PHYSICAL SCIENCE of a massive star is used up much quicker due to the higher

LESSON 1: FORMATION AND SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS core temperatures of such stars.

Atoms - are smallest units that make up all matter. Stars Based on Their Mass
Atoms are made up of SUBATOMIC PARTICLES - protons, Low mass stars (Small stars)
electrons and neutrons • mass not more than 0.5 solar masses
An element is a pure substance and is made of only one type • smallest, coldest and dimmest stars in the Universe
of atom; it cannot be broken down into a simpler substance. • they burn up their fuel very slowly and have incredibly
Isotopes - atoms with the same number of protons but long lives, anywhere from 10 to 50 billion years.
different numbers of neutrons. • Example of a low mass star is the red giant, Proxima
-atoms with the same element but with different atomic Centauri
masses (different numbers of neutrons) Medium mass stars (Average stars)
-Examples - hydrogen, carbon and oxygen • ma
Protons are the positively charged particles that are inside the ss anywhere from 0.5 to around 3 solar masses.
nucleus of an atom • ha
Neutrons are neutral subatomic particles that form the ve an average lifespan of around 5-15 billion years.
nucleus of an atom. • Ou
Electrons are the subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus of r Sun is a medium mass star, and its lifespan is roughly around
an atom. They are generally negative in charge. 11-12 billion years.
History of the Universe High mass stars (Massive stars)
-Scientists believe that the formation of the universe began • have a mass greater than 3 solar masses.
through the explosion of a primordial atom which happened • extremely hot and glow blue and white.
approximately 13.7 billion years ago. The origin of the • have very short life spans, from a couple of billion years to
universe is described by the Big Bang theory which was as low as 10 million years only,
introduced by Edwin Hubble. In 1929, Hubble demonstrated • Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, is a blue high
that all celestial objects in the universe move away from each mass star.
other. Different Stages of a Star’s Life Cycle
-The big bang theory is a model explaining the expansion and The first four stages are common to all types of stars.
cooling observed throughout the universe. The universe 1. Giant Gas Cloud/Nebula
emerged from a hot and dense singularity in a rapid expansion At the first stage of their lives, stars are formed by the
and cooling that is still occurring today. gravitational collapse of giant clouds of dust and gas called
-A singularity is a significantly dense and hot point of matter. Nebula. This stage is the start of their life cycle.
The result of the Big Bang is all the matter in the universe 2. Protostar is the result of the gravitational collapse of a
being scattered everywhere in one momentous event. The nebula. It is the formative phase of a star. During this phase,
theory explains the laws of physics governing our universe and the infant star strives to gain equilibrium between its internal
the cooling and expansion of our universe. forces and gravity.
Georges LeMaître (1894-1966) was a Belgian cosmologist who During this period, the protostar spins very rapidly, generating
proposed that if the universe is expanding then logic dictates intense heat and pressure and causing the gas cloud to
it originated from a finite point in the past. His reasoning was collapse further. When the temperature reaches about 10
if the universe is getting bigger, then it must have been million K, hydrogen fusion can finally occur, and the star is
smaller in the past. born.
Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) observed distant galaxies moving 3. T-Tauri Phase
away from each other at speeds that were proportionate to At this stage, the core temperatures are still too low for
their distance. Hubble's law explains that objects farther away hydrogen fusion, so all the star energy comes from the
from an observer are moving away faster than objects that are gravitational force only. The star at this point is about the
closer. Hubble's law would be later renamed the Hubble- same size as a low or medium mass star. However, it is much
LeMaître law in credit to both scientists for their contributions brighter.
to the big bang theory. 4. Main Sequence (Small to Average Stars/Massive Stars)
How do elements formed? • signifies the portion of a star’s life where its core is capable
Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation. of hydrogen fusion.
-occurred after the Big bang • 90% of a star’s life is spent in this stage.
Nucleus - center of the atom, composed of the protons and • the amount of time a star spends on the Main Sequence
neutrons depends directly upon its mass.
-started as quarks forming protons and neutrons • The Sun is currently a main sequence star and will remain so
What is a Star? for another 4-5 billion years. It will then expand and cool to
A star is a giant sphere of extremely hot, luminous gas (mostly become a red giant, after which it will shrink and heat up
hydrogen and helium) held together by gravity. A few again to become a white dwarf.
examples of well-known stars are Pollux, Sirius, Vega, Polaris, The following three stages apply only to low and
and our own Sun. medium(average) mass stars.
What determines the life cycle of a star? -A red giant forms after a star has run out of hydrogen fuel for
The mass determines a star’s life cycle. The star’s mass nuclear fusion, and has begun the process of dying.
depends upon the amount of stellar material available in the -White Dwarf. Once the star’s outer layers are shed, only a
nebula from which it forms. The more massive a star, the tiny core comprising primarily carbon and oxygen remains.
shorter is its life span. The reason is that the hydrogen supply The star is called a White Dwarf.
-Black dwarfs are the final stage in the life of a low to medium Proton-proton chain reaction in a main sequence star. In this
mass star. They are the remnants of white dwarfs, formed due process, the average star gets its energy and converts
to the gradual cooling and dimming as they burn their Hydrogen into Helium. It starts with a proton and a neutron
remaining fuel. Eventually, they will exhaust their fuel and which fuse to form deuterium. When another proton collides
keep dimming until they are no longer visible to us. with deuterium, Helium-3 is formed. Collision between the
The following three stages apply only to high (massive) mass Helium-3 atom with another helium-3 forms Helium-4.
stars.
5. Red Supergiant 1. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
For stars with a mass 8-9 times that of the Sun, the core -p-p chain and CNO cycle stop
temperatures become so high that nuclear fusion can occur -helium is burned to produce Carbon through the process
even after the helium is exhausted. called Tri-alpha process
The process of nuclear fusion in the core carries on till iron is 2. Tri-alpha process – happens in red giant stars once they
formed. No further fusion can occur at this stage, as fusing leave the stage of the main sequence star. This is how three
iron consumes energy rather than release it. Helium-4 are converted into Carbon.
6. Supernova -An alpha particle is equivalent to a Helium atom
• Th -first reaction forms unstable Beryllium, Be atom
e moment the core of a supergiant star turns to iron, it has A star accumulates more mass and continues to grow into a
reached the end of its life. red supergiant. Alpha particle fusion happens at its core and
• th creates more heavy elements until Iron. This is known as the
e star collapses instantly under the enormous gravity exerted Alpha Ladder process.
on its heavy iron core. 3. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
• Thi -is believed to be the reason for the formation of heavier
s collapse triggers an incredible explosion, known as a nuclei after iron.\
Supernova. -the pathway for heavier nuclei to be formed is through
After a supernova explosion, all that remains of the star is its neutron capture; not nuclear fusion.
core. What happens to this core depends on its mass. Two types of neutron capture
7. Neutron Star -s-process (slow), the addition of neutron is so slow that beta
If the collapsing core is of 1.4-3 solar masses, it forms a decay happens before another neutron is added to the
Neutron Star. The force of gravity on the collapsing core is so nucleus.
enormous that the negatively charged electrons are pushed -r-process (rapid), fast capture of neutrons before radioactive
right into the nucleus, where they combine with the positively decay occurs.
charged protons to form neutrons. LESSON 2: ATOMIC NUMBER AND SYNTHESIS OF NEW
8. Black hole ELEMENTS
For stellar cores of more than 3 solar masses, the force of ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER
gravity is so strong that the collapse is unstoppable. Such a big -the atomic number and mass number
mass collapses to a point known as a singularity. Here, the -The atomic number is the number of protons (positively
gravitational force is so strong that nothing can escape it, not charged particles) in an atom.
even light. Such a phenomenon is called a Black Hole. -Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist
Three Types of Nucleosynthesis who demonstrated that the atomic number, the number of
1. Big bang nucleosynthesis protons in an atom, determines most of the properties of an
-Formation light elements, hydrogen and helium combination element.
of protons and neutrons right after the Big Bang -In 1913, the X-ray spectroscopy of Moseley, played
-other light element, Lithium was also formed through this a significant development in determining the atomic number
type of nucleosynthesis, Beryllium is also included. of the elements. In his experiment, the different beams of
2. Stellar nucleosynthesis electrons bombarded with other elements produced varying
The word “stellar” means star and the formation of elements frequencies of x-ray spectral lines.
in the center of the star is called stellar nucleosynthesis. Carl -He measured and concluded that these frequencies revealed
Sagan said that “We are made of star stuff.” What did he by the elements in his work were similar locations in the
mean by that? If we know how some important heavy periodic table of elements. Therefore, he assigned these
elements were formed same as stars, that maybe a clue. frequencies as the atomic of each element. It also serves as
-formation of elements in the stars’ interior the identity of an atom.
-occurs through nuclear fusion and electron capture -Moseley’s Experiment, the bombardment of different metals
-responsible for the formation of elements heavier than with electrons to produce x-rays.
Helium, He until Iron, Fe.
Nuclear Fusion -In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number
Fusion- is the combining of nuclei to form a bigger and heavier of electrons. Thus, the atomic number is equal to the number of
nucleus.
Nuclear Processes in Element Formation electrons in a neutral atom. For instance, aluminum has an
-Proton - proton chain reaction
-Carbon - nitrogen - oxygen cycle atomic number of 13, meaning each neutral atom of aluminum
-Alpha processes has 13 protons and 13 electrons.
-Neutron capture
3. Supernova nucleosynthesis
 A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the
-In general, the acceptable representation of atomic number is protons to overcome the repulsion between the protons and
this symbol, capital Z. The total number of neutrons and protons the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical
fields. It is used to synthesize new elements.
in the nucleus of an atom referred mass number. The mass
Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number
number represents by this symbol, capital A.
of uranium) are called transuranium elements. They were

discovered in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle

accelerators.
Where:
DISCOVERY OF NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
X is element symbol
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear
A is the mass number
transmutation reaction — a reaction involving the transformation
Z is the atomic number
of one element or isotope into another element. The first
Mass number (A) = number of protons (p+) + number of neutrons
nuclide to be prepared by artificial means was an isotope of
(n0)
oxygen, 0xygen 17. It was made by Ernest Rutherford in 1919.
= Atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons (n0) James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, as
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons (p+) = number of a previously unknown neutral particle produced along with
12C by the nuclear reaction between 9Be and 4He.
electrons (e-) The first element to be prepared that does not occur naturally
on the earth, technetium, was created by the bombardment
Number of neutrons (n0) = Mass number (A) - number of protons of molybdenum by deuterons (heavy hydrogen, H12), by
(p+) Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in 1937.
The first controlled nuclear chain reaction was carried out in a
Dmitri Mendeleev created a classification of elements based on reactor at the University of Chicago in 1942.
THE DISCOVERY OF THE MISSING ELEMENTS
their atomic weight. He found that organizing the elements at
-Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic
the time by their calculated weight demonstrated a periodic table corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87.
Two of these elements were synthesized in the laboratory
pattern of both physical and chemical properties, such as luster, using particle accelerators. A particle accelerator is a device
that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the
physical state, reactivity to water, and others.
repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei
The Big Bang Theory has key stages: Singularity, Inflation, by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize
new elements.
Nucleosynthesis and Recombination: -In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre
• Singularity is a one-dimensional point which contains a huge discovered an element with atomic number 85. They
bombarded atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with fast-moving alpha
mass in an infinitely small space, where density and gravity particles in a cyclotron. A cyclotron is a particle
accelerator that uses an alternating electric field to accelerate
become infinite and space-time curves infinitely, and where the particles that move in a spiral path in the presence of a
magnetic field. Element-85 was named astatine from the
laws of physics as we know them cease to operate.
Greek word “astatos” meaning unstable.
• Inflation - the basic homogeneity in distribution of matter in -The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87
were discovered through studies in radioactivity. Element-61
the universe was established as a consequence of the first phase. (Promethium) was discovered as a decay product of the
• Nucleosynthesis - the nuclear fusion and the formation of new fission of uranium while element-87 (Francium)
was discovered as a breakdown product of uranium.
nuclei actions in the early stages of development of the universe. THE TRANSURANIC ELEMENTS
In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with
• Recombination - the formation of the capture of free electrons
an atomic number 92. Early in 1940, Edwin McMillan proved
by the cations in a plasma. that an element having an atomic number 93 could be
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a created. He used a particle accelerator to bombard uranium
nuclear transmutation reaction a process of transforming one with neutrons and created an element with an
element or isotope into another element. atomic number 93 which he named neptunium.
In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table Transuranic elements are synthetic elements with atomic
corresponding to the atomic numbers 43,61,85, and 87. numbers higher than that of Uranium (Z = 92).
Elements with atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized -At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg,
using particle accelerators. McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl. They bombarded uranium
with deuterons (particles composed of a proton and a of the molecules which can be predicted via valence shell
neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was named plutonium. electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory.
-Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic Polarity of Bonds and Electronegativity
number of uranium) are called transuranium elements. Electronegativity is how strongly an atom will attract
Hence, neptunium and plutonium are electrons from another atom in a chemical bond. Some atoms
both transuranium elements. They are unstable and decay have a higher electronegativity, while others have a lower
radioactively into other elements. All these elements were electronegativity.
discovered in the laboratory as artificially generated synthetic Electronegativity (EN) measures the relative tendency of an
elements. They are prepared using nuclear reactors or particle atom to attract electrons to itself when chemically combined
accelerators. with another atom.
LESSON 3 POLARITY OF MOLECULES -When two atoms have unequal levels of electronegativity,
What are molecules? a molecule is a neutral group of two or one atom will tug electrons from the other.
more atoms held together by chemical bonds. -Electronegativity, like tug of war, if you have a stronger atom
Valence electron - an electron of an atom, located in the with a higher electronegativity, then it will be able to tug
outermost shell (valence shell) of the atom, that can be electrons in its direction. Since the atoms have a different
transferred to or shared with another atom. electronegativity, the electrons are unequally shared. On the
Chemical bonds - a chemical bond is a lasting attraction other hand, if you have two atoms with the same strength, or
between atoms, ions, or molecules that enables the formation the same electronegativity, then the electrons will not be
of chemical compounds. Chemical bonds are formed when tugged in any one direction and will stay in the middle of the
atoms lose, accept, or share electrons. two atoms. Since there is no tugging, electrons are equally
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS: shared.
Ionic bond occurs when there is a transfer of one or more -Electronegativity increases within period (from left to right)
valence electrons from one atom to another. It exists between and decreases within a group (from top to bottom).
metal and nonmetal atoms where metal loses electron/s while -Take note also that the higher the value of EN, the more it
nonmetal accepts the electron/s donated by metal. tends to attract electrons towards itself. We could use the
For example, when a sodium atom meets a chlorine atom, the electronegativity values of the atoms involved to get the
sodium donates one valence electron to the chlorine. This absolute electronegativity difference (ΔEN) which will help us
creates a positively charged sodium ion and a negatively in predicting what type of chemical bond (ionic, polar
charged chlorine ion. The electrostatic attraction between covalent, or nonpolar covalent) would exist between them.
them forms an ionic bond, resulting in a stable ionic
compound called sodium chloride (AKA table salt).
Covalent bond - a type of chemical bond wherein two or more
atoms share one or more electron pairs.
TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS: For example, you are asked to predict what type of bond is
Polar covalent bonds, which means that electrons are shared present between the following pairs of atoms by determining
unequally between the bonded atoms. their electronegativity difference.
In a polar covalent bond, the electrons are not equally shared 1. Ca and Cl - Calcium chloride
because one atom spends more time with the electrons than 2. Cl and Cl - Chloride
the other atom. In polar covalent bonds, one atom has a 3. H and Cl - Hydrogen chloride
stronger pull than the other atom and attracts electrons. 4. S and O - Sulfur monoxide
Remember how electrons carry a negative charge? Well, 5. C and N – Cyanide
when electrons spend more time with one atom, it causes 1. ENCa = 1.0
that atom to carry a partial negative charge. The atom that ENCl = 3.0
does not spend as much time with the electrons carries a (ΔEN) = 1.0 – 3.0 = │-2.0│= 2.0 ionic bond
partial positive charge. To remember a polar covalent bond, 2. ENCl = 3.0
instead say 'puller covalent,' and remember one atom has ENCl = 3.0
more 'pull' on electrons than the other atom. (ΔEN) = 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 nonpolar covalent bond
Nonpolar covalent bonds are a type of bond that occurs when 3. ENH = 2.1
two atoms share a pair of electrons. These shared electrons ENCl= 3.0
glue two or more atoms together to form a molecule. (ΔEN) = 2.1 – 3.0 = │-0.9│= 0.9 polar covalent bond
Nonpolar covalent bonds are a type of bond that occurs when 4. ENS= 2.5
two atoms share a pair of electrons. These shared electrons ENO = 3.5
glue two or more atoms together to form a molecule. An (ΔEN) = 2.5 – 3.5 = │-1.0│= 1.0 polar covalent bond
example of a nonpolar covalent bond is the bond between 5. ENC= 2.5
two hydrogen atoms because they equally shares the ENN = 3.0
electrons. Another example of a nonpolar covalent bond is the (ΔEN) = 2.5 – 3.0 = │-0.5│= 0.5 polar covalent bond
bond between two chlorine atoms because they also equally A polar covalent bond is formed when electrons are shared
shares the electrons. Nonpolar covalent bonds are very strong unequally by two atoms in a compound. The bonded pair of
bonds requiring a large amount of energy to break the bond. atoms form an electric dipole.
The polarity of molecules is determined by the two factors:
the polarity of bonds based on the electronegativity Dipole means “two poles” which means that a molecule has
difference of the atoms involved and the geometrical shape one positive end and one negative end. In this type of bond,
the atom with the higher EN value becomes the partial
negative pole (symbolized as ẟ-) while the atom with the Therefore, dipole-dipole force is a result of molecules with a
lower EN value becomes the partially positive (symbolized as positive end on one side and a negative end on the other side.
ẟ+) pole. The dipole-dipole force can have a long range of interaction
Always bear in mind that the direction of the arrow is always and can be strong if the dipole moment is high.
pointing from a more electropositive pole to the more -Polar substances exhibit dipole-dipole interaction due to the
electronegative pole. presence of (+) and (-) ends of the molecules. Sulfur dioxide
(SO2) has polar ends that will participate in the dipole-dipole
forces of attraction.
Dipole-induced dipole interaction
-depends on the presence of polar molecules. The other
a) Polar bond between H and Cl and (b) nonpolar bond molecule needs not be a polar one. The partial charges
between two Cl atoms present in the dipole cause the polarization or distortion of
Symmetrical Molecules the electron distribution of the other molecule. This gives rise
-In chemistry, symmetry means everything around the central to regions of partial (+) and (-) poles. This induced dipole will
atom is the same (element, shared e-pairs, unshared e-pars) then be attracted to the original polar molecules, resulting to
-Symmetric molecules are always nonpolar molecules dipole-induced dipole attraction.
-There is an even or symmetric distribution of charge Dispersion forces
throughout the molecule. -(London dispersion forces), were named after the German
-Molecule does not exhibit positive and negative ends physicist Fritz London (1900-1954). The electron cloud of a
Asymmetrical Molecules neutral substance can be normally distributed around the
-In chemistry, asymmetry means that not everything around nucleus. At any given time, the electron distribution may be
the central atom is the same (can be shared e-, unshared e-, uneven resulting to an instantaneous dipole. This temporary
and/or element) dipole will then influence the neighboring atoms through
-Asymmetric molecules are polar molecules attractive and repulsive forces.
-There is an uneven or asymmetric distribution of charge -Eventually, the substances will gain instantaneous dipoles,
-Molecule exhibits positive and negative end. too. Attraction between opposite charges will happen among
Miscibility – refers to the ability of a liquid solute to dissolve the species present. These are true for ion-induced dipole and
in a liquid solvent. (liquid-liquid) induced dipole-induced dipole interactions.
Solubility – refers to the ability of a solid solute to dissolve in -CO2 is a nonpolar substance. It is a linear molecule and the
a liquid solvent. (solid-liquid) electron shift at the right of C is balanced by the electron shift
Solubility is a general term, but it is more often used for the to the left. This produces no net shift in electron density so no
ability of solids to be dissolved in liquids. net charge is produced. For nonpolar molecules, only
LESSON 4 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES dispersion forces are present.
Intramolecular forces of attraction are the attractive force Ion-dipole interaction
that binds atoms together. -results from the attraction between either a cation (+) or an
Intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) are forces that anion (-) with permanent polar molecules. The ions will be
exist between molecules. attracted to the opposite charges present in the dipole
There are three general types of intermolecular forces (IMF), resulting to this type of attraction.
namely, -With the presence of an ion (cation or anion), the charged
1. Van der Waals forces ends of polar molecules will be attracted to the dipole. This is
2. Ion-dipole interaction true in the case of Na+ and formaldehyde. The positive (+)
3. Hydrogen bonding sodium ion will be attracted to the partially-negative oxygen in
The dispersion force is the weakest while ion-dipole is the formaldehyde, resulting to an ion-dipole interaction.
strongest among the intermolecular forces. -An ion-dipole force is an attractive force between ionic
molecules and polar molecules. The cation or the positive ion
Johannes van der Waals attracts the negative end of a neutral polar molecule. For
The forces are named for the Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik instance, the potassium chloride (KCl) dissolves in water
van der Waals, who in 1873 first postulated these (H2O), a polar molecule. The positive charge (cation) of KCl (K+
intermolecular forces in developing a theory to account for , Cl-) will be separated then it will attract the opposite
the properties of real gases. charged, in this case the water molecule.
Van der Waals Force, consists of dipole-dipole interaction, Hydrogen bonding
dipole-induced dipole interaction, and dispersion forces. -is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the H-
Dipole-dipole attraction, atoms in a polar bond. It requires that the H-atoms in the
-is present among polar molecules. Through constant molecules be bonded with more electronegative atoms such
movement, the charges of the molecules align in such a way as O, N, or F to form H-bonds with other molecules. The
that the positive (+) end of one molecule is attracted to the molecules which are linked by hydrogen bonds have high
negative (-) end of the other molecule. This happens due to boiling points since, hydrogen bonds are hard to break.
the shift of electron density towards the more electronegative -In both NH3 and H2O, the hydrogen atoms are bonded to
element in the molecule resulting in (+) and (-) ends. The more electronegative atoms, nitrogen and oxygen,
measure of this electron shift is known as dipole moment, respectively. This permits them to form H-bonds with other
represented by a crossed arrow. molecules with the same condition. Thus, H-bond is present
-The dipole-dipole force is an interaction between polar between NH3 and H2O.
molecules. A dipole is two charges separated by a distance.
-All interacting substances exhibit the presence of London Volatility is the tendency or ability of a liquid to vaporize.
dispersion forces in addition to other forces of attraction Vapor pressure is a measure of a liquid's volatility. A high
among them. vapor pressure usually is an indication of a volatile liquid, or
one that readily vaporizes.
Solubility, solubility is the ability of a substance (solid, liquid,
or gas) to dissolve in a given substance (solid, liquid, or gas).
The amount of any substance dissolved in a solvent (the
substance that dissolves another substance) depends on the
types of interaction among molecules, pressure, and
temperature.
-The rule “Like dissolves like” applies to solubility. This means
that the kind of substances being dissolved should exhibit the
same properties or should be compatible for them to form
Properties of Polar and Non polar molecules
solutions. The polarity of molecules is an important factor for
substances to dissolve in certain molecules. Highly polar
molecules will dissolve substances that have dipoles. The
negatively charged particles will be attracted to the positively
charged particles of the involved substances. This attraction
will subsist in the solutions.
-Water is considered as a universal solvent because of its
ability to dissolve almost everything. Water is highly polar and
can form H-bonds with polar substances.
-Nonpolar substances, on the other hand will also dissolve
nonpolar substances. Intermolecular forces, such as dispersion
Properties of substances affected by intermolecular forces forces, will prevail to maintain the dissolution of substances.
Surface Tension This is the amount of energy required to -In the simplest sense, boiling point, melting point, viscosity
stretch the surface area of liquids (e.g., 1 cm2). Liquids with and surface tension increase as the strength of intermolecular
high intermolecular forces tend to have high surface tensions. forces increases. On the other hand, vapor pressure and
When water is dropped on a waxy surface, it tends to form a volatility decrease with increasing strength of IMFA. London
round bead to minimize the surface area that it occupies. dispersion forces increase as the molecular mass of a
-An example of surface tension is capillary action. Liquid substance increases.
molecules can move against gravity. The forces bringing about LESSON 5 BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
capillary action are cohesion (intermolecular attraction BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
between like molecules) and adhesion (an attraction between -are made up of monomers that are combined through
unlike molecules. covalent bonds to form large polymers.
-The stronger the intermolecular forces possessed by A monomer is a small building block molecule. It means
molecules, the higher is the surface tension of the substance. “single unit’.
When molecules are formed by joining two or more
-Water molecules exhibit cohesion while the attraction monomers are called polymers which literally means “many
between water and the sides of the glass tube is adhesion. If units”
adhesion is stronger than cohesion, the liquid is pulled CARBOHYDRATES, carbohydrates are the primary energy
upward. If cohesion is greater than adhesion, there is a source of the human body.
depression or lowering, resulting to a lower height of the Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon (C),
liquid in the capillary tube. hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms with a ratio of 1:2:1.
Viscosity, this is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. The TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES:
greater the viscosity of a liquid, the more slowly it flows. The 1. Monosaccharides also known as simple sugars, consist of
viscosity of substances decreases with high temperatures; one sugar molecule. They are considered as the building block
thus, syrup flows faster when hot. of carbohydrates. And they cannot be broken down to yield
-The strength of intermolecular forces affects the ease with simple units of carbohydrates. Most of simple sugars have
which substances flow. Liquids that have high intermolecular empirical formula, (CH2O)n or CnH2nOn. Where n represents
forces are highly viscous. The presence of strong H-bonds in any number.
some liquids makes these substances highly viscous. The LEDS Examples of Monosaccharides
of glycerol below shows three (3) OH- groups that can 1.1 Glucose is chemically identical to Dextrose. The body’s
participate in H-bonding whereas water has only one OH- main source of energy and can be found in rice, bread and
group to form H-bonding. Glycerol is more viscous than water. pasta.
Boiling point: temperature at which the vapor pressure and 1.2. Fructose or fruit sugar can be found in fruits and honey
atmospheric pressure of a liquid substance are equal. 1.3. Galactose or milk sugar can be acquired through
Melting point: temperature at which solid becomes liquid. At consuming dairy products such as cheese, ice cream, butter
this point, the solid and liquid phases exist in equilibrium. and yoghurt.
Vapor pressure: pressure exerted by a substance in its 2. Disaccharides are made up of two covalently bonded
gaseous state. monosaccharides.
Volatility: measures the rate at which a substance vaporizes Maltose – glucose + glucose, found in malt
(changes from liquid to gas)
Sucrose – glucose + fructose, found inn regular table sugar, only a small amount of its cholesterol through food—the body
sugarcane, and sugar beet produces most of it. Cholesterol is an important component of
Lactose – glucose + galactose, found in milk and milk products the cell membrane and is required to synthesize sex
3. Oligosaccharides are formed of carbohydrates that consist hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts.
of three to ten simple sugars. Most of oligosaccharides are PROTEINS, proteins are biological macromolecules composed
naturally found in plants. Some examples of trisaccharides: mainly carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen
Raffinose is found in plants composed of melibiose (glucose, (N). Proteins are made up of long chain molecules called
galactose and fructose), Maltotriose is made up of three amino acids which are the building blocks of proteins and
glucose also found in plants and in the blood of some joined together through peptide bond, which is a form of
arthropods. Stachyose is chemically consists of two galactose, covalent bond.
one glucose and one fructose. It is naturally found in green 20 AMINO ACIDS
beans, and soybeans and is also present in human milk. -There are more than 20 amino acids in nature. Proteins serve
4. Polysaccharides are complex and formed of biological as a catalyst for chemical reactions in cells, this called enzyme.
macromolecules which are composed of more than ten, And also, proteins are part of the structures of cells. Each
hundreds, or thousands of the same or different types of protein has a specific role in organism. Some transport
simple sugars. The straight or branched chain of chemical substance in and out of the cells, help to fight
polysaccharides is linked by a glycosidic bond. diseases, control the rate of reactions and regulate cell
Starch/Amyloe – the storage form of glucose in plants processes and for bones and muscles formation.
Amylopectin – the storage form of glucose in plants Difference Between Essential and non-essential amino acids
Glycogen – storage form of glucose animal, stored in the liver
and muscles Essential Amino Acids Nonessential Amino Acids
Cellulose- structural material in plants – cell wall in wood,
wood fiber cannot be digested by humans Definition
LIPIDS OR FATS, lipids are composed primarily of carbon (C), Essential amino acids are Nonessential amino acids
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) but the oxygen is less than in
the amino acids that have to need not be taken in
carbohydrates. Lipids are formed when glycerol molecules are
be taken through the diet as through diet as they can be
joined with compound fatty acids. A single unit of fats is made
up of four (4) building blocks, one molecule of glycerol, and they “Cannot” be produced produced by the body
joined in by three molecules of fatty acids. by the body
Lipids or fats are important nutrients in your body but eating
Number of Amino Acids
too many especially unhealthy fats such as saturated fats and
trans fats can lead to heart disease, cancer, and obesity. Lipids 9 amino acids out of 20 are 11 of the 2o amino acids are
also serve other functions such as material for cell membrane, thought to be essential non-essential
insulation to maintain body temperature, aid in digestion, and
as signal molecules. Have to be acquired Are produced within the
TYPES OF LIPIDS OR FATS: through food body from other amino
1. Triglycerides-are formed by combining molecule of glycerol acids
with three fatty acid molecules. Triglycerides are the main
constituent of body fat in humans and other animals. They are Protein Function
also found in fats derived from plants. There are many -Involved in nearly every function of the body
different types of triglycerides, with the main division being -Structural support
between those that contain saturated fatty acids and those -Building muscle
that contain unsaturated fatty acids. -Communicate signals between cells
-Fat and oil are the most common examples of lipids. They are -Speed up chemical reactions (enzymes)
under triglycerides because they are composed of glycerol and -control cell growth
three fatty acids. Protein examples – meats, eggs, nuts, beans, fish, cheese,
-Fat refers to solid triglyceride usually from animal sources milk, hemoglobin, insulin
such as meat, milk, butter, margarine, eggs, and cheese. Oil Nucleic Acid Building Blocks
refers to liquid triglycerides from plant sources. Examples are -smaller repeating subunits called nucleotides
olive oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, and soybean oil. Animal fats -1. Phosphate
contain high percentages of saturated fatty acids while plant -2. Sugar (deoxyribose or ribose)
oils are mostly unsaturated fatty acids. -3. Nitrogen Base (adenine, guanine, cytosine or
2. Phospholipids -make up only about 2 percent of dietary thymine/uracil)
lipids. They are water-soluble and are found in both plants -examples: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Ribonucleic acid
and animals. Phospholipids are crucial for building the (RNA)
protective barrier, or membrane, around your body’s cells. In Nucleic Acid Additional Information
fact, phospholipids are synthesized in the body to form cell -Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and organelle membranes. In blood and body fluids, phosphorous atoms
phospholipids form structures in which fat is enclosed and -DNA -double stranded and only in nucleus
transported throughout the bloodstream. -RNA – single stranded and anywhere in cell
3. Steroids / sterols-Sterols are the least common type of
lipid. Cholesterol is perhaps the best well-known sterol.
Though cholesterol has a notorious reputation, the body gets
 Keep in mind that not all reactions occur at the same speed.
Some are very slow while others are fast.
The rate of reaction also depends on the type of molecules
that are combining. If there are low concentrations of an
essential element or compound, the reaction will be slower.
As shown in figure 1, two atoms of Nitrogen react with two
atoms of Oxygen to yield two molecules of Nitrogen Oxide.
The shared atoms form a bond by completing the valence
shells of both atoms.
As shown in figure 2, a chemical reaction does not take place
if the collision between molecules does not have sufficient
energy to break the bonds in the reactants and if the
molecules are not properly aligned.
Atoms in a Chemical Reaction
LESSON 6 COLLISION THEORY AND REACTION RATE They rearrange
Physical change – occurs when objects or substances undergo Some atomic bonds are broken, and some new ones are
a change that does not change their chemical composition. made.
Examples: brewing a hot coffee, dissolving salt in water. They are neither created nor destroyed
Chemical change- occurs when a substance combines with This is the law of conservation of mass. In a chemical
another to form a new substance. reaction, the total mass of the substances before and after the
The Collision Theory reaction remains the same.
All substances are comprised of millions of tiny particles in The quantity of elements and their atoms remain the same
constant motion. These particles are colliding with each other before and after a chemical reaction.
constantly in any substance. All collisions between particles do Chemical formula vs. Chemical Equation
not result in a reaction. There are two factors that determine An element is a pure substance and cannot be broken down
whether a reaction will occur between two particles that are into a new one
colliding: A compound is a combination of pure substances
1. Substances or particles of reactants must physically collide A Chemical Reaction Story
with enough energy Four atoms of hydrogen react with two atoms of oxygen. They
2. Substance or particles must come into contact or collide in are the reactants. They yielded two atoms of water. Water is
the correct orientation (facing the correct way). the product or end result.
Collision Theory – “the rate of chemical reaction is Types of Chemical Reactions:
proportional to the number of collisions between the reactant Decomposition ----- AB → A+ B, one compound breaks down
particles” into two products.
Synthesis ----- A + B → AB, two or more substances join and
Chemical Reaction – formation of new substance(s) whose
form one single substance.
properties differ from those of the original materials.
Single-replacement ----- AB + C → AC + B, atoms of an
Reactants- the substances that exist before a chemical
element swap with atoms of a second element in a
reaction takes place.
compound.
Product- the new substances that are formed during chemical
Double-replacement ----- AB + CD → AD + CB, positive ions
reaction.
exchange between two compounds.
Chemical Equation-indicate the reactants and the products of
A chemical reaction can be a decomposition, synthesis,
a reaction.
single-replacement, or double-replacement.
A chemical formula is an expression that shows the elements
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
in a compound and the relative proportions of those
Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction
elements. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1
1. Nature and Concentration of Reactants
ratio. The chemical formula for water is H2O.
Nature – phase of matter, its kind, its nature is a factor since it
1. The particles must come into contact with one another or
has its own identity and properties.
collide.
Concentration – is the amount of substance per unit volume;
2. When the particles collide, the particles must be aligned
how much of the solute is dissolved in a solvent.
correctly so that the right parts of the atoms or molecules are
A higher concentration means there is more of the solute in a
exposed. If they are not oriented correctly, no chemical
solution. Higher concentration means a higher rate of
reaction will take place.
reaction. The more particles of reactants, the more chance of
3. The particles must collide with enough energy to break
collision. 2. Temperature – higher temperature means higher
their chemical bonds. The amount of energy that must be
kinetic energy; higher KE means faster movement of particles.
available for a reaction to occur is often referred to as the
3. Surface area and particle size
activation energy. It is the measure of the change in the
Surface area is the sum of the exposed regions of a substance
concentration of the reactants or products.
(e.g. solid in a liquid)
The reaction rate of a chemical reaction is a measurement of
4. Presence of catalyst
the increase in the concentration of a product or the decrease
Catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical
in the concentration of a reactant as the reaction proceeds
reaction by providing an alternative pathway that has lower
over time.
activation energy.
LESSON – 7 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Law of Conservation of Mass molecule of products. This means that you will need to
- says that matter cannot be created nor destroyed. It does balance the carbon
allow matter to change its physical or chemical structure. atoms first.
A balanced chemical equation is an equation representing a
chemical reaction in which the number of atoms in each
element in the reactant is the same as in the products.

5. Use a coefficient to balance the single carbon atom. Add a

coefficient to the single carbon atom on the right of the
equation to balance it with the 3 carbon atoms on the left of
the equation.

The figure shows the combustion of methane, CH4 (a The coefficient 3 in front of carbon on the right side indicates
hydrocarbon) that produces carbon dioxide and water.g 3 carbon atoms just as the subscript 3 on the left side
indicates 3 carbon atoms. In a chemical equation, you can
change coefficients, but you must never alter the subscripts.

6. Balance the hydrogen atoms next. Since you have balanced

all atoms besides hydrogen and oxygen, you can address the
hydrogen atoms, you can address the hydrogen atoms. You
have eight on the left side. So you’ll need eight on the right
side. Use a coefficient to change this.

Key Terms -On the right side, you now added four as coefficient because
Stoichiometry is a branch of chemistry that establishes mole the subscript showed that you already had two hydrogen
and mass relationships between reactants and/or products in atoms.
a chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data. -When you multiply the coefficient four time by the subscript
PROBLEM SOLVING TIP: two, you end up with eight.
The first and most important step for any stoichiometric -The other six of oxygen come from 3CO2
calculation is to start with a balanced reaction. Since our (3x2=6 atoms of oxygen + the other 4=10)
calculations use ratios based on the stoichiometric C3H8+O2 4H2O+3CO2
coefficients, our answers will be incorrect if the stoichiometric C=3 C=3
coefficients are not right. H=8 H=28
Steps on How to Balance Chemical Equations O=2 O = 7 10
Here are the steps on how to balance a chemical equation: 7. Balance the oxygen atoms. Remember to account for the
1. Write down your given equation. For this example, you will coefficient that you’ve used to balance out the other atoms.
use: Because you’ve added coefficients to the molecules, on the
right side of the equation, the number of oxygen atoms in the
This reaction occurs when propane is burned in the presence water molecules and 6 oxygen atoms in the carbon dioxide
of oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide. molecules. That makes a total of ten oxygen atoms.
2. Write down the number of atoms per element. Do this for -Add a coefficient of five to the oxygen molecule on the left
each side of the equation. Look at the subscripts next to each side of the equation. You now have 10 oxygen atoms on each
atom to find the number of atoms in the equation. When side.
writing it out, it's a good idea to connect it back to the original - C3H8+5O2 4H2O+3CO2
equation, noting how each element appears. C=3 C=3
H=8 H=8
O = 10 O =10
Limiting and Excess Reactants
3. Save hydrogen and oxygen for last, as they are often on Key Terms
both sides. Hydrogen and oxygen are both common in • Excess reagent is a reactant that is not used up when the
molecules, so it's likely that you'll have them on both sides of reaction is finished.
your equation. It's best to balance them last. • Limiting reagent is a reagent that is completely used up in a
- You'll need to recount your atoms before balancing the chemical reaction.
hydrogen and oxygen, as you'll likely need to use coefficients In a chemical reaction, the limiting reagent is the reactant that
to balance the other atoms in the equation. is consumed first and prevents any further reaction from
4. Start with single elements. If you have more than one occurring. The amount of product formed during the reaction
element left to balance, select the element that appears in is determined by the amount of the limiting reagent. Part of
only a single molecule of reactants and in only a single
the calculation of the limiting reagent is the use of molar mass
and the molar ratio.
Molar Mass/Molecular Weight
It is simply the mass of 1 mole of a substance or compound.
The standard unit for this is grams per 1 mole of substance
(g/mol)
Example: Find the molar mass of aluminum oxide. (Use your
Periodic Table of Elements)

Molar Ratio
It is the proportion of reactants and products that are used
and formed in a chemical reaction. The molar ratio relates the
number of moles of the reactant and product to each other,
depending on what is required in a given problem.
As an example, let us start with the balanced chemical
equation for the synthesis of ammonia.

LESSON – 8 HARNESSING ENERGY FROM DIFFERENT

SOURCES
Energy - possessed by a body with mass, which enables the
body to do work. It has many forms but it is generally
Therefore, we can say that based on the balanced equation, classified as potential energy or kinetic energy.
three moles of hydrogen is made to react with 1 mole of Kinetic energy - is the energy of moving matter. Things with
nitrogen. kinetic energy can do work. Kinetic energy depends on the
object’s mass and velocity. Potential energy is the energy
stored in an object because of its position or shape.
Work - is done by a constant force acting on an object is the
product of the magnitude of the force (or parallel component
of the force) and the parallel distance through which the
object moves while the force is applied.
Power - the time rate of doing work and is calculated by
dividing the work done by the time required to do the work.
Power plant is an industrial facility that generates electricity
from primary energy. Most power plants use one or more
generators that convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy in order to supply power to the electrical grid for
Limiting Reagent society's electrical needs. The exception is solar power plants,
-The reactants are usually not present in exact stoichiometric which use photovoltaic cells (instead of a turbine) to generate
amounts, that is, in the proportions indicated by the balanced this electricity. The type of primary fuel or primary energy
equation. We supply excess reactants to ensure the maximum flow that provides a power plant its primary energy varies.
quality of the products. The most common fuels are coal, natural gas, and uranium
-One of the reactants will be used up first. This is the limiting (nuclear power). A substantially used primary energy flow for
reagent. electricity generation is hydroelectricity (water). Other flows
-The other reagent that remains after the limiting reagent has that are used to generate electricity include wind, solar,
fully reacted, is called the excess reagent. geothermal and tidal.
It is best to use an example to better understand the concept. ELECTRICAL SOURCES CAN BE BROKEN DOWN TO TWO
Problem: If 12.8 grams of gas (H 2) is made to react with 15 MAJOR GROUPS: RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE
grams of nitrogen gas (N2), how much (in grams) ammonia SOURCES.
(NH3) will be produced? The balanced chemical equation is Renewable source is produced from sources that do not
shown below. deplete or can be replenished within a human's life time. The
most common examples include wind, solar, geothermal,
biomass, and hydropower.
Non-renewable source which is a natural resource that
cannot be readily replaced by natural means at a quick
enough pace to keep up with consumption.
DIFFERENT ENERGY SOURCES AND HOW THEY ARE
HARNESSED
I. Non-renewable Sources -Southern Negros Geothermal Production Field – Nasulo
1. Fossil fuels, coal, oil and gas are fossil fuels, which have Geothermal Power Plant and Palinpinon Geothermal Power
been formed over the last 600 million years. Coal is the Plant in Valencia Negros Occidental
fossilized remains of huge forests which covered many 2. Hydroelectric, hydroelectric power (hydropower) is
Parts of the world in prehistoric times and hence contains derived from the energy of falling or moving water to
biomass. As the trees and plants died, they were covered in generate electricity. Among other purposes, water is widely
layers of silt and sand and, under great pressure, gradually used to produce electricity. Hydropower is a proven, mature,
became formed into coal deposits. predictable, and price competitive technology. A number of
-Coal is the world’s most abundant fossil fuel. It is relatively on- and off-grid hydropower plants have been built
inexpensive and is readily available. throughout the country, including impounding dams and run-
-The formation of fossil fuels is due to a series of geologic of-river types. Impounding dams are able to supply energy
processes where the remains of organic life are accumulated during peak and off-peak hours while run-of-river types supply
in the ocean bottom and are buried to eventually become part electricity whenever capable, depending on the volume of
of the geosphere. water that is discharged from the watersheds.
-They are buried to depths having high temperature and -A turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into
pressure where they are converted to oil, natural gas, or coal. mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the mechanical
-In the Philippines, around 69% of our electricity is derived energy from the turbine into electrical energy. The generator
from fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, biomass). power is stepped up to a higher voltage from the substation,
-In the world, around 75% of our energy is generated by and then exported for transmission.
combustion of fossil fuels. SOME OF THE OPERATIONAL HYDROELECTRIC POWER
-Power plants burn fossil fuels and the heat generated during PLANTS IN THE PHILIPPINES ARE:
this process is used to turn water into steam and this turns the -palakpakin hydroelectric power plant in san pablo, laguna
turbines. -balugbog hydroelectric power plant in narcarlan, laguna
2. Electrochemical cell (batteries) A battery is a device that -cantingas hydroelectric power plant in san fernando, romblon
stores chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy. 3. Wind power, while an electric fan uses electricity to
The chemical reactions in a battery involve the flow of produce wind, a wind turbine uses wind to produce electricity.
electrons from one material (electrode) to another, through a wind turbine can generate megawatts of power, depending
an external circuit. The flow of electrons provides an electric on the weather conditions. In fact, an indicator for a potential
current that can be used to do work. wind farm site is the presence of flagging trees or trees that
There are three main components of a battery: two terminals are bent like how a flag would look like due to strong winds.
made of different chemicals (typically metals), the anode and Because of the vast land area a wind farm occupies, unused
the cathode; and the electrolyte, which separates these areas can be co-located with agricultural crops or even a solar
terminals. The electrolyte is a chemical medium that allows farm.
the flow of electrical charge between the cathode and anode. -Wind has been used in centuries to move ships and pump
Batteries, compared to other sources, have low intensity but water. Wind turbines are installed in strategic locations to
they are commonly used since they are portable and efficient. harness the mechanical energy from wind. Some of the most
recent developments are the Bangui wind farm, Burgos wind
II. RENEWABLE SOURCES farm, and Caparispisan wind farm in Ilocos Norte, the wind
1. Geothermal, geothermal power utilizes the heat energy energy power system in Oriental Mindoro, San Lorenzo wind
from the earth’s crust. This heat energy heats up rocks which, farm in Guimaras, Nabas wind farm in Aklan and Pililla wind
in turn, heats up nearby groundwater. The Malitbog farm in Rizal.
Geothermal Power Station is a 232.5 MW geothermal power 4. Solar cells, a solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical
plant or an earth steam turbined electric generator--the device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity
world's largest geothermal power plant under one roof by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical
located in Malitbog, Kananga, Leyte, Philippines. The power phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a
plant is one of four operating in the Leyte Geothermal device whose electrical characteristics, such as current,
Production Field. voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. individual
-Geothermal energy is produced by the heat of Earth's molten solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of
interior. This energy is harnessed to generate electricity when photovoltaic modules, known colloquially as solar panels.
water is injected deep underground and returns as steam (or Some of the operational solar power plants in the Philippines
hot water, which is later converted to steam) to drive a are:
turbine on an electric power generator that produces -Lian solar power project and Calatagan solar power project in
electricity. Geothermal energy is less of an environmental Calatagan, Batangas
hazard compared to fossil fuels though it still has some -Cavite economic zone solar power project in Rosario and
emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and sulfur dioxide. General Trias, Cavite
-Malibarara Geothermal Power Plant in Sto. Tomas, Batangas -Cw home depot solar power project and Central mall Binan
-Makban Geothermal Power Plant and Makban Binary solar power plant in Biñan City, Laguna
Geothermal Power Plant in Bay, Laguna 5. Biomass, biomass refers to organic matter from plants and
-Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant in Tiwi, Albay animals (microorganisms). organic wastes such as crop
-Bacon Manito Geothermal Power Plant in Sorosogon remains, manure, and garbage usually left to rot, can be used
-Unified Leyte Geothermal Power Plant Tongonan Geothermal for electricity generation, rice husks and/or bagasse are
Power Plant in Leyte burned as fuel to boil water. The steam from the boiling water
is used to run steam turbines, which in turn drive generators nitrogen and three hydrogen atoms bonded together. It was
to produce electricity. traditionally used in many household cleaners, though today
-wood is also a biomass fuel. it's still found in glass cleaner, all-purpose cleaners, and
-as long as we replenish the trees that we cut, biomass can be smelling salts. When used in cleaning compounds, it’s called
a sustainable energy source. “household ammonia.”.
-biomass is used to create methane and alcohol which are -Ammonia fumes are powerful irritant, potentially harming
fuels useful in energy production and in powering your skin, eyes, nose, lungs and throat. When found in oven
automobiles. cleaners and window cleaning formulations, it is an irritant to
-production of biogas or biofuels involves the action of the mucous membranes. When working with ammonia,
microorganisms that break down organic matter in a multi- wearing heavy-duty gloves, goggles, and a face mask are
step process. smart precautions to protect your health.”.
-technologies utilizing biomass are continuously evolving in 5. SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE
order to improve efficiency. -Sodium hypochlorite also known as bleach is another alkali
disinfectant. Bleach works by oxidizing or breaking down the
LESSON – 9 ACTIVE INGREDIENTS USED IN CLEANING molecular bonds of stains and germs.
PRODUCTS -Another useful but dangerous cleaner it also has strong
Active Ingredients of Cleaning Products used at Home corrosive properties that may do serious damage to the
-There are lots of cleaning products we use daily in our home, human body. Ammonia and bleach are a particularly
office, or school. These cleaning products play an important dangerous combination, creating potentially deadly gases
vital role to make our home spick and span. They also help in when mixed. Never store these two chemicals in the same
safely and effectively removing dirt, germs, and other place.
contaminants. They can also prevent the spread of infectious -Bleach in the bottle is generally a five percent solution. Toxic
diseases and control allergens, such as dust and mold, in order chlorine gas can be formed if bleach is mixed with acids, such
to keep us healthy. Cleaning products also enable us to care as bowl cleaners.
for our homes and possessions. 6. ETHANOL
1. ALCOHOL ETHOXYLATE (AE) -Ethanol is a natural byproduct of plant fermentation and can
Alcohol ethoxylates are a class of compounds that are be produced through the hydration of ethylene. It mixes easily
commonly used throughout many industrial practices and with water and many organic compounds, and makes an
commercial markets. These compounds are synthesized via effective solvent for use in paints, lacquers and varnish, as
the reaction of a fatty alcohol and ethylene oxide, resulting in well as personal care and household cleaning products.
a molecule that consists of two main components, (1) the Ethanol is highly flammable and should not be used near open
oleophilic, carbon-rich, fatty alcohol and (2) the hydrophilic, flames. Ethanol inhalation can cause coughing or headaches.
polyoxymethylene chain. 7. PHENOL
-Because these compounds are surfactants, they can be used -Phenol, any of a family of organic compounds characterized
whenever oily substances encounter water or a surface. It can by a hydroxyl (―OH) group attached to a carbon atom that is
be used as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, degreasers part of an aromatic ring. Besides serving as the generic name
and emollients in many lines of commercially available for the entire family, the term phenol is also the specific name
products and industrial practices. for its simplest member, monohydroxybenzene (C6H5OH),
-Alcohol ethoxylates (AE) and alcohol ethoxysulfates (AES) are also known as benzenol, or carbolic acid.
surfactants found in products such as laundry detergents, -Phenols are widely used in household products and as
surface cleaners, cosmetics, agricultural products, textiles, and intermediates for industrial synthesis. For example, phenol
paint. itself is used (in low concentrations) as a disinfectant in
2. SODIUM ALKYL SULFATES household cleaners and in mouthwash. Phenol may have been
-Sodium alkyl sulfate are members of alkyl sulfates. They are the first surgical antiseptic. In 1865 the British surgeon Joseph
water-soluble and can form soap bubbles. Lister used phenol as an antiseptic to sterilize his operating
-It can be used in detergents, dish washing liquids, shower field.
gels, shampoos, hair conditioners and fabric softeners. It can 8. QUATERNARY AMMONIUM
also be used as fire extinguishing agent, because it is not -Quats are generally used to disinfect countertops, toilets
flammable. In the cosmetic industry it is used as an emulsifier and other high touch environmental surfaces and floors.
to mix oily and water-soluble compounds for toothpaste or Quaternary ammonium are cationic disinfectants. This means
moisturizing products. It can produce irritating vapors when the quats chain carries a positive (plus) charge on one end of
heated, consisting of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur
the molecule; many soils and soaps/detergents carry an
dioxide and others. As all detergents it can irritate skin and
anionic or negative (minus) charge. Quats can also bind with,
eyes. If swallowed, it will cause nausea or vomiting.
3. AMINE OXIDE or be absorbed by, materials and fibers including cotton (e.g.,
-Amine oxides are highly polar molecules and have a polarity cleaning rags and mops). Quats generally take 3-10 minutes to
close to that of quaternary ammonium salts. Small amine disinfect and should be used with cleaning tools that are
oxides are very hydrophilic and have an excellent water tested to be compatible.
solubility and a very poor solubility in most organic solvents. 9. SODIUM PERCARBONATE
4. AMMONIA Sodium percarbonate is a powder that releases hydrogen
-Ammonia is a colorless, soluble alkali gas that occurs peroxide, and very concentrated. It is a granulated powder
naturally in the environment. It is a chemical containing one which can be nice for scrubbing stains and stuck-on-gunk off
dishes. Scouring powder is made from hydrogen peroxide. It work as well. Adding a preservative allows a cleaning product
can be made into a paste, too, and used on tile grout and to stay on the shelf longer both in the store and in your home.
tough stains. 6. PH ADJUSTERS
-pH is a measure of how acidic (like lemon juice) or basic (like
USES OF THE OTHER INGREDIENTS IN CLEANING PRODUCTS baking soda) a solution is. One way to measure this is by using
1. BUILDERS the pH scale. The pH scale is read from 0 to 14 and tells us if a
-Builders are one of the important group of ingredients that solution is acidic or basic. Pure water has a pH of 7, which
help make cleaning products better. Builders give the means it’s neutral.
surfactants a helping hand. They are found in several different -pH adjusters are used in cleaning products to raise or lower
kinds of products, but you need less of them than you do the pH of a solution, making it either more basic or acidic.
surfactants. -Adjusting the pH helps to keep the product working well as it
-Builders help make the surfactant more powerful by reacting gets old. It also affects how the product cleans. For example,
each surfactant has a different pH level in which they are the
with stuff found in tap water. Water in your home may
most powerful. Therefore, a chemist may want to adjust the
contain minerals (such as calcium and magnesium). The more
pH to that level.
minerals in your water, the “harder” the water is. It is not bad 7. DYE
to have minerals in water, but it can leave white marks on -There are several other ingredients used in cleaning products
surfaces (like dishes). When calcium and magnesium are that help create a unique experience. For example, dye can be
present in water, they will stop surfactants from being able to used to give a product color.
do their job of removing soil. 8. THICKENER
-Builders help prevent this by keeping the minerals out of the -Thickeners give soap the proper viscosity (thickness), making
way of the surfactants. This leaves the surfactants alone to sure it can still flow out of a bottle. Can you imagine trying to
focus on the soil. wash your hands with a soap that feels like water? It would
2. SOLVENTS run right off your skin!
-Solvents are chemicals that help ingredients stay mixed and 9. FOAM ENHANCER
gives cleaning products the right thickness, so they are easy to -Foam Enhancers help create suds or bubbles. While not
use. In addition, solvents can help to prevent liquid products necessary for effective cleaning, many people feel bubbles
from freezing in cold climates. show that a product is working.
-Without solvents, a product will be very thick. But for other 10. ANTIBACTERIAL OR DISINFECTING INGREDIENTS
products, we want the liquid to pour out of the bottle. When -Antibacterial or disinfecting ingredients can be included in a
we add solvents, we decrease the viscosity, meaning the liquid cleaning or hand hygiene product or used separately after
will move faster when poured out of the bottle. The solvent cleaning. Their use provides a further reduction in germs on
also helps to makes sure we do not end up with a separated our hands or surfaces in our homes. This reduction of germs
solution like when you have pulp at the bottom of your glass helps to prevent people from getting sick when commonly
of orange juice. used surfaces, such as door handles, or our hands are
3. ENZYMES cleansed using these products. In environments with sick
-Enzymes are powerful stain removing ingredients. Their individuals or where food is prepared, this is especially
power is to break down stains just like the enzymes in our important.
digestive system help break down the food we eat.
-Enzymes are not living organisms but are created by naturally
occurring microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi. In the
laboratory, we use carefully selected microorganisms and
allow them to grow in a very controlled environment. As they
grow, they produce the desired enzymes.
4. FRAGRANCES
-Fragrances are a group of ingredients that provide the
cleaning product with a pleasant smell. They are not found in
every product, and typically a very small amount can make a
large difference in smell. In many cases, the fragrance is the
driving factor for why someone decided to buy a specific
product.

-A fragrance is a mix of many different substances. These

ingredients may be natural compounds (that come from
materials like flowers, fruit, trees, plants, or nuts), essential
oils, or synthetic compounds.
5.PRESERVATIVES
-A preservative is a substance that is added to a cleaning
product in order to make it stable and safe for a longer period.
Without a preservative, it is possible for bacteria or fungi to
grow in the product. This can cause the ingredients in the
product (like surfactants and enzymes) to break down and not