage of modulation? fm= 5 kHz
Modulation Index , m:
- the ratio of the frequency deviation to %m = 60 x 100% e. BW = 2 (n) fm
the modulating frequency is known as 75 = 2(4)(5kHz)
the modulation index m. Also called as = 80% = 40kHz
the deviation ratio.
Modulation Index Sidebands (ECE Board Problem, April 1999)
m = fd / f m 1 3 What is the modulation index of an FM
where : 2 4 transmitter whose frequency deviation is 50 kHz
fd = frequency deviation 3 6 while its audio frequency is 10kHz?
fm= modulating frequency 4 7
5 8 Sol’n:
Note: In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum mf = fd / fm
permitted frequency deviation is 75kHz, while the The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will = 50kHz/10kHz
maximum permitted modulating frequency is be given by the formula of the form; mf = 5
15kHz.
The total bandwidth of an FM signal can υ = A sin ( ωct + fd/fm sin ωmt ) Carson’s BW Formula:
be determined by knowing the modulation index.
Sample Problem: BW = 2( δ + fm )
BW = 2Nfm A wc m
Where: wm An FM signal 2000 sin ( 2П x 108t + 2 sin П Where:
N = number of sidebands
4
x 10 t ) is applied to a 50-ohm load. Determine: BW = approximate bandwidth
a. the carrier frequency δ= frequency deviation
Also; b. the transmitted power fm= intelligence frequency
c. modulation index
fd = k(Em) d. modulating frequency ECE Board Problem, November 2001)
FREQUENCY MODULATION where: e. bandwidth
By: Engr. R.A.Napud fd = frequency deviation (Hz)

R.A.Napud2025
 What is the approximate frequency of  The PLL is the best frequency  De-emphasis is the reverse process that
the modulating signal having a bandwidth of 15 demodulator because its filtering action is done in the receiver to compensate for Indirect Method
kHz and a frequency deviation of 6kHz? removes noise and interference. the uneven amplification in the
 The amount of frequency shift is transmitter to restore the original level of c. Armstrong Modulator
Sol’n: proportional to the amplitude of the the modulating signal. - An indirect method of generating FM
UsingCarson’s Equation: modulating signal.(FM)  The original FM broadcast band in the using a crystal oscillator for frequency
BW = 2 (δ + fm)  The amount of phase shift is proportional USA in the early 1940’s was 42-50MHz stability with a phase-modulated buffer
15k = 2(6k + fm) to the amplitude of the modulating with 200kHz channel spacing. stage.
fm = 15/2 -6 signal.(PM)  Throughout the world 88-108MHz is - The modulating (AF) signal is fed to an
fm = 1.5kHz  The rate of frequency shift is used as broadcast band with one integrator, the output of which is fed to a
proportional to the frequency of the exception: Japan which uses its own balanced modulator together with the
Important: modulating signal.(FM) unique 76-90MHz band with 100kHz local oscillator signal.
 The rate of phase shift is proportional to spacing. - The DSB-SC output of the balanced
 Both FM and PM are types of angle the frequency of the modulating signal. modulator is fed to a summing device
modulations. (PM) together with the crystal oscillator carrier
 Phase modulation produces frequency  The maximum frequency deviation FM Generation signal that is shifted 90o in phase.
modulation occurs during the max. positive and - The output of the summer is a
 The FM produced by PM is called indirect negative peaks of the modulating signal. Direct Method narrowband FM (NBFM).
FM.  For phase modulation, the maximum - A wideband FM signal is obtained by
 The modulation index determines the frequency deviation occurs during the a. Reactance Modulator successive frequency multiplication of
number of significant sidebands in an FM zero crossing of the modulating signal. - A reactance tube, which presents either the NBFM signal.
signal.  The deviation ratio is the worst inductive or capacitive reactance is
 The bandwidth of an FM signal is case(max) modulation index and is equal connected to the tank circuit of an FM Detection
proportional to the modulation index. to the maximum peak frequency oscillator.
 Interference from high-frequency noise deviation divided by the maximum - The magnitude of the reactance may be a. Slope Detector
can be minimized by boosting the modulating signal frequency. caused to vary in direct relationship to - A frequency-modulated signal is fed to a
amplitude of high-frequency modulating  The capture range or acquire range is the audio signal probably originating circuit that is tuned to receive the signal
signals prior to modulation. This is called the range of frequencies over which the from the microphone. on the slope of the response curve.
pre-emphasis. VCO can lock onto a new signal. - The variation in the reactance would - The carrier voltage changes with every
 The component most widely used for FM  The Lock Range is the span of cause the oscillator frequency to vary in change in the impedance of the tuned
or PM is the varactor diode or voltage frequencies over which the PLL can accordance with the modulating signal circuit as a function of frequency, thus,
variable capacitor (VVC) remain locked and track a signal. thereby directly producing FM. an effective conversion from FM to AM
 The most common frequency modulators  With stereophonic transmission, the occurs.
use a varactor to vary the frequency of information signal is spatially divided into b. Varactor Diode Modulator - The modulating signal is then recovered
an LC circuit or crystal in accordance with two 50-Hz to 15-kHz audio channels (left - An FM generator utilizing a voltage- from its AM from by a normal envelope
the modulating signal. and right channel). variable capacitor diode (varactor or detector.
 One of the oldest and best frequency  Pre-emphasis is the process of boosting varicap). Such a device when reversed-
demodulators is the Foster-Seeley or amplifying the high frequency biased, will vary its junction capacitance b. Round-Travis or Balanced-Slope Detector
discriminator. components of the modulating signal with a variation of bias, thereby - An FM detector using two slope
 A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a feedback prior to performing modulation for the producing direct FM of an oscillator. detectors. They are connected back to
control circuit made up of a phase reason of uneven SNR at high - Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCO’s) are back, to the opposite ends of a center-
detector, voltage-controlled oscillator frequencies. FM circuits in which continuous variable tapped transformer, and hence fed 180o
(VCO) and low-pass filter. changes in frequency are provided by the out of phase.
varactor diode.
R.A.Napud2025
 - Each tuned circuit is fed to a diode f. Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) modulating signal vm(t) = 2cos(4000π) t.
detector with an RC load. Calculate the peak frequency deviation
- The output is taken from across the PLL Functional Blocks and modulation index.
series combination of the two loads, so  Phase Detector – it is characterized by an
that it is the sum of the individual output voltage proportional to the 2. A phase-locked loop has a VCO with free
outputs. difference in phase between the running frequency at 10MHz. As the
incoming frequency and the feedback frequency of the reference input is
signal. gradually raised from zero, the loop locks
c. Foster Seeley Discriminator  Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) – it at 8MHz and comes out of lock again at
- An FM detector utilizing the frequency- produces an output signal whose 14MHz. Determine the lock range.
phase dependence of the phase shift frequency is directly proportional to its
between primary and secondary voltages input voltage. 3. Determine the practical bandwidth of an
of a tuned transformer from the recovery  Loop Filter – it helps establish the proper FM signal modulated by a 15-kHz tone
of the modulating signal. transient response and the required whose frequency deviation is 45kHz.
- In this detector, changes in the filtering.
magnitude of the input signal will give 4. An FM broadcast station operates with a
rise to amplitude changes in the resulting peak-to-peak deviation of 120kHz.
output voltage. PLL Operation Calculate the percentage modulation.
- It is also known as center-tapped
discriminator or phase discriminator. - The VCO output signal combines with the 5. When the modulating frequency in an FM
incoming signal to force the net system is 500Hz and the modulating
d. Ratio Detector instantaneous signal frequency at the voltage is 2.6V, the modulation index is
- It is a variation of the Foster Seeley output of the phase detector to be zero. 40. Find the maximum deviation. What is
Discriminator which includes an - If a changing frequency at the input the modulation index when the
amplitude limiter which improves the would be received, an error voltage modulating frequency is raised to 800Hz
limiting action, but with a reduction in would be produced at the output of the and the modulating voltage is
the output at its expense. phase detector. simultaneously reduced to 1.3V?
- This FM detector demodulates FM - The detected voltage (the filtered and
signals and suppresses amplitude noise processed error voltage), which serves as 6. Calculate the carrier swing necessary to
impulses without limiter stages ahead of the input to the VCO would be an exact provide 75% modulation in the FM
it. replica of the intelligence or modulating broadcast band.
- Its output though is one-half that of the signal.
Foster Seeley Discriminator. 7. A phase –locked loop has a VCO with a
free running frequency of 14MHz. As the
e. Quadrature Detector frequency of the reference input is
- This type of FM detector also depends on gradually raised from zero, the loop locks
the frequency dependence of the phase at 12MHz and comes out of lock again at
angle of a tuned circuit, but has the 18MHz. Calculate the capture range.
advantage that only a single tuned circuit
is required. Guide Problems:
- It is popularly incorporated in IC’s made
for FM receivers. 1. An FM modulator has a frequency
deviation sensitivity of 5kHz/V and

R.A.Napud2025