SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Transition to semiconductor electronics

Origins in the 1930s: Recognition that semiconductors and their junctions could
control the flow and number of charge carriers.
Advantages of Semiconductors:
Charge Carriers: Provided internally, unlike vacuum tubes that require an external
source (heated cathode).
No Need for Vacuum/Heating: Semiconductors operate without external heating
or large evacuated spaces.
Compact and Efficient: Small size, low power consumption, low voltage operation.
Durability and Reliability: Long life and high reliability.
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Classification of materials based on conductivity
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Energy band theory of solids
Energy band theory provides a way to understand the behaviour of electrons in solids. It's a
fundamental concept in solid-state physics, particularly in understanding the differences
between conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.
Energy Bands: In solids, the energy levels of electrons form bands instead of individual levels
as in isolated atoms. This is due to the interaction of outer orbits of neighbouring atoms in a
solid.
Valence Band: The energy band containing the valence electrons (electrons in the outermost
shell of an atom). It's highest filled band at absolute zero temperature.
Conduction Band: The energy band above the valence band. Normally, it's empty but can
accommodate electrons under certain conditions.
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Energy band theory of solids
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Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Definition: An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure
semiconductor without any significant impurities. It is made of
a single type of element or compound.
Properties:
The electrical conductivity is solely due to the movement
of electrons and holes created by thermal excitation.
At absolute zero, it behaves like an insulator. As
temperature increases, its conductivity increases.
Silicon and germanium are common examples, typically
used in their pure form.
The number of electrons (negative charge carriers) is equal
to the number of holes (positive charge carriers).
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Extrinsic Semiconductors:
Definition: Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors
that have been intentionally doped with impurities to
modify their electrical properties.

N-type Semiconductor: Formed by doping the semiconductor

material with an element that has more valence electrons than
the semiconductor (e.g., doping Silicon with Phosphorus). This
provides extra electrons as charge carriers, hence the name 'N-
type' for negative.
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P-type Semiconductor: Created by doping the
semiconductor with an element having fewer valence
electrons (e.g., doping Silicon with Boron). This results
in more holes than electrons, hence the name 'P-type'
for positive.
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P-N Junction
It is a single crystal of Ge or Si doped in such a manner that one half portion of it acts as
p-type semiconductor and other half as n type semiconductor.
Electron hole recombination
Depletion layer
The small region in the vicinity of the junction
which is depleted of free charge carriers and has
only immobile ions is called the depletion layer.
Barrier potential & barrier field
Barrier potential in a PN junction is the electric potential that forms at the
junction between P-type and N-type semiconductors, preventing the free
movement of electrons and holes across the junction, while the barrier field
refers to the electric field created within the depletion region of the
junction, which acts to oppose the flow of charge carriers, maintaining the
potential barrier
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Biasing of P-N Junction Forward biasing

In this setup, the p-side of the diode is connected to the

positive terminal of the battery, and the n-side to the
negative terminal.
width of depletion region decreases.
current and conductivity increases.
dynamic resistance decreases.
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Reverse biasing
In this setup, the n-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery,
and the p-side to the negative terminal.
width of depletion region increases.
current and conductivity decreases.
dynamic resistance increases.
Dynamic resistance
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Half wave rectifier

A half-wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that converts

alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). It's
one of the simplest forms of rectifier circuits.
The main component of this rectifier is a diode, a
semiconductor device that allows current to flow in
only one direction.
Construction:
The basic components of a half-wave rectifier are:
AC Input Source: Provides the alternating current
that needs to be rectified.
Diode: Acts as the rectifying element. When
forward-biased, it allows current to pass through;
when reverse-biased, it blocks the current.
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Half wave rectifier
Load Resistor (R): Connected across the output, it represents the load where the rectified DC is required.
Output: The output is taken across the load resistor, where the rectified DC is obtained.
Working:
Positive Half-Cycle:
When the AC supply is in its positive half-cycle, the diode becomes forward-biased. This means
it allows the current to pass through it.
The current then flows through the load resistor, RL, and a voltage is developed across it.
During this phase, the diode conducts and the circuit completes through the load resistor,
resulting in a positive voltage across the output.
Negative Half-Cycle:
During the negative half-cycle of the AC supply, the diode becomes reverse-biased.
In this state, the diode does not conduct electricity as it blocks the current flow.
As a result, no current flows through the load resistor, and the voltage across the output is zero.
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Input - Output waveform

Full wave rectifier

A full-wave rectifier is a device that converts the entire cycle of alternating current
(AC) into pulsating direct current (DC). Unlike the half-wave rectifier which only uses
one half of the AC cycle, the full-wave rectifier utilizes both the positive and negative
halves of the AC waveform, making it more efficient.
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Construction:
AC Input Source: Provides the alternating current.
Transformer: Steps up or down the input voltage and provides two equal voltages out of phase with each
other.
Diodes: Two diodes are used, each connected to one end of the transformer’s secondary winding.
Load Resistor (RL): Connected across the output.
Working:
The ac input voltage across secondary S1 and S2 changes polarity after each half cycle.
Suppose during the first half cycle of input ac signal, the terminal S1 is positive relative to centre tap O and S2
negative relative to O.
Then diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. Therefore, diode D1 conducts whole diode D2
does not. The direction of current (i1) due to diode D1 in load resistance RL is directed from A to B.
In next half cycle, the terminal S1 is negative and S2 is positive relative to centre tap O. The diode D1 is
reverse biased and diode D2 is forward biased. Therefore, diode D2 conducts while D1 does not. The direction
of current (i2) due to diode D2 in load resistance RL is still from A to B.
Thus, the current in load resistance RL is in same direction for both half cycles of input ac voltage.
Thus for input ac signal the output current is a continuous series of unidirectional pulses.
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Input - Output waveform Filter circuit
Series inductor filter

Shunt capacitor filter

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Advantages over Half-Wave Rectifier:
Efficiency: Full-wave rectifiers are more efficient as they utilize both halves
of the AC cycle.
Output Voltage: The output voltage is higher and more stable in full-wave
rectifiers.
Ripple Factor: Full-wave rectifiers have a lower ripple factor, implying
smoother DC output.
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): Better in full-wave rectifiers, leading
to more effective use of the transformer.
Reduced Harmonics: The full-wave rectifier design reduces harmonic
distortion in the output.