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DENTAL
PUBLIC HEALTH
Nathe
& RESEARCH
resources to enhance
your learning are just a click away! Contemporary Practice
for the Dental Hygienist
Fourth Edition
Go to: www.pearsonhighered.com/healthprofessionsresources
Select the appropriate discipline
Find your book and click to enter
Fourth Edition
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-425546-0
ISBN-10: 0-13-425546-1
Christine Nielsen Nathe
9 780134 255460
www.pearsonhighered.com
vii
UNIT
14 Research in Dental Hygiene 180 PRACTICAL STRATEGIES FOR DENTAL
Research and Dental Public Health 181 IV PUBLIC HEALTH 293
Historical Aspects of Research in Dental Hygiene 183
Dental Hygiene: A Developing Discipline 184 21 Careers in Dental Public Health 294
Federal/National Public Health Career
15 Ethical Principles in Research 187 Opportunities 295
Ethical Considerations in Research 188 Independent Contractors 298
Research Roles of Government and Private Dental Staffing Agency Employee 298
Entities 192
Health Systems Opportunities 298
16 The Research Process 195 Student Dental Public Health Opportunities 299
Historical Approach 199 State Opportunities 300
Descriptive Approach 199 Local Opportunities 300
Retrospective (Ex Post Facto) Approach 201 International Opportunities 301
Experimental (Prospective) Approach 201
22 Strategies for Creating Dental Hygiene Positions in
Quasi-Experimental Approach 204 Dental Public Health Settings 302
17 Biostatistics 210 Legislative Perspective 303
Data Categorization 212 Proposed Plan for Action 303
Descriptive Statistics 213 Documentation and Practice Management 307
Graphing Data 216 Proposal Development and Presentation 307
Correlation 220 Dental Hygiene Consultation and Policies 307
23 Dental Public Health Review 310 C Dental Terms and Phrases Translated into Spanish
Study Guide 312 and Vietnamese with Spanish Pronunciation
Guide A-4
Sample Questions 314
D Standards for Dental Hygienists in Dental Public
Health Education A-6
APPENDICES E Guide to Scientific Writing A-7
When Alfred Civilion Fones followed his dream to create women knew Dr. Fones personally. During lunch hours,
within the dental staff a dental therapist whose focus would they had a captive audience and would relate to us how it
be the prevention of dental disease, his intention was all began: the first school in the carriage house adjacent to
not merely to have this person perform in dental offices. Dr. Fones’ and his father’s dental building; his persever-
He recognized from the start that the most effective way ance and determination in convincing city fathers, the
to ”spread the word” was to provide direct services, educa- board of education, and the dental society to allow the
tional and clinical, to groups of people—to the masses. early dental hygienists to conduct programs within the
Ideally, those groups would be composed of children who schools.
would be taught at an early age the importance of dental I know how proud and delighted they would be— Dr.
health and prevention of dental disease. Where better to Fones and “the pioneers”—to see how dental hygienists
interface with children than in grammar schools? And so have positioned themselves today in various public health
in time, what was known as the Bridgeport, Connecticut, settings, and how impressed they would be with Christine
School Dental Hygiene Corps was established, composed Nathe’s Dental Public Health and Research: Contemporary
of members of Dr. Fones’ classes of 1914, 1915, and 1916. Practice for the Dental Hygienist. It is a remarkable testi-
Ergo the first dental hygiene public health program. mony to the premise that public health dental hygienists
I will fast-forward to the early 1950s when thirtythree have the ability to play a valuable and critical role in the
young women and I were enrolled at the University of dental health of people everywhere.
Bridgeport’s Fones School of Dental Hygiene. As part of
our fieldwork rotation, we traveled to longestablished
dental clinics throughout the city’s schools. I remember Janet Carroll Memoli, RDH, MS
being extremely fond of that assignment because I liked Retired Director, Fones School of Dental Hygiene
interacting with the children. But the real thrill of those Professor Emeritus, University of Bridgeport,
trips was coming face-to-face with members of those first Bridgeport, CT
classes who were still in charge of the various clinics. These
xi
The guiding principles that served as the impetus for the Follow this URL and select Dental Hygiene as your
first three editions of Dental Public Health and Research discipline. Click on this title to view extra practice
remain consistent with an added emphasis on the dental questions and information for students to use outside of
hygienist’s understanding of research principles. The class to test their knowledge or for additional review of
twenty-first century mandates a change in the practice and topics covered in each chapter.
understanding of dental public health concepts. The dental
hygiene practitioners who will be practicing in this century Instructor’s Resource Manual
need information on how to effectively practice and con- The Instructor’s Resource Manual contains a wealth of
duct dental hygiene research in the dental public health material to help faculty plan and manage their course. This
setting. manual includes:
The fourth edition expands on public health science
• A test bank of more than 550 questions
from its inception and further explains the essence of den-
• Discussion items to provide ideas for classroom
tal public health. The chapter on dental care funding is
discussion
expanded to focus on the current issues in dental care
• Laboratory or field experiences with process evalua-
financing and the government’s role in this area. Moreover,
tions for student and faculty member use
a chapter on the importance of collaboration in dental
care, building coalitions to help advocate for the oral • Laboratory exercises
health of all people, and an introductory discussion on This Instructor’s Resource Manual is available for
grant writing are included. download from www.pearsonhighered.com from the
The second unit focuses on learning theories, popula- Instructor’s Resource Center. Instructors should register
tions, and programs. The cultural diversity chapter empha- at the site to obtain a username and password.
sizes the effect culture has on dental health, and the
chapter on target populations has been expanded and Instructor Resources
diversified. This focus is necessary in a public health book Additional instructor resources are available at
because it helps future providers understand how cultures, www.pearsonhighered.com. These include the complete
populations, and health relate. The program planning test bank that allows instructors to design customized
chapter is significantly updated and expanded with regard quizzes and exams. The TestGen wizard guides instructors
to benchmarks and effective programs presently in place. through the steps in creating a simple test with drag-and-
The research unit is greatly expanded to provide drop or point-and-click transfer. Faculty members can
detailed information on the study of dental hygiene select test questions either manually or randomly and use
research. The focus of this unit is to comprehensively dis- online spell checking and other tools to quickly polish
cuss the reasons research is necessary in dental hygiene the test content and presentation. The question formats
and how research impacts the practicing dental hygienist. include multiple choice, fill in the blank, true/false,
Areas of expansion include discussions on the pivotal role and essay. Tests can be saved in a variety of formats both
research plays in dental hygiene, ethics in research, evi- locally and on a network, organized in as many as twenty-
denced-based principles of practice, the roles of govern- five variations of a single test, and published in an
ment and private entities in dental research, oral online format. For more information, please visit
epidemiology, and the measurement of oral diseases and www.pearsonhighered.com/testgen.
conditions. Expansion of this unit should help colleges that The Instructor Resources also include a PowerPoint
teach research within the community dental/public health lecture package that contains key discussion points for
courses. Additionally, this unit may be useful in conjunc- each chapter. This feature provides dynamic, fully
tion with other materials in stand-alone research courses. designed, integrated lectures that are ready to use and
allows instructors to customize the materials to meet their
specific course needs.
Teaching and Learning Package
Ad d i t i o n a l s t u d e n t re s o u rc e s c a n b e f o u n d a t
www.pearsonhighered.com/healthprofessionsrecources.
xiii
The author wishes to acknowledge the contributing editorial support and advice from John Goucher,
authors for their work to enhance the fourth edition. Executive Editor, and Nicole Ragonese, Program Manager,
Important academic support was provided by Demetra Pearson. Also, the copyeditor, Michael Rossa, and Susan
Logothetis, Professor Emeritus, and Cynthia Guillen, McNally, the production editor at Cenveo® Publisher
Supervisor, Administrative Support, Division of Dental Services. The book would not be possible without support
Hygiene, University of New Mexico. And, of course, from these individuals.
xiv
April Catlett, RDH, BHSA, MDH, PhD Mindy Jay, RDH, AAS, BHS, Med
Central Georgia Technical College Pensacola State College
Macon, GA Pensacola, FL
xv
Previous Editions
Sheila Bannister, Vermont Technical College Jamar M. Jackson, Hostos Community College
Eugenia B. Bearden, Clayton College and State Tara L. Johnson, Idaho State University
University
Mary E. Jorstad, Lake Land College
Maryellen Beaulieu, University of New England
Nancy K. Mann, Indiana University–Purdue University
Lynn Ann Bethel, Mount Ida College Fort Wayne
Jacqueline N. Brian, Indiana University–Purdue Patricia Mannie, St. Cloud Technical College
University
Jill Mason, Oregon Health Sciences University
Fort Wayne
Aamna Nayyar, Santa Fe Community College
Janice Brinson, BSDH, MS, Tennessee State University
Robert F. Nelson, University of South Dakota
Diane L. Bourque, Community College of Rhode Island
Marian Williams Patton, Tennessee State University
Sandra George Burns, Ferris State University
Mary S. Pelletier, Indian River State College
Valerie L. Carter, St. Petersburg College
Connie M. E. Preiser, Catawba Valley Community College
Kenneth A. Eaton, University College London
Barbara Ringle, Cuyahoga Community College
Michele M. Edwards, Tallahassee Community College
Martha H. Roberson, Virginia Western Community
Kerry Flynn, Palm Beach Community College College
Jacque Freudenthal, Idaho State University Judith Romano, Hudson Valley Community College
Theresa M. Grady, Community College of Philadelphia Kari Steinbock, Mt. Hood Community College
Beverly H. Hardee, Cape Fear Community College Edith Tynan, Northern Virginia Community College
I
Introduction to
Dental Public Health
Science photo/Shutterstock
Chapter 1 Dental Public Health: An Overview
Chapter 2 The Prevention Movement
Chapter 3 Dental Care Delivery in the United States
Chapter 4 Dental Hygiene Care Delivery in the Global Community
Chapter 5 Financing of Dental Care
Chapter 6 Federal and State Legislation Affecting Dental Hygiene
Practice
Chapter 7 Advocacy for Dental Care
The following excerpt eloquently states the need for edu- Unfortunately, this statement reflects a problem that
cating dental hygienists about the need for dental public exists throughout the world. Dental problems cause pain,
health: infection, disease, and disability and can easily be pre-
vented. And, although this paragraph was written over
Children live for months with pain that grown-ups would
twenty years ago, it is still paramount to the overall goal of
find unendurable. The gradual attrition of accepted pain
the dental hygiene discipline. For over one hundred years,
erodes their energy and aspirations. I have seen children
dental hygienists have had the skills necessary to help alle-
in New York with teeth that look like brownish, broken
viate this problem. This introductory unit focuses on the
sticks. I have also seen teenagers who were missing half
definition of public health, its historical development as a
their teeth. But, to me, most shocking is to see a child
true public health profession, and evidence-based preven-
with an abscess that has been inflamed for weeks and
tive health modalities that are practiced in public health.
that he has simply lived with and accepts as part of the
This unit also discusses the current status of dental care
routine of life.*
delivery in the United States and abroad with an emphasis
* Kozol J. Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools. New York, on government structures, financing, laws and initiatives
NY: Crown Publishers; 1991. affecting dental hygiene care.
KEY TERMS
Assessment 4
Assurance 4
Community dental health 9
Dental public health 9
Malpractice 14
Policy development 4
Primary prevention 3
Public health 3
Public health goals 5
Public health services 5
Secondary prevention 3
Serving all functions 4
Socioeconomic status
(SES) 13
Tertiary prevention 3
Science photo/Shutterstock
2
Public health is concerned with the health care of all peo- fluoride to remineralize tooth surfaces that have been
ple. It focuses on the health of a population as a whole demineralized.
rather than on the treatment of an individual. The goal of
public health is to protect and promote the health of the
public across three essential domains: health protection, Did You Know?
disease prevention, and health promotion.1 Health protec-
tion is protecting society from disease, illness, and acci- Fluoride can be a primary preventive agent or a secondary
dents, whereas disease prevention is actually preventing preventive agent depending on the use of fluoride.
disease from occurring. Promoting health is the work that
is accomplished when healthy ideas and concepts are Another dental example is periodontal debridement
encouraged. to reduce periodontal pocketing. Tertiary prevention
Public health has become an essential component of employs strategies to replace lost tissues through rehabili-
developed societies. Many of the major improvements in tation. The use of prosthetics to replace missing limbs is an
the health of populations have resulted from public health example. Using dental materials to restore demineralized
measures such as ensuring safe food and water, controlling tooth surfaces to stop an infection and prevent the loss of
epidemics, and protecting workers from injury.2 Most peo- a tooth due to tooth decay is an example of tertiary dental
ple, however, do not give much thought to the public prevention. See Table 1-1 for more examples of the levels
health until a crisis occurs or the system fails.2 Infectious of dental prevention.
disease outbreaks, the incidence of cancer, and the increas- Dental public health is only one component of public
ing number of working people unable to afford health care health. An understanding of the foundation of public
services draw attention to the infrastructure that protects health is important when discussing the topic of dental
the health of the public.2 public health.
Public health initially involved caring for a population
with a disease, but the focus shifted to controlling the dis-
ease itself. It has subsequently evolved to emphasize dis- Public Health Defined
ease prevention (Figure 1-1 ), which enhances quality of The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as
life, helps deter illness or outbreaks, and is cost effective. a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being
Primary prevention is the employment of strategies and and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. 3
agents to forestall the onset of disease, reverse its progress,
or arrest its process before treatment becomes necessary.
An example of primary prevention would be the provision Table 1–1 Levels of Dental Preventive Care
of immunizations to children. Dental hygiene is a form of Levels of Prevention Therapies and Services
primary dental prevention as is the use of fluoride to pre-
vent tooth demineralization. Primary prevention Oral evaluation
Most people recognize the efficacy of primary levels
Dental prophylaxis
of prevention, but they are less likely to think of second-
ary prevention as being effective at preventing disease. Fluoride as a preventive agent
Secondary prevention employs routine treatment meth- Dental sealants
ods to terminate the disease process and/or restore tissues
to as nearly normal as possible; this can also be called Health education
restorative care. Setting a broken arm so that the bone Health promotion
heals correctly is an example of secondary prevention. Secondary prevention Dental restorations
One dental example of secondary prevention is the use of
Periodontal debridement
Fluoride use on incipient caries
Secondary Dental sealants on incipient caries
Prevention
ART, alternative restorative
treatment
Primary Tertiary
Prevention Prevention Endodontics
Tertiary prevention Prosthodontics
Health Implants
Oromaxillofacial surgery
Source: Based on Harris, NO, Garcia-Godoy, F and Nathe, CN. Primary
FIGURE 1–1 Disease Prevention Levels
Preventive Dentistry, 8th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson,
Source: © Pearson Education, Inc. 2013, page 6.
Further, the WHO and others have defined public health • Serving all functions is the research for new insights
as the effort to promote physical and mental health and and innovative solutions to health problems.6
prevent disease, injury, and disability at the population
These functions can facilitate public health policy and
level. This involves a wide range of products, activities, and
decision making and further enhance planning public
services aimed at the entire population although it is
health programs (Figure 1-2 ). As stated, these functions
sometimes delivered to the individual.3,4 Many postulate
ensure that the public’s health should be assessed, so that
that public health is the approach to health care that con-
policies can be developed to address needs and mecha-
cerns the health of the community as a whole. The first
nisms can be enacted to ensure that these policies are
dentist to be president of the American Public Health
meeting the needs. Researching new innovations, titled
Association, John W. Knutson, originally defined public
serving all functions, ensures that this cycle of needs assess-
health as:
ments, policy development, and assurance is constantly
Public health is people’s health. It is concerned with and consistently occurring.
the aggregate health of a group, a community, a state, The IOM subsequently published For the Public’s
or a nation. Public health in accordance with this broad Health: Investing in a Healthier Future, which addressed
definition is not limited to the health of the poor, or to three topics related to population health in the United
rendering health services or to the nature of the health States: measurement, law and policy, and funding in the
problems. Nor is it defined by the method of payment for context of health care changes.7
health services or by the type of agency responsible for
supplying those services. It is simply a concern for and
activity directed toward the improvement and protection Did You Know?
of the health of a population group and the aggregate.5
Population health means the health of the population,
This definition appropriately places value on the or the public’s health and focuses on public health efforts.
description of public health to address the public’s health, Many times, public health is thought of as health care
regardless of financial resources, the provision of clinical, for those without financial means, but public health is
educational or social services nor the particular health much broader, essentially encompassing the public’s
health in totality.
issue. Public health in totality addresses all aspects of the
public’s health. Examples of public health could be clinical
care provided in a government-funding or private clinic,
Data collection, reporting, and action—including pub-
research conducted to treat disease, data collected to moni-
lic policy and laws informed by data and quality metrics—
tor health or social services provided to access care.
were felt needed to support activities that will alter the
In the report The Future of the Public’s Health in the
physical and social environment for better health.7 The
21st Century, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) defined
report cited failure of the health system, including both
public health as “what we, as a society, do collectively to
assure the conditions in which people can be healthy.” The
IOM identified core functions that were to be conducted
by government public health agencies: assessment, policy
development, assurance, and serving all functions.6 Assessment
individuals and families, the practice of public health has In England in 1777, a Gloucestershire milkmaid told
become a cause of great concern for governments and her physician, Dr. Edward Jenner, that she was fortunate
health systems. The World Health Organization (WHO) to have contracted cowpox because it conferred protection
operates in an increasingly complex and rapidly changing against smallpox. Dr. Jenner, in turn, collaborated with
landscape, and the boundaries of public health action other providers to study the relationship and establish the
extend into other sectors that influence health opportuni- scientific principle of immunization that eventually
ties and outcomes.1 WHO responds to these challenges resulted in eliminating smallpox.11
using a six-point agenda to help navigate the health of the In 1798, the United States passed an act that provided
public (see Box 1-3 ). for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, which established
a federal network of hospitals for the care of merchant
seaman, the precursor of the US Public Health Service,
Historical Perspective of Public Health which was initiated in 1902.12 Recall that many times
Learning from history cannot be underestimated when communicable diseases were spread country to country by
developing effective solutions to current public health seamen. In today’s world intercontinental travel is common,
issues. Widespread outbreaks of communicable disease and many people travel to many countries, as opposed to a
can be traced back to the plague, including the infamous century earlier when seamen were often the only
Black Death, which had devastating effects on populations international travelers. Interestingly, the first supervising
in many nations and continents for decades (Figure 1-3 ). surgeon of this network was the predecessor to today’s US
Public health activities such as quarantines, mass burials, Surgeon General.
and ship inspections were subsequently developed to pre- The identification of a polluted public water well as
vent such horrendous epidemics. the source of an 1854 cholera outbreak in London resulted
Public health preventive measures have been seen in in a major advancement in public health.13 Dr. John Snow
tribal customs of primitive societies.9 These measures were used a logical, epidemiological approach to study the out-
probably developed to serve as a survival mechanism. break. At the time, many suspected pollution as the cause
These measures included hygiene and cleanliness customs. of the cholera, but by studying the geographical relation of
This is, of course, interesting since dental hygienists hope the sick to a water pump, he was able to help control the
that the current population feels the same way about outbreak.
hygiene and cleanliness of the oral cavity.
The first significant recording of public health measures
in the United States occurred in South Carolina in 1671
when a water protection measure was enacted to prevent
diseases caused by water supplies.10 Specifically, it stated: Box 1–3 World Health Organization’s
Should any person cause to flow into or be cast into any of Six-Point Agenda
the creeks, streams or inland waters of this State any im-
purities that are poisonous to fish or destructive to their
1. Promoting development The ethical principle of
spawn, such person shall, upon conviction, be punished.10 equity directs health development: Access to life-saving
or health-promoting interventions should not be denied
for unfair reasons, including those with economic or
social roots.
2. Fostering health security One of the greatest threats
to international health security is from outbreaks of
emerging and epidemic-prone diseases.
3. Strengthening health systems For health improvement
to operate as a poverty-reduction strategy, health
services must reach poor and underserved populations.
4. Harnessing research, information, and evidence
Evidence provides the foundation for setting priorities,
defining strategies, and measuring results.
5. Enhancing partnerships WHO carries out its
work with the support and collaboration of many
partners, including UN agencies and other interna-
tional organizations, donors, civil society, and the
private sector.
6. Improving performance WHO participates in ongo-
ing reforms to improve its efficiency and effectiveness
at both the international level and within countries.
FIGURE 1–3 Triumph of Death: Black Death
Source: Scala/Art Resource, NY Retrieved September 23, 2014 from http://www.who.int.
The roots of the US Department of Health and Human 1966: The International Smallpox Eradication program
Services go back to the early days of the nation: led by the US Public Health Service was established;
1798: An act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen was the worldwide eradication of smallpox was accomplished
passed, establishing a federal network of hospitals for the in 1977.
care of merchant seamen; forerunner of today’s US Public 1970: The National Health Service Corps was established.
Health Service. 1990: The Human Genome Project was established, and
1871: The first supervising surgeon (later called Surgeon the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act was passed to
General) was appointed for the Marine Hospital Service, authorize nutritional labeling of food.
which had been organized the prior year. 1993: The Vaccines for Children Program was established,
1887: The federal government opened a one-room laboratory providing free immunizations to all children in low-income
on Staten Island for research on disease, thereby planting the families.
seed that was to grow into the National Institutes of Health. 1995: The Social Security Administration became an
1906: Congress passed the Pure Food and Drugs Act, independent agency.
authorizing the government to monitor the purity of foods 1996: The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability
and the safety of medicines, now the responsibility of the Act (HIPAA) was enacted.
Food and Drug Administration. 1997: The State Children’s Health Insurance Program
1921: The Bureau of Indian Affairs Health Division, the (SCHIP) was created, which enables states to extend
forerunner to the Indian Health Service, was created. health coverage to more uninsured children.
1946: The Communicable Disease Center, forerunner of the 1999: The initiative on combating bioterrorism was
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, was established. launched.
1955: The Salk polio vaccine was licensed. 2002: The Office of Public Health Emergency Preparedness
1961: The First White House Conference on Aging was held. was created to coordinate efforts against bioterrorism and
1964: The first Surgeon General’s Report on Smoking and other emergency health threats.
Health was released. 2003: The Medicare Prescription Drug Improvement and
1965: The Medicare and Medicaid programs were created, Modernization Act of 2003 was enacted—the most signifi-
making comprehensive health care available to millions of cant expansion of Medicare since its enactment, including
Americans. In addition, the Older Americans Act created the a prescription drug benefit.
nutritional and social programs administered by HHS Admin- 2010: The Affordable Care Act was signed into law, put-
istration on Aging, and the Head Start program was created. ting in place comprehensive US health insurance reforms.
community efforts. It is that form of dental practice diseases on a community basis. Implicit in this defini-
that serves the community as a patient rather than tion is the requirement that the specialist have broad
the individual. It is concerned with the dental health knowledge and skills in public health administration, re-
education of the public, with applied dental research, search methodology, the prevention and control of oral
and with the administration of group dental care pro- diseases, and the delivery and financing of oral health
grams, as well as the prevention and control of dental care.17
Source: Ten Great Public Health Achievements—United States, 1900–1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rpt. 1999;8(12):241–243.
Sono scorsi circa due mesi dalla convocazione della Camera, ma ben
poche le sedute importanti.
La costituzione degli ufficî assorbì le prime tornate, nelle quali la
maggioranza e le opposizioni si contarono.
Il Governo fa circolare, per mezzo de’ suoi amici, le liste de’ suoi
candidati; le opposizioni contrappongono i proprî.
Dai risultati degli scrutini si misura la forza della maggioranza. Equa
giurisprudenza impone però al Governo di accordare una parte,
minima invero, delle cariche agli oppositori.
Eletto il seggio presidenziale: un presidente, quattro vice presidenti,
otto segretarî, due questori, si procede alla divisione della Camera in
nove ufficî; i deputati vengono assegnati agli ufficî diversi per
estrazione a sorte. Ogni ufficio nomina un presidente, un
vicepresidente, un segretario.
Fra le nomine, dal regolamento lasciate alla scelta del presidente
della Camera, havvi quella di venti deputati che devono far parte
della giunta delle elezioni, altissima magistratura parlamentare,
giudice della validità o meno delle elezioni contestate. I giudici di
Giuliano.
La Camera poi vota i nomi dei componenti di tre commissioni
parlamentari permanenti, fra le quali importantissima quella
composta di trentasei membri per l’esame dei bilanci e dei rendiconti
consuntivi.
Impossibile, per chi non conosce il dietroscena di Montecitorio, farsi
idea delle gare fra deputati per aver l’alto onore di coprire una di tali
cariche. Compromessi, concessioni, diserzioni, piccole e grandi viltà,
per ottenere che il proprio nome sia inscritto nelle liste dei candidati
del Governo... degli amici del Governo, ch’è poi la stessa cosa.
Il Governo, che tenne al battesimo elettorale la sua maggioranza,
l’ingrossa negli squittini, accaparrandosi per di più la benevolenza
degli oppositori, scelti per necessità fra gli aspiranti avversarî... La
nomina, ripercossa nei collegi elettorali, aumenta l’autorità
dell’eletto, il quale in tal modo va già seminando per le elezioni
future.
— Ogni incluso, spiegava l’onorevole Lustri a Giuliano, ha un amico,
se non due o più, corifei troppo modesti o nulli o troppo novellini per
poter aspirare ad onori speciali; essi ripongono la loro vanità in
accomandita, cioè nel trionfo del collega prediletto, gruppo
infinitesimale fra i gruppi che compongono i partiti, nei quali si divide
la Camera, e questi due, tre o più amici dividono col prescelto la loro
riconoscenza per il gabinetto, dirò meglio, per il presidente del
Consiglio, in Italia, da molti anni, qualunque siasi, vero dittatore con
tutti i gabinetti, con tutte le maggioranze, quasi sempre le stesse, le
quali, disaggregate il giorno delle inevitabili crisi, atterrano l’idolo per
erigerne un altro, che verrà ad epoca non lontana egualmente
atterrato, per essere sostituito da uno de’ predecessori
precedentemente travolto. Vicenda continua!
Lastri paragonava i ministeri ai limoni:
— Le maggioranze li spremono; quando, esausti, non danno più, si
gettano. Ed il quarto d’ora dell’esaurimento viene sempre, mentre i
deputati non cessano mai di chiedere... limonata, per sè o per i loro
elettori.
«Ministero nuovo, anche composto di limoni vecchî, libro nuovo. Il
dare e l’avere passa alla finca profitti e perdite, e si ricomincia da
capo.
«Lo stesso Depretis, soggiungeva Lastri, a chi gli aveva fatto
osservare la di lui stabilità al potere, lo stesso compianto Depretis,
come un Richelieu od un Mazzarino, ministro a vita, lo sapeva tanto,
che, per rimanere, offriva spontaneamente alla Camera assetata
l’olocausto de’ suoi colleghi. Le crisi parziali con lui erano periodiche
come le stagioni. Se il presidente del Consiglio era sempre il
medesimo, la maggioranza veniva spostata; chiamando al potere de’
capigruppo dell’opposizione, le nuove reclute erano più ferventi, le
influenze nuove portavano elementi nuovi in sostegno al Governo,
che formulava nuovi programmi.
«Depretis preveniva l’inesorabile opera demolitrice del tempo con
riparazioni e riattazioni anticipate.
«Un ringiovanimento continuo del decrepito edificio.
«Aveva applicato al Governo le norme prudenti del genio civile per i
grandi manufatti.
«Il trasformismo è il più grande portato della scienza parlamentare.
«Ma il trasformismo ci ha resi ciò che siamo... E noi abbiamo reso,
ormai, il parlamentarismo impossibile.
*
* *
Lasciamo le divagazioni del vecchio Lastri, e ritorniamo al nostro
racconto.
Dopo la rinnovazione di tutto il macchinario parlamentare, ch’era
stato messo a dormire colla chiusura della legislatura, erano
avvenute poche avvisaglie delle opposizioni sconfitte su tutta la
linea; un grande voto di fiducia al Governo con duecentocinquanta
sì, contro sessanta no, e sessanta o settanta deputati assentatisi (in
gergo parlamentare squagliati) dall’aula al momento dell’appello
nominale, onde ritardare a dichiararsi ed impiegare con maggior utile
i voti futuri. Poi le vacanze natalizie e di capo d’anno.
Un lungo mese di preparazione impiegato dal Governo nell’ordinare e
disciplinare il suo esercito, nell’assegnare a ciascuno dei capigruppo
le sue mansioni, nel continuare l’opera di disaggregazione delle
esigue, ma violente ed ostinate opposizioni.
Quale grande forza per il gabinetto la spada di Damocle sospesa su
di un centinajo di deputati non ancora convalidati dalla giunta!
I sospesi avevano tutto da temere o da sperare dalla influenza
governativa, perchè le sentenze della giunta non sono definitive; la
Camera, anzi la maggioranza, decide in appello. Non sono rari i casi
nei quali le proposte della giunta furono respinte. Fra quei cento
deputati sospesi, forse dieci o venti, che osino affrontare le ire del
Giove del Consiglio; gli altri portano umilmente il tributo del loro voto
sull’ara del ministero, il quale premierà la dedizione favorendo la
convalidazione.
Guai ai ribelli! se la loro influenza personale nella Camera non è tale
da prevalere contro le cospirazioni!
Giuliano, soggiogato da Ferretti, che continuamente gli faceva
balenare il pericolo dell’invalidazione, aveva sempre votato per il
Governo. La veste di legalitario ne lo autorizzava; ma i legalitari
erano il bersaglio della stampa indipendente, nella Camera stessa
erano zimbello. La maggioranza li accoglieva come figliuoli prodighi;
ma il senso morale collettivo, che spesso protesta anche nelle
assemblee più degenerate, si ribellava contro di essi... I loro voti,
sempre accolti da mormorìi, dai commenti pungenti delle tribune, i
loro discorsi inascoltati. Camuffati da radicali, avversarî nello stesso
campo degli amici loro, rappresentavano qualche cosa di più
deplorevole de’ transfughi numerosi dagli altri partiti di opposizione,
apertamente, senza sottintesi, senza restrizione inscrittisi nella
maggioranza. Fenomeno momentaneo, perchè certe anomalie contro
natura non ponno essere che effimere. Tristo fenomeno, prova
dell’abbassamento parlamentare italiano!
Il cuore di Giuliano sanguinava nell’umiliante situazione: venti volte
aveva giurato di romperla con ogni transazione, di giuocar tutto per
tutto, ritornando invalidato, piuttosto di continuare nella servitù
avvilente che tacitamente gli veniva imposta. Venti volte era venuto
meno a’ suoi propositi.
Lastri, vecchio scettico, indurito nel parlamentarismo, pur
deplorando, perdonava tutto alla inesperta gioventù di Giuliano;
Ruggeri ne era desolato; ma si era imposto la medesima riserva,
dopo una scena violenta, avvenuta a proposito di Ferretti e del
commendatore Cerasi, che, richiamato a Roma a disposizione del
ministero, ne era agente principale ed inspiratore.
Le sedute erano state poco numerose; in compenso numerosissimi i
voti di fiducia, perchè il presidente del Consiglio, prodotto di non si
sa quale alchimia parlamentare, con meraviglia di tutti, specialmente
sua, arrivato all’altissima carica, non per ciò che era, bensì per quello
che non era, si compiaceva nel trastullarsi colla sua imponente
maggioranza, moltiplicando i voti di fiducia, forse per tentare di
rafforzare la fiducia propria, vacillante, di sè stesso, forse sperando
imporre al Senato, messosi in ribellione per certe nomine scandalose
di senatori.
Ad ogni voto, Giuliano rinnovava i propositi; ad ogni votazione
successiva veniva meno. Un’altra catena gli pesava; una catena di
rose, direbbe il poeta; di rose! ma le spine pungenti gli laceravano la
coscienza.
*
* *
Durante il mese di vacanza parlamentare, ritornato alla famiglia, si
era ritemprato nei dolci affetti della sposa e del suo bimbo. Dalla
serenità felice della esistenza casalinga ripensava con terrore al
ritorno a Roma, ove Giulia l’attendeva impaziente, sollecitandolo in
ogni modo alla partenza. Da Miralto, Giulia gli era odiosa, ed egli
malediva le ebbrezze colpevoli di un amore che lo costringeva a
mentire ad ogni ora, ad ogni minuto, colla sua Adele adorata.
Malediva alla necessità dei mille sotterfugi per nasconderle la
corrispondenza della marchesa. Corrispondenza quotidiana; volumi,
poemi nei quali tutta l’anima ardente di Giulia era trasfusa fra i baci e
i sospiri, fra le espansioni del desiderio delirante, progetti insensati di
fuga e gelosie feroci.
Quelle lettere maledette, impregnate dell’inebbriante profumo,
infiammavano anche Giuliano, che alla fragranza sottile, voluttuosa,
avvampava, come la notte del primo incontro con Giulia, al contatto
delle di lei tumide labbra, olezzanti. Sentiva di odiarla; pure i sensi
prevalevano sull’affetto immenso nudrito per Adele, che non sapeva,
non sentiva i delirî brutali della passione, calma nell’amore infinito
per il suo Giuliano, casta, direi, anche negli amplessi legalizzati dal
sindaco, santificati dal parroco.
Giuliano, non nato alla lotta, tentava sottrarsi all’influenza di Giulia;
dilaniato da rimorsi, aveva giurato in cuor suo di non rivedere mai
più la marchesa, sentendosi troppo debole per sottrarsi al fascino di
quella bellissima e strana donna, odiata e tanto desiderata ad un
tempo.
Un giorno Giuliano ritrovò il coraggio di scriverle per invocare dalla di
lei generosità la forza di mantenere i vacillanti propositi.
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