PHY 1201: 3(2-1) – Introduction to Classical Mechanics

1.1 Course Description

The course introduces students to important concepts in physics like momentum, force, energy,
Newton’s laws of motion and the law of gravitation, simple harmonic motion, motion of a charged
particle in electromagnetic fields, introduction to special relatively, and elements of astronomy.

1.2 Course Objectives

By the end of the course, the teacher trainee should be able to:
a) describe the geometry of the space.
b) solve equations arising from physical and geometrical problems
c) explain conservation laws in relation to mechanical energy and momentum.
d) explain the limitations of Newton’s laws of Motion.
e) describe the harmonic oscillator and its applications.
f) explain the time dilation and length contraction in relation to special relativity.
g) perform experiments linking the theory to practical concepts

1.3 Learning outcomes

Upon successful completion of the course, the teacher trainee should be able to:
a) describe the geometry of space
b) explain and use conservation laws
c) describe various examples of harmonic oscillators and their practical applications
d) Experiment with Newton’s laws of motion, motion in resistive media, and harmonic
oscillators.

1.4 Course Outline

S/No. Content CH
1 Introduction 04
Review of vector analysis
Overview of vector analysis; the dot, cross, and triple product
Differential operators; grad, div, and curl
Laplacian and vector identities
2 Invariance 03
Review of Newton’s laws of motion
Inertial frames of reference, Galilean transformation
The geometry of space. Assumptions of classical mechanics.
3 Conservation Laws 04
Conservation of Linear and Angular momentum
Conservation of energy; conservative forces and the potential energy function.
4 Motion in resistive media 03
Experiments: free fall; motion in resistive media; motion down an incline.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 1

 5 Systems with variable masses: examples of rockets and satellites. 02
6 Continuation of motion in resistive media 02
7 Charged particles in electromagnetic fields: 03
Motion of a charged particle in uniform and constant Electric fields, including
non-uniform field.
8 Continuation of motion of charged particle in electromagnetic field. 04
Motion in uniform and constant magnetic field; examples in Cyclotron and mass
spectrometer.
Including motion in a combined field
9 Types of oscillation; free (simple harmonic oscillation), damped and forced 05
oscillations and examples; simple pendulum, mass attached in spring, inductive-
capacitive circuits, molecular vibrations.
10 Continuation of SHM 04
Equation of exponential decay, equation of damped harmonic oscillator,
equation of forced oscillation in RCL circuit, equation of coupled oscillation.
Dissipation power and the Q-factor.
11 SHM experiments. 03
12 An introduction to special relativity: 05
Conflict between ultimate speed and Newton’s laws, classical momentum and
energy conservation conflict, conservation of mass, the postulates.
Loss of simultaneity, time dilation, the twin paradox, length contraction.
Relativistic mass, energy and momentum
13 Practical lessons
Total CH 45

1.5 Mode of Delivery

Blended learning, Lectures, fieldwork, assignments, tutorials, Peer discussions practicals/project
work.

1.6 Assessment
At least two take home assignments and two tests which constitute 20% of the total mark, at least
two practicals which constitute 20% of the final mark., final examinations which constitute 60%
of the total mark

Reading List
1. Basic Principles of Mechanics by J O Ilukor (Makerere University Press)
2. Classical Mechanics by Y Kaahwa, Lecturer Notes Department of Distance Education
(Makerere University Press)
3. Introduction to Mechanics - Berkely Physics Course

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 Chapter 1: Overview of Vector Analysis
1.1 Overview
In Physics and Mathematics, we have quantities known as physical quantities, that are measurable. These
quantities are broadly classified into two categories; scalar and vector quantities.

A scalar quantity is a physical quantity characterized by only magnitude or numerical value. It does not
have directions. In other terms, a scalar is a measure of quantity. For example, if I say that the height of a
tower is 15 meters, then the height of the tower is a scalar quantity as it needs only the magnitude of height
to define itself.

• Examples of scalar quantities include temperature, volume, density, pressure, mass, speed,
distance, time, energy, distance, work, etc.

On the other hand, a vector quantity is a physical quantity characterized by both magnitude and direction.
For example, a boy is riding a bike with a velocity of 30 km/hr in a north-east direction. Then, as we see
for defining the velocity, we need two things, i.e. the magnitude of the velocity and its direction. Therefore,
it represents a vector quantity.

• Examples include; displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, weight, a gravitational

field, current, and so on.

1.1.1 Vector representation

A vector is represented by a line with an arrowhead. For instance, a vector 𝑎⃗ is represented by a directed
line PQ.

Figure 1.1: Vector representation

1.1.2 Unit vector
This is a vector whose magnitude is 1. If any vector 𝑎⃗ is divided by its magnitude, the result is a unit
vector 𝑎̂ having the same direction as 𝑎⃗.
𝑎⃗⃗
i.e. 𝑎̂ = |𝑎⃗⃗|
1.1.3 Three rectangular unit Vectors

Figure 1.2: Illustration of three rectangular unit vectors

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The three rectangular unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ are as indicated above. 𝑖̂ denotes the direction of x-axis, 𝑗̂
denotes the direction of y-axis and 𝑘̂ denotes the direction of z-axis. These three-unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ are
collectively known as “orthogonal triad of unit vectors” or “base vectors”.

1.1.4 Position Vectors

Position vectors are vectors used to locate the position of a particle moving in a plane (two dimensions) or
space (three dimensions). Suppose at any instant of time, the particle is at point P.

Figure 1.3: Position vectors

→
Then 𝑂𝑃 is the position vector which gives the position of the particle with reference to point O in the plane
→
of motion. The position vector 𝑂𝑃 is given by;
𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂ (2-dimensions) and 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘̂ (3-dimensions).

The magnitude of the position vector gives the distance of the particle from some arbitrarily chosen origin.
In addition, the direction of the position vector gives the direction ϴ in which P lies as viewed from O.

|𝑟⃗(𝑡)| = √𝑥(𝑡)2 + 𝑦(𝑡)2 (2-dimensions) and |𝑟⃗(𝑡)| = √𝑥(𝑡)2 + 𝑦(𝑡)2 + 𝑧(𝑡)2 (3-dimensions)

Worked Example:
1. The points A and B have position vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ relative to an origin O. Find the position vector 𝑥⃗
of the point X that divides the line AB in the ratio 𝜆: 𝜇.

Solution

It follows from the above figure that;

→ 𝜆 →
𝑥⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑎⃗ + ( ) 𝐴𝐵
𝜆+𝜇
𝜆 𝜇𝑎⃗ + 𝜆𝑏⃗⃗
⇒ 𝑥⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + ( ) (𝑏⃗⃗ − 𝑎⃗) =
𝜆+𝜇 𝜆+𝜇

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1.1.5 Displacement vector
Suppose a particle is at P at time t and moves to Q at time 𝑡 ′ . The position vectors of P and Q with reference
→
to the origin O are 𝑟⃗1 and 𝑟⃗2 respectively. The vector 𝑃𝑄 (= 𝛥𝑟⃗) is the displacement vector corresponding
to the motion from t to 𝑡 ′ .

𝛥𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1

NB: Displacement vector is merely the difference of two position vectors. Also, the displacement vector is
independent of the choice of origin O. While the position vector gives the position of a point with reference
to the origin O, the displacement vector gives the position with reference to a point other than the origin.

Figure 1.4: Displacement vector

1.2 Vector multiplications

1.2.1 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
When a vector is multiplied by a scalar quantity, then the magnitude of the vector changes in accordance
with the magnitude of the scalar but the direction of the vector remains unchanged.

In other words, multiplying a vector by a scalar gives a vector in the same direction as the original but of a
proportional magnitude.

Suppose we have a vector 𝑎⃗, then if this vector is multiplied by a scalar quantity k we get a new vector with
magnitude |𝑘𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| and the direction remains the same as the vector 𝑎⃗ if k is positive and if k is negative then
the direction of k becomes just the opposite of the direction of the vector 𝑎⃗.

Example: A vector is represented in an orthogonal system as 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ . What would be the resultant
vector if 𝑎⃗ is multiplied by 5?

Solution: As the vector is to be multiplied by a scalar the resultant would be, 5𝑎⃗ = 5(3𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) = 15𝑖̂ +
5𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂

1.2.2 Multiplication of a vector by a vector

A vector can be multiplied by another vector in two ways, namely: dot/scalar product and cross/vector
product.

1.2.2.1 Dot (scalar) product

The dot product of two vectors is also referred to as the scalar product, as the resultant value is a scalar
quantity. Let 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ be the unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions respectively. If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂
and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂ , then their dot (scalar) product is defined as;

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 5

 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = (𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂ ) ⋅ (𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂)
⇒ 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.

Proof:

- Use cosine law

Laws of algebra for the dot (scalar) product

(i) 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ (cummulative law)

(ii) 𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗ ) = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗ (distributive law)
(iii) (𝜆𝑎⃗) ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝜆(𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗) (associative with scalar multiplication)

Properties of the dot (scalar) product

(i) 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = |𝑎⃗|2
(ii) The scalar product 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = 0 if and only if 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are perpendicular or one of them is zero.
(iii) If {𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂} is an orthonormal basis (i.e., they are all unit vectors) then;
𝑖̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 1, 𝑖̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ ⋅ 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂ = 0
Worked Example:
1. If 𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 4𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂ , find the magnitude of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗,and the angle between them.

Solution
From |𝑎⃗|2 = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = (2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ ) ⋅ (2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ ) = 22 + (−1)2 + 22 = 9. Hence, |𝑎⃗| = 3. Similarly,
2
|𝑏⃗⃗| = 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = (4𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂ ) ⋅ (4𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂ ) = 42 + 02 + (−3)2 = 25. So, |𝑏⃗⃗| = 5.

Also, 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = (2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ ) ⋅ (4𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂ ) = 8 + 0 + (−6) = 2. From 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, it follows that
2
2 = 3 × 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 such that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = . Therefore the magnitudes of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗are 3 and 5, and the angle
15
between them is ≈ 82. 30 .

1.2.2.2 Cross (vector) product

The cross product is called the vector product as the result is a vector, which is perpendicular to these two
vectors. If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂, the cross (vector) product, 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ is a vector with
a magnitude |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and a direction perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗in a right-handed sense.

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | = (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝑖̂ + (𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 )𝑗̂ + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝑘̂
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Laws of algebra for the vector product

(i) 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = −𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑎⃗ (anti-cummulative law)

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 (ii) 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗ ) = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ × 𝑐⃗ (distributive law)
(iii) ⃗⃗
(𝜆𝑎⃗) × 𝑏 = 𝜆(𝑎⃗ × 𝑏) ⃗⃗ (associative with scalar multiplication)

Since the vector product is anti-commutative, the order of the terms in vector products must be preserved.

Properties of the vector product

(i) 𝑎⃗ × 𝑎⃗ = 0
(ii) The vector product 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = 0 if and only if 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are parallel or one of them is zero.
(iii) If {𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂} is a standard basis (i.e., they are all unit vectors) then;
𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0, 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ , 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂ and 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂.

Worked Example:
1. If 𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = −𝑖̂ − 3𝑘̂ ,find a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.

Solution
The vector 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗. Now,

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = | 2 −1 2 | = (3 − 0)𝑖̂ − ((−6) − (−2))𝑗̂ + (0 − 1)𝑘̂
−1 0 −3
⇒ 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ .
1 1
The magnitude of this vector is (32 + 42 + (−1)2 )2 = (26)2 . therefore, the required unit vector can be
̂)
(3𝑖̂+4𝑗̂ −𝑘
either of ± 1 .
(26)2

1.2.3 The triple products

Triple products are not new operations but are simply one product followed by another. There are two kinds
of triple products whose values are scalar and vector respectively.

(a) Scalar triple product

An expression of the form [𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗] = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = 𝑐⃗ ⋅ (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑏⃗⃗ ⋅ (𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗) is called a triple scalar
product; its value is a scalar.

[𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗] = 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗. 𝑐⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗. 𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⇒ [𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗] = (𝑎⃗1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎⃗2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂ ) ⋅ |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

∴ 𝑎⃗. 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗. 𝑐⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗. 𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗ = [𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) + 𝑎2 (𝑏3 𝑐1 − 𝑏1 𝑐3 ) + 𝑎3 (𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )]


⇒ Cyclic permutation of the vectors a , 𝑏⃗⃗and 𝑐⃗in a triple scalar product leaves its value unchanged
(interchanging the positions of the ‘dot’ and the ‘cross’ in a triple scalar product leaves its value unchanged).
It’s because of this symmetry that the triple scalar product can be denoted unambiguously by [𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗].

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(b) Vector triple product
An expression of the form 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) is called a triple vector product; its value is a vector.

𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = (𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑐⃗)𝑏⃗⃗ − (𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗)𝑐⃗

Exercise
1. In terms of the standard basis set {𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ }, 𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ , 𝑏⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑘̂ , and 𝑐⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 5𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ .
2
(i) Find 3𝑎⃗ + 2𝑏⃗⃗ − 4𝑐⃗ and |𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗| .
(ii) Find |𝑎⃗|, |𝑏⃗⃗|, and 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗. Deduce the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.
(iii) Find the component of 𝑐⃗ in the direction of 𝑎⃗ and in the direction of 𝑏⃗⃗.
(iv) Find 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗, and (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗).
(v) Find 𝑎⃗ ∙ (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) and (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) ∙ 𝑐⃗ and verify that they are equal. Is the set {𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗} right- or left-
handed?
(vi) By calculating each side, verify the identity 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = (𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑐⃗)𝑏⃗⃗ − (𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗)𝑐⃗.

1.3 Vector differential operators

The differential operators; grad, div, and curl are defined in Cartesian coordinates as follows;

1.3.2 Gradient (grad)

The gradient of a scalar field 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is defined as;
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
grad 𝑓 = ∇𝑓 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝛻 is pronounced as del or nabla and is a vector differential operator;
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1.3.3 Divergence (div)
The divergence (div) is defined as a vector field 𝐹⃗ (𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 ) and produces a scalar field denoted by;

𝜕𝐹1 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹3

div 𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐹⃗ = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1.3.4 The Curl
The curl is defined on a vector field and produces another vector field, except that the curl of a vector field
is not affected by reflection in the same way as the vector field is.

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐹3 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹1 𝜕𝐹3 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹1
Curl 𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 × 𝐹⃗ = || || = ( − ) 𝑖̂ + ( − ) 𝑗̂ + ( − ) 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3

1.4 The Laplacian

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
The Laplacian operator 𝛻 2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2 can act on a scalar or a vector.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 8

1.5 Vector Identities
Here are some simple vector identities that can all be proved with suffix notation. If F and G are vector
fields, and 𝜙 and 𝜓 are scalar fields then;

• 𝛻. (𝛻𝜙) = 𝛻 2 𝜙
• 𝛻. (𝛻 × 𝐹) = 0
• 𝛻 × (𝛻𝜙) = 0
• 𝛻(𝜓𝜙) = 𝜓𝛻𝜙 + 𝜙𝛻𝜓
• 𝛻. (𝜙𝐹) = 𝜙𝛻. 𝐹 + 𝐹. 𝛻𝜙
• 𝛻 × (𝜙𝐹) = 𝜙𝛻 × 𝐹 + 𝛻𝜙 × 𝐹
• 𝛻 × (𝛻 × 𝐹) = 𝛻(𝛻. 𝐹) − 𝛻 2 𝐹
• 𝛻(𝐹. 𝐺) = 𝐹 × (𝛻 × 𝐺) + 𝐺 × (𝛻 × 𝐹) + 𝐹. 𝛻(𝐺) + 𝐺. 𝛻(𝐹)
• 𝛻. (𝐹 × 𝐺) = 𝐺. (𝛻 × 𝐹) − 𝐹. (𝛻 × 𝐺)
• 𝛻 × (𝐹 × 𝐺) = 𝐹(𝛻. 𝐺) − 𝐺(𝛻. 𝐹) + (𝐺. 𝛻)𝐹 − (𝐹. 𝛻)𝐺

Assignment 1: Monday 13th January 2025

1. Given two vectors 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑏3 𝑘̂, with an angle 𝜃 between

them. Show that:-
(i) 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
(ii) 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

2. Find the:
(a) gradient and Laplacian of the scalar field φ = xy2z3.
(b) curl of the vector field 𝑎⃗ = x2y2z2𝑖̂ + y2z2𝑗̂ + x2z2𝑘̂ .

3. Show that ∇ · (∇φ×∇ψ) = 0, where φ and ψ are scalar fields.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 9

 Chapter 2: Conservation laws
2.1 Introduction
In nature, certain physical properties (i.e., measurable quantities) do not change with time within
an isolated physical system. Such quantities are governed by the conservation laws or laws of
conservation. In classical physics, laws of this type govern energy, linear momentum, angular
momentum, mass, and electric charge. In particle physics, other conservation laws apply to
properties of sub-atomic particles such as baryon number, lepton number, and strangeness. Such
laws apply in addition to those of mass, energy, and momentum encountered in everyday life and
may be thought of as analogous to the conservation of electric charge. An important function of
conservation laws is that they make it possible to predict the macroscopic behavior of a system
without having to consider the microscopic details of the course of a physical process. The
conservation laws in classical physics are discussed in the following sub-sections.

2.2 Conservation of linear momentum

Momentum is one important quantity that must always be conserved. Conservation of linear
momentum expresses the fact that a body or system of bodies in motion retains its total momentum
(i.e., the product of mass and velocity) unless an external force is applied to it. In an isolated system
(such as the universe), there are no external forces, so momentum is always conserved. Because
momentum is conserved, its components in any direction will also be conserved. Application of
the law of conservation of linear momentum is important in the solution of collision problems.

2.2.1 Examples of the law of conservation of momentum

The following are the examples of law of conservation of momentum:
• Air-filled balloons
• System of gun and bullet
• Motion of rockets - the increased forward momentum of the rocket is equal but opposite in
sign to the momentum of the ejected exhaust gases

2.2.2 Principle of conservation of linear momentum

The linear momentum 𝑃⃗⃗ of a particle of mass 𝑚 moving at velocity 𝑢
⃗⃗ is defined by 𝑃⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑢
⃗⃗. With
this definition, Newton’s second law of motion discussed in the previous chapter becomes 𝐹⃗ =
𝑑𝑃⃗⃗⁄𝑑𝑡. The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that “in any interaction between
two or more bodies of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 initially moving with velocities 𝑢 ⃗⃗1 , 𝑢
⃗⃗2 and attain final
velocities 𝑣⃗1 , 𝑣⃗2 respectively, the total linear momentum before the interaction is equal to the total
linear momentum after the interaction.”

i.e., 𝑚1 𝑢
⃗⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑢
⃗⃗2 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 10

Therefore, momentum can neither be created nor destroyed. The principle of conservation of
momentum is a direct consequence of Newton’s third law of motion.

2.2.3 Proof of the principle of conservation of linear momentum

(i) Using Newton’s 3rd and 2nd laws
Let 𝐹⃗12 and 𝐹⃗21 be the forces exerted on body 1 by body 2 and vice versa respectively. According
to Newton’s 3rd law of motion;

𝐹⃗12 = −𝐹⃗21
⇒ 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗21 = 0

Also, according to Newton’s 2nd law of motion,

𝑑 𝑑
𝐹⃗12 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑚2 𝑢
⃗⃗2 ) and 𝐹⃗21 = 𝑑𝑡 (𝑚1 𝑢
⃗⃗1 )
𝑑 𝑑
⇒ (𝑚1 𝑢
⃗⃗1 ) + (𝑚2 𝑢
⃗⃗2 ) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or
𝑑
(𝑚 𝑢 ⃗⃗ + 𝑚2 𝑢 ⃗⃗2 ) = 0
𝑑𝑡 1 1
Thus 𝑚1 𝑢 ⃗⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑢 ⃗⃗2 = constant
or
𝑚1 𝑢
⃗⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑢 ⃗⃗2 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2

(ii) Using the conservation of energy theorem

If 𝛥𝐸 is the kinetic energy converted to other forms during the interaction, then the law of
conservation of energy takes the form;
1 1 1 1
⃗⃗12 + 2 𝑚2 𝑢
𝑚1 𝑢 ⃗⃗22 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣⃗12 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣⃗22 + 𝛥𝐸 [**]
2

In another inertial frame of reference moving with relatively uniform velocity 𝑢 ⃗⃗ ′ , the law of
conservation of energy will take the same form in accordance with the principle of invariance as
1 1 1 1
⃗⃗′12 + 2 𝑚2 𝑢
𝑚1 𝑢 ⃗⃗′22 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣⃗′12 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣⃗′22 + 𝛥𝐸
2

⃗⃗𝑖′ = 𝑢
where 𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑖 − 𝑣⃗ and 𝑣⃗𝑖′ = 𝑣⃗𝑖 − 𝑣⃗ for 𝑖 = 1,2
1 1 1 1
⃗⃗1 − 𝑣⃗)2 + 2 𝑚2 (𝑢
⇒ 2 𝑚1 (𝑢 ⃗⃗2 − 𝑣⃗)2 = 2 𝑚1 (𝑣⃗1 − 𝑣⃗)2 + 2 𝑚2 (𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗)2 + 𝛥𝐸 [***]

Subtracting equation [***] from [**] we have;

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 11

 1 1 1 1
𝑚1 (𝑣⃗ 2 − 2𝑢
⃗⃗1 𝑣⃗) + 𝑚2 (𝑣⃗ 2 − 2𝑢
⃗⃗2 𝑣⃗) = 𝑚1 (𝑣⃗ 2 − 2𝑣⃗1 𝑣⃗) + 𝑚2 (𝑣⃗ 2 − 2𝑣⃗2 𝑣⃗)
2 2 2 2
⇒ (𝑚1 𝑢 ⃗⃗2 ). 𝑣⃗ = (𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2 ). 𝑣⃗
⃗⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑢 [****]

𝑣⃗ can be referred to as the speed in any other inertial reference frame and hence can take any
direction.

Thus equation [****] is satisfied only if;

𝑚1 𝑢
⃗⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑢
⃗⃗2 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2

2.3 Conservation of angular momentum

The conservation of angular momentum of rotating bodies is analogous to the conservation of
linear momentum. Angular momentum is a vector quantity whose conservation expresses the law
that a body or system that is rotating continues to rotate at the same rate unless a twisting force,
called a torque, is applied to it. The angular momentum of each bit of matter consists of the product
of its mass, its distance from the axis of rotation, and the component of its velocity perpendicular
to the line from the axis.

The angular momentum 𝐿 of a particle about some point 𝑆 is defined in terms of its linear
momentum 𝑃⃗⃗ as;
𝐿 = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑃⃗⃗
where 𝑟⃗ is the position vector of the particle measured from the point 𝑆. In general, 𝑆 maybe any
moving point, but we restrict it to be an inertial point of reference.

For 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ and 𝑃⃗⃗ = 𝑃𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑃𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑃𝑧 𝑘̂

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⇒ 𝐿 = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑃⃗⃗ = | 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 |
𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧
⇒ 𝐿 = (𝑃𝑧 𝑦 − 𝑃𝑦 𝑧)𝑖̂ − (𝑃𝑧 𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥 𝑧)𝑗̂ + (𝑃𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥 𝑦)𝑘̂

The turning moment of a force (torque) about the same point 𝑆 in an inertial frame is given by;
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
where 𝐹⃗ is the total force acting on the particle.

Statement of the theorem: The angular momentum theorem states that “the rate of change of
angular momentum is equal to the torque.”
𝑑𝐿
i.e., 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜏⃗
Proof

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 12

 From 𝐿 = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑃⃗⃗ ,

𝑑𝐿 𝑑
= (𝑟⃗𝛬𝑃⃗⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑃⃗⃗
= 𝛬𝑃⃗⃗ + 𝑟⃗𝛬
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
=𝑢⃗⃗𝛬𝑚𝑢 ⃗⃗ + 𝑟⃗𝛬𝐹⃗
= 𝑚(𝑢⃗⃗𝛬𝑢⃗⃗) + 𝑟⃗𝛬𝐹⃗
= 0 + 𝜏⃗

Since 𝑢 ⃗⃗ = 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 = 0 and 𝑟⃗𝛬𝐹⃗ = 𝜏⃗

⃗⃗𝛬𝑢

𝑑𝐿
∴ = 𝜏⃗
𝑑𝑡
Thus, in the absence of external forces 𝑑𝐿⁄𝑑𝑡 = 0 ⇒ 𝐿 = constant. In principle, when the torque
is zero, angular momentum is conserved.

2.4 Law of conservation of energy (energy and force)

One of the most important conservation laws is the conservation of energy. Energy is required for
the evolution of life forms on Earth. In physics, it is defined as the ability to do work. We know
that energy exists in different forms in nature. You have learned about various forms of energy –
heat, electrical, chemical, nuclear, etc. The law of conservation of energy states that “energy can
neither be created nor be destroyed. Although, it may be transformed from one form to another”.
In an isolated system, the sum of all forms of energy therefore remains constant.

2.4.1 Examples of the law of conservation of energy

In Physics, most of the inventions rely on the fact that energy is conserved when it is transferred
from one form to another. Several electrical and mechanical devices operate solely on the law of
conservation of energy. Some of the examples of energy conservation law are:

• In a torch, the chemical energy of the batteries is converted into electrical energy, which is
converted into light and heat energy.
• In hydroelectric power plants, waterfalls on the turbines from a height. This, in turn, rotates
the turbines and generates electricity. Hence, the potential energy of water is converted into
the kinetic energy of the turbine, which is further converted into electrical energy.
• In a loudspeaker, electrical energy is converted into sound energy.
• In a microphone, sound energy is converted into electrical energy.
• In a generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 13

 • When fuels are burnt, chemical energy is converted into heat and light energy.
• Chemical energy from food is converted to thermal energy when it is broken down in the
body and is used to keep it warm.

Since energy and mass can be exchanged, one result of the conservation of energy is that a particle
cannot decay into particles whose summed masses are greater than its mass.

2.4.2 Work
Work is a scalar quantity defined as the dot product of the displacement 𝑑𝑠⃗ and the applied force
𝐹⃗ .

Examples
1. A particle moving on a linear path

For a force 𝐹⃗ acting on a point particle, the work 𝑑𝑊done on the particle is equal to the

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 14

displacement times the projection of force on the direction of motion of the particle.

i.e. 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗

2. A particle moving on a non-linear path from point A to point B

The total work done by the force to move the particle from A to B is given by the line integral;
𝐵
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝐴

If 𝐹⃗ is the only force acting on the particle, then Newton’s 2nd law of motion gives;
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑢
𝐹⃗ = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 for constant 𝑚 and 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑑𝑡

𝐵
𝑑𝑢
⃗⃗
⇒ 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝑢
⃗⃗. . 𝑑𝑡
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
1 1
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 − 𝑚𝑣𝐴2
2 2
or

𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑇𝐵 − 𝑇𝐴
1 1
Where 𝑇𝐵 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 and 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 are the kinetic energies of the particle at points B and A
2 2
respectively. Thus, in the absence of any other forces, the work done by the force 𝐹⃗ in moving the
particle of mass 𝑚 along the path from point A to point B is exactly equal to the change in the
1 1
kinetic energy. If the work done by the applied force is zero, then 2 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 = constant.
Therefore, the translational kinetic energy is conserved.

In general, other forces other than 𝐹⃗ will be acting on the system. If 𝐹⃗𝑟 denotes the resultant of
these forces then;

𝑑𝑢
⃗⃗
𝑚 = 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗𝑟
𝑑𝑡

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 15

 or

𝑑𝑢
⃗⃗
𝐹⃗ = 𝑚 − 𝐹⃗𝑟
𝑑𝑡

Thus, the work done by 𝐹⃗ to move the particle from point A to point B is given by;
𝐵 𝐵
𝑑𝑢
⃗⃗
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐹⃗𝑟 . 𝑑𝑠⃗ + 𝑚 ∫ 𝑢
⃗⃗. . 𝑑𝑡
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝐵
= − ∫ 𝐹⃗𝑟 . 𝑑𝑠⃗ + (𝑇𝐵 − 𝑇𝐴 )
𝐴

For many forces, the work done does not depend on the path taken but depends only on the initial
and final positions of the particle. For example;
(i) The work done against gravity in moving an object from one place to another depends only
on the relative height of the starting and finishing point.
(ii) Work done in moving an electric charge in vacuum from one point to another is completely
determined by the difference in electric potential through which it has moved; and it makes
no difference whether the path taken is a straight line or a series of loops.
𝐵
If ∫𝐴 𝐹⃗𝑟 . 𝑑𝑠⃗ depends only on the end points A and B then the force 𝐹⃗𝑟 is called a conservative force.
Thus, since the work done depends only on the end points, then the integrant must be an exact
differential of a function;
i.e., 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗𝑟 . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = −𝑑𝑉(𝑟) = −𝑑𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) where 𝑉is the potential
𝐵
⇒ 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ (−𝑑𝑉) + (𝑇𝐵 − 𝑇𝐴 )
𝐴
= 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑇𝐵 − 𝑇𝐴

∴ 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = (𝑉𝐵 + 𝑇𝐵 ) − (𝑉𝐴 + 𝑇𝐴 )

In general, 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑉 represents the total mechanical energy of the particle, and 𝑉is referred to
as the potential energy of the particle. When 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 0, ⇒ 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑇𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑇𝐴 , i.e., the total
mechanical energy of the particle is conserved.

2.5 Conservative force fields

If the work done in moving a particle along path C from A to B is independent of the path C joining
A and B, then the force field 𝐹⃗ is said to be conservative where 𝐹⃗ is a function of position.

2.5.1 Properties of conservative forces

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 16

 1. Let 𝐹⃗ be a conservative force and let 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 be any two paths connecting two points A
and B as shown below;

By the definition of a conservative force,

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐶1 𝐶2

or

∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ − ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∮𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0

𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶

where the integration ∮𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ is around the closed path from A to B and back again.

Thus if 𝐹⃗ is conservative, the work done by 𝐹⃗ in moving a particle around a closed path is zero

∮𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0
𝐶

2. From Stoke’s theorem;

∮𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫(𝛻𝛬𝐹⃗ ) . 𝑑𝑠⃗

𝐶 𝑠

where 𝑠 is any smooth surface bounded by the closed path C of the line integral, and 𝑑𝑠⃗ is the
vector element of an area on 𝑠.

Since ∮𝐶 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0 for every closed contour C, 𝛻𝛬𝐹⃗ = 0 is a necessary condition for 𝐹⃗ to be
conservative.

The equation 𝛻𝛬𝐹⃗ = 0 expresses a condition for the existence of a single function that is a solution
𝑉(𝑟) of the three partial differential equations 𝐹⃗(𝑟) = −𝛻𝑉(𝑟) . Thus if 𝐹⃗ is conservative, there exists
a scalar V which is a function of position such that;

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 17

 𝐹⃗(𝑟) = −𝛻𝑉(𝑟)
The function V is called the potential energy of the dynamical system whose force is 𝐹⃗ .

Worked Examples
1. Show that if the force field 𝐹⃗ is conservative, then the work done by 𝐹⃗ in moving a particle
from point A to B is equal to the change in the potential energy 𝑉(𝐴) − 𝑉(𝐵) between the two
points.

Solution
𝐹⃗ = −𝛻𝑉(𝑟)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
But 𝛻 = (𝑑𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘̂) and 𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ −𝛻𝑉(𝑟) = − ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) 𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
= − ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) = 𝐹⃗
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
where the partial derivatives of 𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) are;
𝜕𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
= 𝑉(𝑥+ℎ,𝑦,𝑧) − 𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 ℎ→0
ℎ
𝑑𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
= ; (𝑦, 𝑧 constant)
𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) 𝑑𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) 𝜕𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) 𝑑𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
Similarly, = ; (𝑥, 𝑧 constant) and = ; (𝑥, 𝑦 constant)
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧
Now since 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂ then;
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = − ( 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧) = −𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝐵 𝐵
⇒ 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∫ (−𝑑𝑉) = 𝑉(𝐴) − 𝑉(𝐵)
𝐴 𝐴

2. Show that the force field 𝐹⃗ defined by

𝐹⃗ = (𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 )𝑗̂ + (3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑧)𝑘̂ is a conservative force field and
hence obtain the potential V associated with 𝐹⃗ .

Solution
The force field 𝐹⃗ is conservative if 𝛻𝛬𝐹⃗ = 0

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 18

 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Curl 𝐹⃗ = 𝛻 × 𝐹⃗ = || ||
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑧 2 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
⇒ 𝛻 × 𝐹⃗ = 𝑖̂ [ (3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑧) − (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 )]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
− 𝑗̂ [ (3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑧) − (𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑧 2 )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
+ 𝑘̂ [ (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 ) − (𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑧 2 )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

= 𝑖̂(6𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 − 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 ) − 𝑗̂(3𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 12𝑥𝑧 − 3𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 12𝑥𝑧) + 𝑘̂(2𝑦𝑧 3 − 2𝑦𝑧 3 )

=0

Since 𝐹⃗ is conservative then we can find 𝑉(𝑟) such that 𝐹⃗ = −𝛻𝑉(𝑟) .

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
⇒ −𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ = (𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑖̂ + (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 )𝑗̂ + (3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑧)𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑉
⇒ = 6𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 ; 𝑉 = 3𝑥 2 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 𝑔𝑥 (𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑔1
⇒ = −2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 + = −2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑔1
⇒ = 0; 𝑔𝑥 = constant, say 𝑔𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑦
⇒ 𝑉 = 3𝑥 2 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 𝑔𝑦 (𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑔𝑦
⇒ = 6𝑥 2 𝑧 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + = −3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 6𝑥 2 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑔𝑧
⇒ =0
𝜕𝑧
∴ 𝑉 = 3𝑥 2 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 𝑐

2.6 Power
Power is a scalar quantity which is a measure of the rate of doing work.

𝑑𝑊
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠⃗
= 𝐹⃗ . for a constant force
𝑑𝑡

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 19

 ∴ 𝑃 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑢
⃗⃗

Worked Examples

1. Consider a particle of mass 𝑚falling freely (with no external interaction). Show that the
change in the particle’s kinetic energy is exactly equal to the work done by the force.

Solution

• At time 𝑡 = 0, the force 𝐹⃗ applied is kept constant along the y-direction.

• Motion at 𝑡 > 0
𝑑2 𝑦
From newton’s 2nd law of motion, 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝑚𝑦̈
Velocity after time t is obtained from;
⃗⃗
𝑢 𝑡 𝑡
𝐹⃗
∫ 𝑑𝑢
⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑦̈ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗0
𝑢 0 0 𝑚
𝐹⃗
⇒𝑢
⃗⃗ − 𝑢
⃗⃗0 =
𝑡
𝑚
where 𝑢0 is the velocity at 𝑡 = 0 in y-direction.
⇒ 𝐹⃗ 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑢 ⃗⃗ − 𝑚𝑢⃗⃗0 = impulse of a force
If 𝐹⃗ is large and 𝑡 is small, then;
𝑡 𝐹⃗
impulse = ∫0 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛥(𝑚𝑢); From 𝑢
⃗⃗ − 𝑢
⃗⃗0 = 𝑚 𝑡,
𝐹⃗ 𝑚
⇒𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑢
⃗⃗0 and 𝑡= (𝑢
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗0 )
−𝑢
𝐹⃗
If initially at 𝑡 = 0, the particle is at 𝑦0 then;
𝑡 𝑡
𝐹⃗
𝑦⃗(𝑡) − 𝑦⃗0 = ∫ 𝑢
⃗⃗(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (𝑢
⃗⃗0 + 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0 0 𝑚
𝐹⃗ 2
𝑦⃗(𝑡) − 𝑦⃗0 = 𝑢
⃗⃗0 𝑡 + 𝑡
2𝑚
𝑚𝑢⃗⃗ 𝑚
Substituting for t we get; 𝑦⃗(𝑡) − 𝑦⃗0 = 𝐹⃗ 0 (𝑢 ⃗⃗ − 𝑢 ⃗⃗0 ) + 2𝐹⃗ (𝑢 ⃗⃗0 )2
⃗⃗ − 𝑢
1 2 1 2
⇒ (𝑦⃗(𝑡) − 𝑦⃗0 )𝐹⃗ = 𝑚 {𝑢 ⃗⃗. 𝑢 ⃗⃗02 + 𝑢
⃗⃗0 − 𝑢 ⃗⃗ − 𝑢 ⃗⃗. 𝑢
⃗⃗0 + 𝑢 ⃗⃗ }
2 2 0
1 1
(𝐹⃗ . 𝛥𝑦⃗) = 𝑚𝑢 ⃗⃗ 2 − 𝑚𝑢 ⃗⃗02
2 2
where 𝐹⃗ . 𝛥𝑦⃗is the work done by force 𝐹⃗

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 20

 Chapter 3: Motion in Resistive Media
3.1 Introduction
In studying the motion of a body in a resistive medium, we assume that the resistive force on the
body, and hence its deceleration, is some function of its speed. Such resistive forces are not
generally conservative, and kinetic energy is usually dissipated as heat.

3.2 Uniformly accelerated motion

Before studying motion in a resisting medium, a brief review of a uniformly accelerated motion
might be in order. That is motion in which the resistance is zero. If a particle of constant mass m
moves in a uniform force field, then its acceleration is said to be uniform or constant. The motion
is then described as uniformly accelerated motion.

NB: A force field is said to be constant or uniform when it has constant magnitude and direction.

3.3 Freely falling bodies

It’s found experimentally that near the earth’s surface objects fall with a vertical acceleration which
is constant provided that air resistance is negligible. This acceleration is called acceleration due to
gravity or gravitational acceleration, g. If an object moves so that the only force acting upon it is
its weight or force due to gravity, then the object is often called a freely falling body. An apple and
a feather, released from rest in a vacuum chamber, fall at the same rate, regardless of their masses.
Ignoring air resistance, all objects fall to the Earth with the same acceleration of magnitude 9.80
m/s2, as indicated by the violet arrows in this multi-flash photograph. The velocity of the two
objects increases linearly with time, as indicated by the series of red arrows.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 21

However, in practice, an object is acted upon by not only its weight but by other forces as well.
An important class of forces are those which tend to oppose the motion of an object. Such forces,
which generally arise because of motion in some medium such as air or water are often called
resisting, damping, or dissipative forces, and the corresponding medium is said to be a resisting,
damping, or dissipative medium.

It's found experimentally that for low speeds the resisting force is in magnitude proportional to the
speed. However, in other cases, it may be proportional to the square (or some other power) of the
speed.

3.4 The physics of fluid drag

When a body moves through a fluid such as air or water, the fluid exerts forces on the surface of
the body. This is because the body must push the fluid out of the way, and to do this the body must
exert forces on the fluid. By the Third Law, the fluid must then exert equal and opposite forces on
the body. A person wading through water or riding a motorcycle is well aware of the existence of
such forces, which fall into the general category of material contact forces. We are interested in
the resultant force that the fluid exerts on the body and it is convenient to write this resultant in
the form
F = D + L,
where the vector drag force D has the opposite direction to the velocity of the body, and the vector
lift force L is at right angles to this velocity. The existence of lift makes air travel possible and is
very important.
However, we will be concerned only with drag since we will restrict our attention to those cases
in which the body is a rigid body of revolution that moves (without rotation) in the direction of its
axis of symmetry. In this case, the lift is zero, by symmetry. We are then left with the scalar drag
D, acting in the opposite direction to the velocity of the body.

Examples

1. Rockets (rocket propulsion)

The motion of a rocket is an interesting application of Newton’s 3rd law of motion and momentum principle.
The rocket forces a jet of hot gases from its tail. This is, say, the action force. The jet of hot gases exerts a
force on the rocket, propelling it forward; this is the reaction force. These are internal forces of the system
(rocket and gas).

From the momentum point of view, the hot gases acquire momentum in the backward direction and the
rocket acquires an equal amount of momentum in the forward direction. Now consider the flight of a rocket
directed vertically upward from the surface of the earth. Let 𝑣 be the upward velocity of the rocket at the
time 𝑡 after takeoff, 𝛥𝑚 be the mass of a gas ejected from the rocket in a short time interval 𝛥𝑡, 𝑣𝑟 be the
relative exhaust velocity of the rocket.

Then the velocity 𝑣 ′ of the gas relative to the rocket is given by 𝑣 ′ = 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑟 . The mass of the rocket and

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 22

unburnt fuel will decrease to (𝑚 − 𝛥𝑚) at the end of the interval 𝛥𝑡, and let the velocity increase to 𝑣 +
𝛥𝑣.

Total momentum at the time 𝑡 + 𝛥𝑡 is;

(𝑚 − 𝛥𝑚)(𝑣 + 𝛥𝑣) + 𝛥𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑣𝑟 )
Neglecting the air resistance, the external force 𝐹⃗ on the rocket is its weight, −𝑚𝑔.

Thus, impulsive = change in momentum

(where the change in momentum in time, 𝛥𝑡 is the difference between the momentum of the system at the
end and at the beginning of the time interval 𝛥𝑡).

⇒ −𝑚𝑔𝛥𝑡 = [(𝑚 − 𝛥𝑚)(𝑣 + 𝛥𝑣) + 𝛥𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑣𝑟 )] − 𝑚𝑣

= 𝑚Δ𝑣 − Δ𝑚Δ𝑣 − Δ𝑚𝑣𝑟
But 𝛥𝑚𝛥𝑣 is negligible
⇒ −𝑚𝑔𝛥𝑡 = 𝑚𝛥𝑣 − 𝛥𝑚𝑣𝑟
𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝑚
−𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚 − 𝑣
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡 𝑟
𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝑚
∴𝑚 = 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑚𝑔
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
This is the general equation of motion of the rocket. This equation implies that;

1. The resultant force on the rocket = (upward thrust on the rocket) − (weight of the rocket) i.e., the
resultant force equals the difference between the thrust and the weight of the rocket.
2. The upward thrust is proportional to both the relative velocity (𝑣𝑟 ) of the ejected gas and to the
mass of the gas ejected per unit time (𝛥𝑚⁄𝛥𝑡).
𝛥𝑣 𝑣𝑟 𝛥𝑚
3. 𝛥𝑡
= 𝑚 𝛥𝑡
− 𝑔 i.e., as the rocket goes higher and higher, the value of 𝑔 continues to decrease.
The value of 𝑣𝑟 and (𝛥𝑚⁄𝛥𝑡) remain practically constant while the fuel is being consumed but the
remaining mass 𝑚 continually decreases. So, acceleration continues to increase until all the fuel is burnt
up.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 23

 𝛥𝑣 𝑣𝑟 𝛥𝑚
From = − 𝑔 and taking the limits as 𝛥𝑡 → 0 we have;
𝛥𝑡 𝑚 𝛥𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑟 𝑑𝑚
= −𝑔
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑚
where 𝑑𝑚 is a positive quantity standing for the mass ejected in time 𝑑𝑡. So the change in mass of the
rocket in that time is −𝑑𝑚.

⇒ For calculating the total mass change in the rocket, we must change the sign of the term containing
𝑑𝑚.
𝑑𝑚
⇒ 𝑑𝑣 = −𝑣𝑟 − 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑚
Let 𝑚0 and 𝑣0 be the mass and velocity of the rocket at time, 𝑡 = 0.
𝑣 𝑚 𝑡
𝑑𝑚
⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ −𝑣𝑟 − ∫ 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑣0 𝑚0 𝑚 0
𝑣 𝑚 𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = −𝑣𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑚 − 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑚0 𝑚 0
[𝑣]𝑣𝑣0 𝑚 𝑡
= −𝑣𝑟 [𝑙𝑛 𝑚]𝑚0 − 𝑔[𝑡]0
𝑚0
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑣𝑟 𝑙𝑛 ( ) − 𝑔𝑡
𝑚
This is the velocity of the rocket at any time t

Worked Examples
1. A rocket is set for a vertical firing. If the exhaust speed is 1000 ms-1, how much gas must be ejected
per second to supply the thrust needed to;
(i) Overcome the weight of the rocket.
(ii) Give the rocket an initial vertical upward acceleration of 19.6 ms-2. (Mass of the rocket =
6000 kg, g = 9.8 ms-2).

Solution
(i) From the general equation of the rocket,

𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝑚
𝑚 = 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑚𝑔
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑚
If 𝛥𝑣 = 0, then 𝑣𝑟 𝛥𝑡 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝛥𝑚
⇒ 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑚𝑔
𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑚 𝑚𝑔 6000 × 9.8
⇒ = =
𝛥𝑡 𝑣𝑟 1000
𝛥𝑚
∴ = 58.8 kg𝑠 −1
𝛥𝑡

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 24

 (ii) To give the rocket an initial vertical upward acceleration of 19.6 ms-2, let’s consider the general
equation of the rocket;
𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝑚
𝑚 = 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑚𝑔
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑚
⇒ 6000 × 19.6 = 1000 − 6000 × 9.8
𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑚
∴ = 176.4 kgs−1
𝛥𝑡
2. In the 1st second of its flight, a rocket ejects 1⁄60 of its mass at a relative velocity of 2073 ms-1.
Calculate the acceleration of the rocket.

Solution
From the general equation of the rocket,

𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝑚
𝑚 = 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑚𝑔
𝛥𝑡 𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑣 𝑣𝑟 𝛥𝑚
⇒ = −𝑔
𝛥𝑡 𝑚 𝛥𝑡
2073 𝑚
=( × − 9.8)
𝑚 60 × 1
𝛥𝑣
∴ = 24.75 m𝑠 −2
𝛥𝑡
3. While launching a rocket of mass 2x104 kg, a force of 5x105 N is applied for 20 seconds. Calculate
the velocity attained by the rocket at the end of 30 seconds. (Hint: a F/m, v=u+at, Ans: 500 ms-1).

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 25

 Chapter 4: Particles in electromagnetic fields
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the motion of charged particles in electric and magnetic fields is discussed. The
electric force due to an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟) on a particle of charge 𝑞 located at point 𝑟 is;

𝐹⃗𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟)

⃗⃗ (𝑟)
For a particle moving with velocity 𝑣 at point 𝑟, the force in terms of the magnetic induction 𝐵
is;
𝐹⃗𝑚 = 𝑞 (𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ (𝑟))

Thus, the total electromagnetic force acting on a particle due to an electric field intensity 𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟)in
(𝑣𝑚−1 ) and magnetic induction 𝐵 ⃗⃗ (𝑟) in (𝑊𝑏𝑚−2 ) is;

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞[𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑟) + 𝑣⃗ × 𝐵(𝑟)]

This is known as the Lorentz force.

4.2 Motion in uniform and constant electric field

The electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ is independent of a charged particle’s position and time. Thus, from Newton’s
2nd law of motion;
𝑑 2 𝑟⃗
𝑚 2 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑟⃗ 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
⇒ 2=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑞
⃗⃗(𝑡) =
𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
⃗⃗
𝑞𝐸
⇒𝑉 ⃗⃗(𝑡) = 𝑡 + 𝑐⃗1
𝑚
The position vector of the charged particle is;

𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ 2
𝑟⃗(𝑡) = ∫ ( 𝑡 + 𝑐⃗1 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 + 𝑐⃗1 𝑡 + 𝑐⃗2
𝑚 2𝑚

where 𝑐⃗1 and 𝑐⃗2 are constants of integration that can be determined by the use of some initial
conditions.
𝑖. 𝑒. If 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗0 , 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗0 at 𝑡 = 0; then 𝑐⃗1 = 𝑣⃗0 and 𝑐⃗2 = 𝑟⃗0

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 26

 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
⇒ 𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 𝑡 + 𝑣⃗0 and 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 2𝑚 𝑡 2 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑟⃗0
𝑚

4.3 Motion in a non-uniform electric field

A sinusoidally varying field having uniform intensity and angular frequency, 𝜔(e.g., the main
supply) may be expressed as;𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡;where 𝐸0 is the amplitude of the field and has the same
direction and magnitude at all points of space.
𝑑2 𝑟⃗
Thus, 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝑞𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗0
𝑣= =∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
−𝑞𝐸⃗⃗0
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝑐⃗1
𝑚𝜔
When 𝑡 = 0; 𝛽 = 𝑢 ⃗⃗⁄
𝑐
⃗⃗
𝑞𝐸0
⇒ 𝑐⃗1 = 𝑣⃗0 +
𝑚𝜔
𝑑𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑞𝐸0 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗0
⇒𝑉 ⃗⃗(𝑡) = =− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 + (𝑣⃗0 + )
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝜔 𝑚𝜔
The displacement 𝑟⃗of the particle is;

𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗0 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗0 𝑡

∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑟⃗ = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 + (𝑣⃗0 𝑡 + ) + 𝑐⃗2
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝜔 2 𝑚𝜔
Initially at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗0 ; 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗0 and ⇒ 𝑐⃗2 = 𝑟⃗0.
𝑞𝐸⃗⃗0 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗0
∴ 𝑟⃗ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 + (𝑣 ⃗0 + ) 𝑡 + 𝑟⃗0
𝑚𝜔 2 𝑚𝜔

𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
This is a sinusoidal expression with amplitude 𝑚𝜔02 and angular frequency 𝜔and is superimposed
𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
on a translational motion of velocity(𝑣⃗0 + 𝑚𝜔0 ), which remains as 𝑚𝜔0 when𝑣⃗0 = 0.

4.4 Motion in a uniform and constant magnetic field

The magnetic field is independent of the particle’s position and time. The equation of motion thus
𝑑2 𝑟⃗
becomes: 𝑚 2 = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ ∧ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ). To simplify the problem, let the magnetic field act in the Z-direction.
𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑘̂; where 𝑘̂is a unit vector in the Z-axis and,

⇒𝐵
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂ = 𝑥̇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑦̇ 𝑗̂ + 𝑧̇ 𝑘̂
𝑑 2 𝑟⃗ 𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⇒ 𝑚 2 = 𝑞 |𝑥̇ 𝑦̇ 𝑧̇ |
𝑑𝑡
0 0 𝐵
= 𝑖̂ 𝐵𝑦̇ − 0)𝑞 − 𝑗̂ 𝐵𝑥̇ − 0)𝑞 + 𝑘̂(0 − 0)𝑞
( (

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 27

 = 𝐵𝑦̇ 𝑞𝑖̂ − 𝐵𝑥̇ 𝑞 𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂
⇒ 𝑚(𝑥̈ 𝑖̂ + 𝑦̈ 𝑗̂ + 𝑧̈ 𝑘̂) = 𝑞𝐵𝑦̇ 𝑖̂ − 𝑞𝐵𝑥̇ 𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂

By equating component parts of the above equation, we’ve:

𝑞𝐵
𝑥̈ = 𝑦̇ (1)
𝑚
𝑞𝐵
𝑦̈ = − 𝑚 𝑥̇ (2)
𝑧̈ = 0 (3)

i.e., the acceleration of the particle along the z-axis is constant.

Differentiating equation (1) above,

𝑞𝐵
𝑥⃛ = 𝑦̈
𝑚
Substituting for 𝑦̈ using equation (2) we’ve:
𝑞𝐵 −𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵 2
𝑥⃛ = ( ) ( ) 𝑥̇ = − ( ) 𝑥̇
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
Integrating this equation and putting the constants of integration to zero we’ve:
𝑞𝐵 2
𝑥̈ = − ( ) 𝑥
𝑚
∴ 𝑥̈ + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0 (4)
𝑞𝐵
where𝜔 = 𝑚
Substituting from equation (2)
−𝑞𝐵
𝑦̈ = ( ) 𝑥̇
𝑚
𝑞𝐵
⇒ 𝑦⃛ = (− ) 𝑥̈
𝑚
Substituting for 𝑥̈ using equation (1) we’ve:
𝑞𝐵 2
𝑦⃛ = − ( ) 𝑦̇
𝑚
Integrating this equation and setting the constant of integration to zero we’ve:
𝑞𝐵 2
𝑦̈ + ( ) 𝑦 = 0
𝑚
i.e. 𝑦̈ + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0 (5)
Equations (4) and (5) are S.H.M equations in xy-plane. The general solution of equation (4) is of
the form
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (Show!)
where 𝜑is called the phase angle and 𝜔is the angular frequency
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (6)
𝑞𝐵
Also, since 𝑦̈ = − 𝑚 𝑥̇

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 28

 𝑞𝐵
⇒ 𝑦̇ = − 𝑥
𝑚
= −𝜔𝑥 = −𝜔𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
and
2 2 2 (𝜔𝑡
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝜑) (7)
Equations (6) + (7), we’ve;
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝐴2 (*)
This is an equation of a circle of radius 𝐴 in the xy-plane with its center at the origin. Therefore,
the two equations describe circular motion in the xy-plane with a constant angular frequency𝜔.

The velocity tangential to the circle and the radical accumulation are given respectively by;
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
or
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗ and 𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑟
𝑣⃗ = 𝜔

In this case, the angular frequency is normally called the cyclotron frequency (or gyro frequency)
𝑞𝐵
and is denoted by; 𝜔𝑐 = .
𝑚

4.4.1 Energy of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field

The energy of the particle is only K.e so that the total energy E is; 𝐸 = K.e = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 .

K.e, k = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣⃗ ⋅ 𝑣⃗

𝑑𝑘 1
= ⁄2 𝑚(𝑣⃗̇ ⋅ 𝑣⃗ + 𝑣⃗ ⋅ 𝑣⃗̇)
𝑑𝑡
= 1⁄2 𝑚(2𝑣⃗̇ ⋅ 𝑣⃗) = 𝑚𝑣⃗̇ ⋅ 𝑣⃗
2
𝑑 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗×𝐵
𝑞𝑣
But 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝑣⃗̇ = 𝑚

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 29

 ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑘 ⃗⃗
𝑞𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⇒ = 𝑚𝑣⃗ ⋅ ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑𝑘
⃗⃗ are perpendicular, then
Since 𝑣⃗and 𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 = 0. Therefore, the kinetic energy will remain
𝑑𝑡
constant, i.e., the magnetic field does not change the kinetic energy of the charged particle.

⇒ |𝑣⃗| is also constant.

⃗⃗ and the velocity 𝑣⃗ are perpendicular to each other, the force on the
Since the magnetic field 𝐵
particle moving on the xy-plane is; 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐵𝑣. Therefore, the magnitude of the acceleration is;

𝑣 2 𝐹 𝑞𝐵𝑣
𝑎= = =
𝑟 𝑚 𝑚
𝑚𝑉
⇒𝑟=
𝑞𝐵

Thus, for a uniform and constant magnetic field B, the radius r, of the circle is proportional to the
momentum of the particle.

NB: If𝑧̇ ≠ 0, the motion is still circular in the xy-plane but advances in z-direction with a constant
velocity. The particle actually moves in a spiral above the z-axis.

The following results obtained above i.e;

𝑞𝐵
1. Cyclotron frequency; 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑚
2. Energy of a particle; 𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑉 2
𝑚𝑉
3. Radius of circular motion; 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵 , all have many practical applications in physics.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 30

Applications

(a) In a cloud chamber: If a cloud chamber is placed in a uniform magnetic field, one can
measure the momentum of a charged particle by measuring the radius of curvature of its
track.
(b) In a Beta-ray spectograph: The momentum of a fast electron can be measured by the
curvature of its path in a uniform magnetic field.
(c) In a mass spectrometer: A particle is aceelerated through a known potential difference 𝑄𝑎 −
𝑄𝑏 so that the 𝑘. 𝑒
1⁄ 𝑚𝑉 2 = 𝑞(𝑄 − 𝑄 );
2 𝑎 𝑏

Then it is passed through a uniform magnetic field𝐵 ⃗⃗. If the charge 𝑞is known
𝑟, 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑(𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑏 ) are measured, their
𝑞𝐵2 𝑟 2
𝑚= can be calculated.
2(𝑄𝑎 −𝑄𝑏 )
(d) A cyclotron: Charged particles travel in circles in uniform magnetic fields and receive
increments in energy twice per revolution by passing through an alternating E-field at the
𝑚𝑣
two open ends of the “Dees”. The radius of the circle increases as 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵 until a maximum
radius is reached at which radius, the particles emerge in a beam of definite
𝐸𝐵
energy1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑞(𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑏 ), but the frequency 𝜔 = 𝑚 remains constant.
(e) In velocity selector: It uses crossed electric and magnetic fields. The charged particles pass
through the slits only if the electric force is equal to the magnetic force: i.e.

𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵

𝐸
⇒𝑣=
𝐵

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 31

 Chapter 5: Oscillations
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter we shall discuss oscillatory motion. Many kinds of motion repeat themselves over
and over. This kind of motion is called periodic motion or oscillation. A body that undergoes
periodic motion always has a stable equilibrium position. When it is moved away from this
position and released, a force or torque comes into play to pull it back toward equilibrium. There
are many oscillatory systems; the vibrations of molecules and interaction between atoms,
oscillations of an electrical circuit and springs, a swinging pendulum, a mass on a spring, shock
absorbers in car springs etc. It is possible to make a system more complicated by introducing a
damping force and/or an external driving force. Harmonic oscillators maybe categorized into free
oscillation (simple harmonic motion), damped harmonic motion, driven harmonic motion and
coupled oscillators.
5.2 Free Oscillation (Simple harmonic motion)
The oscillations of a particle with fundamental frequency under the influence of a restoring force
are defined as free oscillations. The amplitude, frequency and energy of oscillation remain
constant.

Simple harmonic oscillator (SHO) is the foundation of the theory of oscillations. We discuss
equilibria in physical systems and how small oscillations about equilibria can in most cases be
described by the SHO equation. This unit deals with a range of simple harmonic oscillatory
phenomena, explaining the general techniques for analyzing and predicting them.

The harmonic oscillators to be considered in this section are;

(a) A simple pendulum for small angle oscillation
(b) Mass attached to one end of a spring for small displacement amplitudes
(c) Inductive – capacitive (L.C) circuits for low voltage
(d) Molecular vibrations which by use of infrared spectroscopy gives some information on the
structure of certain molecules.

5.2.1 Simple pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a mass, m at the end of a massless rigid string or load of length, l.
If the mass is pulled aside and released, the resulting motion will be oscillatory. The motion of a

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 32

simple pendulum may be considered from the point of view of either Newton’s 2nd law of motion,
conservation of energy law or from angular momentum law.

1. Using Newton’s 2nd law

𝑚𝑑2 𝑠
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = [1]
𝑑𝑡 2

Rendering the air resistance and frictional force at the point of suspension negligible, the only
force acting on the mass is mg and has a component 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 along the arc of length, 𝑠 = 𝑙𝜃.
⇒ 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 [2]
From these two equations,
𝑚𝑑2 𝑠
⇒ = −𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 But 𝑠 = 𝑙𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2
2
𝑚𝑙𝑑 𝜃
⇒ = −𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑔
⇒ 𝜃̈ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 0
𝑙
𝜃3 𝜃5
But 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃 − 3! + 5! −. ..
Thus for small angles, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝑔
∴ 𝜃̈ + 𝑙 𝜃 = 0 [3]

This is the equation for a simple pendulum bob. This equation can be rewritten conveniently as;

∴ 𝜃̈ + 𝜔2 𝜃 = 0 [3*]
This is a solution to the equation of S.H.M with angular frequency; 𝜔 = √𝑔⁄𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑓
1
⇒ Frequency, 𝑓 = 2𝜋 √𝑔⁄𝑙 and period, 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑙 ⁄𝑔

Equation [3] is a homogeneous linear differential equation whose solution can be obtained using
two methods: - (1) separation of variables and, (2) guessing an exponential solution, that is, one of
the form 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 and then find out what 𝛼must be.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 33

 From 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 , ⇒ 𝜃̈ = 𝛼 2 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 [**]
Substituting equations [**] into equation [3], we have;
𝑔 𝛼𝑡
𝛼 2 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 +𝐴𝑒 = 0
𝑙
𝑔
⇒ 𝛼 = ±𝑖√ = ±𝑖𝜔
𝑙
Therefore, the general solution of equation [3] is;

𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡

Other Various ways of writing the solution are;

• 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡

• 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑1 )
• 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑2 )
The various constants in these expressions are related to each other.

2. Using the angular momentum theorem

Consider the motion in the 𝑥𝑦 −plane where m is the mass of the bob, l is the length of the rod and
𝜃 is the small angle of oscillation and 𝑣 is the velocity of the mass.

Assume that the air resistance on the bob and the frictional force at the point of suspension are
negligible, and then the only force acting on the bob is mg. The torque 𝜏 about the point of
suspension is perpendicular to the 𝑥𝑦 −plane.

Thus the torque about point O of suspension is defined as;

𝜏 = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 in the 𝑧 −direction

The angular momentum 𝐿 of the bob about the axis through O and normal to the plane is;

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 34

 𝐿 = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑃⃗⃗ = 𝑟𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 9 0 = −𝑚𝑙𝑣 in the 𝑧 −direction
𝑑𝑠⃗ 𝑑𝜃
But 𝑣 = = 𝑙 = 𝑙𝜃̇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 = −𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇
𝑑𝐿
But from the angular momentum theorem, =𝜏
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
(−𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇) = 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̈ = −𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑔
∴ 𝜃̈ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 0
𝑙
which is the equation of motion of a simple pendulum.
For small 𝜃;
𝜃3 𝜃5
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜃 − + −. ..
3! 5!
Thus, for small angles, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝑔
⇒ 𝜃̈ + 𝑙 𝜃 = 0
∴ 𝜃̈ + 𝜔2 𝜃 = 0
𝑔 𝑔
where 𝜔2 = 𝑙 ; ⇒ 𝜔 = √𝑙

3. Using the principle of conservation of energy

When the string is deflected through angle 𝜃, the mass m is moved by a height, ℎ = 𝑙 − 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.
Thus potential energy of the mass = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

⇒ P.e = 𝑚𝑔𝑙(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)

At maximum height, h, 𝑣 = 0 and hence, kinetic energy = 0. The vertical position corresponds to
zero potential energy of the mass (since ℎ = 0).

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 35

At point A;
1
K.e of the bob = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

𝑑𝑠⃗ 𝑑𝜃
But 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑙 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑙𝜃̇
1
⇒ K.e = 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇ 2
2
Total energy, 𝐸 is given by the sum of kinetic and potential energies as;
1 2 2
𝐸= 𝑚𝑙 𝜃̇ + 𝑚𝑔𝑙(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
2
1 1 1
But 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 1 − 𝜃 2 + 𝜃 4 +. .. and for small 𝜃, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ≈ 1 − 𝜃 2
2 24 2

1 2
⇒ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) = 𝜃
2
1 1
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇ 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃 2
2 2
Differentiating this equation with respect to time we have;
1 2 1
𝑚𝑙 (2𝜃̇𝜃̈ ) + 𝑚𝑔𝑙(2𝜃𝜃̇) = 0
2 2
𝑑𝐸
where 𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝐸 is constant
⇒ 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇𝜃̈ + 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃𝜃̇ = 0
𝑔
∴ 𝜃̈ + 𝜃=0
𝑙
Similarly,
𝜃̈ + 𝜔2 𝜃 = 0
𝑔 𝑔
where 𝜔2 = 𝑙 ; ⇒ 𝜔 = √𝑙

5.2.2 Mass attached to a spring

The motion of a mass-spring system may be derived by means of Hooke’s law and Newton’s 2nd
law of motion. In this case, the spring is assumed to be massless and frictional forces are negligible.
The motion is confined in the x – direction only.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 36

O is the equillibrum position. If 𝑘 is the spring constant which indicates the strength of the spring
and the body is displaced through a distance 𝑥 in the 𝑥 −direction, then from Hooke’s law, the
restoring force is given by;

𝐹⃗𝑘 = −𝑘𝑥𝑖̂
If m is the mass of the body then by Newton’s 2nd law;
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑖̂ = −𝑘𝑥𝑖̂

⇒ 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

∴ 𝑥̈ + (𝑘 ⁄𝑚)𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥̈ + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0, where 𝜔 = √(𝑘⁄𝑚)

By the principle of conservation of energy;

1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝐸
2 2
1 𝑑𝑥 2 1 2
𝑚 ( ) + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐸
2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Differentiating: ⇒ 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑡 = 0, which reduces to 𝑥̈ + (𝑘⁄𝑚)𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥̈ + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0.
Thus, the vibrating system is a simple harmonic oscillator and the motion is simple harmonic.

General solution of the equation 𝑥̈ + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0 is;

𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡
This trig solution shows that the system oscillates back and forth forever in time. The period (time
for one complete cycle) is therefore;
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋⁄𝜔 = 2𝜋√ .
𝑘
The frequency in cycles per second (hertz) is 𝜈 = 1⁄𝑇 = 𝜔⁄2𝜋. The arbitrary constants 𝐴and B
can be determined from initial conditions.
5.2.3 Inductive-Capacitive (L-C) Circuits

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 37

Let current i flow through the capacitor and inductor in (i). By Faradays law of induction, the
voltage across the inductor is;
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
The capacitor will also store some charge, Q when current 𝑖 flows in the circuit. Its voltage 𝑉𝐶 is
given by;
𝑄 1
𝑉𝐶 = = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝐶
From Kirchhoff’s instantaneous e.m.f law,
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Supposing the exciting voltage is cut off as in diagram (ii), i.e. 𝑉(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑖 1
⇒ 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Differentiating with respect to t we have;
𝑑2 𝑖 𝑖
2
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
𝑑2𝑖
⇒ 2 + 𝜔02 𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡
The flow of the current is 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑), where 𝜔0 = √(1⁄𝐿𝐶 ) for 𝑉(𝑡) = 0. Hence, the
equation represents harmonic motion.

5.2.4 Molecular Vibrations (read and make notes)

5.3 Damped Oscillations

The description of simple harmonic motion assumes that the only forces acting on the system being
described is a restoring force that is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium position.
When that is true, of course, the resulting motion is purely sinusoidal with constant amplitude -
that is, the oscillator will continue to oscillate forever with undiminished energy. However, in real
systems, none of that can be correct because there will always be either some damping of the

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 38

oscillation due to resistive forces such as air resistance, internal resistance in the spring itself, or
some externally applied mechanism to damp the oscillations. This causes an exponential decrease
in the amplitude of the oscillatory motion. Consequently, decrease in amplitude causes the
mechanical energy of the oscillator to goes on decreasing exponentially. Thus, the oscillatory
motion of the system is damped.

The damping force that opposes an oscillatory motion is directly proportional to the motion’s
velocity, and may be expressed as 𝐹⃗ = −𝛾𝑥̇ , where 𝛾 = damping coefficient which is the constant
of motion. The negative sign is because such forces oppose motion. The equation of motion then
becomes;
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 = −𝛾𝑥̇
𝑑𝑡 2 𝛾
⇒ 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝛾𝑥̇ = 0 or 𝑥̈ + 𝑚 𝑥̇ = 0
𝑚
Let 𝜏 = 𝛾
𝜏 = is the relaxation time of the system.
For an oscillatory system, 𝜏 is a measure of the time it takes the system to restore equilibrium once it is
disturbed.
1
⇒ 𝑥̈ + 𝑥̇ = 0
𝜏
Integrating with respect to time and setting the constant of integration to zero.
1
⇒ 𝑥̇ + 𝑥 = 0
𝜏
On further integration we have;
1
⇒ ∫ (𝑥̇ + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝜏
𝑥̇ 1
⇒ ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝜏
1 𝑑𝑥 1
∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜏
1 1
∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝜏
1
⇒ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 = − 𝑡 + 𝑐
𝜏
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 then 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥0
1
⇒ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑥0 = − 𝑡
𝜏

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 39

 𝑡
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜏
This is an equation of exponential decay.
The velocity of the particle may also be expressed as;
𝑡
𝑥̇ = 𝑥̇ 0 𝑒 −𝜏
⇒ The velocity decreases exponentially with time i.e., it is damped with time constant 𝜏.
1
The kinetic energy of the particle also decays exponentially i.e. 𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑥̇ 2
1 2𝑡
⇒ 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑥̇ 02 𝑒 − 𝜏
2
2𝑡
∴ 𝑇 = 𝑇0 𝑒 − 𝜏
1
where 𝑇0 = 𝑚𝑥̇ 02 is the initial kinetic energy of the particle.
2

5.3.1 Equation of a damped harmonic oscillatory motion

Consider a mass-spring system (see figure below) which has some damping mechanism. The two
forces acting on such a system are the restoring force by the spring (−𝑘𝑥) and the resistive or frictional
damping force (−𝛾𝑥̇ ) which is dependent on the velocity of the mass. An attached "fin" for example
which moves in a viscous fluid would provide the damping mechanism. The resistive force would
depend on the speed of the motion as well as the size and shape of the fin and the viscosity of the
fluid.

So Newton's second law for such an oscillator would be written as;

𝑚𝑥̈ = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝛾𝑥̇
𝛾 𝑘
⇒ 𝑥̈ + 𝑥̇ + 𝑥 = 0
𝑚 𝑚
1
∴ 𝑥̈ + 𝑥̇ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0
𝜏
𝑚 𝑘
where 𝜏 = 𝛾
and 𝜔0 = √𝑚
For a pure harmonic oscillation, we saw that solution of the equation of motion is

𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑)

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 40

 𝑡
For damped motion, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝜏 . When the two motions appear at the same time, i.e. both harmonic
oscillation and damping, each of them makes a contribution to the overall motion. The solution to the
resultant equation of motion can be obtained by mixing the two motions using linear combination of their
solutions. The combined solutions will therefore appear as;

𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
1
To find 𝛼and 𝜔 in terms of 𝜔0 and 𝜏, we have from 𝑥̈ + 𝜏 𝑥̇ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0
Displacement: 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

Velocity: 𝑥̇ = −𝛼𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝜔𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

Acceleration:

𝑥̈ = 𝛼 2 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − 𝛼𝑥0 𝜔𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − 𝛼𝜔𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

− 𝜔2 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

⇒ 𝑥̈ = 𝛼 2 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − 2𝛼𝑥0 𝜔𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − 𝜔2 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

1
Substituting for 𝑥, 𝑥̇ and 𝑥̈ into the equation𝑥̈ + 𝜏 𝑥̇ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0;
𝜔 𝛼
(𝛼 2 − 𝜔2 )𝑥 − 2𝛼𝜔𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − 𝑥 + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0
𝜏 𝜏
The above equation holds if each of the coefficient of 𝑥 and 𝑥0 are identically equal to zero
separately.
𝜔 1 𝛾
i.e. −2𝛼𝜔 + 𝜏 = 0; ⇒ 𝛼 = 2𝜏 = 2𝑚

and
𝛼
𝛼 2 − 𝜔2 + 𝜔02 − = 0
𝜏
1 2 2
1
⇒ 2 − 𝜔 + 𝜔0 − 2 = 0
4𝜏 2𝜏
1
⇒ 𝜔2 = 𝜔02 − 4𝜏2
Thus, the angular frequency is equal to
1 𝛾 2
𝜔 = √𝜔02 − 4𝜏2 = √𝜔02 − (2𝑚) (∗∗)
The above equation (**) shows that the frequency of oscillation of a damped harmonic oscillator,
𝜔 is always less than that of a pure harmonic oscillator, 𝜔0 . This implies that the damping must
be small. This is because if the amount of damping in a system is gradually increased, the period
and frequency begin to be affected because damping opposes and hence slows the back-and-forth
motion. If there is very large damping, the system does not even oscillate – it slowly moves toward
equilibrium. Thus, the larger the damping constant 𝛾, the shorter the damping time τ.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 41

 𝛾 2
As 𝛾 increases, 𝜔02 − (2𝑚) becomes smaller and eventually reaches zero when 𝛾 = √4𝑚𝑘. There
are three damping regimes as indicated in the figure below. The figure shows the displacement of
a harmonic oscillator for different amounts of damping.

(a) Underdamped (b) Critically damped (c) Overdamped

(a) Underdamp oscillation

This happens when the damping constant 𝛾, is small (𝛾 < √4𝑚𝑘). In this case, the system
oscillates while the amplitude of the motion steadily decays exponentially when it is displaced and
released. This system is said to be underdamped, as in curve (a). Many systems are underdamped,
and oscillate while the amplitude decreases exponentially, such as the mass oscillating on a spring,
a system of a child sitting still on a playground swing is an underdamped pendulum that can
oscillate many times before frictional forces bring it to rest, etc. The damping may be quite small,
but eventually the mass comes to rest.

(b) Critically damped oscillators

If the damping constant 𝛾 = √4𝑚𝑘, the system is said to be critically damped, as in curve (b). An
example of a critically damped system is the shock absorbers in a car. It is advantageous to have
the oscillations decay as fast as possible. Here, the system does not oscillate, but returns to its
equilibrium position as quickly as possible when it is displaced and released.

Critical damping is often desired, because such a system returns to equilibrium rapidly and remains
at equilibrium as well. In addition, a constant force applied to a critically damped system moves
the system to a new equilibrium position in the shortest time possible without overshooting or
oscillating about the new position.

(c) Overdamped oscillators

For overdamping, there is no oscillation but the system returns to equilibrium more slowly than
with critical damping. This system approaches equilibrium over a longer period of time. Curve (c)
in represents an overdamped system where 𝛾 > √4𝑚𝑘.

5.4 Forced harmonic oscillations

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 42

The oscillations in which a body oscillates under the influence of an external periodic force are
known as forced oscillation. The amplitude of the oscillator decreases due to damping forces but
on account of the energy gained from the external source it remains constant. When the frequency
of external force is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator, then this state is known as the
state of resonance. And this frequency is known as resonant frequency.

The diagram illustrates the case of a forced harmonic oscilation, where 𝐸⃗⃗ is an impressed
alternating source with harmonic oscillation such that;
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 [1]
From Kirchhoff’s law, the p.d across the given contact is given by;
𝑑𝑖 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + [2]
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
where q is the charge across C

Differentiating the second equation with respect to time, we have;

𝑑2 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑖 𝑑𝐸
𝐿 +𝑅 + = [3]
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
The steady state is achieved when the current oscillates with the same frequency as the impressed
voltage, with a possible variation of phase.
i.e. 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝑖0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 [4]
Putting equations [1] and [4] into [3];
1
{[−𝐿𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝑅𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑] 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡
𝐶
1
+ [(𝐿𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝑅𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑) 𝑖0 − 𝐸0 𝜔] 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡} = 0
𝐶
Each coefficient of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡has to be identically equal to zero.
1
i.e. −𝐿𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝑅𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = 0
1
𝐿𝜔−
𝐶𝜔
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑 = [5]
𝑅
and
1
(𝐿𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 + 𝑅𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑) 𝑖0 − 𝐸0 𝜔 = 0
𝐶

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 43

 𝐸0
⇒ 𝑖0 = 1 [*]
(𝐿𝜔− ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑+𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
𝐶𝜔
1
𝐿𝐶− 𝑅
𝐶𝜔
But from equation [5]; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 = and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = [**]
1 2 1
√𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔− ) √𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔− )
𝐶𝜔 𝐶𝜔

Putting equation (**) into (*), we’ve;

𝐸0
𝑖0 = 2
[6]
√𝑅 2 +(𝐿𝜔− 1 )
𝐶𝜔

Therefore, equation [4] becomes;

𝐸0
𝑖= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
2
√𝑅 2 + (𝐿𝜔 − 1 )
𝐶𝜔
At low frequencies, the impedance Z, is given by;
𝐸0 1 2
𝑍= √ 2
= 𝑅 + (𝐿𝜔 − )
𝐼0 𝐶𝜔
The value of current is high if; (𝐿𝜔 − 1⁄𝑐𝜔 ) ≈ 0. i.e., when the impedance is minimum.
1 1
⇒ 𝐿𝜔 = ⇔ 𝜔2 =
𝐶𝜔 𝐿𝐶
1
∴𝜔=
√𝐿𝐶
Since 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓,
𝜔 1 1
𝑓 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶 [9]
Equation [9] gives the frequency of resonance for the circuit of negligible resistance.

5.5 Two- Body Oscillations (Coupled Oscillations)

Consider two bodies 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 connected by a massless spring of force constant 𝑘, and free to oscillate
on a frictionless horizontal surface. If the ends of the spring are at 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 , the length of the spring at any
instant is 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 . If the normal unstretched length of the spring is 𝑙, then the change in length of the spring
𝑥 is;
𝑥 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) − 𝑙

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 44

There are three cases to consider during the motion of the system:
1. If 𝑥 is positive, the spring is stretched.
2. If𝑥 = 0, the spring has its normal length.
3. If 𝑥 is negative, the spring is compressed.
For 𝑥 > 0, the force exerted on 𝑚1 is 𝐹⃗ and on 𝑚2 is −𝐹⃗ and they have a common magnitude;
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
From Newton’s 2 law of motion, (i.e., 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎)
nd

𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑 2 𝑥2
𝑚1 = 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑚2 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
Multiplying the first part of the above equation by 𝑚2 and the second part by 𝑚1 we’ve;
𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑 2 𝑥2
𝑚1 𝑚2 = 𝑚2 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −𝑚1 𝑘𝑥 respectively.
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

Subtracting the first equation from the second, we have;

𝑑2
𝑚1 𝑚2 2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = −(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑑2
⇒( ) 2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = −𝑘𝑥
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑑𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
But 1 2 = 𝜇 = reduced mass
𝑚1 +𝑚2
2
𝑑
⇒𝜇
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝑑 2 𝑑 2 (𝑥 −𝑥 ) 𝑑 2 (𝑥)
But since 𝑙= constant; 𝑑𝑡 2 [(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) − 𝑙] = 𝑑𝑡2 2 1 = 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝜇 𝑥 = 0 or generally, 𝑥̈ + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
This is a S.H.M equation describing the motion of the system.
𝑘
𝜔=√
𝜇

𝑘
⇒ 2𝜋𝑓 = √
𝜇
1 𝑘 1 𝑘
𝑓 = 2𝜋 √𝜇 and thus, the period 𝑇 = 𝑓 = 2𝜋√𝜇
This system will appear to have the same frequency and period as a single block of mass 𝜇 connected
by a similar spring to a rigid wall.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 45

In this case one particle will appear to be moving relative to the other particle as though the other particle
were fixed and the mass of the moving one was reduced to 𝜇.

5.5.1 Average Values

The average value of a quantity 𝐾over a time interval 𝑡 is defined as;
1 𝑇
⟨𝑘⟩ = ∫ 𝐾𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
Since an oscillator is repetitive, the time average over one period is the same as over many periods and the
value is unique.

Examples
1. Given that the displacement of a particle at any given time 𝑡 is 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑).
a) Find the average value of the 𝐾. 𝑒
b) Find the average value of the 𝑃. 𝑒
Solution:
(a) From definition,
1 𝑇
⟨𝐾. 𝑒⟩ = ∫ 1⁄2 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
2𝜋
But 𝑇 = =period of oscillation
𝜔0
2𝜋
𝜔0 𝜔0 𝑚
⇒ ⟨𝑘. 𝑒⟩ = ∫ [𝐴𝜔0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑)]2 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0 2
2𝜋
𝑚𝜔03 𝐴2 𝜔0
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡
4𝜋 0
But cos2 (𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑) = 1⁄2 [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑)]

2𝜋
𝑚𝜔03 𝐴2 1 𝜔0
⇒ ⟨𝑘. 𝑒⟩ = ⋅ ⁄2 ∫ [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑)] 𝑑𝑡
4𝜋 0
𝑚𝜔03 𝐴2 1 2𝜋
= ⋅ ⁄2 ( )
4𝜋 𝜔0
𝑚𝜔02 𝐴2
∴ ⟨𝑘. 𝑒⟩ =
4
(b) For 𝑃. 𝑒,take 𝜑 = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡
By definition, 𝑃. 𝑒 = 𝑢 = 1⁄2 𝑘𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑢 = 1⁄2 𝑘𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔0 𝑡

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 46

 ⇒ ⟨𝑢⟩ = 1⁄2 𝑘𝐴2 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔0 𝑡 >
But < 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔0 𝑡 >= 1⁄2 (show!)
1 2 1
𝑘𝐴2
⇒< 𝑢 >= ⁄2 𝑘𝐴 ⋅ ⁄2 =
4
𝑘
But from equation of motion of a spring with mass, 𝑚attached at one end, 𝜔0 = √𝑚 ⇔ 𝑘 = 𝜔0 2 𝑚
𝑘𝐴2 𝑚𝜔0 2 𝐴2
∴< 𝑢 >= =
4 4
The total energy of an oscillator is given by:
𝐸 =< 𝑘. 𝑒 > +< 𝑢 >
𝑚𝜔0 2 𝐴2 𝑚𝜔0 2 𝐴2
= +
4 4
𝑚𝜔0 2 𝐴2
=
2
𝑚𝜔 2 𝐴2
∴< 𝐸 >= 𝐸 Since 20 is a constant.
i.e., the total energy of an oscillator without impedance or damping forces is a constant.
5.6 Dissipation of Power
Whenever there are forces, there is always work associated with them and furthermore, there is
energy which is dissipated otherwise systems would execute perpetual motion. For many
mechanical systems, friction is the main source of dissipation of energy.
1
Recall: 𝑥̈ + 𝜏 𝑥̇ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0
The frictional force 𝐹⃗𝑓 is proportional to the velocity and is given by;
𝑚
𝐹⃗𝑓 = −𝛾𝑥̇ = − 𝑥̇
𝜏
where 𝛾 = 𝑚⁄𝜏 and the negative sign signifies dissipation of energy rather than the acquisition of
more.
The work done against such a force is given by;
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹⃗𝑓 . 𝑑𝑠⃗
where 𝑑𝑠⃗ is a small displacement of a body by the force 𝐹⃗𝑓
The average power is the rate of doing work;
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
i.e., < 𝑃 >= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
In one dimension, the average power for a steady frictional force is derived from the product of
force and velocity;
i.e., < 𝑃 >=< 𝐹⃗𝑓 . 𝑥̇⃗ >
For 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) ;
⇒ 𝑥̇ = −𝛼𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝜔𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
Where 𝛼 = 1⁄2𝜏

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 47

 −𝑚 2
⇒< 𝐹⃗𝑓 . 𝑥̇⃗ >=< 𝑥̇ >
𝜏
2 2 −2𝛼𝑡 2 2 −2𝛼𝑡
2
But 𝑥̇ = 𝛼 𝑥0 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 (𝜔𝑡
+ 𝜑) + 𝜔 𝑥0 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − 2𝛼𝑥02 𝜔𝑒 −2𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 +
𝜑) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
−𝑚 2
⇒< 𝑃 >=< 𝜏 {𝑎 𝑥0 𝑒 2 −2𝛼𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝜔2 𝑥02 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) −
2𝛼𝑥02 𝜔𝑒 −2𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)} >But < 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) >=< 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) >=
1
and < 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) >= 0
2
𝑡 𝑡
−𝑚𝑥02 𝑒 −𝜏 −𝑚𝜔2 𝑥02 𝑒 −𝜏
⇒< 𝑃 >= −
8𝜏 3 2𝜏
When the relaxation time, 𝜏 is very large, the 1st term in the above equation vanishes;
𝑡
−𝑚𝜔2 𝑥02 𝑒 −𝜏
∴< 𝑃 >=
2𝜏
Alternatively, power can also be defined as loss of total energy per relaxation time.
−Total energy −(<𝑇>+<𝑢>) −𝐸
i.e., < 𝑃 >= Relaxation time = = 𝜏
𝜏
𝑡
−𝑚𝜔2 𝑥02 𝑒 −𝜏
∴< 𝑃 >=
2𝜏
5.7 Quality Factor for an Oscillatory System
The quality factor (Q – factor) helps to distinguish the performance of various oscillatory systems.
The quality factor, Q is defined as;
2𝜋 × Energy stored in the system 2𝜋𝐸
𝑄= =
Energy loss in one period per cycle 𝑃𝑇
where 𝑃 = power loss in one cycle and 𝑇 = period of oscillation
1
But 𝑇 = 𝑓 ; 𝑓 = frequency of oscillation
2𝜋𝐸𝑓 𝜔𝐸
𝑄= = ; Since 2𝜋𝑓 = 𝜔
𝑃 𝑃
−𝐸 𝜔𝐸
Recall: < 𝑃 >= , then 𝑄 = |𝐸⁄𝜏|
𝜏
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏
Thus, the quality factor is the product of the frequency of oscillation and the relaxation time.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 48

 Chapter 6: Invariance & introduction to special
theory of relativity
6.1 Review of Newton’s laws of motion
Newton’s three famous laws of motion set out the founding principles of mechanics and have survived,
essentially unchanged, to the present day. These laws are now formulated as applying to particles, a concept
never used by Newton. A particle is an idealized body that occupies only a single point of space and has
no internal structure. True particles do not exist in nature, but it is convenient to regard realistic bodies as
being made up of particles.

6.1.1 Newton’s 1st law

This law states that “an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon
by an external force”. This law contains implication about the fundamental symmetry of the universe in
that a state of motion in a straight line must be just as natural as being at rest. For a particle at rest in one
frame of reference, it appears to be moving in a straight line to an observer in a reference frame which is
moving by the object. No reference frame is preferred; all reference frames are equivalent for all constant
velocity.

Our discussion is summarized by the following statement which we take to be a law of physics: The law
of inertia There exists in nature a unique class of mutually unaccelerated reference frames (the inertial
frames) in which the First Law is true. Every isolated particle moves in straight line in such a frame, and if
one particular isolated particle moves at a constant velocity in such a frame of reference then every other
isolated particle will move at a constant velocity in this frame.

One thing this law does is give a definition of zero force. Another thing it does is give a definition of an
inertial frame, which is defined simply as a frame of reference in which the first law holds; since the term
“velocity” is used, we have to state what frame we’re measuring the velocity with respect to.

6.1.2 Newton’s 2nd Law

Consider particles 1 & 2 isolated from all other matter but free to interact with one another as observed
from an inertial frame of reference. The interaction of the particles will result into acceleration. If 𝑢 ⃗⃗1 (𝑡)
⃗⃗2 (𝑡) are the respective velocities of particles 1 & 2 at time t, then there exists a constant term 𝜇12 > 0
and 𝑢
and a constant vector 𝐾 ⃗⃗ independent of time such that for all t,

⃗⃗1 (𝑡) + 𝜇12 𝑢

𝑢 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗2 (𝑡) = 𝐾 [2.1]

Similarly for a set of other two experiments involving particles 1, 3 and particles 2, 3;

⃗⃗3 (𝑡) = 𝐿⃗⃗

⃗⃗2 (𝑡) + 𝜇23 𝑢
𝑢
} [2.2]
⃗⃗3 (𝑡) + 𝜇31 𝑢
𝑢 ⃗⃗1 (𝑡) = 𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗

Where 𝐿⃗⃗ and 𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗ are constant vectors like 𝐾

⃗⃗, which depend on a particular experiment but independent of
time and 𝜇𝑖𝑗 > 0, such that 𝜇12 𝜇23 𝜇31 = 1 when the masses of the particles are considered. This principle
leads to the statement of Newton’s 2nd and 3rd laws of motion.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 49

If 𝑚1 , m2, 𝑚3 are the masses of the particles which are positive quantities, then equations [2.1] and [2.2]
above take the form;
𝑚1 𝑢 ⃗⃗2 = 𝑃⃗⃗12
⃗⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑢
𝑚2 𝑢 ⃗⃗3 = 𝑃⃗⃗23 }
⃗⃗2 + 𝑚3 𝑢 [2.3]
𝑚3 𝑢 ⃗⃗1 = 𝑃⃗⃗31
⃗⃗3 + 𝑚1 𝑢
Where 𝑃⃗⃗𝑖𝑗 =the momenta of the particles which are constant vectors that depend on the experiment.

Differentiating equations [2.3] w.r.t time we obtain;

𝑚1 𝑎⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑎⃗2 = 0
𝑚2 𝑎⃗2 + 𝑚3 𝑎⃗3 = 0} [2.4]
𝑚3 𝑎⃗3 + 𝑚1 𝑎⃗1 = 0

Acceleration 𝑎⃗1 of particle 1 arises due to its interaction with particle 2. Thus, there exists a force 𝐹⃗12 =
𝑚1 𝑎⃗1 on particle 1 due to particle 2 and a force 𝐹⃗21 on particle 2 due to particle 1.

Statement: The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and it’s
in the direction of force. In other words; 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗; where 𝐹⃗ =net external force on the object, 𝑚 =mass of
the object and 𝑎⃗ = 𝑑𝑢 ⃗⃗⁄𝑑𝑡 is acceleration of the object.

6.1.3 Newton’s 3rd Law

From Newton’s second law, equation [2.4] can then be rewritten as;

𝐹⃗12 = −𝐹⃗21
𝐹⃗23 = −𝐹⃗32 } [2.5]
𝐹⃗31 = −𝐹⃗13
This suggests that all forces in the universe occur in equal but opposite directed pairs.

Statement: Whenever two bodies interact, the force 𝐹⃗21 on the 2nd body due to the 1st is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the force 𝐹⃗12 on the 1st body due to the 2nd so that no net force arises from purely
internal forces.

NB: Taken together, these laws represent virtually the entire foundation of classical mechanics and provide
an accurate explanation for a vast range of motions from large molecules to entire galaxies.

6.1.4 Limitations of Newton’s laws

→ Newton’s 1st and 2nd laws are valid only in unaccelerated or inertial frame of reference.
→ The 2nd law 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ only holds if the mass 𝑚 is constant. However, as the speeds approach the
speed of light, the mass changes, thus 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ is seen to be strictly a non-relativistic relationship
which applies to acceleration of constant mass objects.

→ The 3rd law is valid only if the rate of signal propagation can be considered infinite. There is a finite
time interval required for one particle to feel the force exerted by the other particle e.g., in atomic
collisions.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 50

NB: These limitations have led to the birth of new classical Physics in the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian
mechanics discussed in Classical Mechanics (second year).

Figure 2.1: Illustration of Newton’s laws of motion

6.2 Frames of reference

Definition: A reference frame is an observational perspective in space at rest, or in uniform
motion, from which a position can be measured along 3 spatial axes. Basically, a frame of
reference is a system of co-ordinate axis which defines the position of a particle in two- or three-
dimensional space. The simplest frame of reference is the Cartesian system of co-ordinates, in
which the position of the particle is specified by its three co-ordinates x, y, z along the three
perpendicular axes. In general, it is a framework that is used for the observation and mathematical
description of physical phenomena and the formulation of physical laws, usually consisting of an
observer, a coordinate system, and a clock or clocks assigning times at positions with respect to
the coordinate system. Frames of reference are divided into two categories:

(i) inertial frames, and

(ii) non-inertial frames of reference

6.2.1 Inertial frames of reference

Inertia of a body is the ability of the body to resist change in its state of motion.

Definition: An inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference in which the law of inertia
(Newton’s law of motion) and other physics laws are valid. Any frame moving at a constant velocity

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 51

relative to another frame is also an inertial frame of reference. In an inertial frame of reference,
no fictitious forces arise.

Examples of inertial reference frames: A space shuttle moving with constant velocity relative
to the earth, a rocket moving with constant velocity relative to the earth, any reference frame that
is not accelerating, a fixed star in the galaxy, a frame attached to a particle on which there are no
forces, any reference frame that is at rest, a reference frame attached to the center of the universe,
a reference frame attached to Earth, a car moving on a linear path at constant speed, the bank of a
river, etc.

6.2.2 Non-inertial frames of reference

Definition: A non-inertial frame of reference is a reference frame in which the law of inertia or
Newton’s laws do not hold. They are accelerating frames. Such an accelerating frame of reference
is called a non-inertial frame because the law of inertia does not hold in it. That is, its velocity is
not constant. So, it is either changing its speed by speeding up or slowing down, or it is changing
its direction by traveling in a curved path, or it is both changing its speed and changing its direction.
In a non-inertial frame of reference fictitious forces arise.

Examples of non-inertial reference frames: Elevator, Rotating frames, any accelerating frames,
etc., a car that is speeding up to get through a yellow light, an object in circular motion with varying
speed.

6.2.3 Explanations of different scenarios of reference frames

Scenario 1:
If we are in a car when the brakes are abruptly applied, then we will feel pushed toward the front
of the car. However, there is really no force pushing us forward. The car, since it is slowing down,
is an accelerating, or non-inertial frame of reference. The law of inertia no longer holds in this
non-inertial frame to judge our motion. If this situation is viewed relative to the ground, which is
at rest, it becomes clear that no force is pushing us forward when the brakes are applied. The
ground is stationary and, therefore, is an inertial frame. Relative to this inertial frame, when the
brakes are applied, we continue with our forward motion, just like we should according to
Newton's first law of motion. The situation is this: the car is stopping but we are not. From our
point of view in the car it seems like we have spontaneously been pushed forward. Actually, there
is no force acting on us. The imagined force acting on us called fictitious or pseudo force or the
frame dependent force. A similar fictitious force can be noticed by a person in a car when it speeds
up. Pseudo force is an imaginary force which is experienced only in a non-inertial frame of
reference. The conclusion is that, in inertial frame of reference, zero force corresponds to zero
acceleration. In non-inertial force, zero force doesn't correspond to zero acceleration.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 52

Scenario 2:
A person sitting on a bus watching a ball roll across the ground will have a very different
measurement of the ball’s velocity than a person standing on ground outside the bus would
measure the ball’s velocity. The person inside the bus and the person outside the bus are measuring
from different frames of reference. The laws of physics seem to momentarily break down for you
sitting on the bus. In reality, what has happened is that your frame of reference has been
compromised. When breaks are applied to the bus, the bus undergoes a negative acceleration. At
this moment, it becomes a non-inertial frame of reference. A non-inertial frame of reference is
a reference frame in which the law of inertia does not hold. The two frames of reference are the
ground and the bus.

Although the ball accelerates toward the front of the bus, there is no net force causing the
acceleration. But if you are sitting on the bus, you observe the ball accelerating forward. That
would imply to you as you sit on the bus that there is a net force forward on the ball. The reason
there appears to be a net force on the ball is that you are observing the motion of the ball in the
non-inertial reference frame. If you were observing the motion from the road (which is an inertial
frame of reference) the ball just continues to move forward at the speed it was already going, and
its motion is easily explained by the law of inertia. To an observer in the inertial frame of reference
(the ground) the bus experiences a net force causing it to decelerate. The ball just continues its
forward velocity with no net force. To explain the ball’s motion if you are sitting on the bus, you
need to invent a force that acts on the ball toward the front of the bus. This is called the fictitious
force. It is an invented force that we can use to explain the observed motion in the accelerated
frame of reference.

Scenario 3:
If you are standing on the sidewalk and observe a person in a car drive at 30 km/hr you will say
that the driver is moving toward you or away from you at 30 km/hr. But what if you are observing
the motion of the driver from within the car? In this case, you would say that the driver is not
moving, even though the car is moving at a constant speed of 30 km/hr relative to a person standing
on the sidewalk. In fact, you would say the person on the sidewalk is moving toward or away from
you at 30 km/hr! The two frames of reference are the ground and the car.

Scenario 4:
You are floating down a river on a raft at a speed of 4 m/s. From the shore, your friend clocks your
speed at 4 m/s. You look down at the river and see a stick floating in the water. You yell to your
friend that the stick is not moving. Your friend yells back that it’s moving at 4 m/s, just like you.
You yell back and tell your friend that he/she is moving backward at 4 m/s. The two frames of
reference are the riverbank and the river or the raft.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 53

NB: Thus, an inertial frame of reference or inertial reference frame is one in which Newton’s 1 st
and 2nd laws of motion are valid.

6.3 Galilean relativity (principle of Galilean invariance)

Any two observers moving at constant speed and direction with respect to one another will obtain
the same results for all mechanical experiments. The principle of Galilean invariance states that
“the basic laws of Physics are identical in all reference frames which moves with uniform velocities
with respect to one another.”

Explanation: Consider an aeroplane moving with a constant velocity. If a passenger in the

aeroplane throws a ball straight up in the air, he observes the ball moving in a vertical path. The
motion of the ball is precisely the same as it would be if the ball were thrown while at rest on the
Earth. The law of gravity and the equations of motion under constant acceleration are obeyed
whether the aeroplane is at rest or in uniform motion. Now consider the same experiment when
viewed by another observer at rest on Earth. This stationary observer views the path of the ball in
the plane to be a parabola and the ball has a velocity to the right equal to the velocity of the plane.
Although the two observers disagree on the shape of the ball’s path, both agree that the motion of
the ball obeys the law of gravity and Newton’s laws of motion and even agree on how long the
ball is in the air.

Conclusion: There is no preferred frame of reference of describing the laws of mechanics. Thus,
the fundamental physical laws and principles are identical in all inertial frames of reference. This
is also the Newtonian relativity.

6.3.1 Galilean transformations

These are a set of equations in classical physics that relate the space and time coordinates of two
systems moving at a constant velocity relative to each other. They are adequate to describe
phenomena at speeds much smaller than the speed of light. Galilean transformations formally
express the ideas that space and time are absolute; that length, time, and mass are independent of
the relative motion of the observer; and that the speed of light depends upon the relative motion of
the observer.

6.3.2 Galilean transformation equations

Let S and 𝑠 ′ be two inertial frames of reference. Let S be at rest and 𝑠 ′ be moving with a uniform
velocity 𝑣 with respect to S along the positive x – direction as shown in the figure below. Suppose
an event occurs at a point P, an observer at rest in frame S with space time coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
may express the results of measurements carried out in a system 𝑠 ′ with coordinates (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ , 𝑡 ′ )
whose origin is moving with constant velocity 𝑢 ⃗⃗ along the x-axis and whose coordinates
′ ′ ′ ′
(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 , 𝑡 ) coincide with those of S (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) at 𝑡 = 0.

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 54

 Inertial frames of reference

For non-relativistic motion – i.e., for 𝑣⃗ << 𝑐, clocks on system 𝑠 and 𝑠 ′ once synchronized will
agree on time as follows;

𝑡 = 𝑡′ [2.7]
And similarly,
𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑦 = 𝑦′ } [2.8]
𝑧 = 𝑧′
These four sets of equations are known as the standard Galilean transformation equations. These
equations imply that when a clock is located at 𝑂′ and is read as it passes each of the two
synchronized clocks which are at rest relative to the frame 𝑠, the elapsed time 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′
measured in 𝑠 ′ −system is the same as the elapsed time 𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 measured in the 𝑠 −system.
Similarly, the length 𝑙 ′ = 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ will be the same as 𝑙 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 determined by noting the two
ends of a meter rule at the same instant. And that there is no relative motion between S and S’
along y and z directions.

Thus, the length of distance between two points is invariant under Galilean transformation. From

Introduction to Classical Mechanics Lecture Notes by Dr. B. Oryema Page 55

the Galilean transformations and the principle of Galilean invariance, we can determine the
transformation properties of other quantities;

(i) Velocity
𝑑𝑥 ′ +𝑣𝑑𝑡 ′
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑥̇ = = 𝑢𝑥′ + 𝑣 [2.9]
𝑑𝑡 ′
More generally,
𝑢 = 𝑢′ + 𝑣

where 𝑢′ is the velocity of the particle at P as measured by 𝑆 ′ , 𝑢 is he velocity of the particle at P

as measured by S, and 𝑣 is the relative velocity between the two frames.

i.e., the velocity of a particle as measured by a stationary frame is equal to the sum of the velocity
of the same particle as measured from the moving frame and velocity of 𝑆 ′ frame with respect to
S frame.

⇒ 𝑢′ = 𝑢 − 𝑣 [2.10]

Equation [2.10] is called non relativistic (𝑣 ≪𝑐) Galilean velocity transformation equation. If 𝑢 =
0, i.e., the particle is at rest with respect to S frame, then 𝑢′ = −𝑣. Thus, the particle appears to
move with uniform velocity in 𝑆 ′ frame. Thus, the Newton’s first law is obeyed in both the frames.

(ii) Acceleration
Differentiating equation [2.10] w.r.t time,
𝑑𝑢′ 𝑑
𝑎′ = = 𝑑𝑡 ′ (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑎 (𝑑𝑣 = 0 for v is a constant) [2.11]
𝑑𝑡

where 𝑎′ is the acceleration of the particle as measured by 𝑆 ′ frame and 𝑎 is the acceleration in S
frame. Thus, 𝑎′ = 𝑎. Implying that the acceleration of the particle as measured by the two frames
are the same or acceleration is invariant. Equation [2.11] is the Galilean acceleration
transformation equation.

(iii) Force
Multiplying the above equation [2.11] by m, the mass of the particle, we get 𝑚𝑎′ = 𝑚𝑎 or 𝐹 ′ =
𝐹. Thus, the Newton’s laws are valid in 𝑆 ′ frame also and thus, an inertial frame. Thus, the laws
of mechanics are same in all inertial frames of reference which is the principle of Galilean or
Newtonian relativity.

6.4 Einstein’s special theory of relativity

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Until the end of the 19th century, it was believed that Newton’s three Laws of Motion and the
associated ideas about the properties of space and time provided a basis on which the motion of
matter could be completely understood. However, the formulation by Maxwell of a unified theory
of electromagnetism disrupted this comfortable state of affairs – the theory was extraordinarily
successful, yet at a fundamental level it seemed to be inconsistent with certain aspects of the
Newtonian ideas of space and time.

Maxwell's electromagnetic theory tells that the value of the speed of light is constant. Theory of
special relativity tells that the speed of light is constant in all frames of reference.

Ultimately, a radical modification of his concepts, and consequently Newton’s equations were
found to be necessary. It was Albert Einstein who, by combining the experimental results and
physical arguments of others with his own unique insights, first formulated the new principles in
terms of which space, time, matter and energy were to be understood. These principles and their
consequences constitute the Special Theory of Relativity. The theory of relativity is certainly one
of the most exciting and talked-about topics in physics.

The principle of relativity essentially states that “the laws of physics take the same mathematical
form in all frames of reference moving with constant velocity with respect to one another”. Some
of the discrepancies in Newtonian mechanics modified by Einstein in his special theory of
relativity are illustrated below:

1. Conflict between ultimate speed and Newton’s laws

Newton’s 2nd law of motion is only valid for speeds less than that of light, but at very high
velocities approaching the speed of light, the law does not hold. For instance, consider an electron
in an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ = 106 𝑉 ⁄𝑚 and acted upon by an electric force, 𝐹𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−13 𝑁. If this
force acts over a distance of 10 m, the acceleration and consequently its final velocity of flight can
be obtained.
From 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

𝐹⃗ 1.6 × 10−13
⇒ 𝑎⃗ = = −31
= 1.76 × 1017 ms -2
𝑚 9.1 × 10
If this electron starts from rest, then from the 3rd equation of motion, its velocity is:

𝑉 = √2𝑎𝑠 = √2 × 1.76 × 1017 × 10 = 1.9 × 1017 ms−1

This is not true since nature’s speed limit 𝑐 = 3.0 × 108 ms −1.

2. Classical momentum and energy conservation conflict

Consider a particle of mass, 𝑚and velocity 𝑣⃗colliding with another particle with the same mass
but initially at rest, conservation of energy gives;

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 1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 + 1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2 1 2 2

⇒ 𝑣 2 = 𝑣1 2 + 𝑣2 2
where 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the speeds after collision.

Also, conservation of momentum gives;

𝑚𝑣⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚𝑣⃗2 ⇒ 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑣⃗2

If neither of the two velocities is zero, then the ⟨𝜑 between the final velocities must be 900.
Practically with particles moving at high velocities e.g., electrons, the angle 𝜑 is less than 900
which disagrees with the classical predictions.

3. Conservation of mass
Significant deviations are observed from conservation of mass when the energies of interactions
are high enough.

e.g. Proton mass = 1.6724U

Neutron mass = 1.6747U
Sum of these masses = 3.3471U

The practical mass of the resulting particle from the above nucleons is 3.3431U. This is less than
the classical total mass hence the discrepancy.

6.5 Einstein’s postulates

Einstein proposed his famous theory of special relativity in the year 1905 to overcome these
difficulties. The part of relativistic mechanics which is related to uniform motion is called 'Special
Theory of Relativity'. Einstein's special theory of relativity is based on the following two
fundamental postulates:

1. The principle of speed of light invariance or constancy of speed of light: This states that
“the speed of light, c has the same value in any inertial frame”. This implies that the speed of
light is independent of the motion of its source, which was not the same in the Galilean
transformations. This is the only postulate that differentiates the classical theory and the
Einstein’s theory of relativity.

To explain this postulate, let’s consider a source of light and two frames of reference, the first frame of
reference 𝑆 ′ stationary relative to the source of light and the other, S, moving relative to the source of light
as shown in the figure below.

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An observer on frame S measures the speed of light to be c. This is indistinguishable from the speed of light
measured from frame 𝑆 ′ .

2. The principle of relativity: It is much more believable than the speed-of-light postulate. This
postulate states that “the laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference”. This
postulate basically says that a given inertial frame is no better than any other. There is no
preferred reference frame. That is, it makes no sense to say that something is moving; it makes
sense only to say that one thing is moving with respect to another. This is where the “Relativity”
in Special Relativity comes from. There is no absolute frame; the motion of any frame is
defined only relative to other frames.

The result of Einstein's theory was to introduce new coordinate transformations, called Lorentz
transformations, between inertial frames of reference. At slow speeds, these transformations were
essentially identical to the classical model, but at high speeds, near the speed of light, they
produced radically different results.

The first postulate says velocity of light is the same in all the inertial frames which was not the
same in the Galilean transformations. This is the only postulate that differentiates the classical
theory and the Einstein’s theory of relativity.

The second postulate is a generalization of the principle of Galilean relativity, which refers only
to laws of mechanics. Einstein’s principle of relativity means that any kind of experiment –
mechanical, thermal, optical, or electrical – performed in a laboratory at rest must give the same
result when performed in a laboratory moving at a constant speed past the first one. Hence no
preferred inertial reference frame exists.

6.6 Lorentz transformations

Lorentz discovered new transformation equations which are consistent with the new concept of
invariance of velocity of light in free space. An event can be completely specified by its four
space-time coordinates (i.e., the time of occurrence and its 3-dimensional spatial location) defining
a reference point. Let’s call this frame of reference 𝑠. In relativity theory, we often want to calculate

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the position of a point from a different reference point. Suppose we have a 2nd frame of reference
𝑠 ′ whose spatial axes and clock exactly coincide with that of 𝑠at time zero, but it’s moving at a
constant velocity 𝑢⃗⃗ with respect to 𝑠 along the x-axis. Let’s define the event to have space-time
coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) in system 𝑠 and (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ , 𝑡 ′ ) in 𝑠 ′ .

6.6.1 Derivation of the Lorentz transformations

Consider a light source placed at origin O of an inertial frame of reference 𝑠 at rest denoted by
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡). In this case, the velocity of light is invariant. The transformation will be independent
of the motion of the light source or receiver.

Illustration of Lorentz transformation

A light pulse emitted by the source at time 𝑡 = 0 will spread as a growing sphere whose radius
after time 𝑡 is given by 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑡, where 𝑐 is the speed of light. After time t, the observer will note
the light has spread at point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and for the observer it will reach the point 𝑃(𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) as
shown. The transformation equation relating x and 𝑥 ′ can be written as;

Substituting the constants in the transformation equations, we get

These are called Lorentz transformation equations. The inverse Lorentz transformation equations
are;

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6.7 The fundamental effects of special relativity
Special relativity yields several consequences from applying Lorentz transformations at high
velocities (near the speed of light). Among them are: Time dilation (including the popular "twin
paradox"), Length contraction, Velocity transformation, Relativistic velocity addition, Relativistic
doppler effect, Simultaneity & clock synchronization, Relativistic momentum, Relativistic kinetic
energy, Relativistic mass and Relativistic total energy.

6.7.1 Length contraction

Let S and 𝑆 ′ be two inertial frames of reference. Let S be at rest and 𝑆 ′ be moving with a uniform
velocity 𝑣 with respect to S along the positive x - direction. Consider a rod AB of length L
remaining at rest relative to the frame 𝑆 ′ .

Let 𝑥1′ and 𝑥2′ be the coordinates (distance from the origin O′ ) of the ends of the rod in the frame
𝑆 ′ . As the rod is at rest relative to 𝑆 ′ , its length is called the proper length given by 𝐿0 = 𝑥′2 − 𝑥 ′1 .
Similarly, the coordinates of the ends of the rod in the S frame 𝑥1 and 𝑥2. Then the length of the
rod as measured relative to S frame is 𝐿 = 𝑥2− 𝑥1. From the Lorentz transformation equation,
(𝑥1 −𝑣𝑡)
𝑥 ′1 = [*]
√1−(𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )

(𝑥2 −𝑣𝑡)
𝑥′2 = [**]
√1−(𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )

Subtracting [*] from [**], we get

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 (𝑥2 − 𝑣𝑡) (𝑥1 − 𝑣𝑡)
𝑥′2 − 𝑥′1 = −
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 ) √1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
or
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑥 ′ 2 − 𝑥 ′1 =
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
Thus,
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝐿
𝐿0 = 𝑥′2 − 𝑥 ′1 = =
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 ) √1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
or
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 ) [***]

From equation [***] it is observed that 𝐿< 𝐿0. Thus, for an observer in S the length of the rod
appears to be contracted or reduced by a factor of √1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 ). This shortening or contraction
of length of an object along its direction of motion is known as Lorentz – Fitzgerald contraction.
The contraction becomes appreciable when 𝑣 ≈𝑐.

6.7.2 Time dilation

Consider a gun placed at a point in a frame 𝑆 ′ , which is moving with uniform velocity 𝑣 with
respect to a frame S at rest. Let a clock in the moving frame S’ measure 𝑡′1 and 𝑡′2 as the times at
which two shots are fired from the gun in frame 𝑆 ′ . As this clock is at rest with respect to the
observer in frame 𝑆 ′ , the time interval between the two explosions is called the proper time interval
𝑡0 = 𝑡′2 − 𝑡 ′1 . Since the gun is fixed in 𝑆 ′ , it has a velocity 𝑣 with respect to S in the positive x-
direction. Let 𝑡= 𝑡2− 𝑡1 represent the time interval between the two shots as measured by an
observer in S. From the inverse Lorentz transformation equation, we have;

𝑣𝑥′ 𝑣𝑥′
𝑡′1 + 𝑡′2 +
𝑡1 = 𝑐2 and 𝑡2 = 𝑐2
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 ) √1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )

Subtracting 𝑡1 from 𝑡2 , we get;

𝑣𝑥 ′ 𝑣𝑥′
𝑡′2 +2 𝑡′1 + 2
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑐 − 𝑐
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 ) √1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
Thus,
𝑡 ′ 2 − 𝑡′1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 =
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
or

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 𝑡0
𝑡=
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
This equation indicates that 𝑡 > 𝑡0. Thus, the time interval between two events occurring at a given
point in the moving frame 𝑆 ′ appears to be longer for the observer in the stationary frame S. i.e., a
stationary clock (frame S) measures a longer time interval between events occurring in a moving
frame of reference than does the clock (frame 𝑆 ′ ) in the moving frame. This effect is called time
dilation.

The twin paradox: Consider twins with one of them going for a long journey to space at a high
speed in a rocket and the other remaining on the earth. The clock in the moving rocket appears to
𝑡0
go slow for the observer on the earth (in accordance with 𝑡 = ). Therefore, when he
√1−(𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
returns back to the earth, he will find himself younger than the twin who stayed back on the earth.

6.7.3 Loss of simultaneity

Consider two events, i.e., two explosions occurring at two different locations 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 at the same
time 𝑡0 as measured by an observer O in frame S which is at rest. Consider another observer O′ in
the frame 𝑆 ′ moving with relative constant velocity 𝑣 with respect to the frame S along the positive
𝑣𝑥
𝑡0 − 21
x - direction. To the observer O′ in 𝑆 ′ the explosion at 𝑥1 occurs at the time 𝑡′1 = 𝑐
and
√1−(𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
𝑣𝑥
𝑡0 − 22
𝑐
the explosion at 𝑥2 occurs at time 𝑡′2 = . The time interval between the two events as
√1−(𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
𝑣
(𝑥 −𝑥2 )
′ ′ 𝑐2 1
observed by O in 𝑆 is, 𝑡′2 − 𝑡′1 = . This is not equal to zero. This indicates the two
√1−(𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
events at 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 which are simultaneous for an observer O in S is not simultaneous for the
observer O′ in 𝑆 ′ . Thus, the concept of simultaneity is only relative and not absolute.

6.7.4 Variation of mass with velocity

The relativistic formula for the mass m of a body moving with a velocity 𝑣 is given by;
𝑚0
𝑚=
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )

When the velocity 𝑣 →𝑐, i.e., the body travelling at the speed of light, the mass becomes infinite.
Thus, no material particle can travel at the speed of light or greater than the speed of light.

6.7.5 Mass energy equivalence – derivation of

Consider a body of mass m moving with velocity v. Let F be the force acting on the body. From
Newton’s second law, force is equal to rate of change of momentum, given by

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 𝑑𝑝 𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
𝐹= = [1]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
According to the special theory of relativity, both mass and velocity are variables. Therefore;

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝐹=𝑚 +𝑣 [2]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Let the force F displace the body by a distance, 𝑑𝑥. Then, the increase in the kinetic energy (𝑑𝐸𝑘)
of the body is equal to the amount of work done (𝐹 𝑑𝑥). Hence, 𝑑𝐸𝑘= 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 [3]. Substituting
for F from [2] in [3], we get;

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 [4]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑚0
According to the law of variation of mass with velocity, 𝑚 = . Squaring this equation
√1−(𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
and rearranging,

𝑚02 𝑚02 𝑐 2
𝑚2 = =
1 − 𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2
or
𝑚2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = 𝑚02 𝑐 2
or
𝑚2 𝑐 2 = 𝑚02 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣 2
Differentiating this equation,
𝑐 2 2𝑚𝑑𝑚 = 0 + 𝑚2 2𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 2𝑚𝑑𝑚

⟹ 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 [5]
Comparing equations [4] and [5], we get;
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 [6]
Thus, the change in kinetic energy is directly proportional to the change in mass, 𝑑𝑚. When a
body is at rest, its velocity is zero. Its K.E is zero and the mass is 𝑚 = 𝑚0 . When the velocity of
the body is 𝑣, its mass is 𝑚. Therefore, integrating equation [6].
𝐸𝑘 𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑘 = 𝑐 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑚
0 𝑚0
2
Thus, 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑐 (𝑚 − 𝑚0 )
or
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑐 2 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2 [7]

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This is the relativistic equation for kinetic energy of the particle.

When the body is at rest the internal energy stored in the body is 𝑚0 𝑐 2 which is called the rest
mass energy. Thus, the total energy (𝐸) of the body is the sum of the K.E (𝐸𝑘) and the rest mass
energy (𝑚0 𝑐 2 ). The total energy is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2

Substituting for 𝐸𝑘 from [7] in this equation, we get

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2

⇒ 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

This is called the Einstein’s mass energy relation. This relates the universal equivalence between
mass and energy. i.e., mass and energy are interconvertible.

6.7.6 Relationship between total energy, rest mass energy and the momentum
The total relativistic energy of a particle is
𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝐸=
√1 − (𝑣 2 ⁄𝑐 2 )
The momentum of the particle is 𝑝=𝑚𝑣 or 𝑣= 𝑝/𝑚. Substituting for 𝑣 in the above equation, we
get;
𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝐸= = =
√1 − (𝑝2 ⁄𝑚2 𝑐 2 ) √1 − (𝑝2 𝑐 2 ⁄𝑚2 𝑐 4 ) √1 − (𝑝2 𝑐 2 ⁄𝐸 2 )
Thus,
𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝑚02 𝑐 4
𝐸= or 𝐸 =2
2 𝑐 2 ⁄𝐸 2 )
or 𝐸 2 − 𝑝2 𝑐 2 = 𝑚02 𝑐 4
√1 − (𝑝 2 2
𝑐 𝐸⁄ 2 ) 1 − (𝑝

Thus, the relation between the total energy, rest energy and the momentum is given by

𝑬𝟐 − 𝒑𝟐 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝟒

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