UNIT 1II.

METALLURGY

Understanding the properties and heat treatment of metals has become increasingly
important yo machinists during the past two decades. Study of metal properties and development
of new alloys have facilitated reduction in mass and increase in strength of machines, automobiles,
aircraft, and many present-day commodities.
The most commonly used metals today are ferrous metals, or those that contain iron. The
composition and properties of ferrous metals may be changed by the addition of various alloying
elements during manufacture to impart the desired qualities of ferrous metals, each having
different properties.

Lesson 1: Definition of Metallurgy and Branches of Metallurgy

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Define metallurgy.
2. Enumerate the different branches of metallurgy.
3. State the purpose of the different commercial processes in metallurgy.

Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and
chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which
are called alloys. Metallurgy encompasses both the science and the technology of metals. That is,
the way in which science is applied to the production of metals, and the engineering of metal
components used in products for both consumers and manufacturers. Metallurgy is distinct from
the craft of metalworking. Metalworking relies on metallurgy in a similar manner to
how medicine relies on medical science for technical advancement. A specialist practitioner of
metallurgy is known as a Metallurgist.
The science of metallurgy is subdivided into two broad categories: chemical metallurgy
and physical metallurgy. Chemical metallurgy is chiefly concerned with the reduction and
oxidation of metals, and the chemical performance of metals. Subjects of study in chemical
metallurgy include mineral processing, the extraction of
metals, thermodynamics, electrochemistry, and chemical degradation (corrosion). In
contrast, physical metallurgy focuses on the mechanical properties of metals, the physical
properties of metals, and the physical performance of metals. Topics studied in physical metallurgy
include crystallography, material characterization, mechanical metallurgy, phase transformations,
and failure mechanisms.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy#:~:text=Metallurgy%20is%20a%20domain%20of,and%20the%20technology%20of%20metals.

1. Chemical or Extractive Metallurgy – is the branch that deals with the extraction of metals
from the earth, their refining processes up to their turning into pure state. This implies a wide
variety of commercial processes.

a. mineral dressing – the removal of great waste material from the ore. It is done by grinding
the ore so that the metals together with some metallic materials are washed. The waste
material is called “gange”.
b. roasting- the extraction of impurities from the ore by means of heating. By this process; sulphur,
which
if one of the impurities in contact with air pass away as gas.
c. sintering – as the ore is subjected to a high temperature, the fine particles existing in the ore
melt
together forming coarse lumps used in later processes.
d. smelting – the melting of ore so as to remove impurities. It is done after previous processes.
e. leaching - melting of metal out of ore using dissolvents.
f. electrolysis – a metal melted through dissolvents is collected by electrolysis.
g. amalgamation – the process used for gold and silver. Finally ground particles are placed on
plates
covered with mercury. Mercury attracts the metallic part of the ore forming what is called
“amalgam”.
As the amalgam is heated, mercury boils and passes out gasses leaving the gold or silver purified
and
 in the form of sponge.

Physical Metallurgy – deals with the physical behaviour of the metals during treating and shaping
operations which causes them to have different properties.

Lesson 2: Properties of Metal

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Identify the different properties of metal.
2. Recognize the difference between the chemical, physical and mechanical properties of metal.

Physical Metallurgy is the science concerned with physical and mechanical properties of metals.
The properties of metals and alloys are affected by three variables.

1. Chemical properties - those that a metal attains through the addition of various chemical
elements.
Examples of chemical properties include flammability, toxicity, acidity, reactivity (many
types), and
heat of combustion. Iron, for example, combines with oxygen in the presence of water to form
rust (a);
chromium does not oxidize(b).
 (Source Google Inc.)

2. Physical Properties – those that are not affected by outside forces, such as color,
density,conductivity, or melting temperature.
 (Source Google Inc.)

3. Mechanical properties – those that are affected by outside forces such as rolling, forming,
drawing, bending, welding and machining. The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its
response or deformation in relation to an applied load or force. Some of the important
mechanical
properties of metals include:

a. brittleness – is the property of a metal that permits no permanent distortion before breaking.
Cast iron
is a brittle metal, it will break rather than bend under shock or impact.
 (Source Google Inc.)

b. ductility – is the ability of metal to be permanently deformed under tensile stress without
breaking.
Metals such as copper and machine steel, which may be drawn into wires, are ductile materials.

(Source Google Inc.)

c. elasticity – is the ability of a metal to return to its original shape after any force acting on it has
been
removed. Properly heat-treated springs are good examples of elastic materials.
 (Source Google Inc.)

d. hardness – may be defined as the resistance to forcible penetration or plastic deformation.

(Source Google Inc.)

e. malleability – is the ability of metal to deform under compressive stresses (permits to be
hammered or
rolled into other sizes and shape)

(Source Google Inc.)

f. tensile strength – is the maximum amount of pull that a material will stand before breaking. It is
 expressed as the number of pounds per square inch or in kilograms per square centimeter.

(Source Google Inc.)

g. toughness – is the property of a metal to withstand shock or impact. Toughness is the opposite
condition
to brittleness.
 (Source Google Inc.)

Lesson 3: Manufacture of ferrous metals

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Explain the process by which iron and steel are made.

Pig Iron

Production of pig iron in the blast furnace is the first step in the manufacture of cast iron or steel.

Raw Materials

Iron ore is the chief raw material used to make iron and steel. The most important iron ores are:
• Hematite contains 70 percent iron and varies in color from black to brick red.
• Limonite, a brownish ore similar to hematite, contains water. When the water has been removed
by
 roasting, the ore resembles hematite.
• Magnetite, a rich-black ore, contains a higher percentage of iron than any other ore but is found
in large
quantities.
• Taconite, a low-grade ore containing about 25 to 30 percent iron, must be specially treated before
it is
suitable for reduction into iron.

Pelletizing Process

Low-grade iron ores are uneconomical to use into the blast furnace and, as a result, go

through a pelletizing process, where most of the rock is removed and the ore is brought to a higher

iron concentration. Some steelmaking firms are now pelletizing most ores at the mine to reduce

transportation costs and the problems of pollution and slag disposal at the steel mills.

The crude ore is crushed and ground into a powder and pass through magnetic separators,
where the iron content is increased to about 65 percent. This high-grade material is mixed with
clay and formed into pellets about ½ to ¾ inch (13 to 19 mm 0 in diameter in a pelletizer. The
pellets at this stage are covered with coal dust and sintered (baked) at 2354oF (1290o). The resultant
hard, highly concentrated pellets will remain intact during transportation and loading into the blast
furnace.
Coal, after being converted to coke, is used to supply the heat to reduce the iron ore. The
burning coke produces carbon monoxide, which removes the oxygen from the iron ore and reduces
it to a spongy mass of iron.
Limestone is used to as a flux in the production of iron to remove the impurities from the
iron ore.
 (Source Google Inc.)

Manufacture of Pig Iron

In the blast furnace, iron, ore, coke and limestone are fed into the top of the furnace by
means of a skip cart. Hot air is fed into the bottom of the furnace through the bustle pipes and
tuyeres. After the coke is ignited, the hot air makes it burn vigorously. Carbon monoxide, produced
by burning coke, combines with the oxygen in the iron ore, reducing it to a spongy mass of iron.
The iron gradually seeps down through the charge and collects in the bottom of the furnace. During
this process, the decomposed limestone acts as flux and unites with the impurities ( silica and
sulphur ) in the iron ore to form a slag, which also seeps to the bottom of the furnace. Since the
slag is lighter, it floats on the top of the molten iron. Every 6 hours, the furnace is tapped. The slag
is drawn off first and then the molten iron is poured into the ladles. The iron maybe further
processed into steel or cast into pigs, which are used by foundries in the manufacture of castings.
The manufacture of pig iron is a continuous process and the blast furnace are shot down
only for repair or rebricking.
 molten slag molten iron

(Source Google Inc.)

Manufacture of Cast Iron
Most of the pig iron manufactured in a blast furnace is used to make steel. However, a
considerable amount is used to manufacture cast-iron products. Cast iron is manufactured in cupola
furnace, which resembles a huge stovepipe.
Layers of coke, solid pig iron, and scrap iron are fed into the top of the furnace. After the
furnace is charged, the fuel is ignited and air forced in near the bottom to aid combustion. As the
iron melts, it settles to the bottom of the furnace, where it is tapped into ladles. The molten iron is
poured into sand molds of the required shape and the metal assumes the shape of the mold. After
the mold has cooled, the casting are removed from the molds.
The principal types of cast-iron castings are:
• Gray-iron castings, made from a mixture of pig iron and a steel scrap, are the most widely used.
They are made into a wide variety of products, including bathtubs; sinks; and parts for automobiles,
locomotives, and machinery.
• Chilled-iron castings are made by pouring molten metal into metal molds so that the surface
cools rapidly. The surface of such castings becomes very hard, and the castings are used for crusher
rolls or other products requiring a hard, wear-resistant surface.
• Alloyed castings contain certain amounts of alloys such as chromium, molybdenum, and nickel.
Casting of this type are used extensively by the automobile industry.
• Malleable castings are made from a special grade of pig iron and foundry scrap. After these
castings have solidified, they are annealed in special furnaces. This makes the iron malleable and
resistant to shock.

(Source Google Inc.)

Manufacture of Steel
Since the 1960s, the methods of manufacturing has undergone tremendous change. The
open hearth furnace and Bessemer converter has been phased out and replace by the more efficient
direct current electric arc and the basic oxygen furnaces. New steelmaking plants has been
downsized into smaller, more efficient operations called minimills that produces steel faster and at
lower cost. Many new iron and steelmaking processes have been developed or are in the
developmental stages, such as the coal-based direct ironmaking program, direct steelmaking, and
the use of iron carbide a source of iron.

Basic Oxygen Process

The basic oxygen furnace resembles a Bessemer converter but does not have the air
chamber and tuyeres at the bottom to admit air through the charge. Instead of air being forced
through the molten metal, a high-pressure steam of pure oxygen is directed onto the top of the
molten metal.
 The furnace is tilled and is first charged with scrap metal (about 30 percent of the total
charge). Molten pig iron is poured into the furnace, after which the required fluxes are added. An
oxygen lance with a water-cooled hood is then lowered into the furnace until the tip is within 60
to 100 inch (152 to 254 cm) above the surface of the molten metal, depending on the blowing
qualities of the iron and the type of scrap used. The oxygen is turned on and flows at the rate of
5000 6000 ft3/min (141 to 169 m3/min) at a pressure of 140 to 160 psi (965 to 1103 kPa).

(Source Google Inc.)

The introduction of the oxygen causes the temperature of the molten steel (batch) to rise, at which
time lime and fluospar may be added to help carry off the impurities in the form of slag. A recent
development on this process is the Lance Bubbling Equilibrium (LBE). With this process, inert
gas such as argon and nitrogen are introduced by lance through the bottom of the furnace. These
gases bubbles up through the molten metal, increasing the contact between the metal and slag, and
speed mixing. This results in an increase in yield and a reduction in alloying elements, such as
aluminum or silicon, that are used to reduce the oxygen and carbon content in steel.
The force of the oxygen starts a high-temperature churning actions and burns out the
impurities. After all the impurities has been burned out, there will be a noticeable drop in the flame
and a definite change in the sound. The oxygen is then shut off and the lance removed.
The furnace is now tilted and the molten steel flows into a ladle or is taken directly to the
strand casting machine. The alloys are added, after which the molten metal is teemed into ingots
or formed into slabs. The refining process takes only about 50 minutes and about 300 tons of steel
can be made per hour.
Electric furnace
The electric furnace is used primarily to make fine alloy and tool steels. The heat, the
amount of oxygen, and the atmospheric conditions can be regulated at will in the electric
furnace; this furnace is therefore used to make steels that cannot be readily produced in any other
way.
Carefully selected steel scrap, containing smaller amounts of alloying elements than are
required in finished steel, is loaded into the furnace. The three carbon electrodes are lowered
until an arc jumps from them to the scrap. The heat generated by the electric arcs gradually melts
all the steel scrap. Alloying materials such as chromium, nickel, and tungsten are then added to
make the type of alloy steel required. Depending on the size of the furnace, it takes from 4 to 12
hours to make a heat of steel. When the metal is ready to be tapped, the furnace is tilted forward
and the steel flows into a large ladle. From the ladle, steel is teemed into ingots.

(Source Google Inc.)

Steel Processing
After the steel has been properly re fined in any of the furnaces, it is tapped into ladles
where alloying elements and deoxidizers maybe added. The molten steel may then be teemed
into ingots weighing as much as 20 tons, or it may be formed directly into slabs by the
continuous-casting process.
The steel is teemed into ingot molds and allowed to solidify. The ingots are then removed
or stripped and the hot ingots are placed in soaking pits at 2200oF (1204oC) for up to 1.5 hours to
make them a uniform temperature throughout. The ingots are then sent to the rolling mills where
they are rolled and reduced in cross-section to form blooms, billets and slabs.
Blooms are generally rectangular or square and are larger than 36 in2 in cross-section. They are
used to
manufacture structural steel and rails.
Billets may be rectangular or square, but are less than 36 in2 cross-sectional area. They are used
to
manufacture steel rods, bars and pipes.
Slabs are usually thinner and wider than billets. They are used to manufacture plate, sheet, and
strip

steel.
 (Source Google Inc.)

Lesson 4: Chemical Composition of Steel

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the students are expected to:
1. Identify the different chemical composition of steel.

Although iron and carbon are the main elements in steel, certain other elements may be
present in varying quantities. Some are present because they are difficult to remove, and others
are added to impart certain quantities to the steel. The elements found in plain carbon steel are
carbon, manganese, phosphorous, silicon, and sulfur.
Carbon is the element that has the greatest influence on the property of steel, since it is
the hardening agent. The hardness, hardenability, tensile strength, and wear resistance will be
increased as the percentage of carbon is increased up to about 0.83 percent. After this point has
been reached, additional carbon does not noticeably affect the hardness of steel but increases
wear resistance and hardenability.
Manganese, when added in small quantities (0.30 to 0.60 percent) during the manufacture
of steel, acts as a deoxidizer or purifier. Manganese helps to remove the oxygen which, if it
remained, would make the steel weak and brittle. Manganese also combines with sulfur, which in
most cases is considered an undesirable element in the steel. The addition of manganese
increases the strength, toughness, hardenability, and shock resistance of steel. It will also slightly
lower the critical temperature and increase ductility.
When manganese is added in quantities above0.60 percent, it is considered an alloying
element and will impart certain properties to the steel. When1.5 to 2 percent manganese is added
to high-carbon steel, it will produce deep-hardening, nondeforming steel that must be quenched
in oil. Hard, wear-resistant steels, suitable for use in power shovel scoop, rock crushers, and
grinding mills, are produced when up to 15 percent manganese is added to high carbon steel.
Phosphorous is generally considered an undesirable element in carbon steel when present
in amounts over0.6 percent since it will cause the steel to fail under vibration or shock. This
condition is termed cold-shortness. Small amounts of phosphorous (about 0.3 percent) tend to
eliminate blow holes and decrease shrinkage in the steel. Phosphorous and sulfur may be added
to low-carbon steel (machine steel) to improve the machinability.
 Silicon, is present in most steels in amounts from 0.10 to 0.30 percent, acts as a
deoxidizer and makes steel sound when it is cast or hot-worked. Silicon, when added in larger
amounts (0.60 to 2 percent) is considered and alloying element. It is never used alone or simply
with carbon; some deep-hardening element, such as manganese, molybdenum, or chromium, is
usually added with silicon. When added as an alloying element, silicon increases the tensile
strength, toughness, and hardness penetration of steel.
Sulfur, generally considered an impurity in steel, causes the steel to crack during working
(rolling or forging) at high temperatures. This condition is known as hot-shortness. Sulfur may
be added purposely to low-carbon steel in quantities ranging from 0.07 to 0.30 percent to
increase its machinability. Sulfurized, free-cutting steel is known as screw stock and is used in
automatic screw machines.