CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

REDOX REACTIONS

Introduction

Redox reaction is related to gain or loss of electrons. Reaction in which oxidation and reduction
takes place simultaneously is called redox reaction. This chapter deals with problems based on
redox reactions, oxidation number and balancing of redox reactions by ion, electron method
and oxidation number method.

Oxidation Reactions

Oxidation is defined as the addition of oxygen/electronegative element to a substance or

rememoval of hydrogen/ electropositive element from a susbtance.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) ⟶ 2MgO(s)

Mg(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ MgCl2(s)

Reduction Reactions

Reduction is defined as the memoval of oxygen/electronegative element from a substance or

addition of hydrogen or electropositive element to a substance.

2FeCl3(aq) + H2(g) ⟶ 2FeCl2(aq) + 2HCl(aq)

2HgO(s) ⟶ 2Hg(l) + O2(g)

Oxidation Number or Oxidation State

Oxidation number for an element is the arbitrary charge present on one atom when all other
atoms bonded to it are removed. For example, if we consider a molecule of HCl, the Cl atom is
more electronegative than H-atom, therefore, the bonded electrons will go with more
electronegative chlorine atom resulting in formation of H+ and Cl- ions. So oxidation number of
H and Cl in HCl are +1 and –1 respectively.

The following points are important to determine the oxidation number of an element.

1. The oxidation number of an atom in pure elemental form is considered to be zero. e.g., H2,
O2, Na, Mg.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

2. Oxidation number of any element in simple monoatomic ion will be equal to the charge on
that ion, for example, oxidation number of Na in Na+ is +1.
3. Oxidation number of fluorine in its compound with other elements is always -1.
4. Oxidation number of oxygen is generally -2 but in case of peroxide (H2O2) oxygen has
oxidation number -1. In a compound OF2 the oxidation number of oxygen is +2.
5. The oxidation number of alkali metals (Na, K) and alkaline earth metals (Ca, Mg) are +1 and
+2 respectively.
6. The oxidation number of halogens is generally -1 when they are bonded to less
electronegative elements.
7. Oxidation number of hydrogen is generally +1 in most of its compounds but in case of metal
hydride (NaH, CaH2) the oxidation number is hydrogen is -1.
8. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a neutral compound is zero.
In an ion, the algebraic sum of oxidation number is equal to the charge on that ion.

Oxidising and Reducing Agent

A substance which undergoes oxidation acts as a reducing agent while a substance which
undergoes reduction acts as an oxidising agent. For example, we take a redox reaction,

Zn + Cu2+ ⟶ Zn2+ + Cu

In this reaction, Zn is oxidised to Zn2+ so Zn is reducing agent and Cu2+ is reduced to Cu so Cu2+ is
an oxidising agent.

Types of Redox Reactions

1. Combination reactions

A combination reaction is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single
new substance. Combination reactions can also be called synthesis reactions. The general form
of a combination reaction is:

A + B ⟶ AB

Na(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ 2NaCl(s)

CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

2. Decomposition reactions

A decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more
simpler substances. The general form of a decomposition reaction is:

AB ⟶ A + B

2HgO(s) ⟶ 2Hg(l) + O2(g)

3. Displacement reactions

Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less
reactive element from its compound.

CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq) + Cu

4. Disproportionation reactions

The reactions in which a single reactant is oxidized and reduced is known as Disproportionation
reactions. The disproportionation reaction is given below.

2H2O2 ⟶ 2H2O + O2

Balancing of Redox Reactions

a. Oxidation Number Method
In this method number of electrons lost in oxidation must be equal to number of electrons
gained in reduction. Following rules are followed for balancing of reactions:
1. Write the skeletal equation of all the reactants and products of the reaction.
2. Indicate the oxidation number of each element and identify the elements undergoing
change in oxidation number.
3. Equalize the increase or decrease in oxidation number by multiplying both reactants and
products undergoing change in oxidation number by a suitable integer.
4. Balance all atoms other than H and O, then balance O atom by adding water molecules to
the side short of O-atoms.
5. In case of ionic reactions:

i. For acidic medium: First balance O atoms by adding H2O molecules to the side deficient
in O atoms and then balance H-atoms by adding H+ ions to the side deficient in H atoms.

ii. For basic medium: First balance O atoms by adding H2O molecules to whatever side
deficient in O atoms. The H atoms are then balanced by adding H2O molecules equal in
number to the deficiency of H atoms and an equal number of OH– ions are added to the
opposite side of the equations.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

b. Ion-Electron Method

1. Write the skeleton equation and indicate the oxidation number of all the elements which
appear in the skeletal equation above their respective symbols.

2. Find out the species which are oxidised and which are reduced.

3. Split the skeleton equation into two half reactions, i.e., oxidation half reaction and reduction
half reaction.

4. Balance the two half reaction equations separately by the rules described below:

i. In each half reaction, 1st balance the atoms of the elements which have undergone a
change in oxidation number.

ii. Add electrons to whatever side is necessary to make up the difference in oxidation
number in each half reaction.

iii. Balance oxygen atoms by adding required number of H2O molecules to the side deficient
in O atoms.

iv.In the acidic medium, H atoms are balanced by adding H+ ions to the side deficient in H-
atoms. However, in the basic medium, H atoms are balanced by adding H2O molecules
equal in number to the deficiency of H atoms and an equal number OH– ions are included
in the opposite side of the equation.
5. The two half reactions are then multiplied by suitable integers so that the total number of
electrons gained in one half of the reaction is equal to the number of electrons lost in the other
half reaction. The two half reactions are then added up.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

6. To verify whether the equation thus obtained is balanced or not, the total charge on either
side of the equation must be equal.

Galvanic Cell and Electrode Potential

A galvanic cell or voltaic cell is simple electrochemical cell in which a redox reaction is used to
convert chemical energy into electrical energy. It means electricity can be generated with the
help of redox reaction in which oxidation and reduction takes place in two separate
compartments. Each compartment consists of a metallic conductor and dipped in suitable
electrolytic solution of same metal. Metallic rod acts as electrode.

The compartment having electrode dipped in solution of electrolyte is known as half-cell and a
half cell has a redox couple. A redox couple means a solution having reduced and oxidised form
of a substance together, taking part in oxidation or reduction half reaction. It is depicted as M +n
/ M i.e., oxidised form / reduced form. To prepare a galvanic cell two half cells are externally
connected through a conducting wire and internally through salt bridge.

Anodic oxidation: Zn2 ⟶ Zn+2(aq) + 2e(s)

Cathodic reduction: Cu+2(aq) + 2e ⟶ Cu(s)

Net reaction: Zn(s) + Cu+2(aq) ⟶ Zn+2(aq) + Cu(s)

This cell can be briefly presented in one line, known as cell notation i.e.,

Zn | Zn+2 || Cu+2 | Cu

Summary-
1. Oxidation number: Charge on atom which appears on it when it is present in the
combined state.
2. Sum of the oxidation states in a compound/ion should be equal to the zero or to the net
charge on the ion.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

3. Some elements show variable oxidation states.

4. Oxidation: The process in which electrons are lost.
5. Reduction: The process in which electrons are gained.
6. Oxidising agent: A substance which oxidises the other.
7. Reducing agent: A substance which reduces the other.
8. Redox reaction: When oxidation and reduction take place together is known as redox
reaction.
9. Disproportionation reaction: The reaction in which same species is simultaneously
oxidised as well as reduced.
10. The change in oxidation state of any element in a compound is useful in calculating the
equivalent weight.
11. Electrochemical series: Arrangement of E°red of different electrodes in increasing order of
electrode potential.
12. Electrode Potential: The tendency of an electrode to lose or gain electrons is called
electrode potential.
13. The standard electrode potentials of a large number of electrodes have been determined
using standard hydrogen electrode as the reference electrode. By convention, the
standard electrode potential (E°) of hydrogen electrode is 0.00 volts.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

Important Questions
Multiple Choice questions-
Question 1. KMnO4 reacts with oxalic acid according to the equation 2MnO4– + 5C2O42- + 16H+
→ 2Mn2+ + 10CO2 + 8H2O Here 20 mL of 0.1 M KMnO4 is equivalent to
(a) 50 mL of 0.5 M C2H2O4
(b) 20 mL of 0.1 M C2H2O4
(c) 20 mL of 0.5 M C2H2O4
(d) 50 mL of 0.1 M C2H2O4
Question 2. Which of the following is a redox reaction?
(a) NaCl + KNO3 → NaNO3 + KCl
(b) Mg(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl → MgCl2 + 2NH4OH
(c) CaC2O4 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2C2O4
(d) 2Zn + 2AgCN → 2Ag + Zn(CN)2
Question 3. The reduction potential values of M, N and O are +2.46 V, -1.13 V, -3.13 V
respectively. Which of the following orders is correct regarding their reducing property?
(a) O > N > M
(b) M > O > N
(c) M > N > O
(d) O > M > N
Question 4. Which of the following processes does not involve either oxidation or reduction?
(a) Formation of slaked lime from quick lime
(b) Heating Mercuric Oxide
(c) Formation of Manganese Chloride from Manganese oxide
(d) Formation of Zinc from Zinc blende
Question 5. The number of moles of KMnO4 reduced by one mole of KI in alkaline medium is
(a) One
(b) Two
(c) Five
(d) One fifth.
Question 6. What is known as Autooxidation?
(a) Formation of H2O by the oxidation of H2O2.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

(b) Formation of H2O2 by the oxidation of H2O.

(c) Both (1) and (2) are true
(d) None of the above
Question 7. Which of the following statements regarding sulphur is incorrect?
(a) S2 molecule is paramagnetic.
(b) The vapour at 200° C consists mostly of S8 rings.
(c) At 600°C the gas mainly consists of S2 molecules.
(d) The oxidation state of Sulphur is never less than +4 in its compounds.
Question 8. The oxidation number of Xe in BaXeO6 is
(a) 8
(b) 6
(c) 4
(d) 10
Question 9. CrO5 has structure as shown, the oxidation number of chromium in the compound
is?

(a) +10
(b) +6
(c) +4
(d) +5
Question 10. Pure water is bad conductor of electricity because
(a) It has high boiling point
(b) It is almost unionised
(c) Its molecules are associated with H- bonds
(d) Its pH is 7 at 25°C
Question 11. The oxidation process involves
(a) Increase in oxidation number
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

(b) Decrease in oxidation number

(c) No change in oxidation number
(d) None of the above
Question 12. The ionic mobility of alkali metal ions in aqueous solution is maximum for
(a) Li+
(b) Na+
(c) K+
(d) Rb+
Question 13. Pure water is bad conductor of electricity because
(a) It has high boiling point
(b) It is almost unionised
(c) Its molecules are associated with H- bonds
(d) Its pH is 7 at 25°C
Question 14. The oxidation number of Fe in K4 [Fe (CN)6] is
(a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 2
(d) Zero
Question 15. A standard hydrogen electrode has zero electrode potential because
(a) Hydrogen is easiest to oxidise
(b) This electrode potential is assumed to be zero
(c) Hydrogen atom has only one electron
(d) Hydrogen is the lightest element

Very Short:
1. What are redox reactions? Give an example.
2. Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electrons.
3. Define an oxidizing agent. Name the best oxidizing agent.
4. What is meant by reducing agent? Name the best reducing agent.
5. In the reaction MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + H2O which species is oxidized?
6. What is the oxidation state of Ni in Ni (CO)4?
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

7. What is a redox couple?

8. Define oxidation and reduction in the term of oxidation numbers.
9. What is the sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in HIO44?
10. What is the oxidation number of N in (NH4)2 SO2?

Short Questions:
1. HNO3 acts only as an oxidant whereas HNOz acts both as an oxidant and reductant.
Why?
2. Balance the following equation by the ion-electron method.
Zn(s) + NO3– → Zn2+(aq) + NH+ (aq) + H2O(l) (In acid solution)
3. Balance the following equation in acidic medium by oxidation number method.
4. Indicate the oxidising and reducing agent in the following reactions:
5. Which of the following redox reaction is oxidation & which is reduction?
6. What are the minimum and maximum oxidation numbers shown by sulfur?

Long Questions:
1. What are the minimum and maximum oxidation numbers shown by sulfur?
2. Starting with the correctly balanced half-reaction, write the overall net ionic equation for
the following change:
3. Write the method used for balancing redox reaction by oxidation number method.
4. Determine the oxidation number of O in the following: OF2, Na2O2 & CH3COOH
(i) OF2
(ii) Na2O2
(ii) CH3COOH
5. Determine the volume 6f M/8 KMnO4 solution required to react completely with 25.0
cm3 of M/4 FeSO4 solution in an acidic medium.

Assertion Reason Questions:

1. In the following questions, a statement of Assertion (A) followed by a statement of Reason
(R) is given. Choose the correct option out of the choices given below each question.

Assertion (A) : Among halogens fluorine is the best oxidant.

Reason (R) : Fluorine is the most electronegative atom.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

(i) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(ii) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(iii) A is true but R is false.
(iv) Both A and R are false.

2. In the following questions, a statement of Assertion (A) followed by a statement of Reason

(R) is given. Choose the correct option out of the choices given below each question.

Assertion (A): In the reaction between potassium permanganate and

potassium iodide, permanganate ions act as oxidising agent.
Reason (R) : Oxidation state of manganese changes from +2 to +7 during
the reaction.
(i) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(ii) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(iii) A is true but R is false.
(iv) Both A and R are false.
Case Study Based Question:
1. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions:
The oxidation state of an individual atom is 0. The total oxidation state of all atoms in a
neutral species is 0 and in an ion is equal to the ion charge. Group 1 metals have an
oxidation state of + 1 and group 2 an oxidation state of + 2.
The oxidation state of fluorine is – 1 in compounds. Hydrogen generally has an oxidation
state of + 1in compounds. Oxygen generally has an oxidation state of − 2 in compounds.
In binary metal compounds, group 17 elements have an oxidation state of − 1, group 16
elements of − 2, and group 15 elements of − 3. The sum of the oxidation states is equal to
zero for neutral compounds and equal to the charge for polyatomic ion species. An atom is
oxidised if its oxidation number increases and an atom is reduced if its oxidation number
decreases.
The atom that is oxidised is the reducing agent and the atom that is reduced is the
oxidising agent.

(1) One mole of acidified K2 Cr2 O7 on reaction with excess KI will liberate n mole of I2 then
the value of n is:
(a) 6
(b) 1
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

(c) 3
(d) 7
(2) When electrons are transferred from Zn to Cu2+ in copper sulphate solution, the energy
(heat) is:
(a) Absorbed
(b) Evolved
(c) Consumed
(d) Both (a) and (b)
(3) Negative Eө indicates that redox couple is
(a) Weaker reducing agent than H+/ H2 couple
(b) Stronger reducing agent than H+/ H2 couple
(c) Stronger oxidising agent than H+/ H2 couple
(d) Weaker oxidising agent than H+/ H2 couple
(4) Which of the following statements is/are incorrect?
(a) The reactants, which undergo oxidation and reduction are called reductant and
oxidant respectively
(b) In redox reaction, the oxidation number of oxidant increases, while that of reductant
decreases
(c) HNO2 acts as an oxidising as well as reducing agent
(d) Oxidation is the process, in which electrons are lost

2. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions:
The concept of electron transfer is found unable to explain the redox changes or electron
shift in case of covalent compounds.
To explain these changes a new concept, called oxidation number is introduced. Oxidation
number is defined as the charge that an atom of the element has in its ion or appear to
have when present in the combined state with other atoms. In other words, it is also
defined as the charge that an atom appear to have in a compound when all other atoms
are removed as ions from the compound.
The following steps are involved while calculating the oxidation number of an atom in a
given compound/ ion.
Step I Write down the formula of given compound/ion leaving some space between the
atoms.
Step II Write the oxidation state of each element above its atoms. Write down x above
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

the atom, oxidation state of which we have to find out.

Step III Multiply the oxidation numbers of each element with the number of atoms of
that element present in the compound. Enclose the product in a bracket.
Step IV Equate the algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms present in
compound to zero or to the charge in case of ionic species charge on the ion.
Step V Solve the equation obtained for the value of x.

(1) Highest oxidation state of Mn is present in:

(a)KMnO4
(b)K2MnO4
(c)M2nO3
(d)MnO2
(2) Identify the element which never has positive oxidation number in any of its
compound?
(a) Oxygen
(b) Chlorine
(c) Fluorine
(d) Bromine
(3) When a manganous salt is fused with a mixture of KNO3 and solid NaOH, the oxidation
number of Mn changes, from + 2 to:
(a) + 4
(b) + 3
(c) + 6
(d) + 7
(4) The brown ring complex compound is formulated as [Fe(H2O)5 NO]SO4. What will be the
oxidation state of iron in the given complex?
(a) + 2
(b) + 3
(c) + 4
(d) + 1

Answer Key:
MCQ
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

1. (d) 50 mL of 0.1 MC2H2O4

2. (d) 2Zn + 2AgCN → 2Ag + Zn(CN)2

3. (d) O > M > N

4. (a) Formation of slaked lime from quick lime

5. (b) Two

6. (b) Formation of H2O2 by the oxidation of H2O.

7. (d) The oxidation state of sulphur is never less than +4 in its compounds.

8. (d) 10

9. (b) +6

10.(b) It is almost unionised

11.(a) Increase in oxidation number

12.(d) Rb+

13.(b) It is almost unionised

14.(c) 2

15.(b) This electrode potential is assumed to be zero

Very Short Answer:

1. Redox reaction is a reaction in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously,
e.g.
Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

2. Oxidation involves loss and reduction involves the gain of electrons.

3. The oxidizing agent is a substance that can gain electrons easily. F2 is the best oxidizing
agent.

4. The reducing agent is a substance that can lose electrons easily. Li is the best reducing agent

(ii)Dissociation increases, i.e., the equilibrium shifts forward.

5. HCl is oxidized to Cl2

CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

6. Zero

7. The redox couple consists of the oxidized and reduced form of the same substance taking
part in an oxidation or reduction half-reaction, for example.
Zn2+(aq) / Zn, Cl2 / Cl–(aq) etc.
8. Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number while reduction involves a decrease in
oxidation number.
Sn2+ + 2Hg2+ → Sn4+ + Hg2+
Here Sn2+ gets oxidised while Hg2+ gets reduced.
9. Zero
10.

The oxidation number of N is (NH4)2 SO4 is – 3.

Short Answer:
Ans: 1. Ox. No. of N in HNO3 = +5

Ox No. of N in HNO2 = +3

Maximum oxidation numbers which N can show is = + 5

(∴ It has only 5 valance electrons 2S22P3)

The Ox. No. of N in HNO3 is maximum and it can only decrease. Therefore, HNO3 can act only
as an oxidant. Minimum Ox. No. of N is -3.

Thus, HNO2 in which Ox. No. of N is +3 Can decrease as well as increase. Thus, HNO2 can act as
an oxidant as well as a reductant.

Ans: 2. Oxidation half reaction

CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

Multiply (1) equation by 4 to equalize the no. of electron in both. Add both half reaction
4 Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 8e–
Zn(s) + NO3– (aq) + 10H+ (aq) → 4Zn2+ (aq) +NH+(aq)+ 3H22O(1)
– 1 + 10 = + 8 + 1
+9=+9
Ans: 3.

Ans: 4. (i) 2Mg + SO2 → 2MgO + S

Mg = Reducing agent

SO2 = Oxidising agent

(ii)2Cu2+ + 41 → 2CuI + I2
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

Cu2+ = Oxidising agent

I- = Reducing agent

(iii)SO2 + 2H2S → 2H2O + 3S

SO2 = Oxidising ageiit

H2S = Reducing agent

(iv)Sn2+ + 2Hg2+ → Hg22+ + Sn4+

Sn2+ = Reducing agent

Hg2+ = Oxidising agent

Ans: 5. (i) Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–

Oxidation

(ii) Cl2 + 2e– → 2Cl-

Reduction

(iii) Fe → Fe2+ + 2e–

Oxidation

(tv) Sn4+ + 2e– → Sn2+

Reduction

Ans: 6. The minimum oxidation number shown by S is – 2 since it can acquire 2 more
electrons to achieve the nearest inert gas [Ar] configuration.

The maximum Ox. No. shown by S is +6 since it has 6 valance electrons. (3S2 3P4)

Long Answer:
Ans: 1. Various atoms are assigned oxidation number on the basis of the following rules:

1. An element in the free state has an oxidation number equal to zero, e.g. H2, He, K, Ag
all have zero ox. no.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

2. In a binary compound of a metal and a non-metal, the oxidation number of metal is

positive while that of non-metal is negative. In NaCl the ox. no. of sodium +1 and ox. n.
of chlorine is -1.

3. In a covalent compound, the atom with higher electronegativity has a negative

oxidation number while another atom has a positive oxidation number.

4. The oxidation number of the radical or ions is equal to the electrical charge on it. for
e.g. the ox. no. of Na+ is +1.

5. In neutral molecules, the algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms is zero.

Ans: 2. The skeletal equation is

MnO4–+ H+ + Cl–(aq) → Mn2+ + Cl2(g) + H2O (l)

Ox. no. of Mn change from +7 in MnO4– to +2

Whereas ox. no. of chlorine changes from -1 in Cl– ions to 0 in Cl2.

Ans: 3. The following steps are used for balancing the reactions by this methods:

1. Writing the skeletal equation for all the reactants and products of the reaction.
2. Assignment of the oxidation number of all atoms in each compound in the skeletal
equation. Identify the atoms undergoing a change in their oxidation number.
3. Calculating the increase or decrease in oxidation number per atom and then for the whole
molecule in which it occurs. If these are not equal, then multiplying by suitable
coefficients such that these become equal.
4. Now balancing the chemical reaction with respect to all atoms except H & O.
5. Finally balancing with respect to H & O atom for balancing oxygen atoms add H20
molecules to the side deficient in it.
CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

Ans: 4. (i) OF2

Let the ox. no. of O = x

The ox. no. of each F = — 1

x–2=0

x = +2

(ii) Na2O2

Let the o. no. of O = x

ox. no. of each Na = + 1

2 + 2x = 0

2x = – 2

x=–1

(iii) CH3COOH

Let the ox. no. of O = x

The ox. no. of each carbon atom = — 1

The ox. no. of hydrogen = +1

– 2 + 4 + 2x = 0

2x + 2 = 0

x=–1

Ans: 5. The balanced ionic equation for the reaction is

MnO4– + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O

from the balanced equation, it is evident that-

1 mole of KMnO4 = 5 moles of FeSO4

Applying the molarity equation to the balanced redox equation.

 CHEMISTRY Redox Reactions

Thus, the volume of M/8 KMnO4 solution required = 10.0 ml.

Assertion Reason Answer:

1. (ii) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

2. (iii) A is true but R is false.

Case Study Answer:

1. Answer:

(1) (c) 3
(2) (b) Evolved
(3) (b) Stronger reducing agent than H+/ H2 couple
(4) (b) In redox reaction, the oxidation number of oxidant increases, while that of reductant
decreases

2. Answer:

(1) (a)KMnO4
(2) (c) Fluorine
(3) (c) + 6
(4) (b) + 3