SAMPLE

&
SAMPLING METHODS

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 SESSION OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you are able to:

Define sample and sampling methods

Explain the purpose of sampling

List and describe common sampling methods

Define and describe errors in sampling

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 SAMPLING METHODS
Samples:- are the group of representative elements
of a certain population from which we look
information

Sampling:- is the process of selecting representative

elements from a defined study population

Sample = Representativeness!

 It is vital that the sample is representative of the

population

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 Why sampling ?
Feasibility: it may be the only feasible method of
collecting information

Reduced cost: it reduces demands on resource such as

finance, personnel, and material

Greater accuracy (Quality): it may lead to better

accuracy of collecting data

Greater speed: data can be collected and summarized

more quickly

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 During sampling we must consider the following
questions
1. What is the group of people (population) from
which we want to draw a sample?

2. How many people do we need in our sample?

3. How will these people will be selected?

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 Terminologies
Reference population (source population or target
population):-

 is the population of interest to which the investigators

would like to generalize the results of the study and

 from which a representative sample is to be drawn

Sample population:- the population included in the

sample
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 Terminologies…

Study unit:- the unit on which information is

collected

Sampling frame:- the lists of all units in the reference

population from which a sample is to picked

Sampling fraction:- the ratio of the number of

units(n) in the sample to the number of units in the
reference population(N). i.e. N/n

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 Methods of Sampling

 Two broad divisions

A. Probability Sampling Methods

B. Non- Probability Sampling Methods

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 A. Probability Sampling Methods
 is selection of a sample from a population based on equal
or likelihood

 has a sampling frame or can be compiled

 involves random selection procedures , so that all units of

the population should have an equal or at least a known
chance of being included in the sample

 Generalization is possible ( from sample to population)

 is more complex, more time consuming and usually more

costly than non-probability sampling methods
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Common Probability Sampling Methods are:-

I. Simple Random Sampling

II. Systematic sampling

III. Stratified sampling

IV. Cluster sampling

V. Multistage sampling

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 Summary of all probability sampling methods:
 There is equal likely chance/probability

 Have random selection

 Have sampling frame

 Sample is representative, so that generalization is possible.

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The methods choose depends on a number of factors, such as :-

 The available sampling frame

 How spread out the population is

 How costly it is to survey members of the population

and

 How users will analyse the data

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 1. Simple Random Sampling/SRS/
 Is the most basic/commonly used/ scheme of

sampling

 Each units in the sampling frame has an equal chance

of being selected

 It is representative for the study population

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 Sampling procedure for SRS
Make a numbered list of all the units in the
population from which you want to draw a sample

Each unit on the list should be numbered in sequence

from 1 to N ( where N the size of the population)

Decide on the size the sample

Select the required number of study units, using a

lottery method or a table of random numbers

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 Sampling procedure…
“Lottery” method:-
 May be possible for a small population(usually <20)

 Each units in the population is represented by a slip of

paper, these are put in a box and mixed, and a sample of
the required size will be drawn from the box

Table of random numbers:- if there are many units,

however, the above techniques become laborious

 Any scientific calculator has the facilities( SPSS)

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 2. Systematic sampling
 called interval sampling

 means there is a gap or interval between each selection units in

the sample

 Steps in systematic sampling methods

– Number the units in the population from 1 to N

– Decide on the n (sample size) that you need

– Calculate the Sampling Fraction k (K = N/n)

– Randomly select an integer between 1 to k (SRS)

– Then take every kth unit

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 Systematic sampling…
e.g. 1. Calculate a sample size of 100 from a population of
400 by using systematic sampling method.
1st Calculate the sampling fraction. which is N/n = 400/100
= 4 w/c is K
2nd Select a number between 1 and 4 from a table of random
numbers
3rd If you select 3,w/c is the first unit in your sampling and
the next units would be 3+ K. i.e
3 ,7 ,11 ,15 ,19…….395 ,399 ( up to n w/c is 400 in
this case)
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 3. Stratified sampling
 Applied when the source population is heterogeneous
on a variable of interest

 The population is first divided into classes (strata) e.g.

sex and age
 The population is first divided in to groups ( strata)
according to a certain characteristics of interest. E.g. age,
sex , geographical area , prevalence of disease….etc)

 Then a separate sample is taken from each stratum

using Simple or Systematic Random Sampling tech
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 Stratified sampling…
 The number taken from each stratum might be

 equal (Non Proportional Stratified Sampling) or

 the number is determined based on the proportion

of each class in the source population

(Proportional Stratified Sampling)

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 •All students in MWU

All Students in
each batch

1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year 5th year
sample sample sample sample sample
students students students students students

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 Stratified sampling…
Advantage:
– improves representativeness of the sample
(Proportional Stratified Sampling) or

– it creates reasonable comparison among strata (Non

Proportional Stratified Sampling)

Limitation:
– Requires separate sampling frame for each stratum

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 4. Cluster sampling
 Sometimes it is too expensive to carry out SRS

– Population may be large and scattered

–Complete list of the study population might be

unavailable

– Travel costs can become expensive if interviewers have to

survey people from one end of the country to the other

 Cluster sampling is the most widely used to reduce the cost
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 Cluster sampling…
 The clusters should be homogeneous, unlike
stratified sampling where the strata are
heterogeneous
 Is a sampling method applied when the source
population is composed of “natural or usual” groups
 Assuming the groups are homogenous among each
other, Cluster sampling selects few groups (clusters)
from the population as Primary Sampling Unit
(PSU)
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 Cluster sampling…
 Then the required information is collected from all
elements, Secondary Sampling Units (SSU), within
each selected group

 Clusters are often geographical units. E.g . Districts,

villages or organizational units( e.g. clinics, training
groups…etc)

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 Steps in cluster sampling
Cluster sampling divides the population into groups
or clusters

A number of clusters are selected randomly to

represent the total population, and then all units
within selected clusters are included in the sample

This differs from stratified sampling, where some

units are selected from each group

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 Example
• In a school based study, we assume students of the

same school to be homogeneous

• We can select randomly sections and include all

students of the selected sections only

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 Cluster sampling…
 Advantage:

– It doesn’t require the sampling frame of the SSU

– Requires less time and resource

 Disadvantage:

– Relies on the assumption of homogeneity among

clusters

– Less control on sample size

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 5. Multi‐stage sampling
 when the reference population is large and widely
scattered

 Selection is done in stages until the final sampling

unit (eg., households or persons) are arrived at

 The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the sampling unit

(usually large size) in the first sampling stage

 The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the sampling

unit in the second sampling stage
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 zone
Worade PSU

.
SSU
Kebele

Sub-Kebele TSU

HH

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 Multi‐stage sampling…
 You do not need to have a list of all of the units in
the population

 Saves a great amount of time and effort by not having

to create a list of all the units in a population

 Commonly used with cluster sampling

– Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling

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 B. Non- Probability Sampling Methods
 General features are:-
no random selection

no sampling frame

no equal or likely chance to be selected

sample is not representative and

generalization is impossible

reliability can’t be ensured

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 Non- Probability Sampling…
 useful when descriptive comments about the sample
itself are desired

 they are quick, inexpensive and convenient

 when it is unfeasible or impractical to conduct

probability sampling.

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The most common types of non-probability
sampling

1. Convenience or haphazard sampling

2. Volunteer sampling

3. Judgment sampling

4. Quota sampling

5. Snowball sampling technique

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 1. Convenience or haphazard sampling

 It is sometimes referred to as haphazard or accidental

sampling

 sample units are only selected if they can be accessed

easily and conveniently

 Is a method in which for the convenience sake the study

units that happen to be available at the time of data

collection are selected

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 Convenience or haphazard
sampling….
E.g. “ Person on the street” interviews conducted
frequently by TV news programs to get a quick
reading of public opinion

 A scientist could use this method to determine

whether a lake is polluted or not

 Assuming that the lake water is well-mixed, any

sample would yield similar information

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 Convenience or haphazard
sampling….
• It can be used when time and resources are too short,

but that advantage is greatly offset by the presence of

bias

• deliver accurate results when the population is

homogeneous

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 2. Volunteer sampling
 As its term implies , this type of sampling occurs
when people volunteer their services for the study

 In psychological experiments or pharmaceutical trials

(e.g., drug testing), for example, it would be difficult
and unethical to enlist random participants from the
general public

 In these instances, the sample is taken from a group

of volunteers
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 Volunteer sampling…
 Sometimes, the researcher offers payment to attract
respondents

 Sampling voluntary participants as opposed to the

general population may introduce strong biases

 The majority does not volunteer, resulting in large

selection bias

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 3. Judgment/Purposive sampling
 The researcher chooses the sample based on who he/she
think would be appropriate for the study

 This approach is used when a sample is taken based on

certain judgments about the overall population

 The underlying assumption is that the investigator will

select units that are characteristic of the population

 The critical issue here is objectivity: how much can

judgment be relied upon to arrive at a typical sample?

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 Judgment sampling…
 Researchers often use this method in exploratory
studies like pre-testing of questionnaires and focus
groups

 Is subjected to the researcher's biases.

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 4. Quota sampling
 Selection of individuals is done until the required total in
each group (quota) is obtained
 E.g. A sample of 50 men and 50 women
 Quota sampling is an effective sampling method when
information is urgently required and
• can be conducted without sampling frames

 Some units may have no chance of selection or the

chance of selection may be unknown

• Therefore, the sample may be biased

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 5. Snowball sampling
 A technique for selecting a sample where existing study
subjects recruit future subjects from among their
acquaintances(friends)
 Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling
snowball
 Sampling people who are difficult to contact
 This sampling technique is often used in hidden
populations which are difficult for researchers to access;
• example populations would be drug users, CSWs,
homeless or street children, etc 42
 Snowball sampling…
• samples are subject to numerous biases

• For example, people who have many friends are more

likely to be recruited into the sample

• The researcher begins by identifying someone who

meets the inclusion criteria of the study

• Then the study subject would be asked to recommend

others who s/he may know who also meet the criteria
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 Error in Sampling
A. Sampling error ( random error)

 Arising from the sampling process

 They cannot be avoided or totally eliminated

 Minimized by increasing the size of the sample

( when as n=N, sampling error=0)

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 Error in Sampling…
B. Non-sampling error
 Is a type of systematic error in the design or conduct of a
sampling procedure
 Can be:-
Observational error
Respondents error
Lack of preciseness
Error in editing and tabulation of data
 Can be eliminated or reduced by careful design of the
sampling procedure
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 Summary
1. what is sample ?
2. List at least three purpose of sampling
3. What are the major categories of sampling ?

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 What is the Types of sampling technique?
1. 49, 34, and 48 students are selected from the Sophomore, Junior, and
Senior classes with 496, 348, and 481 students respectively
2. A sample consists of every 49th student from a group of
496 students.
3. A market researcher selects 500 drivers under 30 years of age and
500 drivers over 30 years of age.
A market researcher selects 500 people from each of 10 cities.
5. A tax auditor selects every 1000th income tax return that is
received.
6. A pollster uses a computer to generate 500 random numbers, then
interviews the voters corresponding to those numbers.
To avoid working late, a quality control analyst simply inspects the
first 100 items produced in a day.
8. An education researcher randomly selects 48 middle schools and
interviews all the teachers at each school.
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