Temple Architecture

The origin of Indian temple goes back to the pre-Christian era and its evolution
into a monument of great architectural merit is marked by conscious efforts on
the part of several ruling dynasties, making it an institution of enduring
importance in the social, political and economic integration of the subcontinent.
The practice of creating sanctuaries for the images probably goes back to the
second century B.C. Several Deva-Gvrihas (houses of Gods) of pre-Christian
times have been found. Built in perishable materials, they provided little scope
for the application of principles of architecture as an art.
Though the Gupta period marks the beginning of Structural temple architecture,
the process actually started from the IKSHVAKU dynasty. They were the first to
build the temples for Pushpabadra Swamy, Astabhuja Swamy, Karthikeya,
Navagraha and Harithi (the goddess for protecting children) at Nagarjuna Konda
in Telangana State during 2nd century A.D.
The Temple Styles: The AGAMA SHASTRA described the major temple styles
as Nagara, Dravida and Vasara of which the prime position assigned to the Nagara
style.
NAGARA STYLE: Nagara style of temple architecture, under the patronage of
imperial Guptas Nagara Style of temple architecture developed in North India
with certain characteristic features-
a) The temples were built on a raised platform in square or rectangular shape.
b) The walls of the temples converge gradually inwards. These temples are
characterized by a flat roof.
c) The main building in known as GARBHAGRIHA, Sanctum Sanctorum is a
small room, generally a cubicle which houses the principle deity of the temple.
(1) In the Garbhagriha on the seat called pita, the idols of the God and Goddess
are placed.
(2) The ambulatory passage way called Pradakshinapath is ambulatory
passage around the Garbhagriha.
(3) Outside Garbhagriha images of Goddess Ganga and Yamuna are placed.
d) On Garbhagriha a mountain like spire called SHIKHARA is built. Its shapes
vary from pyramidal to curvilinear. It is curvilinear tower Shikhara the
essential characteristic feature of the Nagara Style.
The Shikaras are of three types- 1) Shikaras with square at the base and the
walls curve inward to a point on the top called Latina or Rekha-prasad, 2)
Shikaras with a broader base, short in height than the Latina. They slope
upwards on a straight line called phamsana, 3) Shikaras with rectangular base
with the roof rising into valuated chambers called valabhi.

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e) At the top of the temple the spherical or square structure is built called
Amalaka, on the top of Amalaka Kalash is placed.
f) At the entrance of the temple a portico or a hall called MANDAPA is built for
the gathering of the devotees.
g) The Mandapa is connected to the main temple by a narrow passage called
ANTARALA.
h) Inside the Temple, wall was divided vertical planes called Rathas. They were
used as different planes to make narrative sculptures. These temples were
called TRIRATHA, PANCHARATHA, SAPTARATHA and NAVARATHA
Temples.
i) Generally, temples in this style were built in PANCHAYATAN STYLE which
consisted of UPALAYAS or subsidiary shrines with respect to principle
shrine.
j) Generally, temples were built without water tanks inside the Complex and
boundary walls or Gateways outside.
Generally, temples were built by using stones, without any metal or mortar.
However, the Bhittari temple was built entirely in bricks.
I (A) The Gupta Temple Architecture: the Guptas were the first to construct
temples in North India in early Nagara style. It all started with square sanctum
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and pillared portico. Gradual progression started from flat roofed temples in the
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initial stages to the sculptured Sikharas in later stages. It was under five different
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stages;
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In the first stage, temples were built on low platforms, square in shape with flat
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roof and portico developed on shallow pillars. A classic example for this Temple
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No. 17 Sanchi.
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In the second stage improvements were made over the first stage with some
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important additions like- platforms upraised and two storied temples.

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The most important development being ambulatory passageway around the

sanctum sanctorum or Garbhagriha. Parvati temple at Nachana Kuthara in M.P is
the best example for this stage.
The third stage- in this stage, the two major developments were: Sikharas though
small in size appeared in the place of the flat roof for the first time. Secondly,
Panchayatan Style of Constructing temples started, under which four subsidiary
shines along with the temple of the principle deity are found. The subsidiary
shrines face each other on either side of the mandap. Example for this stage-
Dashavatar Temple at Deograh in U.P.
In the fourth stage, temples remained just the same, except that the main shrine
becoming more rectangular like Ter temple at Sholapur.

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In the fifth stage circular temples with shallow rectangular projections appeared,
like that of Maniyar Math, Rajgir.
The other important temples are:
1. Shiva Temple- Bhumra
2. Vishnu temple- Tighwa
3. Lakhamana temple- Sirpur
The Bhitargaon temple near Kanpur in U.P was entirely made of Bricks.
The Regional styles of Nagara School: till about 6th century the style of temple
architecture remained quite similar both in north as well as in the south. Later,
each began to evolve in its own direction.
In Northern India, certain regional variations and ramifications appeared in the
formal development of the style, though they did not alter its basic characteristics;
I (B) ORISSA: Of all the regional styles of the Nagara school ORISSA is the
most remarkable- rightly described as exhibiting the Nagara Style in “its greatest
purity”. It was under the Ganga dynasty, Somavamshi & Shilodbava dynasties
the style of architecture flourished. Essential Aspects-
1) the temples are built in square complex.
2) the Shikaras are known as REKHADEULS- vertical roofs which suddenly
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curve inwards sharply.

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3) the mandapa in this style is JAGMOHAN, NATYA MANDAP and

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BHOGAMANDAPAs. In front of it a NATA MANDAPA or Hall of Dance and

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Music and BHOGAMANDAPA or hall of offerings are found.

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4) the Exterior walls were lavishly decorated with intricate carvings, but interior
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walls were plain.

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5) like Dravidian Style temples are surrounded by boundary walls.

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The three main centers of the style are Bhuvaneshwar, Puri and Konark.
At Bhuvaneshwar- the Parashurameshwar temple built by Madhav Raja of
Shilodbava dynasty represents an advanced stage of the Gupta Style. The
Mukteshvar temple stands for a mature expression of the Nagara Style in Orissa,
regarded as Gem of Orissan architecture. It was built by Yayati 1. The Lingaraja
temple built around 1000 A.D, most marvelous temple marking the culmination
of architectural activities. It was built by Jajati Keshari.
In Rajarani temple Jagamohana and Vimana are admirably combined to express
perfection. It was called so because of Erotic carvings of couples and the type of
sand stones Red & Yellow used called Raja Rani.
The Brahmeshwar temple is panchayatana. Ananta Vasudev temple is the other
temple worth mentioning.

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The Jagannath temple at Puri is the other temple which comes close to the
grandeur and dignity of the Lingaraja temple started by Choda Gangadeva &
finished by Ananga Choda.
However, Sun temple at Konarka built by Narasimhadeva excels Lingaraja
temple in its conception and the perfection of its finish called “Black Pagoda” as
the first rays of the sun enter the garbagriha through the sea facing Pagoda. Grand
and impressive even its ruin, it represents fulfillment and finality of the Orian
architectural movement.
II) KHAJURAHO School: in central part of India. The Chendela rulers
developed a distinct style of temple architecture with Khajuraho and Mohotsav
Nagar as its main centres.
Its essential characteristic features-
1) temples built on high platforms and belong to both Hindu and Jain religious.
2) they were made of sandstone, generally faxing North and East.
3) Temples had three chambers- Garbagriha, Mandapa and Ardha-mandapa.
4) Unlike the Odisha school, both interior and exterior walls were lavishly
decorated with carvings.
5) Panchayatan Style was followed. Even the subsidiary shrines had Rekha-
Prasad Shikharas- creating an impression of Mountain range.
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6) The temples are adorned with the sculptures with the theme Erotic Art- or
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Kamakala.
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The Prominent temples are Kandariya Mahadeva, Devi Jagadamba, Baladevo,

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Parsavanatha, Lakshmana and Visvanatha temples. The Kandariya Mahadeva

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temple represents the perfection of architectural movement central India. Floral

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and human of sculptures add to its beauty considerably. It is the largest, tallest
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and most beautiful of all the temples at Khajuraho built by Raja Dhandadeva.
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III) Solanki School: It was during the times of the Solanki rulers of Gujrat and
Rajasthan that Nagara style in Western India took a precise form-
Unique feature of the style is presence of step-tank called Surya-Kund within the
temple complex. The steps of the tank are full of small temples with wooden
carvings.
Variety of materials were being used in building the temples including Sandstone,
black basalt and soft marble particularly white marble of Rajasthan has been put
to admirable use.
Most of the temples are East facing and built in such way that the sun rays fall
directly into the central shrine during equinoxes.
The Jain temples at Dilwara, Mount Abu particularly that of built by Bhima-I,
temples built by Vimala and Tejpala and the Rudramal temples built by

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Siddhiraja are classic expels of the style, particularly, the MODHERA sun
temple- Gujarat built by Bhima-I stands class apart.
VI) The Paramara School- Another variety of Nagara Style developed under
the patronage of parmaras with its main centers Malwa and Khandesh.
The unique aspect of the style is SIKHARA is Ornamented with four narrow
bands running from the base to the summit.
The finest is Neelakanteshvar temple at Udayapur M.P built by Udayaditya also
called as Udayesvara temple. The Ambaranath temple in Thane district
Maharashtra is another good example of the type.
II. Dravida Style: the nucleus of the Dravida temple is the storeyed form of the
Gupta temple and the rock cut rathas of Mahabalipuram. In this rathas one may
recognize the origin of the twin fundamental features of the Dravida style Vimana
and Gopuram.
The essential characteristics features are:
1) the temples built in square complex with high boundary walls.
2) the lofty entrance gate ways are GOPURAMS.
3) the spire in the form of a stepped pyramid that rises up linearly rather carved
called VIMANA.
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4) one unique aspect is the Upalayas of the subsidiary shrines do not have
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Vimanas, unlike in Nagara architecture. We see only one VIMANA.

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5) the other unique aspects being WATERTANKS, YAGNASALAS (meant for

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performing rituals) are part of the temples.

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6) the hall facing the presiding deity called Mukha Mantapa connected to
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Garbagriha by a narrow passage called Antarala.

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7) the entrance of Garbagriha had Dwarapalas and Yakhas.

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8) PANCHAYATAN tradition is also followed with temple for presiding deity

and four subsidiary shrines called UPALAYAS.
9) in subsequent stages of development, we also find MANTAPAS of different
types like RANGA MANTAPAS, KALYANA MANDAPAS, BHOGA
MANTAPAS and NATYA MANTAPS added.
II. (A) DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE UNDER PALLAVAS: the temples
developed under pallavas reflected the stylistic taste of the individual rulers and
the architecture developed under four stages-
1st Stage started with Mahendravarman. The Mahendravarman group of temples
are basically rock-cut. Example- Bairava Konda cave temple and Ananteshvara
temple at Undavalli cave temple both in A.P. These were known as Mandapas
unlike the Nagara style in which they are meant only to be assembly halls.

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2nd Stage called Narasimha Group Comprises monolithic temples or Rathas at
Mahabalipuram each of which hewn out of a single rock boulder. The rathas
popularly called seven pagodas are actually eight in number. They are
Dharmaraja, Bhima, Arjuna, Sahadeva, Draupadi, Ganesh, Pidari and
Valaiyankuttai of them, Dharmaraja the biggest and Draupadi smallest. The
Dharmaraja ratha must have provided the basis for Dravidian temple architecture.
3rd Rajasimha Group (Other name Narsimhavarman II)- with this the real
structural temples started in the place of rock-cut temples. The shore temple at
Mahabalipuram, Ishvara and Mukunda temples ad the Kailasanath temple at
Kanchi the shore temple dedicated to Martanda. Kailasanath temple at Kanchi
represents the most mature phase of this style.
4th Nandivarman Group of temples- most of them are very small, but are more
ornate resembles the Chola architecture. The classic example for the style is
magnificent Vaikuntaperumal temple built by Nandivarman at Kanchi.
The other temples of the same group are Muktesvara and Matangesvara temples
at Kanchi, Vadamalisvara at Orgadam (T.N) and the Parasurameshvar temple at
Gudimallam near Renigunta (A.P).
II (B) The Chola Architecture: The temple architecture, particularly Dravida
style reached the pinnacle of its glory under the Cholas. Large number of early
Chola temples built in Pudukkotai district gives us the idea of the growth of
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Dravida style from Pallavas to the Chola times. Most important among them is
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VIJAYALA CHOLESWARA temple at NARTHAMALAI. It was built by

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Satyan Palayalli, the subordinate ruler of Mutturaiars.

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The main feature of the Chola temple is VIMANA which was later eclipsed by
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the richly ornamented GOPURAM.

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Secondly, Chola temple had become the center of social and cultural life of South
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India particularly in rural areas. The village assembly invariably held its meetings
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in the temple Mandapa.

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The Brihadeesvara or Rajarajeswara temple at Tanjore built in 1009 A.D by

Rajaraja I marks the best example of the style. Apart from being the tallest (216
feet) of all the medieval temples, it is a master piece of the South Indian
architecture.
The temple of GANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM built by RAJENDRA I was
meant to excel Brihadeesvara temple in every conceivable way. It is larger in
plan, though not as tall as the previous one.
The AIRAVATESVARA temple at Darasuram in Tanjore distinct was built by
Rajya chola II and KAMPAHARESHVARA temple at Tribhuvanam built by
Kulottanga III represent the last stage of the grand Chola style.

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II (C) HOYASALA STYLE: it developed in Karnataka with its main centers
Belur, Halebid and Sringeri.
Its Characteristics features are:
1) the temple itself appears to be the work of a sculptor and not of builder, as
such called Sculptors architecture.
2) The ground plan star shaped or polygonal within which the entire temple
accommodated. The star shaped plan provided more wall space for sculptures
than a rectangular plan.
3) The temples were built on a raised platform called Jagati.
4) The wide, squat pillars is the most curious aspect of the style.
5) Great emphasis was laid on the decoration of the temple with sculptures and
intricately carved designs in both the interior and exterior walls. The temples
exhibit arraying display of sculptural exuberance.
6) Building material used was soft soap stone.
The most well-known examples of the style are KESAVA temple at Somnathpur,
CHENNA KESAVA and VIJAYANARAYANA temples at Belur and
HOYASALESVARA temple at Halebid all buily by Vishnu Vardhana.
II (D) NAYAKA STYLE: this style of architecture developed by the Nayakas
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of Madurai, Jinji Tanjore and Mysore.

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The utmost unique aspect of the style is the art of building GOPURAMS reached
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its highest stage in this style. The MEENAKSHI temple Madurai has the tallest
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GOPURAM in the world.

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Secondly, PRAKARAMS (Huge corridors) in the Portico around

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GARBHAGRIHA with roofed ambulatory passage ways.

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Apart from the grand Madurai Meenakshi temple built by King Kulasekara
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Pandya, the Chidambaram temple built by Rajendra chola and Rameshvaram

temples also come under the same style.
II (E) VIJAYANAGARA SCHOOL: the Vijayanagara empire (1336-1565)
with capital city Humpi became a major center for a distinct style called
VIJAYANAGARA.
Its unique aspects:
1) It was a mixed style, combining the regional styles of Chola, Hoyasala,
Kakatiya and Pandya. The towering GOPURAMS of Cholas, temples built on
elevated platforms as found under Hoyasala style. Extensive use of stone
pillars with beautifully carved designs like that of Kakatiyas and huge
Vimanas of Pandyas all found their way into this style.

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2) However, it did have its own unique features- Extensive construction
Mandapas- Kalyana mandapas, UJJALA MANDAPAS, NATYA
MANDAPAS and VASANTOSTAV MANDAPAS were built.
3) Along with the Mandapas, Amman Gudis, the temples were the consorts of
the God with in the main complex.
4) RAJA GOPURAMS or Kings Towers in memory of the visit of the emperors
built.
5) The temples pillars with most commonly found animal-horse.
6) The impact of Islamic architecture is also found.
The classic examples of the style Vittalswamy and Hazar Rama and Krishna
Swamy temples in Hampi built by Krishnadevara. With the first reached a high
point in florid magnificence. The TADAPATRI and PARVATHI temple at
Chidambaram, VARADARAJA and EKAMBARANATHA temples at
Kanchipuram are the other good examples.
PADMA MAHAL built by Krishnadevaraya at Humpi is a classic example for
Indo-Islamic architecture.
Part of the architecture Secular Constructions like BAZARS, Elephant stable
(Humpi) prisons and palaces were built. Krishnadevaraya built the town
NAGAPURAM (Hospet) in memory of his mother Nagamba.
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(III) VESARA STYLE: Also known as Deccan and Chalukyan style had its
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beginnings under Western Chalukyas with its main centers AIHOLE, BADAMI
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and PATTADAKAL.
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CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES:
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1) It is a mixed style of Nagara and Dravida styles. The influence of Nagara style
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is in curvilinear shikhara and square base of the temple. The influence of

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Dravida style is in design of Vimana and Intrinsic carvings and sculptures.

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2) Some of the temples were built in circular shape.

3) In the construction of temple huge stone slabs were aligned without any mortar
or cement in between.
4) Open ambulatory passage way, pillars and doorways decorated with intrinsic
carvings.
(a) The VESARA style under Chalukyas developed under two different stages:
the first stage represented by temples at AIHOLE and BADAMI.
In Aihole, LADH KHAN temple one of the oldest took its name after a pious
Muslim who stayed there. It was dedicated to Shiva.
(b) Durga temple was an experiment seeking to adopt the Buddhist Chaitya to a
Bramhanical temple.

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(c) The Jain temple of Meguti shows progress in the erection of structural temples,
but is unfinished. Built by Ravi Kirti, the temple has the famous AIHOLE
inscription which talks about the greatness of Pulakesin II. In Badami, the
MELAGITTI SIVALAYA is finely proportioned and magnificently located
temple.
The second stage is represented by temples at PATTADAKAL of the ten, four in
Nagara and six in the Dravida Style, a tendency to make the style mixed is found
here. A Jain temple is also found here-
a) The Papanath temple is the most notable. It reveals the attempts to combine
Nagara and Dravida styles. It was built by Vijayaditya. Satyasreya.
b) The VIRUPAKSHA temple built by Lokamahadevi one of the Queens of
Vikramaditya II is a direct imitation of Kailasanath temple, Kanchi, as such
it is more Dravidian in appearance.
The DODDABASAPPA temple at DAMBAL also comes under the same school.
It was built by Ajjayya Nayaka, actually called Ajjayeswara Temple built in 1124
AD.
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