1.

1 DC Power Supplies
Most of the electronic devices and circuits are operated by DC power supplies. It consist of main four
stages explained below.
Step down transformer: It is a device that has two coil windings: primary and secondary used to convert a
high AC voltage (230V/ 50Hz) to a required low AC voltage.
Rectifier: It is a device has one or more diodes, converts secondary AC voltage to pulsating DC.
Smoothening Filter: It is a circuit used to remove fluctuations (ripple or ac) present in rectifier output.
Example: Capacitor filters, LC filters, π- filters, etc..
Voltage Regulator: Voltage regulator is a circuit which provides constant DC output voltage irrespective of
changes in load current or changes in input voltage.

Fig.1. Block diagram of a DC power supply

Fig. 2, shows important electronic components that are used in the block diagram in fig. 1. Step-down
transformer is made of iron core, feeds a rectifier. Rectifier output is applied to a high value capacitor to
minimize ripples. Capacitor filter charges as the rectifier output voltage increases until its peak value. When the
voltage value reduces, it discharges gradually through the regulator. Finally, a series transistor regulator and
zener diode provides a constant output DC voltage.

Step-down Transformer Rectifier C Filter Voltage regulator

Fig.2. Block diagram of a DC power supply showing principal components used in each stage

1.1.1 Rectifiers

Semiconductor diodes are commonly used as rectifiers. It converts AC voltage into rippled DC
voltage. There are two types: Half-wave and full wave rectifiers.

Fig. 3 shows half-wave rectifier that allows one half of an AC waveform to pass through to the load.
AC voltage (240V r.m.s) is applied to the primary of step-down transformer (T1). The secondary of T1,
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reduces to 12V r.m.s. (Taking turns ratio: 240: 12 = 20:1). Diode D1 will allow current only in positive half
cycle being forward biased and operates as a closed switch, see fig. 3(b). For negative half cycle, current will
not allow passing through D1, because it is reverse biased and act like an open switch, see fig. 3(c).

Fig.3. (a) Half wave rectifier circuit (b) For + ve half cycle (closed switch) (c) For - ve half cycle (open switch)

The switching action of D1 results in pulsating output voltage available at load resistor (RL). During positive
half cycle, silicon diode will drop 0.6V to 0.7V as forward threshold voltage. During negative half cycle, D1
is reverse biased, hence secondary of T1 peak voltage will be dropped across it.

Analysis During +ve half cycle:

Secondary of T1 = 12V r.m.s voltage
Peak voltage across secondary windings:
Vpeak = 1.414 x Vrms
= 1.414 x 12 = 16.968V ~ 17V
Silicon diode drop voltage = 0.7V
Actual output voltage across load RL
= 17- 0.7 =16.3V
Fig.4 Illustration of actual output voltage across load RL

1.1.3 Smoothing (Reservoir) circuits

Smoothening circuit is a capacitor filter C1 connected in parallel to the load R L as shown in the fig.5.
It is used to remove fluctuations (ripple or ac) present in rectifier output. When 240V AC voltage is applied to
primary of T1, its secondary reduces to 12V r.m.s value and peak value is 16.3V.

During +ve half cycle of secondary voltage, diode is Vpeak = 16.3V

forward biased, C1 charges as the rectifier output
voltage increases to its peak value (16.3V).

When the rectifier voltage starts to decrease, C1

discharges slowly through the load R L, until the next
+ve half cycle is met.

Charging Discharging

Output voltage across RL

Fig. 5. a) Half wave smoothing circuit b) Input and output wave forms

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Charging Time of C1 to the peak value = Rseries x C1 Discharging Time of C1 = RL x C1
Rseries = Rsecondary winding + Rdiode + Rwiring and connections Practically, RL is very much larger than Rseries
Hence C1 charges quickly as soon as diode conducts. Hence C1 discharges slowly through R L.

Capacitor as reservoir: C1 stores charge during +ve half cycle of secondary Vpeak and releases it during –ve
half cycle, maintaining reasonably constant output voltage across R L. This causes to a small DC ripples at the
output. The DC ripples can be drastically reduced by choosing a larger C1 value in place of smaller value.
Improved ripple filters
In filers the value of the capacitor plays an important role in determining the output ripples and the average
DC level. If the capacitor value is high, the amount of charge it can store will be high and the amount it
discharges will be less. Thus the ripples will be less and the average dc level will be high.
Limitations of C filter
If the capacitor value is increased to a very high value, the amount of current required to charge the capacitor
will be high. So, diodes are subjected to high surge currents. Thus, there is a limit in increasing the capacitor
value in half-wave rectifiers.
Refinement of C filter (RC filter)
Additional components R1 and C2 are
connected as shown in the fig.6. C1 and C2
offer low reactance to AC components of
ripple. In effect R1 and C2 act like a voltage
divider and amount of ripple is reduced. But
certain amount of DC voltage will drop
across R1. The value of C2 isselected in
such way that it exhibits negligible reactance
at low frequencies Fig.6. Half wave rectifier with R1 and C2
(50Hz – 100Hz).
Amount of ripple reduction is determined by

Where, XC = reactance of C2.

L-C Smoothing Filter

From the fig.7, at the ripple frequency, C1
exhibits low value of capacitive reactance.
Hence it bypasses most of AC components
of ripples. L1 exhibits high value of
inductive reactance, therefore it allows
most of DC components. Further, C1
bypasses remaining AC components
offering low value of capacitive reactance.
Thus the combined effect of L C greatly Fig.7. Half wave rectifier with R1 and LC filter
reduces the ripples.
Advantage: Half wave rectifier is cheap, simple and easy to construct.
Disadvantage:
1. Ripple factor is high at the output.
2. Rectification efficiency is quite low, that means, power is delivered only during one half cycle of
the input alternating voltage.
3. Transformer utilization factor is low.

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1.1.4 Full-wave rectifiers

Full-wave rectifier – there are two types:

 Bi-Phase or Center Tapped full wave rectifier - uses two diodes and center tapped power transformer.
 Bridge full wave rectifier - uses four diodes and ordinary power transformer.

Bi-phase Rectifier
The AC mains (240V) is applied to the primary of T1 which has two identical secondary windings each
providing 12V r.m.s, as shown in the fig.8.

Fig.8. Bi-phase rectifier circuit

On +ve half cycles, point A will be +ve with respect to On -ve half cycles, point C will be +ve with respect to
point B. similarly, point B will be +ve with respect to point B. similarly, point B will be +ve with respect to
point C. point A.
D1 will forward bias, acts like a closed switch hence D2 will forward bias, acts like a closed switch hence
conducts. While D2 will reverse bias, acts like an open conducts. While, D1 will reverse bias, acts like an open
switch hence do not conduct. It is as shown in the fig. switch hence do not conduct. It is as shown in the fig.
9(a). 9(b).
Thus, D1 alone conducts on +ve half cycles. Thus, D2 alone conducts on -ve half cycles.

Fig.9. a) Bi-phase rectifier circuit for +ve half cycles b) Bi-phase rectifier circuit for -ve half cycles

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NOTE: i) Vpeak produced by each of secondary windings = 17V – 0.7V = 16.3V
ii) Pulses of voltage developed across R L = 100Hz (if primary is 50Hz)

Bi-phase rectifier with C filter

Two diodes D1 and D2 are used in this circuit. They feed a common load resistor R L, with the help of a center
tapped transformer as shown in the fig.10.

Fig.10. a) Bi-phase rectifier with C1 filter b) Input output wave forms

When diode D1 conduct, C1 charges to the peak value (16.3V) of the +ve half cycle. When diode D2 is in non-
conducting state, C1 discharges slowly through the load R L. Similarly, when diode D2 conduct, C1 charges to
the peak value of the -ve half cycle and C1 starts to discharge during diode D1 non-conducting state. Note that
in this case capacitor C1 charge and discharge twice through R L during one full cycle.
Charging Time of C1 to the peak value = Rseries x C1 Discharging Time of C1 = RL x C1
Rseries = Rsecondary winding + Rdiode + Rwiring and connections Practically, RL is very much larger than Rseries
Hence C1 charges quickly as soon as diode conducts. Hence C1 discharges slowly through R L.
Disadvantages of Bi-phase Rectifier:
 It is difficult to construct and locate the center-tap on secondary winding of the transformer.
 The diodes used must have high PIV.

Bridge Rectifier Circuits

Bridge full wave rectifier employs four diodes, but only two diodes will conduct during each half cycle.
The AC mains (240V) is applied to the primary of T1 and
secondary windings providing 12V r.m.s, as shown in the
fig.11.

Fig.11. a) Bridge rectifier b) Input output wave forms

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During positive half cycle:
Point A will be +ve with respect to point B, then diodes D1D2 are forward biased act like closed switches, and
hence conduct. While, diodes D3D4 are reverse biased act like open switches, hence do not conduct.
During negative half cycle:
Point B will be +ve with respect to point A, then diodes D 3D4 are forward biased act like closed switches, and
hence conduct. While, diodes D1D2 are reverse biased act like open switches, hence do not conduct.
In both +ve and –ve half cycles current IL flow through load resistance R L. The complete input-output voltage
waveforms of the bridge full wave rectifier are shown in fig. 11(b).
Bridge rectifier with capacitor filter works very similar to that of bi-phase rectifier circuit.

1.1.5 Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulator is a device by which output voltage VO, is maintained constant regardless of change in the
input voltage Vin or load RL. The circuit diagram of the zener diode as a simple voltage regulator is shown in the
fig.12.

Fig.12. a) Simple block diagram of voltage regulator b) Zener diode shunt voltage regulator

The series resistor, RS is connected in the circuit to limit the current through the zener diode to a safe value when
load RL is disconnected. Also, the voltage drop across it is a part of unregulated input voltage, Vin. WhenRL is
connected, zener current IZ will reduce as current (I = Iz + IL) is split into load RL.
Output voltage VO, remains constant until regulation fails. Regulation fails at a point at which potential
divider formed by RS and RL produces lower voltage than VZ voltage.

Series Resistor value (ohms) = (Vi – Vz) / (Zener current + load current). Maximum value of RS can be
calculated as,
and

Also,

The zener diode conducts the least current (Iz (min)) when the load current IL is maximum and it conducts the
maximum current when the load current is minimum, I = Iz + IL.

The power dissipation of Zener diode is described as:

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1.1.6 Output resistance and voltage regulation
In a perfect power supply output voltage (VO), remain constant regardless of the current taken by the
load. However practically, VO reduces as load current increases. This is due to internal resistance (ri) of the
power supply. That means, this internal resistance appears at the output of the power supply. It is defined as

The regulation of a power supply is given by

Ideally, the value of the regulation should be very small. Various regulators produce value of regulation as
tabulated below:
Sl.No Type of regulator Regulation in %
1 Zener shunt 5 to 10
2 Sophisticated circuits based on
discrete components 1 to 5
3 Integrated Circuit (IC) Lesser than 1%

1.1.7 Voltage multipliers

Voltage multiplier is a modified capacitor filter circuit that delivers a dc voltage twice or rnore times of the
peak value of the input AC voltage. Such power supplies are used for high-voltage and low-current devices such as
cathode-ray tubes (the picture tubes in TV receivers, oscilloscopes and computer display).

Voltage Doubler
The circuit diagram for a full-wave voltage doubler is given in the fig.13. Assume in the beginning all capacitors
are cleared (stored 0V).
During the +ve half cycle of VIN voltage, diode D1 gets forward biased (conducts) and charging the capacitor C1 to
a peak voltage Vpeak with polarity indicated in the figure, while diode D2 is reverse-biased and does not conduct.
During the -ve half-cycle, diode D2 being forward biased (conducts) and charges the capacitor C2 with polarity shown
in the figure, while diode D1 does not conduct.

Fig.13. Voltage Doubler circuit

With no load connected to the output terminals, the output voltage will be equal to sum of voltages across
capacitors C1 and C2. i.e., VC1 + VC2 = 2 VIN
When the load is connected to the output terminals, the output voltage V L will be less than 2 VIN.
Vout = 2VIN – voltages drop across diodes

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 Voltage Tripler
The voltage doubler can be extended to produce 3 times voltages (Tripler) using the cascade
arrangement shown in Fig. 14. Here C1 charges to the positive secondary voltage V IN, while C2 and C3
charge to twice the positive secondary voltage. The result is that the output voltage is the sum of the voltages
across C1 and C3 which is three times the voltage that would be produced by a single diode.

Fig.14. Voltage Tripler circuit

Assume in the beginning all capacitors are cleared (stored 0V).

During the first positive half cycle, diode D1 conducts (forward biased) and capacitor C1 gets charged the V IN
of secondary.
During the negative half cycle, diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased. D1 does not let
discharge the capacitor C1, so voltage across C1 = V IN. The capacitor C2 gets charged with the combined
voltage of C1 (VIN) and negative peak voltage of secondary voltage, so, C2 gets charged to 2V IN.

During the second positive half cycle, diode D1 and D3 conduct and D2 get reverse biased. So, the capacitor
C2 charges the capacitor C3 up to 2VIN. Now, as we can see that the capacitors C1 and C3 are in series so the
total voltage across these capacitors is VIN + 2VIN = 3VIN. This is how the tripled value of the applied voltage
available at the output. Practically, some of the voltage drops across the diodes.

Vout = 3VIN – voltages drop across diodes

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1.2 Amplifiers
1.2.1 Types of amplifiers
Amplifier is an electronic circuit which increases the amplitude of its input signal without changing other
parameters.
AC coupled amplifiers
In AC coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that DC levels are blocked and only the
AC components of a signal are transferred from stage to stage.

DC coupled amplifiers
In DC (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that stages are not isolated to
DC potentials. Both AC and DC signal components are transferred from stage to stage.

Large-signal amplifiers
Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage and/or current levels (typically from 1 V
to 100 V or more).

Small-signal amplifiers
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals (normally less than 1 V and often much
smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be specially designed to combat the effects of noise.

Audio frequency amplifiers

Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated with audio signals
(e.g. the range of human hearing 20 Hz to 20 kHz).

Wideband amplifiers
Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies, typically from a few tens of
hertz to several megahertz.

Radio frequency amplifiers

Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated with radio signals
(e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz). Note that it is desirable for amplifiers of this type to be frequency selective
and thus their frequency response may be restricted to a relatively narrow band of frequencies (see fig.15).

Fig.15. Frequency response and bandwidth (output power plotted against frequency)

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Low-noise amplifiers
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute negligible noise (signal disturbance) to the signal
being amplified. These amplifiers are usually designed for use with very small signal levels (usually less than
10 mV or so).
Voltage Amplifier Current amplifier Power amplifier
The purpose of a voltage amplifier The purpose of a current amplifier In a power amplifier, the product
is to make the amplitude of the is to make the amplitude of the of voltage and current (i.e. power
output voltage waveform greater output current waveform greater = voltage x current) at the output is
than that of the input voltage than that of the input current greater than the product of voltage
waveform. waveform. x current at the input.

1.2.2 Amplifier Parameters

Gain: The amount of amplification (or gain) is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, output
current to input current, or output power to input power (see Fig. 7.2). These three ratios give, respectively,
the voltage gain, current gain and power gain.

Power is the product of current and voltage (P = I V ),

Input resistance (Rin): Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed in Ω.
The input of an amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any reactive component is negligible) in the middle
of its working frequency range (i.e. the mid-band). In some cases, the reactance of the input may become
appreciable (e.g. if a large value of stray capacitance appears in parallel with the input resistance). In such cases
we would refer to input impedance rather than input resistance.

Output resistance (Rout): Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output
current, measured in Ω.
As with input resistance, the output of an amplifier is
normally purely resistive and we can safely ignore any
reactive component. If this is not the case, we would
once again need to refer to output impedance rather
than output resistance.
[Note: This resistance is internal to the amplifier and
should not be confused with the resistance of a load
connected externally]

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Frequency response: It is the graph plotted for gain verses input frequency of an amplifier. The frequency
response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the upper (f 2) and lower (f1) cut-off frequencies of the
amplifier. These frequencies are those at which the output power has dropped to 50% (otherwise known as the
−3 dB points) or where the voltage gain has dropped to 70.7% of its mid-band value. Fig. 16 show how the
bandwidth can be expressed in terms of either power or voltage.

Fig.16. Frequency response and bandwidth a) output power Vs frequency b) output voltage Vs frequency

Bandwidth: The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually taken as the difference between the upper and lower cut-
off frequencies (i.e. f2 − f1 in Fig.16). The range of frequencies within a band is known as bandwidth .

Example: Audio amplifiers have a flat frequency response (as shown in fig.17) over the audio range of
frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This range of frequencies, for an audio amplifier is called its Bandwidth,
(BW).
The bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to accommodate the range of frequencies present within the
signals that it is to be presented with.

Fig.17. Mid-band voltage gain, upper and lower cut-off frequencies of amplifier with frequency response

Phase shift: Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and output signal voltages measured in degrees.
The measurement is usually carried out in the mid-band where, for most amplifiers, the phase shift remains
relatively constant. Note also that conventional single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase shifts of either
180° or 360°.
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1.2.3 Negative feedback

Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback in order to precisely control the gain, reduce distortion and
improve bandwidth. The gain can be reduced to a manageable value by feeding back a small proportion of the
output. The amount of feedback determines the overall (or closed-loop) gain. The form of feedback has the
effect of reducing the overall gain of the circuit, is known as negative feedback.

An alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input (rather
than to subtract from it) is known as positive feedback.

A= Vo/Vin
Vo=A Vin, where Vin=VS –Vf
and Vf = βVo
Vo = A(Vs – βVo)
Vo =AVs – A βVo
Vo + A βVo =AVs
AVs =Vo (1+Aβ)
So, the equation of overall gain with
negative feedback is given by

Fig.18. Amplifier with negative feedback applied

Fig.18 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with negative feedback applied. In this circuit, the
proportion of the output voltage fed back to the input is given by β and the overall voltage gain will be given
by:

1.2.4 Multi-stage amplifiers

Output of first stage is connected to the input of the second stage through a suitable couplingdevice
and so on. In order to provide sufficiently large values of gain, it is frequently necessary to use a number of
interconnected stages within an amplifier.

The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage amplifier) is simply the product of the
individual voltage gains. Hence:
AV = AV1 × AV2 × AV3, etc.

Note, however, that the bandwidth of a multistage amplifier will be less than the bandwidth of each individual
stage. In other words, an increase in gain can only be achieved at the expense of a reduction in bandwidth.

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