Work, Energy and Power

Energy
Energy is the capability to do work.
Energy is measured in joules (J).
It is a scalar quantity.

There are many different forms of energy. Table 1.0 shows the diferent forms of energy and their
description.
energy Description Example (s)
Kinetic energy Energy due to motion of a body Moving vehicle, rotating fan
blades
Gravitational potential energy Energy possessed by a mass of a A book on top of the table, an
body due to its position in the orange on top of a tree
earth’s gravitational field.
Chemical potential energy Energy stored in the particles of Battery, fuel, carbohydrates, fats
a body etc.
Strain energy/Elastic potential Energy stored due to Stretched rubber, compressed
energy deformation of a body spring
(e.g.compressed or extended
spring)
Sound energy Energy due to vibrating particles Vibrating tuning fork
in a sound wave
Solar energy Electromagnetic radiation from Light, heat
the sun
Nuclear energy Energy released when particles Nuclear bomb, nuclear power
in atoms are rearanged or an station
atom splits
Internal energy The sum of the random Energy in hot objects
distribution of potential and
kinetic energies of particles in a
body.
Electrical energy Energy carried by electrons in a Current carrying conductor
conductor
Thermal energy Energy transferred due to Operating heater, hot stove
temperature difference
(sometimes called heat energy)
Geothermal energy Heat energy from naturally hot Hot springs in Nyayadzi – Binga
rocks under the earth’s surface
Wind energy Inetic energy possessed by the Wind mill,air resistance
wind
Energy Resources
Renewable resources
These are inexhaustible resources for example,solar, hydro-electric energy, wind etc.

Non-renewable resources
These are sources which are exhaustible for example, fossil fuels(natural gas, coal,oil etc)
They are formed from the remains of plants and animals which lived millions of years ago.
Burning fossil fuels in power stations and in cars pollutes the atmosphere with harmful gases such as
carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide. Carbon dioxide emission aggrivates the greenhouse effect and
increases global warming.

Principle of conservation of energy

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to
another.

Energy conversions

(iii) Hydro-electric generation

Fig 1.0 Hydro-electric generation.

Rivers and rainfall fill up a lake, behind a dam wall, as water rushes down through the opening of the
dam wall, it turns turbines of a generator. The complete energy conversion process is shown below.

Water turbines generator

Potential kinetic kinetic kinetic Kinetic electric
Energy energy energy energy energy energy

Or Simple

Potential kinetic kinetic Kinetic electric

Energy of water energy of water energy energy energy
of turbines 0f generator
(v) Thermal power generation
Coal is used for thermal power generation in thermal power stations. Coal is used to heat some water ,
steam is produced under very high pressure and is used to drive the turbines of a generator. Energy
conversions occur as folows:

Chemical heat latent heat kinetic kinetic kinetic electrical

Energy energy of vaporisation energy energ energy energy

Advantages
locally available in Zimbabwe
cheap , abundant resource

Disadvantages
non-renewable
air pollution (carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide)
limited to some areas

(vi) Nuclear energy

It comes from Nuclear power stations, when uranium atoms disintegrate after being bombarded by
neutrons, a lot of energy is released. The process by which uranium atoms disintergrate is called fission.
This result in plentiful ehrgy released. The enrgy conversions are as follows:
Chemical kinetic heat latent heat kinetic kinetic electric
Energy energy energy of vaporisation energy energy energy

Advantages of nulear energy

produces a lot of energy from littleresources
no air polutio
reliable

Disadvantages
dangerous radioactive waste
expensive to build nuclear power stations
expensive to maintain power station
expensive to decommision
risk of eakage of harmful substances.

(vii) Solar energy (solar energy)

light energy is transformed into electrical energy in the solar cell.
Advantages
easy to install
little maintanance
can be done on a small scale with little enviromental impact

Disadvantages
not a powerful source
not reliable
expensive

Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy ( ) can be simply defined as the sum of the gravitational potential energy ( )
and the kinetic energy ( ).
=( )+( )
It is the physical energy that we have and feel.

Kinetic energy
It is the energy possessed by a moving body.
Kinetic energy is calculated as follows:
1
= ×( )
2
1
=
2

Derivation of the equation for kinetic energy

Consider a body moving a distance under the action of a constant force F, the work done (!) by the
force is given by:
!="
It the body attains a constant accelaration , then from Newton’s second law F=ma and therefore:
W=mas . . . . . [1]
If the body has been accelarated from rest to some velocity , then using Newton’s third law of motion
i.e.

= # +2
= 2
$%
= &
. . . . . [2]

Now substituting eqtn (2) into eqtn (1) we get:

1
!=
2
And therefore by definition:

(
'

Potential energy
Energy possesed by a mass of a body due to its position in the Earth’s gravitational field.
) * + ,, , ,
- ,

Principle of conservation of mechanical energy

The total amount of mechanical energy in a closed system remains constant.
This means that potential energy can become kinetic energy, or vice versa, but energy cannot
‘dissapear’. The mechanical energy of an object moving in the Earth’s gravitational field is constant or
conserved , unless external forces , like air resistance , act on the object.

Fig 1.1 Conservation of mechanical energy

As the body fall to the ground the potential energy decreases from a maximum value to zero at the
ground, while the kinetic energy increasesfrom zero at the top to a maximum value at the ground.

Energy graphs
If the body in fig 1.2 (a) has potential energy has potential energy of 19.6 1 at the top, it will lose this
enengy as it falls as it is being converted to kinetic energy. Midway at a distance of 1 fig 1.2 (b) the
potential energy left is 9.8 1 and the kinetic energy is 9,81 as well, total energy of the system remains
constant i.e. 19.6 1. At the bottom fig 1.2 (c) when the body is just about to hit the ground all the
potential energy has been converted to kinetic energy i.e. kinetic energy is now 19.6 1.
 Fig 1.2 (a) Potential energy (b) Kinetic energy (c) Total energy

Examples
1. A car of mass 1.0 105 6 increases its speed from 10 7(
to 20 7(
whilst moving 500m up a
(
road inclined at an angle of 8 to the horizontal where sin 8 . There is a constant resistance to
<
motion of 300>. Find the driving force exerted by the engine, assuming that it is constant (Assume
10 / )

Solution
Workdone by the engine is used to increase both the potential and the kinetic energy and to overcome
the resistive force.
(
@ , , + 500 sin 25
<
( (
, B #
( (
1.0 105 10 25 1.0 105 20 B 1.0 105 10
2.5 10C 1 1.5 10C 1

! 6+ 300 500 1.5 10C 1

! 6+ D
E F 6
G 6+ .
C C
! 6+ D 2.5 10 1.5 10 1.5 10C
! 6+ D 5.5 10C 1
but ! "

C,C (<H
"
C<<

" 1.1 105 6

3. A car of mass 800kg is moving at speed 30 7( , along a horizontal road is brought to rest by a
constant retarding force of 500N. Calculate the distance the car moves whilst coming to rest.

Solution
G 6+ ! D , + * 500
1 1
6 D D , 800 30
2 2
360 0001

! 6+ + *
500 360 000
720
If body moves as a result of a force being applied to it, the force is said to be doing work on the body.
Therefore the workdone can be defined as:

Workdone
- it is the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force.
The unit of workdone is the joule (J).

The joule (J)

It is the workdone when a force of one newton moves its point of application by one metre along the line
of action of the force.
11 1>

Suppose however that a force ", pulls an object a distance J at an angle K to the horizontal. The
component of " along the the horizontal can be resolved as follows:

Fig 1.3

"L " cos K

Therefore, the workdone from definition is calculated as follows:

! 6+ "J cos K
Workdone by an expanding gas
Consider a gas contained in a cylinder by means of a frictionless piston of area A. The pressure P of the
gas in the cylinder is equal to the constant atmospheric pressure outside the cylinder. The piston moves
from X to Y against a constant external pressure p

Fig 1.4 Work done by an expanding gas.

OPQRS O
Since ) # ) , the gas produces a force ", on the cylinder given by:
TQS& T

" FU . . . . . [1]

When the gas expands at constant pressure, the piston moves outwards through a distance ∆J,
therefore:

G 6+ ! D , * " + + ∆J

! "∆J . . . . . [2]

Now substituting equation (1) into (2) we get:

! FU∆J

However U∆J, is the change in volume of the gas ∆W

Hence

! F∆W

NB If the gas expands work is done by the gas.

If the gas contracts work is done on the gas.
Power
Power is defined as the rate of dowing work.

Mathematical expression is:

! 6+
) G

The unit of power is the G !

The G ! , is the the rate of working of 1 joule per second.

Power can also be expressed in terms of velocity as follows:

! 6+
) G

" " + +
) G
+
) G "

) G ) * "

) "

Example
A pump raises water through a height of 3.0m at a rate 300kg per minute and delivers it with a velocity
of 8.0 7(, Calculate the power output of the pump. (U # 10 7 ).

Solution

! 6+ D , F# F # + D , , 6 +F * , G .
5<<
E + , F# F + 5.06 *G .
X<

E - F + , 5 × 10 × 30 = 1501

1
E F + = 5 × 10 × 30 = 1501
2

! 6+ , + 150 + 160 = 3101

YZ[ \]^ _]`a ba^ cad]`_ ]ea^ fghi

Efficiency
Real machines are not efficient some of their energy is lost as heat and sound. The friction between the
moveable parts of a machine causes heat loss in the form of heat and sound.
Energy changers such as motors waste some of the energy supplied to them. Their efficiency is
calculated as follows:

# *# # F# # *# F G # F#
** 100% 100%
F# F G F#

Fig 1.5

For example, if an electric motor’s power input is 100!, and its useful power output immediately is
80!, then its efficiency is 0.8. This can be expressed as 80%.

The Kilowatt-hour (kWhr)

One kilowatt-hour is the energy expended when work is done at the rate of of 1000W for a time of one
hour.
It is the unit of electrical energy used to price electricity.
16 G B, # 1000G B, #
10001/ * 1 , #
1000 60 60
3 600 0001
3.6 k #
3.6l1
Example
Find the cost of running five 60W lamps and four 100W lamps for 8 hours if the electrical energy costs
5.0p per unit

Solution
m F G # F 5 60 4 100 700!
m 8, #
# + 700 8
# + 5 600 G B, #
# + 5.66!,
o 5.6 5.0
o 28
Pressure

Pressure
It is the normal force acting on unit cross-sectional area.

> "
) # =
B U

"
)=
U

The unit of pressure is the F () )

The pascal
It is the pressure exerted by a force of 1N acting on a body with a cross-sectional area of 1m2.
g t = guvw

Pressure in fluids.
An expression for pressure at a depth , in a fluid of density x can be found by considering a cylinder of
cross sectional area U as show in fig 1.0

Fig 1.0

The force acting vertically downward on U equals the weight of a liquid column height , and cross
sectional area U above it. Then:

# * y# + # = ,U
l * y# + # = x,U
! , * y# + # = x,U
x,U
) # * y# + # =
U
= z{|
Where , * + , ( = 10>/6

This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth , and depends only on , and x . Its value will be
in ) if , is in and in 6 / 3
From the above expression z{| it can be deduced that:

1. Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the further you go down the greater the
weight of the liquid above. In fig 1.1 (a) water
spurts out fastest and furthest from the lowest
hole.

Fig 1.1 (a) and (b)

2. Pressure at one depth acts equal in all directions. The can in fig 1.1(b) has similar holes all
round it at the same level. Water comes out equally fast and spurts equally far from each
hole. Hence the pressure exerted by the water at this depth is the same in all directions.

3. A liquid finds its own level. In the U tube of Fig 1.2 (a) the liquid pressure at the foot of P is
greater than at the foot of Q because the left hand column is higher than the right hand
column. When the clip is opened the
liquid flows from P and Q until the
pressure and the levels are the
same, i.e. the liquid ‘finds its own
level’. Although the weight of the
liquid in Q is greater than in P, it acts
over a wider area because tube Q is
wider.

Fig 1.2 (a) and (b)

In fig 1.2 (b) the liquid is at the same level in each tube and this confirms that the pressure at
the foot of a liquid column depends only on the vertical depth of the liquid and not on the tube
width or shape.

4. Pressure depends on the density of the liquid. The denser the liquid, the higher pressure at
any given depth.
Describe an experiment to show pressure increase with depth

Method I
The diagram is set up as shown
Fig 1.3.
• Lower the thistle funnel
into the water gradually
into a graduated glass
beaker.
• Measure the depth of
water from the surface
to the mouth of the
thistle funnel.
• Change the depth of the
thistle funnel and take
note of the changes in
levels of the water
(column ,) in the
manometer. Fig 1.3
• Repeat the above process at different depths at least 5 more times.
NB: The results of this experiment indicate that pressure at the in a liquid increases with depth.
The above experiment can be used to show /indicate that liquid pressure is the same at the same depth.
This is achieved by moving the thistle funnel horizontally at same depth and taking note of any changes
in height of column , in the manometer tube.

Gas pressure
In Fig 1.5 (a) on the left each surface
of the liquid is acted on equally by
atmospheric pressure and the levels
are the same. If howeverone side is
connected to, for example a gas
supply (Fig 1.5 (b)), the gas exerts a
pressure on the surface A and level B
rises.

Fig 1.5

On the left arm of the manometer at }a~a} • there is liquid pressure z{| due to liquid column of
height z plus atmospheric pressure b| since the arm is open.
On the right arm at }a~a} € there is only gas pressure b| .
The gas therefore exerts a pressure b| against liquid pressure z{| and atmospheric pressure b] .
It follows therefore that:
m, F # F• y# + F # ,x F, F # FP
b| b] z{|

Atmospheric pressure
It is the pressure exerted by the air in the atmosphere due to the bombardment of the air particles
on a particular body. When the air molecules collide with a body there is a change in momentum as
the particles bounce on the body. According to Newton’s second law a force is exerted on the body
per collision. The total sum of the collisions on the surface of the body causes pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using a mercury barometer.

The mercury barometer

The pressure at X due to the weight of mercury column of
height , equals atmospheric pressure on the surface of the
mercury bowl.
The height h measures the atmospheric pressure in the
mercury ( @ ).
The vertical height of the column is unchanged if the tube is
tilted.
Therefore at sea level the atmospheric pressure can support a
level of mercury equal to 760 .
This pressure is written as760 @ .

Fig 1.6

The space at the top of the glass tube is a vacuum, so the pressure at Y is zero. The column of mercury in
the tube is supported by pressure of the atmosphere outside. The greater the pressure, the longer the
mercury column. F, F # F # •
,x
Therefore given the gravitational field strength as 9.81 7 and the density of mercury is
5 75
13.6 10 6 .

Standard atmospheric pressure = 13.6 105 9.81 0.76

1.01 10C )

The D D is the unit of pressure used in meteorology.

1 D 100)
– , + + F, F # 1.01 10C ) .
Why does atmospheric pressure increase with depth?
There are lesser air molecules at the top of a mountain compared with that at sea level.
Consequently the rate of collision is lesser and hence the pressure is lower.

Some applications of atmospheric pressure

(i) Drinking straw

When one is drinking using a drinking straw, they expand their lungs to
reduce pressure inside the drinking straw, the enormous atmospheric
pressure then push the liquid up the straw due to the existing pressure
difference.
This can be demonstrated using a syringe –Fig 1.7. To be able to draw
some water, the syringe is closed then its needle dipped into the water.
The piston is then pulled creating a partial vacuum in the cylinder.
Atmospheric pressure then forces the water into the syringe due to
existing pressure difference.
Fig 1.7

(ii) Vacuum cleaner

A fan lowers the air pressure beyond the bag. The atmosphere rushes in, carrying dust and dirt with
it. The bag acts as a filter, stopping the dust and dirt, but not the air.

(iii) Rubber sucker

This is a shallow rubber cap. Before use it is moistened to get a good

seal then pressed firmly on a smooth surface so that the air is pushed
out.
The atmospheric pressure will then hold it firmly against the surface as
shown in the above diagram.
They are used by printing machines to lift papers, lifting glass panes,
heavy metal sheets etc.

Fig1.8
The siphon
The pressures at point A and point D are equal to
atmospheric pressure i.e. b€ = b] = zœ {|
b• = b] = zœ {|
Where FP = atmospheric pressure.
zœ = , Už = , oŸ
The pressures at points B and C are equal.
b¡ + zœ {| = b]
b¡ = b] B zœ {|
b• = b] B zœ {|

The pressure at point E is equal to the

atmospheric pressure plus liquid pressure due to
liquid column of height ,, i.e b = b] + z{| Fig 1.9

Principle of operation
the tubing must be lowered below the base of the tank.
suck the water from the container into the tube.
when the tube is full close the end with your thumb.
lower the end below the level of the water and hold it over an empty container and remove the
thumb.
when the thumb is removed the water will flow out because the pressure at the lower part is
higher than the pressure outside of the tube.
the liquid also flows out because of its weight.

Forces
A force can be simply defined as what changes the body’s state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line.

Types of forces
There are several types of forces and these can be classified into two i.e.:
(a) contact forces e.g., friction, normal force etc.
(b) non-contact forces e.g., gravitational force, electrostatic force, magnetic force, etc.

Upthrust
It is an upward force exerted by a fluid on a floating body. It is sometimes referred to as the buoyant
force.
When an object is immersed in water it weighs less than when weighed in a vacuum. The reason for
this is that immersion in a fluid provides an upthrust or buoyancy force. It is easier to lift stones
when they are under water than when they are out of water.

Archimedes’ principle
It states that when a body is fully or partially immersed in a fluid it experiences an upthrust
(buoyant force) that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
The upthrust/buoyant force ("¨ ) in a fluid has magnitude:
"¨ ©
Where © – weight of the fluid displaced, and is the gravitational field strength.

The upthrust/buoyant force originate due to pressure

differences in a fluid, the pressure in a fluid increases with
depth. Fig 1.0 shows a sack filled with water, the student
finds out that the sack and its contained water are in static
equilibrium, that is, it neither tends to sink nor rise. The
downward force "• , on the contained water must be
balanced by the net upward force from the water
surrounding the sack.
Fig 1.0 A floating sack of water

The net upward force is a buoyant force("¨ ). It exists because the pressure in the surrounding
water increases with depth below the surface. thus , the pressure near the bottom of the sack is
greater than pressure near the top, which means the forces on the sack due to this pressure are
greater in magnitude near the bottom of the than near the top.

Principle of flotation
It states that when a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude of the upthrust ("¨ ) on the body is equal
to the magnitude of the gravitational force ("• ) on the body.
i.e. ¬Y ¬|
But we know that
¬ Y v- |
When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude of the gravitational force ("• ) on the body is equal to
the magnitude of the weight ® © ¯ of the fluid that has been displaced by the body.
¬ | v- |
In other words a floating body displaces its own weight of fluid.

NB Some bodies e.g. a stone would easily sink into the water simple because their weight is greater
than the buoyant force. If therefore a stone is put on top of the water it would accelerate
downwards. A wooden block of the same volume as the stone if dipped in water would have a
resultant force upwards and would decelerate upward until it is stationary when the weight equals
the buoyant force.
If we measure the weight of a stone in a vacuum we get the actual weight of the stone. However if
the same is done underwater the weight of the stone is found to be less. The upward force
(upthrust) on the stone decreases the reading. The reading is then called the apparent weight.
The apparent weight is related to the actual weight of a body and buoyant force on the body by:
Apparent weight ®W²³³ ¯ actual weight(W) B magnitute of Upthrust(F²³³)

\tbb \ B ¬Y

Deduction of Archimedes’ principle

Consider a cylinder of cross sectional area U a distance ,(
below the surface of a fluid of densityx.

W # **#++ F + # * , +
W # **#++ F + U(, B ,( ) U,
Where , is the length of the cylinder.
l **# ++ F + ,Ux
However ,U # * , + ( )

\a´|z[ ]- -}Z´_ {|~ . . . [1]

Fig 1.1
The fluid exerts forces of FL U and F· U on the top and bottom faces of the cylinder. The upthrust
(i.e. the resultant upward force due to the fluid) is therefore given by:
F, # F· U B FL U
F, # Ux (, B ,( )

F, # ,Ux

b[z^Zc[ {|~ . . . . [2]

Therefore since equation [2] is equal to equation [1], we conclude that:

b[z^Zc[ ea´|z[ ]- [za -}Z´_ _´cb}tda_.

Measurement of density using Archimedes principle

Density of Solids

Measure the weight of a solid in air and in water and then use the following equation:
¹Sº»¼½· P© »P¾¼¿ ÁS¼•Â½ P© P¨ÃSR½
. . . . . [1]
¹Sº»¼½· P© À&½SQ Ä-½ÂQÅ»½ ¼º À&½SQ
Density of liquids
The density of a liquid can be found by determining the upthrust on some suitable object when
immersed in that particular liquid and then when it is immersed in water.
By analogue to equation (1):
¹Sº»¼½· P© P¨ÃSR½ ÁS¼•Â½ P© P¨ÃSR½
. . . . . [2]
¹Sº»¼½· P© ¾¼Æż¿ Ä-½ÂQÅ»½ ¼º ¾¼Æż¿

Now dividing equation (1) by equation (2) we get:

¹Sº»¼½· P© ¾¼Æż¿ Ä-½ÂQÅ»½ ¼º À&½SQ
¹Sº»¼½· P© À&½SQ Ä-½ÂQÅ»½ ¼º ¾¼Æż¿
. . . . . [3]

The density of the liquid can therefore be determined from equation [3]

Friction
It is a force that opposes motion or direction of potential movement between two bodies in contact.

Types of friction

Static friction – acts on a stationary body; it is in the direction opposite to the direction of potential
motion of the body.

Dynamic friction – acts on a moving body.

Consider a body resting on a rough horizontal surface as shown in Fig 1.2.

When a force ) is applied to the block, the frictional force acts

along the table in a direction opposite to the direction of
potential motion.

Fig 1.2

If ) and the frictional forces act horizontally on the block then, as long as it is stationary, ) and "
must be equal. Now if ) gradually increases the book will be on the point of moving. A further
increase in the value of ) will make the book move.

When the block is on the point of moving friction is said to be limiting; F has increased and reached
its limiting value and the block is in limiting equilibrium.

Beyond this point the book moves i.e. ) É "

Coefficient of friction
For any two bodies in contact the frictional force is given as a fraction of the normal reaction (Ê).
¬ ËÌ where Í-coefficient of friction.

As this is the maximum value of the frictional force, F can take any value from zero up to ÍÊ . .
0 ≤ " ≤ ÍÊ

Once an object begins to move, the frictional force opposing motion remains at the constant value
ÍÊ

The value Í depends upon the materials of which the two surfaces in contact are made- it is not the
property of one surface.

The laws of friction

When the surfaces of two objects are in rough contact, and have a tendency to move relative
to each other, equal and opposite frictional forces act, on each of the objects, so as to oppose
the potential movement.
Until it reaches its limiting value, the magnitude of the frictional force F is just sufficient to
prevent motion.
When limiting value is reached, " ÍÊ, where Ê is he normal reaction between the
surfaces and Í is the coefficient of friction for the two surfaces.
For all rough contacts 0 ≤ " ≤ ÍÊ.
If a contact is smooth Í 0.

The Viscous force/Viscous drag

It is a force that opposes the motion of an object in a fluid.
• It only exists when there is motion.
• Its magnitude increases with the speed of an object.
The property of a fluid which determines the magnitude of the viscous force is called the viscousity
of the fluid. It is a measure of the resistance of the fluid to flow.

The coefficient of viscousity

It is a measure of the degree to which a viscous liquid exhibits viscous effects.
The higher the coefficient of viscousity the more viscous the fluid.

Stoke’s law and terminal velocity

Consider a sphere of radius moving with velocity through a fluid whose coefficient of viscousity
is η. the sphere experiences a viscous force " which acts in the opposite direction to that in which
the sphere is moving.

Suppose F depends on , Ò and .

"∝ Ò
" 6Ò
" 6 , where k is a dimensionless constant
6 6Ô
Therefore " 6Ô Ò
This equation was first derived by Stoke and is known as the Stoke’s law.

NB The law applies to fluids of infinite extent.

It does not hold if the sphere is moving so fast that conditions are not streamline.

Terminal velocity
Consider a sphere falling from rest through a viscous fluid, the forces acting on the sphere are its
weight !, the upthrust , due to the displace fluid and the viscous drag ".
Initially the downward force " is greater than the upward forces " and and the sphere
accelerates downwards.
As the velocity of the sphere increases so does the viscous drag and eventually " is equal to !.
The sphere continues to move downwards with constant maximum velocity so reached this velocity
is known as the terminal velocity.

Mathematical expressions for terminal velocity

If and are the densities of the fluid and the sphere respectively then

Õ Õ
! 5
Ô 5 x» and
5
Ô 5 x©

At terminal velocity 6ÔÒ ½ , where Ò is the coefficient of viscousity and ½ is the terminal
velocity.
! "
4 5
! Ô x» Ô 5 x© 6ÔÒ ½
3
4 5 4 5
Ô x» Ô x© 6ÔÒ ½
3 3
4
6ÔÒ ½ Ô x» B x©
3
(x» B x© )
½
9Ò

Measurement of coefficient of viscousity using Stokes law.

The method is suitable for liquids of high viscousity such as glycerol, glycerin and treacle.
Diagram

A test tube is filled with a liquid of high viscosity. Two

points A and B are marked on the cylinder where point
A is sufficiently far below the surface of the liquid. The
length AB is measured on the measuring cylinder. The
diameter of the ball bearing is measured using a
micrometer screw gauge. The ball bearing is then
dropped into the liquid and the time t taken by the ball
bearing to move from A to B is recorded.
The terminal velocity is then calculated as follows:
Už
½

Fig1.3
From equation (2) we have:

TÖ Q % (×Ø 7×Ù )•
½ ÚÛ

If x» +x© can be found on the data tables r can be measured using a micrometer screw guage
and hence η can be calculated.

NB Stoke’s law applies to fluids of infinite extent.

Use a cylinder which is wide in comparison to the diameter of the ball.
Point B should be far away from the bottom of the cylinder.
Use liquids of high viscousity if the ball bearing has high velocity and causes turbulence.
Use a very small ball bearing to reduce the effects of high velocities.
Equilibrium of forces

Conditions for equilibrium

A body is said to be in equilibrium if:
(i) the resultant force in any direction is zero.
(ii) the resultant moment about any point is zero.

If a body has acceleration there is resultant force acting on it.

If a body has no acceleration there is no resultant force acting on it.

Centre of mass and centre of gravity

Centre of mass
The centre of mass of an object is a single point at which the entire mass of the object is considered
to act.
For a uniform symmetrical body the centre of mass is at the geometrical centre of the body.
For example the centre of mass for a uniform metre rule is at the 50cm mark.

Centre of mass
It is a single point at which the entire weight of the body is considered to act.
In uniform gravitational fields the centre of gravity coincides with the centre of mass

Stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium

The position of the centre of mass of a body affects whether or not it topples over easily. This is
important in the design of such things as tall vehicles (which tend to overturn when rounding a corner),
racing cars, reading lamps and even drinking glasses.

Stable equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced and then released returns to its
equilibrium position.
When the body is slightly
displaced its weight has a
moment that opposes the force
that is causing displacement
hence it returns to its equilibrium
position.
The cone in the diagram is in
stable equilibrium because:
(i) it has low centre of mass.
(ii) has a broad base. Fig 1.0 Stable equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium
A body is in unstable equilibrium if it does not return to its equilibrium position after it has been slightly
displaced.
The centre of mass of the cone
is high and when it is slightly
displaced, its weight has a
moment in the direction of the
force which is causing the slight
displacement hence it topples
off. Fig 1.1. Unstable equilibrium

Neutral equilibrium

A body is in neutral equilibrium if when slightly

displaced the line of its weight remain above the
point of contact with the ground, hence it has no
turning effect whatsoever, so it remains in its original
position.
Fig 1.2. Neutral equilibrium

Moment of a force
It is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to
the pivot.
The unit for the moment of a force is the newton metre (> )
Fig 1.3 shows a force of magnitude " acting at a point distance
from the pivot.
When the ruler is at an angle to the horizontal
* , * " +
* , * " cos K
Fig 1.3

Couple
A couple consists of a pair of forces equal in magnitude but opposite in direction whose lines of
action do not coincide.
To form a couple we have:
a pair of forces equal in magnitude
parallel (whose lines of action do not coincide), but opposite in direction
separated by a distance +.
 Fig 1.4 (a) Two forces acting as a couple (b) Torque of a couple

Fig1.4 a shows a couple of forces. Fig 1.4 b shows a torque of the couple acting on opposite ends of a
disc of radius .
Each force produces a moment " about the centre of the disc in a clockwise direction.
Therefore the resultant moment about the centre is 2" or simple" (+).
The distance + , F F + # + D G , G * (+ * , + ).
The turning effect produced by a couple is called a torque. The unit of a torque is the same as that of
a moment of a force (> ).

Definition of a torque
E , F +# * * , * + , F F + # + D G , *
* , * .

The principle of moments

it states that for a body in equilibrium the resultant moment about any point is zero.

Example
Some weights are hung from a light rod AB as shown in Fig 1.5. The rod is pivoted.
Calculate the magnitude of the force " required to balance the rod horizontaly.

Fig 1.5
Solution
# * 6G " 20
# * 6G 2,0 35 5.0 40
20" 270
¬ gf. Üuv
Concurrent forces
Concurrent forces are forces whose lines of action intersect at a single point. It is impossible for
such a system of forces to produce a torque about any axis if their resultant is zero. It follows that:
Concurrent forces are in equilibrium if their resultant is zero.

Three forces in equilibrium

Consider the resultant of two non-collinear
forces ) and Ý. If the line representing ) and Ý
are drawn to scale , one after another, then the
line joining the starting point to the end point
represents the resultant in magnitude and
direction, the actual resultant is however
through the point of intersection of point ) and
Ý.
Fig 1.6

Now if a force Ê is added to ) and Ý so that the three force are in equilibrium, Ê must cancel out the
effect of the resultant of ) and Ý.
hence Ê is equal and opposite to this
resultant and passes through the point
of intersection of ) and Ý.
Therefore the three forces in
equilibrium must be concurrent and
can be represented in magnitude and
direction by the sides of a triangle
taken in order. Fig 1.7

This triangle is known as a triangle of forces and it can be used to solve a problem if, in the diagram,
there already is a triangle whose sides are parallel to the forces acting.

Triangle of forces
Fig 1.8 shows a spider blowing in
the wind-the spider is hanging in
equilibrium.
In Fig 1.8 the three forces acting on
the spider are:
• Weight acting downwards
• The tension in the thread
• The push of the wind
Fig 1.8 a b
Fig 1.8 b shows how these forces can be added together. Arrows are drawn to represent each of the
three forces, end to end. The end of the third arrow coincides with the start of the first arrow, so the
three arrows form a closed triangle. This tells us that the resultant force R on the spider is zero, i.e.,
Ê 0. The closed triangle is known as the triangle of forces.
The spider is therefore in equilibrium.

We can use this idea in two ways:

o If we workout the resultant force on an object and find out that it is zero, this tells us that
the object is in equilibrium.
o If we know that an object is in equilibrium, we know that the forces on it must add up to
zero. We can use this to work out the values of one or more unknown forces.

Calculations on forces in equilibrium

1. The uniform rod PQ shown on Fig 1.9 is horizontal

and in equilibrium.
The weight of the rod is 50 N. A force of 29 N that acts at
end Q is 60° to the horizontal. The force at end P is
labeled X.

(a) Draw a vector triangle to represent the forces acting

on the rod and determine the magnitude and direction
of the force X.
Fig 1.9

(b) (i) Show that the upward forces equal the downward forces
(ii) Show that the horizontal force to the left equals the horizontal force to the right.
(c) The length of the rod is 100 cm. Determine the force X by taking moments about Q.

Solution
(a)

(b) (i) Resolving vertically (ii) Resolving horizontally we get:

29 sin 60° J sin K 50 29 cos 60° J cos K

J sin K 24.9 . [1] J cos K 14.5 . [2]
+ + y# µ1¶ D y# µ2¶ G :

sin K 24.9
cos K 14.5

24.9
tan K
14.5

K 60°

Now from 1 J sin 60° 24.9

• 28.752>
Now by substituting for K 60° and X into equations µ1¶ and µ2¶ it is shown that their â@– Ê@–
c Taking moments about Q we have:

100 • sin K B 50 0.5 0

• sin 60° 25
ã wä, äåæÜ ≅ wèuv

2. A particle of weight 16 N is attached to one end of a light string whose other end is fixed. The
particle is pulled aside by a horizontal force until the string is at an angle
of 30° to the vertical. Find the magnitude of the horizontal force and the
tension in the string.

Fig 1.10

Solution
Resolving horizontally
) B m sin 30° 0 . . . . µ1¶

Resolving vertically
m cos 30° B 16 0 . . . . µ2¶
é gä. Üu

Now substituting for T into equation 1 we get:

) 18.5 sin 30°
è. wêu
Non-concurrent forces
Concurrent forces cannot cause rotation, non-concurrent forces cause rotation of the body.

2. A small block of weight 32> is lying in rough contact on a horizontal plane. A horizontal
force of P newtons is applied to the block until it is just about to move the block.
(a) If P 8 find the coefficient of friction Í between the block and the plane.
(b) If Í 0.4, find the value of P.

Solution

Fig 1.11

3. A particle of weight 24 N is supported in limiting equilibrium.

on a plane inclined at an angle 30° by a string parallel to the
plane.
(
If μ
5
, find the tension in the string.
Fig 1.12
Solution
Resolving vertically

24 cos 30° Ê
Ê 12 . . . . . [1]
Resolving along the plane we have:

24 sin 30° ÍÊ m . . . . [2]

Now substituting for T from [1] we get:

1
12 (12) m
3
é gåu
6. A particle of weight 8 N is resting in rough contact with a plane inclined at an angle 8 to the
5
horizontal where tan 8 Õ
. The coefficient of friction between the particle and the plane is Í.
A horizontal force ) newton is applied to the particle. When ) 16 > the particle is on the
point of slipping up the plane.

(a) Find Í.

(b) Find the value of ) such that the particle is just prevented from slipping down the plane.

Solution

(a) Resolving along the plane

16 cos 8 B ÍÊ B 8 sin 8 0

4 3
16( ) B ÍÊ B 8( ) 0
5 5

ËÌ ä . . [1]

Resolving perpendicular to the plane

Ê B 16 sin 8 B cos 8 0

3 4
Ê B 16( ) B 8( ) 0
5 5

Ê 16> . . [2]

Now dividing [1] by [2] we get:

ÍÊ 8
Ê 16

(
Therefore Í

(b) Resolving along the plane

1
) cos 8 Ê B 8 sin 8 0
2
4 1 3
)( ) Ê B 8( ) 0
5 2 5
8) 5Ê 48 . . [1]
Resolving perpendicular to the plane

Ê B ) sin 8 B 8 cos 8 0

3 4
Ê B )ì í B 8ì í 0
5 5

5Ê B 3) 32 . . . µ2¶

Now using equation [1] and µ2¶ we have:

5Ê 8) 48
5Ê B 3) 32

11) 16

) 1.45>

7. (a) Explain what is meant by the centre of gravity of an

object.
(b) A flagpole of mass 25 kg is held in a horizontal position by
a cable as shown in the diagram. The centre of gravity of
the flagpole is at a distance 1.5m from the fixed end.
(i) Write an equation to represent taking moments about the
left-hand end of the flagpole. Use your equation to find the
tension T in the cable.
(ii) Determine the vertical component of the force at the left-
hand end of the flagpole.

Fig 1.13
Solution
(a) The centre of gravity is a single point at which the weight of an object is considered to act.
(b) (i) Taking moments about the fixed end of the flagpole:
# * 6G # * 6G
(25 9.81) 1.5 2.5m sin 30°

( C Ú.î() (.C
m .Cï ðñò 5<°

é wèêu

(ii) Ê$ ! m sin 30°

Ê$ 294 sin 30° B 25 9.81
Ì~ èäu