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Practical Guide to
Vegetable Oil Processing
Page left intentionally blank
Practical Guide to
Vegetable Oil Processing
Second Edition

Monoj K. Gupta
MG Edible Oil Consulting Int'l Inc.
Lynnwood, TX, United States
Academic Press and AOCS Press
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2017 AOCS Press. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Published in cooperation with American Oil Chemists’ Society www.aocs.org
Director, Content Development: Janet Brown
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, elec-
tronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations
such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our
website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treat-
ment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, includ-
ing parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or
ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-63067-050-4

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Publisher: Nikki Levy

Acquisition Editor: Nancy Maragioglio
Editorial Project Manager: Billie Jean Fernandez
Production Project Manager: Susan Li
Designer: Victoria Pearson

Typeset by Thomson Digital

Contents
Prefacexvii

1. Requirement for Successful Production and Delivery

of the Refined Vegetable Oils
1.1 Crude oil1
1.2 Oilseeds1
1.2.1 Maturity 2
1.2.2 Harvest Condition 2
1.2.3 Handling of Seeds 2
1.2.4 Seed Storage 3
1.2.5 Insect Infestation 3
1.3 Additional Comments on Oilseeds3
1.4 Fruit Palm4
1.5 Groundnuts (Peanuts) and Tree Nuts5
1.6 Crude Oil Handling, Storage, and Transport5
1.7 Concluding Remarks5

2. Basic Oil Chemistry

2.1 Composition of Oil7
2.2 Distinctions Between Oils and Fats9
2.3 Fatty Acids in Common Vegetable Oils9
2.3.1 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids 10
2.4 Typical Behavior of Fatty Acids11
2.4.1 Unsaturated Fatty Acids 11
2.4.2 Saturated Fatty Acids 11
2.5 Objectives of Proper Oil Processing11
2.6 Nontriglyceride Components of Oils11
2.6.1 Major Nontriglycerides 12
2.6.2 Hydratable and Nonhydratable Phospholipids 13
2.6.3 Free Fatty Acids 13
2.6.4 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides 13
2.6.5 Minor Nontriglycerides 14
2.6.6 Tocopherols 14
2.6.7 Sterols and Sterol Esters 16
2.6.8 Volatile and Nonvolatile Compounds 16
2.6.9 Color Compounds 17
2.6.10 Trace Metals 17
2.7 Oil analysis Used in Vegetable Oil Industry
and Their Significance18

v
vi Contents

2.8 Significance of the Analytical Methods and Results20

2.8.1 Iodine Value 20
2.8.2 Free Fatty Acids 20
2.8.3 Acid Value 21
2.8.4 Peroxide Value 21
2.8.5 para Anisidine Value 21
2.8.6 Soap in Oil 21
2.8.7 Conjugated Dienes 21
2.8.8 Polar Material (TPM) 21
2.8.9 Polymerized Triglycerides 22
2.8.10 Solid Fat Index 22
2.8.11 Solid Fat Content 22
2.8.12 Fatty Acid Composition 22
2.8.13 Fatty Acid Composition 22
2.8.14 trans Fatty Acid 22
2.8.15 Refined and Bleached Color Test 22
2.8.16 Lovibond Color 23
2.8.17 Chlorophyll Pigments 23
2.8.18 Trace Metals (ICP) 23
2.8.19 Trace Metals (Atomic Absorption Method) 23
2.8.20 Phosphorus (Graphite Furnace) 23
2.8.21 Phosphorus (ICP) 23
2.8.22 Smoke Point, Flash Point, and Fire Point
(Cleveland Open Cup method) 24
2.8.23 Melt Point (Capillary Tube Method) 24
2.8.24 Melt Point (Mettler Drop Point Method) 24
2.8.25 Active Oxygen Method (AOM) 24
2.8.26 Oil Stability Index (OSI) 24
2.8.27 Refining Loss 24
2.8.28 Neutral Oil Loss 25
2.8.29 Unsaponifiable Matter 25
2.8.30 Saponification Value 25
Bibliography25

3. Crude Oil Receiving, Storage, and Handling

3.1 Crude Oil Receiving27
3.1.1 Crude Oil Quality in Trade 28
3.2 FOSFA International (Headquarter—London, UK)28
3.3 Membership32
3.3.1 Trading Members 32
3.3.2 Broker Members (Full or Associate) 32
3.3.3 Nontrading Members (Full or Associate) 32
3.3.4 Superintendent Members 32
3.3.5 Analyst Members (Full or Associate) 32
3.3.6 Kindred Associations 32
3.3.7 Benefits of Membership 33
3.4 Crude Oil Unloading (Truck or Rail Car)35
3.4.1 Impact of Steam Blowing for Line Clearing 37
 Contents vii

3.5 Crude Oil Storage37

3.5.1 Special Notes on Oil Stored at Terminals 38

4. Degumming
4.1 Introduction41
4.2 Purpose of Degumming42
4.3 Hydratable Phospholipids and Nonhydratable Phospholipids43
4.4 Methods for Degumming43
4.4.1 Water Degumming 44
4.4.2 Acid Conditioning 46
4.4.3 Acid Degumming 49
4.4.4 Deep Degumming 50
4.4.5 Enzymatic Degumming 58

5. Refining
5.1 Purpose of Refining Vegetable Oil79
5.1.1 Major Nontriglycerides 79
5.1.2 Minor Nontriglycerides 79
5.2 Methods of Oil Refining80
5.3 Physical Refining Process81
5.3.1 Critical Control Points in the Physical Refining Process 82
5.3.2 Bleached Oil Quality Parameters in the Physical
Refining Process 84
5.3.3 Troubleshooting Physical Refining Process 84
5.4 Chemical Refining Process85
5.4.1 Batch Refining Process 86
5.4.2 Critical Control Points in Batch Refining 88
5.5 Continuous chemical refining process88
5.5.1 Critical Control Points in Continuous Chemical
Refining Process 94
5.6 Water Washing Refined Oil103
5.6.1 Critical Control Points in Water Washing 105
5.6.2 Importance of Oil Quality Parameters of the
Refined and Water Washed Oil 106
5.6.3 Importance of Having Low FFA, Soap, and
Phosphorus in the Refined and Water Washed Oil 107
5.6.4 Comments on Chemical Refining Process 108
5.6.5 Troubleshooting Chemical Refining Process 109
5.7 Refining Loss109
5.7.1 Manual Checks on the Oil Loss 113
5.8 Short Mix Process114
5.8.1 Critical Control Points and Troubleshooting
Short Mix Process 116
5.9 Vacuum Drying116
5.9.1 Critical Process Control Points in Vacuum Drying 117
5.10 Soap Splitting for Recovering the Fatty Acids
(Acidulation of Soap Stock)118
viii Contents

5.11 Batch Acidulation Process119

5.11.1 Critical Control Points in Batch Acidulation Process 121
5.12 Continuous Acidulation Process121
5.13 Troubleshooting Acidulation Process123
5.14 Cold Chemical Refining Process for Sunflower Oil123
5.15 Modified Physical Refining Process125
5.15.1 Critical Control Points in Modified Physical
Refining Process 126
5.16 Modified Caustic Refining Process127
5.17 Semiphysical Refining Process128

6. Bleaching
6.1 Introduction129
6.2 General Operating Steps in Bleaching130
6.3 Dry Bleaching Versus Wet Bleaching131
6.4 Critical Control Points in Dry Bleaching133
6.5 Sampling Frequency in Bleaching Process142
6.6 Troubleshooting Dry Bleaching Process143
6.7 Wet Bleaching Process143
6.8 Critical Control Points in the Wet Bleaching Process146
6.9 Two-Step Bleaching Process (Use of Silica Hydrogel)147
6.9.1 Benefits of Two-Step Bleaching Process
(Use of Silica Hydrogel) 148
6.10 Critical Control Points in Two-Step Bleaching Process149
6.11 Packed Bed Filtration in Bleaching Process150
6.11.1 Oil Quality Checks 152
6.12 Critical Control Points in Packed Bed Bleaching153
6.13 Filters for Filtering Bleached Oil154
6.13.1 Plate and Frame Filters 154
6.13.2 Pressure Leaf Filters (Horizontal and Vertical Tanks) 156
6.14 Bleaching Agents159
6.15 Bleaching Very Green Canola Oil167
6.15.1 Critical Control Points 167
6.15.2 Bleaching of the Treated Oil 168
Reading References169

7. Hydrogenation
7.1 Introduction171
7.2 Historical Background of Hydrogenation171
7.3 Understanding the Process of Hydrogenation172
7.3.1 Effects of Hydrogenation 173
7.4 Hydrogenation Process175
7.4.1 Batch Hydrogenation Reactor 175
7.4.2 Operation of a Batch Hydrogenation Reactor 176
7.4.3 Adiabatic Reaction Process 177
7.4.4 Isothermal Process 177
7.4.5 Deadend-Type Hydrogenation Reactor 178
 Contents ix

7.4.6 Recirculating-Type Hydrogenation Reactor 179

7.4.7 Comparison Between the Deadend and the
Recirculating Types of Reactors 179
7.4.8 Continuous Hydrogenation Reactor 179
7.4.9 Applicability of a Continuous Hydrogenation Reactor 181
7.5 Critical Control Points in the Hydrogenation Process182
7.5.1 Catalyst Activity 182
7.5.2 Manifestations of a Poor-Activity Catalyst 182
7.5.3 Catalyst Selectivity 183
7.5.4 Hydrogen Gas Dispersion 189
7.5.5 Hydrogen Gas Venting From the Reactor 191
7.5.6 Hydrogen Gas Supply 191
7.5.7 Reaction Pressure 191
7.5.8 Reaction Temperature 192
7.5.9 Agitation 193
7.6 Catalyst Filtration193
7.7 Critical Quality Parameters in Batch Hydrogenation196
7.8 Trans Fatty Acids196
7.8.1 Manipulation of the Reactor Conditions 196
7.8.2 Higher Cost of the Reactor 201
7.8.3 Heating Hydrogenated Oil before Filtration 202
7.8.4 Larger-Filter Area or Dirt Load Capacity 202
7.8.5 Higher Cost of Depreciation 202
7.8.6 Higher Cost of Maintenance 202
7.8.7 Increased Cost of Catalyst 203
7.8.8 Higher Oil Loss in the Spent Catalyst 203
7.8.9 Cost of Spent Catalyst Disposal 203
7.9 Sources of Hydrogenation Catalysts207
7.10 Selection of Hydrogenation Catalyst207
7.10.1 Catalyst Activity 208
7.10.2 Selectivity 208
7.10.3 Filterability 208
7.10.4 Physical Integrity 208
7.10.5 Cost 208
7.11 Commercially Available Nickel Catalysts208
7.12 Troubleshooting the Hydrogenation Process209
7.13 Heat Recovery in Hydrogenation209
Reading References215

8. Deodorization
8.1 Introduction217
8.2 Purpose of Deodorization217
8.3 Description of the Deodorization Process218
8.4 Operating Principles of Deodorization219
8.4.1 Interpretation of the Previous Formula 219
8.5 Critical Control Points for the Deodorizing Process220
8.5.1 Incoming Oil Quality 220
x Contents

8.5.2 Deaeration of the Oil Before Heating

It for Deodorization 221
8.5.3 Heating the Oil for Deodorization 222
8.5.4 Operating Pressure (Vacuum) 222
8.5.5 Operating Temperature 223
8.5.6 Amount of Stripping Steam 223
8.5.7 Batch Size or Flow Rate 224
8.5.8 Citric Acid Addition 225
8.5.9 Cooling Deodorized Oil 225
8.6 Deodorized Oil Quality226
8.6.1 Physical Attributes 226
8.6.2 Chemical Attributes 226
8.6.3 Organoleptic Attribute—AOCS Method
Cg-2-83 (09) 226
8.6.4 Significance of the Deodorized Oil Quality
Standards226
8.7 Types of Deodorizers226
8.7.1 Batch Deodorizers 227
8.7.2 Typical Operating Steps in a Batch Deodorizer 230
8.7.3 Vacuum Sampler 231
8.7.4 Semicontinuous Deodorizer 232
8.7.5 Advantages of Semicontinuous Deodorizers 234
8.7.6 Continuous Deodorizers 235
8.7.7 Advantages of Continuous Deodorizers 237
8.7.8 Disadvantages 237
8.7.9 Residence Time Distribution in a Continuous
Deodorizer238
8.8 Vacuum System for Deodorizer241
8.9 Periodic Cleaning of the Deodorizer244
8.9.1 Batch Deodorizer 245
8.9.2 Semicontinuous Deodorizer 246
8.9.3 Continuous Deodorizer 246

9. Finished Product Storage and Handling

9.1 Introduction249
9.2 Transfer and Storage of Deodorized Products in Tanks249
9.3 Deodorized oil Storage Tank250
9.3.1 Components of the Deodorized Oil Storage Tank 250
9.3.2 Nitrogen Blanketing 251
9.3.3 Temperature Indicator Controller 254
9.3.4 Agitator 254
9.4 Loading Finished Oils in Trucks254
9.5 Unloading Finished Oil From Tank Trucks256
9.6 Packaged Products Stored in the Warehouse257
9.7 Maintaining Product Quality in the Warehouse259
9.7.1 Consumer Products 259
9.7.2 Industrial Products 260
9.8 Shipping of Packaged Products260
 Contents xi

10. Fundamentals of Fat Crystallization Related to

Making Plastic and Pourable Shortenings
10.1 Introduction261
10.2 Fat polymorphism262
10.2.1 Alpha Crystals 262
10.2.2 Beta Prime Crystals 262
10.2.3 Beta Crystals 263
10.2.4 Melting Points of the Three Polymorphic Phases 263
10.2.5 Crystal Packing Pattern of Alpha, Beta Prime,
and Beta Crystals 264
10.3 Triglyceride Structure264
10.3.1 Fatty Acid Distribution in Trisaturated Triglycerides
and Their Polymorphic Properties 264
10.3.2 Summary of the Rule of Thumb on the
Polymorphic Behavior of Triglyceride Molecules 267
10.4 Fat Crystallization267
10.4.1 Sequence of Events in Controlled Crystallization
Process268
10.4.2 Typical Crystallization Process for Making
Shortening269
10.4.3 Process Description 269
10.4.4 What Happens to the Product? 270
10.4.5 Primary and Secondary Crystal Bonds 270
10.4.6 Primary Bonds 271
10.4.7 Secondary Bonds 271
10.4.8 Utilizing the Properties of the Primary and the
Secondary Bonds 271
10.4.9 Factors Determining the Physical Properties of
Crystallized Fats 272
10.4.10 General Rules of Fat Crystallization 272
10.4.11 Critical Process Variables for Fat Crystallization 272
10.4.12 Discussions on the Crystallization Process 272
10.4.13 Establishment of Crystal Matrix 273
10.4.14 Purpose of Tempering 276
10.4.15 Comments on Tempering of Shortening Made
and Used at a Large Bakery 277
10.4.16 Tempering Procedure 277
10.4.17 Benefits of Tempering Shortening 278
10.5 Characterization of Fat Crystals280
10.5.1 Hardness 280
10.5.2 Consistency (Smoothness/Graininess) 281
10.5.3 Plasticity/Spreadability 281
10.5.4 Structure 282
10.5.5 Pourability 282
10.5.6 Polymorphic Phase 282
10.6 Palm Oil in Solid Shortening283
10.6.1 Improving Crystallization Rate in
Palm Oil Shortening 283
xii Contents

10.7 Issues With the Interesterified Products284

10.8 Very High–Hard Stock Content284
10.9 Pourable Liquid Shortening285
10.9.1 Product Description 285
10.9.2 Special Properties 285
10.9.3 Formulation 285
10.9.4 Polymorphic Phase 286
10.9.5 Processing Steps for Making Pourable
Liquid Shortening 287
10.9.6 Critical Control Points 287
10.9.7 Fluidity of the Shortening 289
Reading References289

11. Winterization and Fractionation of Selected

Vegetable Oils
11.1 Introduction291
11.2 Winterization of Sunflower Seed Oil292
11.2.1 Cold Test Versus the Wax Content of Sunflower Oil 293
11.3 Critical Process Variables for Winterization of Sunflower Oil294
11.4 Troubleshooting300
11.5 Winterization of Soybean Oil300
11.5.1 Process Description 300
11.5.2 Filtration 305
11.6 Fractionation of Palm Oil306
11.6.1 Suitability of Palm Oil for Fractionation 308
11.6.2 Methods for Fractionation 309
11.7 Dry Fractionation309
11.7.1 Precrystallizer 310
11.7.2 Crystallizer 310
11.7.3 Filtration 311
11.7.4 Critical Control Points in Dry Fractionation 312
11.7.5 Initial Oil Temperature 312
11.7.6 Precrystallization 312
11.7.7 Cooling Rate 313
11.7.8 Holding Time in the Crystallizer 313
11.7.9 Agitation in the Crystallizer 313
11.7.10 Final Crystallizer Temperature 314
11.7.11 Filtration 314
11.8 Troubleshooting Dry Fractionation314
11.9 Multiple Dry Fractionation315
11.9.1 Benefits of Multiple Dry Fractionation of Palm Oil 317
11.10 Wet Fractionation with Detergent (Lanza Process)318
11.11 Solvent Fractionation Process319
11.11.1 Critical Control Points 321
11.11.2 Comparison Between the Three Methods
of Fractionation 321
Reading References322
 Contents xiii

12. Insight to Oil Quality Management

12.1 Introduction323
12.2 Managing Oil Quality323
12.2.1 Step #1: Have a Clear Product Objective 324
12.2.2 Step #2: Have the Right Capability in Place 324
12.2.3 Step#3: Measurements of Quality and Setting
Standards325
12.2.4 Step #4: Measurement of Performance 325
12.2.5 Step #5: Understand the Behavior of the Oil and
Learn How to Protect It From Degradation 325
12.3 Modes of Oil Decomposition326
12.4 Areas in Oil Quality Management328
12.5 Summary of Oil Quality Standards339
Reading References340

13. Trans Fat Alternatives and Challenges

13.1 Introduction341
13.1.1 Pioneering by Europe 341
13.1.2 Trans Fat Regulation in the United States 341
13.1.3 Trans Fat in the United States Diet and the Sources 341
13.1.4 Subsequent Developments in FDA Regulations
on Trans Fat 342
13.1.5 Trans Fat Regulation in Canada 344
13.2 Nutritional Labeling Regulation345
13.2.1 Trans Fat Claims 345
13.2.2 Nutrition Labeling Regulation 346
13.2.3 For 30-g Serving 346
13.2.4 For 10-mL (9.2-g) Serving 346
13.2.5 Influence of Trans Fats 347
13.3 Source of Trans Fatty Acids348
13.4 Technical alternatives available today349
13.4.1 Technical Solutions for Trans Fat Reduction 349
13.4.2 Hydrogenation Under Special Conditions 349
13.4.3 Use of Platinum Catalyst 349
13.4.4 Interesterification 350
13.4.5 Modified Composition Oils 351
13.4.6 Use of Pourable Shortening 354
13.5 Challenges354
13.5.1 Challenge #1: Getting Stable Liquid Oil in an
Adequate Supply 355
13.5.2 Challenge #2: Supplies of Modified Composition
Seed Oils 355
13.5.3 Challenge #3: Consumer Advocates in the United States 355
13.5.4 Challenge #4: Use of Regular Soybean Oil is
Reducing Shelf Life Stability of the Transesterified
Shortening in Some Applications 356
13.5.5 Challenge #5: Economic Challenge 356
xiv Contents

13.6 Interesterification Process357

13.6.1 Chemical Process 357
13.6.2 Enzymatic Process 358
13.7 Chemical Interesterification Process358
13.7.1 Description of a Chemical Interesterification Process 358
13.7.2 Reaction Mixture 358
13.7.3 Reaction Steps 359
13.7.4 Critical Control Points in the Chemical
Interesterification Process 360
13.7.5 Questions Related to Chemical Interesterification 364
13.8 Enzymatic Interesterification Process367
13.8.1 Introduction 367
13.8.2 Catalyst 367
13.8.3 Purpose of Immobilization of the Enzyme 367
13.8.4 Reaction Steps in Enzymatic Interesterification Process 367
13.8.5 Pretreatment 368
13.8.6 Lipase Interesterification 368
13.8.7 Batch Process 369
13.8.8 Continuous Multiple Fixed Bed Process 369
13.8.9 Single Fixed Bed Continuous Process 370
13.8.10 Enzyme Activity 370
13.8.11 Productivity 370
13.8.12 Deodorization 371
13.9 Comparison Between the Chemical and the Enzymatic
Interesterification Processes371
Reading References374

14. Familiarization With Process Equipment

14.1 Introduction375
14.2 Processing Equipment and Accessories376
14.2.1 Process Equipment 376
14.2.2 Process Accessories 376
14.2.3 Process Instruments 377
14.2.4 Process Equipment 377
14.2.5 Comments on the Atmospheric Vent 379
14.2.6 Designs for Common Oil Storage Tanks 379
14.2.7 Process Supervisor’s Responsibility Regarding the Tanks 381
14.2.8 Process Accessories 394
14.2.9 Troubleshooting Ejectors 398
14.2.10 Freeze-Condensing Vacuum System 398
14.2.11 Agitators 400
14.2.12 Types of Mixers Used in an Oil Processing Plant 401
14.2.13 Design Considerations for Selecting an Agitator 401
14.2.14 Pumps 402
14.2.15 Valves 406
14.2.16 Cooling Towers 406
14.2.17 Motors, Starters, Switches, Fans, and Blowers 410
14.2.18 Compressors 411
 Contents xv

14.2.19 Air Dryers 412

14.2.20 Steam Tracing 413
14.2.21 Steam Traps 414
14.2.22 Steam Purifier 419
14.2.23 Seals 419
14.2.24 Process Instruments 420

15. Loss Management

15.1 Introduction423
15.2 Definition of Losses424
15.2.1 Degrading and Variations 424
15.3 Factors Contributing to High Plant Losses in
Degrading and Variations425
15.4 Elements of Good Loss Management430
15.5 Guidelines for Managing D&V431
15.5.1 Step 1: Identify all Material Flows at the Plant 432
15.5.2 Step 2: Identify Key Loss Points 432
15.5.3 Return from Sales 436
15.5.4 Dump 436
15.5.5 Step 3: Determine the Causes for the Losses at
Each Location 437
15.5.6 Step 4: Define Solutions to Prevent Losses 437
15.5.7 Step 5: Define Goals 437
15.5.8 Step 6: Set Priorities for the Improvement Activity 437
15.5.9 Step 7: Define Action Steps, Target Dates,
Milestones, the Success Criteria, and the
Method Used for Measuring Progress 438
15.6 Managing Plant Losses438
15.6.1 Known Losses 438
15.6.2 Unknown Losses 439
15.6.3 Key for Successful Loss Management 439
15.7 Final Comments on Loss Management440
15.8 Samples of Forms Helpful for Tracking Variations440

16. Plant Safety Procedures

16.1 Introduction445
16.2 Plant Safety446
16.2.1 General 446
16.3 Safety Agencies446
16.3.1 Occupational Safety and Health Administration 446
16.3.2 American National Standards Institute 447
16.3.3 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 447
16.3.4 The National Fire Protection Association 447
16.3.5 Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System 448
16.4 Areas of Safety Training Required at the Plant448
16.4.1 Fire and Explosion Safety 448
16.4.2 Selection of Fire Extinguishers 449
xvi Contents

16.4.3 Hazards of Dry Chemical Extinguishers 450

16.4.4 Compressed Gas Safety 450
16.4.5 Recommended Procedure for the Preparation
for Welding or Hot Work (Using Gas Torch for
Metal Cutting) 450
16.4.6 Chemical Safety 451
16.4.7 Significance of the Color Code and the Numbers
for the Chemicals and the Degree of Hazard 452
16.4.8 Improper Storage of Solvents 454
16.4.9 Electrical Safety 454
16.4.10 Confined Space Entry Procedure 455
16.4.11 The Tank Entry Permit Must be Filled out and
Signed by Two Persons 459
16.4.12 Entering the Tank 459
16.5 Special Notes460

17. Regulatory Agencies and Their Roles in a

Vegetable Oil Plant
17.1 Introduction463
17.2 Agencies Overseeing Food Industry463
17.2.1 United States 463
17.2.2 Europe 464
17.3 Environmental Protection Agency465
17.3.1 Role of EPA in a Food Plant 465
17.4 National Fire Protection Association466
17.4.1 NFPA’s Role in an Oil Plant 466
17.5 US Department of Agriculture466
17.6 Role of USDA at an Edible Oil Plant467
17.7 US Food and Drug Administration467
17.8 Rabbinical Assembly469
17.8.1 Meat 470
17.8.2 Dairy 470
17.8.3 Pareve 470
17.9 Role of Rabbinical Assembly in an Oil Plant470
17.10 National Institute of Oilseed Products471
17.11 National Oilseed Processors Association471
17.12 Federation of Oils, Seeds and Fats Associations472
17.13 FEDIOL473
17.14 European Food Safety Authority473
17.15 Food Safety Authority474
17.16 Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed475

Index477
Preface

It was my desire to introduce the second edition of the book because of the
introduction of certain newer techniques in vegetable oil processing. These are
discussed in various chapters in this book.
The first edition of this book was received well by the readers. Many readers
asked when the second edition of the book would be published. I also received
requests from readers to include the processing practices for palm oil, coconut
oil, cottonseed oil, and sesame seed oil, as these are important vegetable oils.
Unfortunately, it was not possible to do so. The reason for their exclusion is that
the basic principles and practices described in this book do apply to most veg-
etable oil processing operations. Additionally, the volume of information would
have been too large to be included a single book.
Vegetable oil processing is an essential part of the food industry. Current
unit operations have been developed over many years by processors and equip-
ment manufacturers, with the assistance of universities and federal laboratories.
Public universities have changed over time, resulting in the current emphasis
on programs that meet the prevailing business needs. In today’s market, the
vegetable oil processing industry does not offer enough jobs to warrant a more
detailed training of future technical personnel. The size of oil processing pro-
grams, where they exist at all, depends on local initiatives in attracting and
maintaining sufficient numbers of students and external funding of research.
For this reason, Texas A&M University, Cornell University, Purdue University,
Iowa State University, University of Illinois, University of Florida, and Ohio
State University are among the few exceptions, although most of these institu-
tions have much stronger Food Technology and Food Engineering curriculum
than programs on fats and oils.
The majority of these graduating students prefer food manufactures because
of job availability, while only a few find employment in the vegetable oil refin-
ing industry.
Pioneers in the vegetable oil processing industry in the United States were
Durkee, Procter & Gamble, Anderson Clayton, Hunt Wesson, Humko, Unilever,
A.E. Staley Co., and Corn Products Co. These companies were very strong in
their research and development activity. They maintained product and process
development activities that trained fresh university graduates in chemistry
and chemical engineering in processing and applications of vegetable oils and
animal fats.

xvii
xviii Preface

The oil companies in the United States were mostly stand-alone refiners,
that is, they purchased crude oils from the crushers and processed them to make
various products. They had their own pilot plants that facilitated the training
programs in the area of oil processing. The fresh recruits could get hands-on
experience in oil processing and product formulation. This was done primarily
through project assignments to the newcomers. Some of these companies also
had well-established training programs to provide the necessary tools to their
technical recruits in oil processing and product formulation.
Numerous changes have taken place in the oil-processing industry in the
United States since the 1970s:
1. The oil crushers, such as Archer Daniels & Midland Co., Cargill Co., and
Bunge Corporation realized that it was more profitable to integrate their
crushing operation with the refinery. They started to refine their own oil,
in addition to selling the crude oil to the stand-alone refiners. They soon
entered the market with packaged fats and oils products initially through
acquisitions and later by building their own facilities. They expanded their
R&D capabilities and now have become well established in the area where
many stand-alone refiners filled the industry needs.
2. Oil prices soared in the mid-1970s during the Middle East oil embargo,
causing a serious blow to the stand-alone refiners.
3. The stand-alone refiners started to see declining profit margins on their
products because they could not match the production and reduced cost of
production of the integrated crusher refiners.
4. As the competition grew from the crusher refiners, the R&D activity in the
stand-alone refineries declined seriously due to lack of funds.
5. Some of these stand-alone refiners started to provide copacking services
to the crusher refiners as they entered the consumer product market. Soon,
some of these companies were bought out by the crusher refiners and sub-
sequently either upgraded or disbanded.
6. Eventually, many of the stand-alone refiners either closed down or were
bought out by the crusher refiners or other food companies.
7. Some of the stand-alone refiners switched their product lines to go into a
niche market where the large crusher refiners were not competing.
8. Initially the crusher refiners were not up to speed with the R&D work.
9. The oil-processing equipment manufacturers picked up the slack and start-
ed to offer the technology needed for the oil refineries.
10. During this period the USDA laboratories remained active in the oil re-
search field.
11. Universities, such as Texas A&M and Iowa State University, became active
in providing pilot plant services to the oil industry.
12. Independent facilities, such as the POS pilot plant in Canada, became avail-
able as a source of basic, as well as applied research work in fats and oils.
13. A.C. Humko of Memphis, Tennessee, United States, offered pilot plant
services to the oil companies.
 Preface xix

These changes in the vegetable oil industry essentially eliminated opportuni-

ties for on-the-job training of fresh college graduates in fats and oils technology
in the manner that was possible prior to 1970. Very few individuals from that era
are still working for major oil refiners. A few are working as consultants, but a
great majority of them have either retired or are deceased.
I am probably one of the few fortunate ones who received training in fats
and oils at Procter & Gamble Co. and am still around to talk about my expe-
rience. The company hired fresh engineering graduates from the universities.
Every new engineer hired received training through the assignment of projects.
The new recruit had to go through the following steps:
1. The engineer was assigned a project.
2. The engineer prepared a project proposal that contained the following
elements:
a. project objective,
b. experimental plan,
c. data to be collected,
d. analytical and product testing to be performed,
e. duration of the project,
f. list of all internal resources, and
g. list of all internal R&D reports on related topics.
3. The proposal had to be approved by the immediate supervisor and the
Director.
4. At the end of the project the engineer had to write a formal report that had to
be approved by the Director.
5. A copy of the report was kept in the company archive for future reference.
6. The project could then be officially closed.
7. If the product required any plant trial, a completely new proposal had to be
initiated by the engineer with all pertinent information of cost, besides the
objective.
8. The product performance had to be proven through several tests, such as
market sample data collection and analysis, customer complaint data, prod-
uct storage study, and consumer tests.
9. At the end of the study another report had to be prepared, approved, and
archived as before.
I am not aware of such a rigorous training program that might be available
anywhere today.
In this book, I will make my best effort to explain why certain processing
steps are considered necessary. I will also provide adequate theoretical explana-
tions to the readers so they can appreciate the significance of the steps taken in a
vegetable oil processing. It might not be possible to cover every detail or I might
even leave certain material out of this book to protect any proprietary informa-
tion that I have gathered during my tenure at various companies. I believe that
the readers will find the information provided in this book to be useful.
xx Preface

In recognition, I would like to express my appreciation to Late Robert L.

Wille and Cornelius Japikse, my original mentors at Procter & Gamble Co., for
training me during the early days of my career. I also am indebted to Late Walter
E. Farr and the Late Dr. Thomas H. Smouse for their support in advancing my
career in oil processing and applications at Anderson Clayton Co. My sincere
appreciation also goes to my wife, Mina Gupta, for her untiring encouragement
to write this book. I also wish to express my sincere gratitude to the reviewers
of the various chapters of this book in spite of their busy schedules.
Finally, a trend is developing in the area of technical communication, which
serves as a reminder that we must all be critical thinkers. There are some trade
journals, as well as some technical journals, that now publish editorial reviews
of scientific and technical issues written by the editors or the assistant editors,
who gather information and compile a presentation. While the information has
been gathered through speaking with experts in the field, and references are
clearly made to the persons providing the information, there are times when
this information is not absolutely accurate. Although I am sure no publication
intentionally publishes erroneous information, it runs the risk of misleading or
confusing less-experienced readers. In my opinion, we should look carefully at
once again relying on experts in the field to provide not only original research
but also these critical reviews to ensure we are providing a solid scientific foun-
dation for readers.
Chapter 1

Requirement for Successful

Production and Delivery
of the Refined Vegetable Oils

Vegetable oils are refined with care so the resulting oils as well as the products
formulated with the oils are of high quality.
In the rest of the book the various processing steps, their operating condi-
tions, corrective actions through troubleshooting, etc. have been discussed for
the reader. All of the processing conditions described are to assist the oil proces-
sors to understand the principles of oil processing and produce the best quality
refined oil at the plant.
It must be stressed that even after using the guidelines provided in this book,
one may not be able to produce the best quality refined oil if the incoming crude
oil is not of high quality. It may sound strange, but the success of obtaining
the highest quality finished oil depends greatly on the quality of the crude oil
received at the refinery.

1.1 CRUDE OIL

Crude oil quality can vary and it depends on various factors that are not directly
under the control of the oil refiner. Poor quality crude oil creates certain dif-
ficulties in the refining process along with the oil quality issues. Several tips to
procure the highest quality crude oil are discussed in this chapter so the refiner
is aware of these factors and can take certain actions in the refinery to minimize
the negative impact of some of these factors.

1.2 OILSEEDS
As mentioned earlier, good quality of the refined oil starts with the high quality
oilseeds or oil-bearing fruits and nuts. The quality of the crude oil depends on
various factors, such as:
l maturity of the oilseeds,
l harvest conditions (excessive rain or drought condition before harvest),
l handling of seeds,
Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-63067-050-4.00001-5
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2 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

l seed storage conditions, and

l insect infestation of the seeds.
(In the subsequent discussions only oilseeds will be mentioned. Fruit palm
and oil-bearing nuts will be discussed separately.)

1.2.1 Maturity
Immature soybean seeds can exhibit various deficiencies. The crude oil may
exhibit some different fatty acid profile and also some variations in the other
components in the seeds. This may slightly impact the processing conditions
and performance of the refined oil in certain applications. There are numerous
literature references that indicate the following:
l The immature seeds tend to have lower lipoxygenase activity, trypsin inhibi-
tor, and urease activity compared to the mature seeds.
l The immature seeds tend to have higher contents of FFA (free fatty acids)
and chlorophylls compared to the mature seeds.
l Oil content and total protein contents are not very different between the
immature and mature seeds.
l There are minor differences in some individual protein contents between the
immature and mature seeds.
Therefore, the oil refiner may receive crude soybean oil that contains high
chlorophyll because of immature soybeans. This will require some addition-
al degumming and bleaching steps. This will be discussed in the chapter on
bleaching.

1.2.2 Harvest Condition

1.2.2.1 Wet Harvest Condition
Soybean, sunflower, cottonseed, and canola crude oils can exhibit higher than
normal green color when the seeds are harvested before they reach maturity or
the harvesting season is too wet. The crude oils will require extra steps to remove
the excess chlorophylls from them in the degumming and bleaching steps. The
refined oil may have lower stability if these steps are not followed properly.

1.2.2.2 Dry Harvest Condition

Dry harvest condition due to droughts can cause physical damage to the seeds
resulting in higher than normal FFA and oxidation in the crude oil. The oil will
exhibit lower than normal stability.

1.2.3 Handling of Seeds

The seeds, if damaged, during harvest and transport and storage, the crude
oil can develop higher FFA and exhibit higher oxidation. This oil will require
 Requirement for Successful Production and Delivery Chapter | 1 3

extra steps in the refining process and will typically exhibit lower stability than
normal.
The seeds are dried to <10% moisture before storage. The drying condition
requires controlled air temperature and flow around the seeds during the dry-
ing step. The seeds may develop case hardening if the air temperature is higher
and or the airflow rate is higher than normal. This can develop surface cracks
in subsequent handling of the seeds and the crude oil will exhibit higher than
normal FFA and initial oxidation.

1.2.4 Seed Storage

It is important that the seeds are properly dried to <10% moisture and stored
under 40°C (104°F) with proper air ventilation. At temperature of 45°C (114°F)
or moisture content of 14% or higher, the oilseeds develop higher concentration
of nonhydratable phospholipids. This makes degumming, refining, and bleach-
ing processes more difficult and it also results in higher refining loss and also
the refined oil quality is compromised. In addition, there is color fixation of the
oil. The crude oil develops darker than normal color that cannot be reduced
through the normal bleaching process. The crude oil in most cases has to be
treated with stronger alkali solution to reduce the color.

1.2.5 Insect Infestation

Typically, dry growing season and drought condition tend to promote insect
damage of the seeds. This results in higher than normal FFA and initial oxida-
tion in the crude oil. As described in some of the previous conditions, the crude
oil exhibits higher than normal refining loss and lower stability of the oil.

1.3 ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON OILSEEDS

Oilseeds mature at a slight different rate between the top and lower parts of the
plant. This tends to be more pronounced in case of cottonseed. Similarly the
soybean pods can have different degree of maturity on the same plant and not
all the seeds on the same sunflower would be identical in maturity. Therefore, a
lot of oilseeds shipment may contain some seeds that are somewhat less mature.
The oilseeds in a lot will always have some damaged (broken) seeds, some
with lesser degree of maturity. However, the various grades of seeds that are
sold under USDA specification seem to perform in a uniform manner in produc-
ing the crude oil of desired quality.
Higher than normal level of diglycerides are formed whenever the crude
oil is treated with stronger than the normal strength of alkali solution used in
the process. Sometimes the crude oil is alkali treated more than once to meet
the refined oil specification on FFA and/or color. The excess alkali or stronger
alkali can attack the neutral triglyceride molecules in the oil (in addition to the
4 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

FFA), forming diglycerides. Diglycerides are emulsifiers. High concentration

of diglycerides in the alkali treated oil makes it difficult to separate the aqueous
phase from the oil phase in the soap separation stage. This tends to increase
the loss of neutral oil in the soap causing higher oil loss in the refining process.

1.4 FRUIT PALM

The fruit palm is harvested from the tree when they reach maturity. Like in case
of oilseeds, the fruit palm on the same bunch may have somewhat different de-
gree of maturity. Usually, the very ripe ones get damaged or ruptured under the
normal harvesting procedure.
Lipase and lipoxygenase activity begin in the oil inside the fruit palm when
the skin of the fruit is damaged. The fruit is treated for enzyme deactivation and
the oil is extracted as soon as possible after the harvest. However, most com-
mercial crude palm oil (CPO) contains as much as 5% FFA and the diglycerides
content is typically 5%.
Whenever a molecule of FFA is formed from hydrolysis of a neutral triglyc-
eride molecule, a diglyceride molecule is formed. When the palm fruit is dam-
aged during harvest, the enzyme lipase hydrolyzes the triglyceride molecule
forming FFA and diglyceride.
The author studied the damaged fruit palm and the impact on the FFA of the
oil in a palm plantation in Costa Rica. Following tests were performed:
1. The damaged fruits from a fruit bunch were collected and weighed.
2. The total weight of the fruit palm in the bunch was taken.
3. It was found that the ruptured and damaged fruit constituted 6% of the total
weight of the fruit in the bunch.
4. FFA content in the oil extracted from the damaged fruit was found to be 50%.
5. Therefore, it was estimated that whatever the FFA of the oil from the fruit
palm extracted from the whole bunch would be increased by 3% (0.06 ×
50 = 3.0).
6. Thus, the majority of the FFA in CPO would have come from the over ripe
and damaged fruit.
Typical commercial production of CPO does not separate the damaged fruit
from the rest for oil extraction.
There are companies, such as Sime Darby Jomalina that do separate the
damaged fruit before extraction in order to produce low FFA and low diglyc-
eride CPO and refined PO and palmolein. Sime Darby Jomalina can deliver
palm oil and palm oil fractions with guaranteed quality (JGQ). There are other
companies in Malaysia that are also capable of delivering low FFA and low
diglyceride palm oil if a customer needs it.
High diglyceride content in the palm oil increases the FFA in a fryer faster
and also slows down the rate of crystal formation in the shortening and marga-
rine process.
 Requirement for Successful Production and Delivery Chapter | 1 5

1.5 GROUNDNUTS (PEANUTS) AND TREE NUTS

The same comments made in connection with the oilseeds also apply for these
oil-bearing nuts. An important additional issue that can be experienced with
nuts is mold that can produce aflatoxins. Aflatoxin is a type of mycotoxin pro-
duced by Aspergillus molds. Aflatoxins are very toxic and highly carcinogenic.
There are three different types of aflatoxins that can be found in food. Short-
term heavy ingestion of the toxins can cause even death. Long-term exposure
can cause growth impairment and liver cancer. Aspergillus molds grow mostly
on crops, such as grains and nuts. Under the right conditions, Aspergillus often
grows on grain before it is harvested. But it can also grow on harvested grain if
the grain is stored damp.
This is why nuts should be analyzed for aflatoxins in addition to the other
tests that are normally done for accepting the raw material for crushing.

1.6 CRUDE OIL HANDLING, STORAGE, AND TRANSPORT

Most solvent extraction plants that produce crude oil do not cool and filter the
crude oil after desolventization. This causes oxidation in the oil. In addition,
if the crude oil is stored for extended period, it undergoes oxidation and a few
other reactions that are discussed later in the book. These reactions degrade
the quality of the crude oil, which, in turn, increases difficulty in refining and
produces less than desirable quality in the refined oil. Excessive aeration of
the crude oil during loading and transportation can increase oxidation of the
crude oil.
Crude oil should be refined soon after it is made. Crude oil, if stored before
refining, should be done at <40°C (104°F) for seed oils. Palm oil should be
stored <50°C and preferably <45°C. Higher storage temperature causes oxida-
tion to the crude oil. In addition, the FFA can rise, the color darkens and it can
even have color fixation. The PV value goes up with higher storage temperature
and longer time of storage. The PV breaks down during the refining process
but the anisidine value (AV) goes up. PV measures the primary oxidative state
for the oil. AV indicates the degree of the secondary oxidation state of the oil.
Crude oil with higher AV indicates prior exposure of the crude oil to oxygen.
This results in refined oil that would oxidize rapidly when heated (principally in
frying and baking applications).

1.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS

It should be clear from the previous discussions that the quality of the crude oil
is of utmost importance in obtaining good quality refined oil because all of the
reactions discussed here negatively impact the refined oil quality as well as the
products formulated with the refined oil.
Page left intentionally blank
Chapter 2

Basic Oil Chemistry

Man has used vegetable oils for centuries. Oil bearing nuts and animal fats were
consumed as sources of energy long before nutrition concepts were envisioned.
Oils also were used early for lighting, as medicines, as cosmetics in religious
ceremonies, and applied to weapons and utensils. The ancient oils of the Middle
East, sesame and olive, were valued because of their long stability. Sunflower
was cultivated in the Arizona–New Mexico area before the time of Christ, and
seeds from the Missouri–Mississippi river basins were among the early plants
transposed to Europe by explorers. Invention of the cotton gin in the late 1700s
led to a major cotton export trade in the United States in the early 1800s, and
to development of cottonseed oil as the first new oil of the Industrial Age in the
mid-1800s. The continuous screw press, and early methods of caustic refining,
bleaching, deodorization, winterization, and hydrogenation, including develop-
ment of the first all vegetable shortening “Crisco” (shortened name for crystal-
lized cottonseed oil) are among innovations developed. Processing of soybean,
a crop first developed in China, led to further oil industry innovations including
development of continuous solvent extractors and steam distillation technolo-
gies to reduce or remove the original raw flavor in the crude oil were developed
in the mid-1900s. As flavor and stability improved, man expanded use of oils
to: (1) cooking, (2) frying, (3) baking shortenings, (4) salad dressings, (5) food
lubricants (like release agents in baking and candy making processes), (6) flavor
carriers, and (7) dust-control agents. Each of the application requires oils with
specific physical and chemical properties.
Other oils, such as palm oil, regular canola oil, high oleic and low linolenic
canola oil, high oleic sunflower oil, high oleic safflower oil, and so on were all
commercialized much later than the animal fat and cottonseed oil.

2.1 COMPOSITION OF OIL

All of the world’s matter is composed from approximately 108 elements. The
smallest divisible stable particle of an element is called an “atom.” Compounds
consist of atoms of two or more elements, with the smallest divisible stable
particle called a “molecule.” Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms
are the principal building blocks of fats and oils.

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8 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

FIGURE 2.1 Formation of triglycerides.

Often, it is desirable to pictorially indicate relative positions of the ele-

ments in molecular structures. But, these must be carefully drawn by estab-
lished convention, since the world exists in three dimensions, but only two
dimensions are available for presentation on paper. In making such draw-
ings, the knowledgeable chemist recognizes that some atoms only associate
with others by extending links, while others only accept links. For example,
each oxygen atom extends two links, while, each hydrogen atom accepts only
one link. The chemistry of fats and oils is carbon chemistry, also known as
“organic chemistry.” The carbon atom is unique in that it can either extend or
accept a total of four links, with link givers, link receivers, or even with other
carbon atoms.
Oil is a mixture of 96–98% fatty acid triacylglycerols (commonly referred
to as “triglycerides”), with the balance consisting of other fat-dispersible or fat-
soluble compounds. Triglycerides consist of three fatty acids, which are sub-
stituted in the hydroxyl (alcoholic) sites of a glycerin (glycerol) backbone. The
construction of a simple triglyceride is shown in Fig. 2.1, where each fatty acid
is represented as a different “R.”
Depending on the extent to which the three former hydroxyl groups of glyc-
erol are replaced with fatty acids, the resulting compounds are known as follows.
Monoglycerides are formed when one of the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol is replaced
by a fatty acid.
Diglycerides are formed when two of the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are replaced by
the same or different fatty acids.
Triglycerides are formed when all three of the hydroxyl groups of glycerol are replaced by
fatty acids (also referred as neutral oil).
A molecule of water is formed each time a fatty acid molecule replaces a
hydroxyl group. Fig. 2.2 further shows the structures of monoglyceride, diglyc-
eride, and triglyceride molecules.
The major objective in refining and processing is to convert a shipment of
purchased crude oil into the maximum possible amount of saleable “neutral oil”
(triglycerides). Monoglycerides and diglycerides are formed when the neutral
oil reacts with water molecules under undesirable storage and handling condi-
tions. This reduces the yield of neutral oil in the refining process. It also creates
poor quality refined oil. This will be discussed further in Chapter 11.
 Basic Oil Chemistry Chapter | 2 9

FIGURE 2.2 Structures of mono-, di-, and triglycerides.

2.2 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN OILS AND FATS

A triglyceride molecule is called “oil” if it is liquid at ambient (room) tempera-
ture, and a “fat” if it is semisolid. Definitions of “room temperature” will vary
greatly with the climate of the region. For example, “room temperature” in a
tropical region can be >95°F (35°C), whereas that in a temperate region can be
68°F (20°C). A good example is coconut oil, which is liquid at room tempera-
ture in semitropical areas during the year except for the winter months when
it becomes solid and might be called a “fat,” although coconut oil is always
referred to as oil. Similarly, partially hydrogenated oil, which might be semi-
solid or solid at room temperature, is commonly referred to as oil.
Products of reactions between hydroxyl groups and organic acids are called
“esters” or sometimes “acyl- compounds.” The broad variety of products
includes waxes made by esterification of long chain alcohols and long chain
fatty acids, various food and industrial emulsifiers, noncaloric sucrose-based
frying oils, fatty acid methyl ester solvents, and biodiesel fuels.

2.3 FATTY ACIDS IN COMMON VEGETABLE OILS

Fatty acids are the building blocks of triglycerides. They generally contain 4–22
carbon atoms and are linear in structure. Sometimes, fatty acids are designated
as “short chain” (4–8 carbon atoms), “medium chain” (10–12 carbon atoms),
and “long chain” (14 or more carbon atoms). The following fatty acids are most
common in vegetable oils:

Saturated Unsaturated
Lauric (C12) Oleic (C18:1)
Palmitic (C16) Linoleic (C18:2)
Stearic (C18) Linolenic (C18:3)
Arachidic (C20)
Behinic (C22)
10 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

Oleic acid, which has one double bond, is called a “monounsaturated fatty
acid” while linoleic and linolenic acids are called “polyunsaturated fatty acids”
because they contain more than one double bond (2 and 3, respectively).

2.3.1 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids

A carbon atom with all four reaction sites of the carbon atom reacted with other
elements is termed “saturated.” The structure of a fatty acid with an end car-
boxyl group (─COOH) is shown below.

In this example, only single carbon-to-carbon bonds exist, and the fatty acid
is called “saturated.”
Unsaturated fatty acids contain fewer hydrogen atoms than required to fully
satisfy the valence of each carbon atom in the molecule. Thus, some carbon atoms
are connected to each other with a “double bond” as shown in the following.

The double bonds in most vegetable oils (except for drying oils used in
paints) contain two single bonds between the two double bonds in the chain.
Most of the hydrogen in double bonds of natural fatty acids is found
on the same side of the double bond, indicating a “cis position” (or “cis-
isomer”). But, some of the hydrogen atoms may move to the other side
of the bond during hydrogenation process (chemical saturation of double
bonds), to produce “trans-isomers.” These structures are further clarified in
the following.
 Basic Oil Chemistry Chapter | 2 11

Both cis and trans isomers are “unsaturated,” fatty acids. However, transfor-
mation of the cis to trans configuration raises the melt-point for the oil.
A small conversion of cis to trans forms also occurs when oils are heated to
very high temperature as during hydrogenation and deodorization.

2.4 TYPICAL BEHAVIOR OF FATTY ACIDS

2.4.1 Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Unsaturated fatty acids are unstable and are very susceptible to oxidation even
at ambient temperatures. They tend to:
1. readily oxidize when exposed to air or oxygen,
2. form aldehydes, ketones, etc.,
3. form primarily oxidative polymers, and
4. form cyclic compounds.

2.4.2 Saturated Fatty Acids

In contrast, saturated fatty acids are relatively stable. They do not oxidize in
the presence of air or oxygen, but will decompose under high heat. They can
produce:
l thermal polymers
l toxins, such as acroleins

2.5 OBJECTIVES OF PROPER OIL PROCESSING

The objective of proper oil processing is to obtain finished oil with the follow-
ing traits:
1. long oxidative stability,
2. long thermal stability,
3. long flavor stability,
4. long storage stability, and
5. long shelf life of food products formulated with the oil.
It is critical that processors understand the basic constituents of oil, its prop-
erties, and how to maintain process conditions that deliver oil with the quality
standards listed previously.

2.6 NONTRIGLYCERIDE COMPONENTS OF OILS

As mentioned earlier, crude vegetable oils generally contain 96–98% triglycer-
ides. Although these components are present in small amounts, they can be very
influential in determining overall stability and performance of the oil. They may
be grouped as:
12 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

1. major nontriglyceride components

2. minor nontriglyceride components

2.6.1 Major Nontriglycerides

The following components generally are present at high levels in the crude oil
and can be measured as percentages:
1. phospholipids
2. free fatty acids (FFA)
3. diglycerides
4. monoglycerides

2.6.1.1 Phospholipids
These compounds are also known as phosphatides or gums. Their levels are
generally expressed in parts per million of phosphorus. The five major groups
of phospholipids found in most vegetable oils are:
1. phosphatidylcholine
2. phosphatidylethanolamine
3. phosphatidylinositol
4. phosphatidylserine
5. phosphatidic acid
Typical phospholipids contents of common vegetable oils are shown in
Table 2.1.

TABLE 2.1 Phospholipids Contents of Selected Vegetable Oils

Phospholipids Phosphorusa
Oil type content (%) content (ppm)
Crude soybean oil 1–3 317–950
Degummed soybean 0.32–0.64 100–200
Crude corn oil 0.7–0.9 222–285
Crude peanut (groundnut) oil 0.3–0.6 95–190
Crude canola oil 1.8–3.5 570–1104
Superdegummed canola oil 0.13–0.16 41–51
Crude sunflower oil 0.5–0.9 159–285
Crude safflower oil 0.4–0.6 127–190
Crude palm oil 0.06–0.95 19–30
a
The relationship between phospholipids and phosphorus contents is: phosphorous
(ppm) = [phosphatides (%) × 104]/31.7.
 Basic Oil Chemistry Chapter | 2 13

2.6.2 Hydratable and Nonhydratable Phospholipids

Two types of phospholipids are present in crude oils from the standpoint of their
affinity for water:
1. Hydratable phospholipids
2. Nonhydratable phospholipids
Treatment with water at 140–158°F (60–70°C) hydrates some of the phos-
pholipids in crude oils, which settle out or can be separated by centrifugation.
For example, 600–800 ppm phosphorus in crude soybean oil can be reduced
to 200 ppm or less by simple water degumming. Phospholipids, which are
not removed by water alone are considered “nonhydratable.” The objective of
acid-pretreatment of crude oil is to convert nonhydratable phospholipids into
hydratable forms by sequestering (drawing away) absorbed bivalent cations
(like calcium and magnesium metals) which interfere with their hydratability.
Various methods for degumming crude oil are described in Chapter 3.

2.6.3 Free Fatty Acids

Fatty acids, separated from triglyceride molecules, are called “free fatty acids,
“FFA” and dissociate into two moieties—a link-accepting hydrogen ion and the
link-giving residual. Formation of FFA in the oil of stored oilseeds is a natural
occurrence, initiated by “lipase” enzymes. A small amount of FFA also formed
during seed crushing and subsequent handling and storage of the crude oil. Fatty
acids bound in triglycerides are still reactive in oxidation and hydrogenation
processes. Amounts of FFA in crude oil vary with the oil species and history of
the sample. Typical FFA values in selected crude oils are shown in Table 2.2.

2.6.4 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides

Degradation of crude oils into FFA always is accompanied by formation of
diglycerides and monoglycerides. These compounds have emulsifying properties

TABLE 2.2 Typical Free Fatty Acid (FFA) Content of Common Crude
Vegetable Oils
Oil type FFA content (%)
Most seed oils 0.5–1.5
Crude palm oil 1–4
Crude cottonseed oil 0.5–3
Extra virgin olive oil <0.8
Virgin olive oil <2
14 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

and can negatively impact on oil losses in refining and processing, and also on
performance of the final oil. This will be discussed later in Chapter 11. Typical
levels of monoglycerides and diglycerides in various fully processed oils are
shown in Table 11.3.

2.6.5 Minor Nontriglycerides

Minor nontriglyceride components of crude oil, present in parts per million
levels, include:
1. tocopherols and tocotrienols
2. sterols and sterol esters
3. volatile and nonvolatile compounds formed from decomposition of the
triglycerides
4. color compounds
5. trace metals

2.6.6 Tocopherols
Tocopherols are naturally occurring antioxidants in vegetable oils, and one of
nature’s protections against oil oxidation. Four types of tocopherols are present:
alpha, beta, gamma, and delta. Sometimes, these forms are identified by Greek
letters α, β, γ, and δ, respectively. Alpha (α) tocopherol provides protection to
the oil against photooxidation (oxidation under visible light). Functions of beta
(β) tocopherol, found at very low concentrations in oils, are not fully known.
Gamma (γ) and delta (δ) tocopherols protect oil against autoxidation. Autoxi-
dation is the primary pathway for oil oxidation, with oil degradation occurring
even in absence of light. This type of oxidation process occurs during process-
ing, storage, distribution of oil as well as food ingredients containing oils and
during food products manufacture and their storage. The reaction is initiated
by formation of a free radical from the unsaturated oil by a metal initiator. The
reaction propagates and continues until either oxygen or unsaturated fatty acids
are exhausted in the oil.
Photooxidation can occur in unsaturated fatty acids when oil is exposed to
ultraviolet rays and a metal initiator is present in the oil. This reaction is called
photochemical reaction. This is a relatively slow reaction process like autoxida-
tion. Photooxidation occurs to the oil in presence of a sensitizer like chlorophyll
(or its oxidation products) when exposed to visible light. This reaction is very
rapid and is 1500 times faster than autoxidation.
Tocotrienols, another group of natural antioxidants, have attracted strong
attention to palm and rice bran oils, which contain 300–500 and 400 ppm of
these compounds, respectively. Tocotrienols are especially effective against
autoxidation. Autoxidation reaction mechanism is shown in Table 2.3. Rice
bran oil and corn oil also contain ferulic acid, an excellent antioxidant at high
 Basic Oil Chemistry Chapter | 2 15

TABLE 2.3 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides Present in Fully Processed Oils

Oil type Monoglyceride (%) Diglyceride (%)
Most seed oils 0.2–0.4 <0.5
Palm oil 0.5–3 3–7

FIGURE 2.3 Structures of tocopherols and tocotrienols.

temperatures. Rice bran oil contains another group of antioxidants known as

oryzanols, which are extremely effective as antioxidants at high temperature
applications like frying and baking. Sesame seed oil contains sesamolin, sesa-
mol, sesaminol, and episesaminol antioxidants, which are not present in other
seed oils. Further, palm oil contains CO Enzyme Q-10 a unique antioxidant
not present in the seed oils. The structures of tocopherols and tocotrienols in
Fig. 2.3 and the typical tocol contents of various oils are shown in Table 2.4.
16 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

TABLE 2.4 Tocols Contents in Crude Oils (ppm)

Sunflower Cottonseed Soybean Corn oil Palm oila Canola
Tocopherols
Alpha 403–935 402 90–120 191 129–215 290
Beta ND–45 1.5 ND — 22–37 —
Gamma ND–34 572 740–1020 942 19–32 382
Delta ND–7 75 240–300 42 10–20 13.4
Tocotrienols
Alpha NDa ND ND 23 44–73 ND
Beta ND ND ND — 44–73 ND
Gamma ND ND ND — 260–437 ND
Delta ND ND ND — 70–117 ND
Total 440–1520 1050 1130– 1198 600–1000 685
tocols 1450

ND, Nondetectable.
a
Palm oil contains +CO enzyme Q-10 = 15–30 ppm.

Tocotrienols have three additional double bonds compared to tocopherols,

which might be the reason for their improved antioxidant effects over tocopherols.

2.6.7 Sterols and Sterol Esters

Phytosterols and phytosterol esters are often present in low concentrations sim-
ilar to tocopherols and other antioxidants mentioned previously. These com-
pounds also have antioxidant properties, although this property has not been
studied as extensively as with the tocopherols. However, sterols and their deriv-
atives have been studied more extensively in human nutrition. Like tocopherols,
different types of sterols and derivatives exist, with type and concentration vary-
ing with the oil species. Sterols and sterol ester contents of common vegetable
oils are shown in Table 2.5.

2.6.8 Volatile and Nonvolatile Compounds

Autoxidation generates a large number of oil decomposition products, including:
1. primary oxidation products, for example, peroxide value (PV).
2. Secondary oxidation products, for example, aldehydes, ketenes, etc.
3. Tertiary oxidation products, for example, alcohols, acids, oxidation poly-
mers, epoxides, cyclic fatty acids, and so on.
The majority of these compounds has low molecular weight and volatilizes
as the oil is heated. But, some fatty acid derivatives are too large and do not
 Basic Oil Chemistry Chapter | 2 17

TABLE 2.5 Sterol Compounds and Their Levels in Common Crude

Vegetable Oils (ppm)
Type of
sterols Soybean Canola Sunflower Corn oil Palm
Brassicasterol ND–12.3 950 ND–9.2 ND–44.2 ND
Beta-sitosterol 918–2,460 3,600 1,348.8–2,990 4,384–14,718.6 150.6–434.7
Campesterol 284.4–992.2 1,900 177.6–593.4 1,488–5,326.1 56.1–192.5
Stigmasterol 268.2–783.1 35 168–529 344–1,701.7 25.5–97.3
Delta5 34.2–151.7 130 ND–317.4 336–1,812.2 ND–19.6
avenasterol
Delta7 25.2–213.2 76 168–1104 80–928.2 0.6–16.8
stigmastenol
Delta7 18–188.6 160 74.4–243.8 56–596.7 ND–35.7
avenasterol
Total sterols 1,800–4,100 6,900 2,400–4,600 8,000–22,100 300–700

ND, Nondetectable.

volatilize. These compounds have distinct effects on oil and product flavors and
their stability, which will be discussed in Chapter 12.

2.6.9 Color Compounds

The main color compounds in vegetable oils are carotenes and chlorophylls,
although other chromophoric compounds also are present. Among the vegeta-
ble oils, palm oil contains the highest amount of carotenes. On the other hand,
soybean and canola contain the highest amounts of chlorophylls. Most of the
carotenes are removed from the oil by heat bleaching in deodorization described
later. Most of the chlorophylls are removed from the oil during the bleaching
process using bleaching clay.
Most of the carotenes are retained in the deodorized palm oil called the “red
palm oil,” using a very special process. This oil is sold as a naturally rich-in-carotene
oil. The carotene content of this oil is 500–600 ppm, compared to 600–800 ppm in
crude palm oil (CPO). Benefits of carotenes for human eyesight have been demon-
strated in human studies in India and the Far East, and red palm oil is promoted for
this nutritional property. This oil also has higher tocopherol and tocotrienol contents
than the conventionally processed palm oil or palm olein.

2.6.10 Trace Metals

Trace metals are undesirable in processed oils because they initiate the autoxida-
tion reaction and shorten storage stabilities of oils and food products formulated
18 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

with them. The most common metals found in the crude oil are: iron, calcium,
magnesium, and sometimes very low levels of copper. Toxic “heavy metals”
may also be present in very low concentrations in crude oils. Trace metals are
removed from the crude oil by the bleaching clay, and bound by citric acid after
the deodorization process. This will be discussed later in Chapters 6 and 12.

2.7 OIL ANALYSIS USED IN VEGETABLE OIL INDUSTRY

AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
Vegetable oil is analyzed at various stages of processing. Each analysis provides
specific information to the processor as well as to the users. The most com-
monly conducted analyses in oil processing plants are listed in the following
with brief descriptions.

Method of Analysis (Version)

Analysis AOCS Method
Iodine value (IV)
• Cyclohexane–acetic acid method Cd 1d-92 (09)
• NIR method Cd 1e-01 (09)
• Calculated from GLC Cd 1c- 85 (09)
• Cyclohexane method Cd 1b-87 (12)
FFA
• Crude and refined fats and oils Ca 5a-40 (12)
Acid value
• Of fats and oils Cd 3d-63 (09)
PV
• Isooctane method Cd 8b-90 (11)
• Chloroform methoda Cd 8-53 (03)
para Anisidine value (pAV) Cd 18-90 (97)
Soap in oil
• Titrimetric method Cc 17-95 (09)
• Conductivity method Cc 15-60 (89)
Conjugated dienes Ti 1a-64(09)
Polar material (TPM) Cd 20-91 (09)
Polymerized triglycerides Cd 22-91 (09)
Solid fat index (SFI) Cd 10-57 (95)
Solid fat content (SFC) Ca 5a-40 (12)
Fatty acid composition (FAC)
• Capillary GLC method Ce 1e-91(01)
• Packed column method Ce 1c-89 (95)
trans fatty acid (TFA)
• trans of partially hydrogenated oils by GLC-IR Cd 14b-93 (95)
• cis, cis and trans isomers by GLCa Ce 1c-89 (95)
• Isomers isolated by FTIR Cd 14-95 (09)
• By capillary GLC method Ce 1f-96 (09)
a
Surplus method—either superseded or obsolete.
 Basic Oil Chemistry Chapter | 2 19

Bleaching test
• For refined cottonseed oil Cc 8a-52 (12)
• For refined soybean oil Cc 8b-52 (11)
• For refined sunflower oil Cc 8b-52 (11)
Lovibond color
Wesson (Lovibond) method Cc 13b-45 (09)
Color (per ISO Standard) Cc 13e-92 (09)
Color (automated method) Cc 13j-97 (09)
Chlorophyll pigment
Refined and bleached oils Cc 13d-55 (09)
Crude vegetable oils Cc 13i-96 (13)
Crude vegetable oils Cc 13k-13 (13)
Trace metals
By AAS (Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni) Ca 15-75 (09)
By graphite furnace AAS (Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Mn) Ca 18-79 (09)
By graphite furnace direct (Cu, Fe, Ni) Ca 18b-91 (09)
By graphite furnace AAS (Pb only) Ca 18c-91 (09)
By ICP-OES (all metals) Ca 17-01 (09)
Phosphorus in oils
By AAS Ca 12b-92 (09)
By ICP-OES Ca 20-99 (09)
By IO method Ca 12a-02 (09)
Smoke point, flash point, and fire point
Cleveland open cup method Cc 9a-48 (09)
Melt point
Capillary tube method Cc 1-25 (09)
Mettler dropping point Cc 18-80 (09)
Slip melting point Cc 3-25 (09)
Slip melting point, ISO Standard Cc 3b-92 (09)
Wiley methoda Cc 2-38 (91)
a
Surplus method—could be considered obsolete.

Active oxygen method (AOM)a Cd 12-57 (93)

Oil stability index(OSI) Cd 12b-92 (09)
Refining loss
• Degummed, expeller soybean oil Ca 9a-52 (09)
• Degummed hydraulic and extracted soybean oil
• Extracted and reconstituted prepressed cottonseed oil
• Vegetable oils crude
Neutral oil
• Loss Ca 9F-57 (09)
• In soap stock G5 -40 (09)
Unsaponifiable matter Ca 6a-40 (11)
Saponification value Cd 3-25 (13)
Mono and diglycerides
• By capillary GLC Cd 11b-91 (09)
• By HPLC-ELSD Cd 11d-96 (09)
20 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

Mono, di and triglycerides

• By silica gel chromatography Cd 11c-93 (09)
Alfa monoglycerides Cd 11-57 (11)
Moisture and volatiles (butter fat, margarines, oils)
• By hot plate method Ca 2b 38-(09)
• Vacuum oven method (except coconut oil) Ca 2d-25 (09)
• By distillation method Ca 2a = 45 (09)
• By Karl Fischer method Ca 2e-84 (09)
Alkalinity
• Of fats and oils Cd 3e-02 (09)
• In soda soap and products Da 7-48 (09)
Acetone insoluble matter
• In lecithin Ja 4-46 (11)
a
Surplus method—could be considered obsolete.

2.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ANALYTICAL METHODS

AND RESULTS
2.8.1 Iodine Value
This method determines the degree of unsaturation in the oil. The results are
expressed as grams of iodine absorbed per 100 g of the oil sample.
Oils with higher unsaturation show higher IV values. Iodine values of most
common crude vegetable oils are listed in Table 2.6.

2.8.2 Free Fatty Acids

This method determines the amount of FFA present in the oil. Generally, results
are expressed as percent oleic acid for seed oils. It is expressed as percent pal-
mitic acid for palm oil and palm oil derivatives, and as percent lauric acid for
palm kernel or coconut oils.

TABLE 2.6 Typical Iodine Values of Common Refined Vegetable Oils

Oil type Typical iodine value
Soybean 132
Canola 120
Sunflower oil 128
Cottonseed oil 110
Palm oil 50
 Basic Oil Chemistry Chapter | 2 21

2.8.3 Acid Value

The acid value for oil is the number of mg of potassium hydroxide required to
neutralize the free acid in 1 g of the oil. For easy reference:
AV = 1.99 FFA (%)

2.8.4 Peroxide Value

This method measures the primary state of oxidative of the unsaturated fatty
acids in oil. The fatty acid can be in the form of FFA or as part of a triglyceride
molecule. This method measures all substances in the oil, which oxidize potas-
sium iodide under conditions of the method as milliequivalents of peroxide per
1000 g of oil or fat. PV of freshly bleached as well as deodorized oil must be
“zero.”

2.8.5 para Anisidine Value

pAV is defined by convention as 100 times the optical density of a solution
containing 1 g of oil and 100 mL of a mixture of solvent and reagents specified
in the test method, measured in a 1-cm cuvette at 350 nm. This test measures
some of the secondary oxidation compounds of oils and fats generated from
the decomposition of the peroxides. Specifically, 2-alkenals and 2, 4-dienals
are measured by this method. Freshly deodorized oil may have a pAV content
of 2–6.

2.8.6 Soap in Oil

This titrimetric method determines alkalinity in the oil as parts per million
sodium oleate. Presence of soap in bleached oil indicates poor bleaching. Prop-
erly refined and bleached oil must have zero soap content. Soap in bleached oil
can cause numerous production and quality problems which will be discussed
later.

2.8.7 Conjugated Dienes

This spectrophotometric method determines diene linkages of unsaturated fatty
acids present in oil in terms of percent of oil. This is a measure to understand the
onset of autoxidation reaction, and will be discussed later in Chapter 12.

2.8.8 Polar Material (TPM)

This method determines the total amount of polar materials present in the oil by
column chromatography. It is used as a measure of oxidative degradation for
oil, especially in frying processes.
22 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

2.8.9 Polymerized Triglycerides

This method determines polymerized triglycerides in fats and oils by a gel-
permeation method, and indicates the degree of thermal and oxidative abuse of
the oil.

2.8.10 Solid Fat Index

This is a dilatometric method which determines the combined volume of solid
and liquid in the sample at specific temperatures. It is an empirical measure of
solids fat content in a sample of oil at specified temperatures. The information
is used in formulating shortenings, margarines, and spreads.

2.8.11 Solid Fat Content

This Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometry (NMR) method estimates the
amount of fat solids present in the oil (fat) sample at specific temperatures. It
is also used in formulating shortenings, margarines, and spreads, and originally
was developed for the emerging modern palm oil industry.

2.8.12 Fatty Acid Composition

This capillary method identifies the fatty acids in a fat or oil by analysis of the
sample’s fatty acid methyl esters by capillary gas–liquid chromatography. The
fatty acid methyl esters are prepared according to AOCS Method Ce 2-66 (09).
This method does not identify cis or trans isomers.

2.8.13 Fatty Acid Composition

The packed column method is especially suitable for analyzing hydrogenated
fat because it is capable of providing (1) fatty acids identities and composi-
tions, and (2) TFA and cis–cis methylene-interrupted unsaturation. This method
yields slightly lower trans values as compared to the infrared spectrophotomet-
ric method (AOCS Method Cd 14-61).

2.8.14 trans Fatty Acid

TFA in hydrogenated fat is becoming increasingly critical for the vegetable oil
industry.

2.8.15 Refined and Bleached Color Test

These methods are available applicable to refined cottonseed oil soybean and
sunflower oils. These tests are particularly helpful to predict the color of the
deodorized oil that could be obtained from a given crude oil.
 Basic Oil Chemistry Chapter | 2 23

2.8.16 Lovibond Color

Method Cc 13b-45 (09) compares the oil color by comparing against colored
glasses. This method can be used to measure color of all normal oils provided
there is no turbidity in the sample.
Method Cc 13e-92 (09) is preferred by the British Standard Lovibond Inter-
national trade.
Method Cc 13j-97 (09) is suitable for measuring colors of all refined,
bleached, and deodorized vegetable oils and also filtered and deodorized tal-
low. The Automated method gives results in the AOCS-Tintometer (Wesson
method) or the Lovibond color scale.
Lovibond color can be used to track degree of removal of color bodies pres-
ent in the original crude oil. Each type of oil has a characteristic Lovibond Red
color. A higher color indicates problems either with the oil or the process. These
will be discussed in detail later in Chapters 6, 8, and 12.

2.8.17 Chlorophyll Pigments

This spectrophotometric method determines the concentration of chlorophyll
in expelled, refined, and bleached oils by measuring absorption at 630, 670,
and 710 nm wavelengths. This method is not applicable to hydrogenated oils,
deodorized oils, or finished products.

2.8.18 Trace Metals (ICP)

The ICP method, or Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectros-
copy (ICP-OES), is used for quantitative determination of calcium, copper,
iron, magnesium, nickel, silicon, lead, sodium, and cadmium in oil, when these
impurities are present in the solubilized form in the oil. Suspended material,
such as bleaching clay or nickel catalyst cannot be detected by this method. The
detection level by this method is extremely low and precise.

2.8.19 Trace Metals (Atomic Absorption Method)

This method is suitable for crude oil and partially refined oil. It can determine
copper, chromium iron and nickel as low as 0.1 ppm in the oil.

2.8.20 Phosphorus (Graphite Furnace)

This method determines the phosphorus content in parts per million. It involves
vaporization of the oil in a suitable graphite furnace and an atomic absorption
spectrophotometer for reading.

2.8.21 Phosphorus (ICP)

This method quantitatively determines the phosphorus level in oil by using
Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES).
24 Practical Guide to Vegetable Oil Processing

2.8.22 Smoke Point, Flash Point, and Fire Point (Cleveland Open
Cup method)
Smoke point is directly related to the amount of FFA in the oil, and also to the
amounts of monoglycerides and diglycerides present in the oil. The flash point of
solvent-extracted crude oil must be checked at receipt to make sure it is higher
than 300°F (149°C). The smoke point for the degummed soybean oil or crude sun-
flower oil is 250°F (121°C) maximum, according to the Trading rules of NIOP.

2.8.23 Melt Point (Capillary Tube Method)

The complete melting point of fat is determined by this method.

2.8.24 Melt Point (Mettler Drop Point Method)

The temperature at which the fat sample becomes soft and flows under the specific
conditions of the test is measured by this method. This is an approximate method
for melt point because one can see higher melting solids in the melted sample
even at a temperature higher than the melt point determined by this method.

2.8.25 Active Oxygen Method (AOM)

This method measures the time in hours needed for the PV of a sample to reach
100 mEq when tested under the conditions specified. This is a measure of the
primary oxidative stability of oil. AOM provides good information oil stability
for salad dressing and applications that do not require high temperature treat-
ment for the oil. Most oil processors and end users stopped using this method
because the following method is found to be more useful to determine the oxi-
dative stability of the oil.

2.8.26 Oil Stability Index (OSI)

This method provides the tertiary oxidative state for the oil. In oil applications,
OSI is a better measure of oil stability while processing of foods formulated
with the oil and is subjected to high temperature.
The apparent basic difference between OSI and AOM is that OSI estimates
the time required to exhaust antioxidants present in the sample and begins accu-
mulating peroxides, while AOM measures the total time required for the sample
to degrade to the 100 mEq PV. The OSI method provides better information
about the secondary and tertiary oxidation of the oil. This will be discussed
further in Chapter 12.

2.8.27 Refining Loss

There are several methods for the test that apply to different oils as listed previ-
ously.
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landscape was plunged into such a pitch-black darkness as he had
never experienced before. He could not even see his hand before his
eyes. The aerial could not be seen either, although he could feel the
tremendous energy still flowing away.
What had happened? The aerial on top of Ralph's house had
obtained such a tremendously high frequency, and had become so
strongly energyzed, that it acted toward the ether much the same as
a vacuum pump acts on the air.
The aerial for a radius of some forty miles attracted the ether so fast
that a new supply could not spread over this area with sufficient
rapidity.
Inasmuch as light waves cannot pass through space without the
medium of ether, it necessarily follows that the entire area upon
which the aerial acted was dark.
The observer who had never before been in an etherless hole (the
so-called negative whirlpool), experienced some remarkable
sensations during the twenty minutes that followed.
It is a well known fact that heat waves cannot pass through space
without their medium, ether, the same as an electric bell, working in
a vacuum, cannot be heard outside of the vacuum, because sound
waves cannot pass through space without their medium, the air.
No sooner had the darkness set in, than a peculiar feeling of
numbness and passiveness would have come over him.
As long as he was in the etherless space, he absolutely stopped
growing older, as no combustion nor digestion can go on without
ether. He furthermore had lost all sense of heat or cold. His pipe, hot
previously, was neither hot nor cold to his touch. His own body could
not grow cold as its heat could not be given off to the atmosphere,
nor could his body grow cold, even if he had sat on a cake of ice,
because there was no ether to permit the heat to pass from one
atom to another.
He would have remembered how, one day, he had been in a tornado
center, and how, when the storm center had created a partial
vacuum around him, he all of a sudden had felt the very air drawn
from his lungs. He would have remembered people talking about an
air-less hole, in which there was no medium but ether (inasmuch as
he could see the light). Now things were reversed. He could hear
and breathe, because the ether has no effect on these functions; but
he had been robbed of his visual senses, and heat or cold could not
affect him, as there was no means by which the heat or cold could
traverse the ether-hole.

Alice's father, who had heard of the strike of the Meteoro-Tower

operators and guessed of his daughter's predicament, rushed back
from Paris in his aeroflyer. He had speeded up his machine to the
utmost, scenting impending disaster as if by instinct. When finally
his villa came into sight, his blood froze in his veins and his heart
stopped beating at the scene below him.
He could see that an immense avalanche was sweeping down the
mountain-side, with his house, that sheltered his daughter, directly
in the path of it.
As he approached, he heard the roar and thunder of the avalanche
as it swept everything in its path before it. He knew he was
powerless, as he could not reach the house in time, and it only
meant the certain destruction of himself if he could; and for that
reason he could do nothing but be a spectator of the tragedy which
would enact itself before his eyes in a few short minutes.
At this juncture a miracle, so it seemed to the distracted father,
occurred.
His eye chanced to fall on the Power mast on the top of his house.
He could see the iridium aerial wires which were pointing East-by-
North suddenly become red-hot; then yellow, then white-hot, at the
same time he felt that some enormous etheric disturbance had been
set up, as sparks were flying from all metallic parts of his machine.
When he looked again at the aerial on his house, he saw that a
piece of the Communico mast, which apparently had fallen at the
base of the Power mast, and which was pointing directly at the
avalanche, was streaming gigantic flames which grew longer and
longer, and gave forth shriller and shriller sounds. The flames which
streamed from the end of the Communico-mast-piece looked like a
tremendously long jet of water leaving its nozzle under pressure.
For about five hundred yards from the tip of the Communico mast it
was really only a single flame about fifteen feet in diameter. Beyond
that it spread out fan-wise. He could also see that the entire Power
mast, including the Communico mast, was glowing in a white heat,
showing that immense forces were directed upon it. By this time the
avalanche had almost come in contact with the furthest end of the
flames.
Here the unbelievable happened. No sooner did the avalanche touch
the flames, than it began turning to water. It seemed that the heat
of those flames was so intense and powerful that had the avalanche
been a block of solid ice it would not have made any marked
difference. As it was, the entire avalanche was being reduced to hot
water and steam even before it reached the main shaft of the flame.
A torrent of hot water rushing down the mountain was all that
remained of the menacing avalanche; and while the water did some
damage, it was insignificant.
For several minutes after the melting of the avalanche the flames
continued to stream from the aerial, and then faded away.
Ralph 124C 41+, in New York, four thousand miles distant, had
turned off the power of his ultra-generator.
He climbed down his glass ladder, stepped over to the Telephot, and
found that Alice had already reached her instrument.
She looked at the man smiling in the faceplate of the Telephot
almost dumb with an emotion that came very near to being
reverence.
The voice that reached him was trembling and he could see her
struggle for coherent speech.
"It's gone," she gasped; "what did you do?"
"Melted it."
"Melted it!" she echoed, "I—"
Before she could continue, the door in her room burst violently open
and in rushed a fear-stricken old man. Alice flew to his arms, crying,
"Oh father—"
Ralph 124C 41+ with discretion disconnected the Telephot.

2
TWO FACES
Feeling the need of fresh air and quiet after the strain of the last half
hour, Ralph 124C 41+ climbed the few steps leading from the
laboratory to the roof and sat down on a bench beneath the
revolving aerial.
The hum of the great city came faintly from below. Aeroflyers dotted
the sky. From time to time, trans-oceanic or trans-continental air
liners passed with a low vibration, scarcely audible.
At times a great aircraft would come close—within 500 yards
perhaps—when the passengers would crane their necks to get a
good view of his "house," if such it could be called.
Indeed, his "house," which was a round tower, 650 feet high, and
thirty in diameter, built entirely of crystal glass-bricks and
steelonium, was one of the sights of New York. A grateful city,
recognizing his genius and his benefits to humanity, had erected the
great tower for him on a plot where, centuries ago, Union Square
had been.
The top of the tower was twice as great in circumference as the
main building, and in this upper part was located the research
laboratory, famous throughout the world. An electromagnetic tube
elevator ran down the tower on one side of the building, all the
rooms being circular in shape, except for the space taken up by the
elevator.
Ralph, sitting on the roof of his tower, was oblivious to all about him.
He was unable to dismiss from his mind the lovely face of the girl
whose life he had just been the means of saving. The soft tones of
her voice were in his ears. Heretofore engrossed in his work, his
scientific mind had been oblivious to women. They had played no
part in his life. Science had been his mistress, and a laboratory his
home.
And now, in one short half hour, for him the whole world had
become a new place. Two dark eyes, a bewitching pair of lips, a
voice that had stirred the very core of his being—
Ralph shook himself. It was not for him to think of these things, he
told himself. He was but a tool, a tool to advance science, to benefit
humanity. He belonged, not to himself, but to the Government—the
Government, who fed and clothed him, and whose doctors guarded
his health with every precaution. He had to pay the penalty of his +.
To be sure, he had everything. He had but to ask and his wish was
law—if it did not interfere with his work.
There were times he grew restive under the restraint, he longed to
smoke the tobacco forbidden him by watchful doctors, and to
indulge in those little vices which vary the monotony of existence for
the ordinary individual. There were times when he most ardently
wished that he were an ordinary individual.
He was not allowed to make dangerous tests personally, thereby
endangering a life invaluable to the Government. That institution
would supply him with some criminal under sentence of death who
would be compelled to undergo the test for him. If the criminal were
killed during the experiment, nothing was lost; if he did not perish,
he would be imprisoned for life.
Being a true scientist, Ralph wanted to make his own dangerous
experiments. Not to do this took away the very spice of life for him,
and on occasion he rebelled. He would call up the Planet Governor,
the ruler of 15 billion human beings, and demand that he be relieved
of his work.
"I can't stand it," he would protest. "This constraint which I am
forced to endure maddens me, I feel that I am being hampered."
The Governor, a wise man, and a kindly one, would often call upon
him in person, and for a long time they would discuss the question,
Ralph protesting, the Governor reasoning with him.
"I am nothing but a prisoner," Ralph stormed once.
"You are a great inventor," smiled the Governor, "and a tremendous
factor in the world's advancement. You are invaluable to humanity,
and—you are irreplaceable. You belong to the world—not to
yourself."
Many times in the past few years he recalled, had the two been over
the same ground, and many times had the diplomatic Governor
convinced the scientist that in sacrifice of self and devotion to the
world's future lay his great reward.
The voice of his manservant interrupted his reverie.
"Sir," he said, "your presence in the transmission-room would be
appreciated."
"What is it?" asked the scientist, impatient at the interruption.
"Sir, the people have heard all about the Switzerland incident of an
hour ago and desire to show their appreciation."
"Well, I suppose I must submit," the inventor rather wearily
responded, and both stepped over into the round steel car of the
electromagnetic elevator. The butler pressed one of the 28 ivory
buttons and the car shot downward, with neither noise nor friction.
There were no cables or guides, the car being held and propelled by
magnetism only. At the 22nd floor the car stopped, and Ralph
stepped into the transmission-room.
No sooner had he entered than the deafening applause of hundreds
of thousands of voices greeted him, and he was forced to put his
hands to his ears to muffle the sound.
Yet, the transmission-room was entirely empty.
Every inch of the wall, however, was covered with large-sized
Telephots and loud-speaking devices.
Centuries ago, when people tendered some one an ovation, they
would all assemble in some great square or large hall. The celebrity
would have to appear in person, else there would be no ovation—
truly a clumsy means. Then, too, in those years, people at a distance
could neither see nor hear what was going on throughout the world.
Ralph's ovation was the result of the enterprise of a news "paper"
which had issued extras about his exploit, and urged its readers to
be connected with him at 5 p.m.
Naturally everyone who could spare the time had called the
Teleservice Company and asked to be connected with the inventor's
trunk-line—and this was the result.
Ralph 124C 41 + stepped into the middle of the room and bowed to
the four points of the compass, in order that all might see him
perfectly. The noise was deafening, and as it rather grew in volume
than diminished he beseechingly held up his hands. In a few
seconds the applause ceased and some one cried—"Speech!"
Ralph spoke briefly, thanking his audience for their interest, and
touching but lightly upon his rescue of the young Swiss girl, begged
his hearers to remember that in no way had he risked his life and
therefore could scarcely be called a hero.
Vociferous cries of "No, no," told him that no one shared his humble
opinion of the achievement.
It was at this juncture that Ralph's attention was caught by two
persons in the audience. There were so many thousands of faces on
each plate that nearly every countenance was blurred, due to their
constant movement. (He himself, however, was clearly seen by
them, as each one had switched on their "reversers," making it
possible to see only the object at the end of the line.)
To Ralph, the shifting, clouded appearance of his audience was a
commonplace.
This was not the first time that he had been called upon to receive
the thanks of the multitude for some unusual service he had
rendered them, or some surprising scientific feat he had successfully
accomplished. While realizing that he must of necessity yield to
public adulation, it more or less bored him.
He was not particularly interested in the crowd, either collectively or
individually, and as there were so many faces crowded into each
faceplate he made no attempt to distinguish friends from strangers.
Yet there were two faces among the numerous Telephot faceplates
that Ralph in making his brief speech, found his eyes returning to
again and again. Each occupied the whole of a respective faceplate
and while dissimilar in appearance, nevertheless were markedly alike
in expression. It was as if they were studying this great scientist,
endeavoring to fix in their minds a permanent picture of him. Ralph
sensed no animosity in their steady almost hypnotic gaze and yet
they were curiously apart from the enthusiastic throng. He felt as
though he were, to both of them, under the microscope.
One of the faces was that of a man in his early thirties. It was a
handsome face, though, to the close observer, the eyes were set just
a trifle too near together, and the mouth betrayed cunning and had
a touch of viciousness.
The other was not a Terrestrial, but a visiting Martian. It was
impossible to mistake the distinctly Martian cast of countenance. The
great black horse eyes in the long, melancholy face, the elongated
slightly pointed ears were proof enough. Martians in New York were
not sufficiently rare to excite any particular comment. Many made
that city their permanent home, although the law on the planet
Earth, as well as on Mars, which forbade the intermarriage of
Martians and Terrestrials, kept them from flocking earthwards in any
great numbers.
In the applause that followed the conclusion of Ralph's words the
incident of the two pairs of scrutinizing eyes vanished from his
thoughts. But his sub-conscious self, that marvelous mechanism
which forgets nothing, had photographed them indelibly. With the
plaudits of the crowd still ringing he bowed and left the room.
He went, via the elevator, directly to his library, and asked for the
afternoon news.
His man handed him a tray on which lay a piece of material as large
as a postage stamp, as transparent and flexible as celluloid.
"What edition is this?" he asked.
"The 5 o'clock New York News,[1] sir."
Ralph took the "News" and placed it in a metal holder which was
part of the hinged door of a small box. He closed the door and
turned on a switch on the side of the box. Immediately there
appeared on the opposite white wall of the room, a twelve-column
page of the New York News and the scientist, leaning back in his
chair, proceeded to read.
The New York News was simply a microscopic reduction of a page,
which, when enlarged by a powerful lens, became plainly visible.
Moreover, each paper had eight "pages," in separate sheets, as was
the fashion centuries ago, but eight pages literally on top of each
other. The printing process was electrolytic, no ink whatsoever being
used in the manufacture of the "newspaper." This process was
invented in 1910 by an Englishman, and improved by the American
64L 52 in 2031, who made it possible to "print" in one operation
eight different subjects, one on top of another.
These eight impressions could be made visible only by subjecting the
"paper" to different colors, the color rays bringing out the different
prints. The seven colors of the rainbow were used, while white light
was employed to show reproduced photographs, etc., in their natural
colors. With this method it was possible to "print" a "newspaper,"
fully ten times as large in volume as any newspaper of the 21st
century, on a piece of film, the size of a postage-stamp.
Each paper published an edition every 30 minutes, and if one did not
possess a projector, one could read the "paper" by inserting the
News in a holder beneath a powerful lens which one carried in one's
pocket, folded when not in use. To read the eight different pages, a
revolving color screen was placed directly underneath the lens, to
bring out the different colors necessary to read the "paper."
Ralph, 124C 41+, glancing over the head-lines of his News, saw that
considerable space was given to his latest exploit, the paper showing
actual photographs of the Swiss Alpine scene, which a
correspondent had taken as the avalanche thundered down the
mountain. The photographs had been sent by Teleradiograph
immediately after the occurrence in Switzerland, and the News had
printed them in all the natural colors twenty minutes after Ralph had
turned off the ultra-power in New York.
These photographs seemed to be the only thing that interested
Ralph, as they showed the house and the surrounding Alps. These,
with the monstrous avalanche in progression photographed and
reproduced in the natural colors, were very impressive.
Presently he revolved the color screen of his projector to green—the
technical page of the News—to him the most interesting reading in
the paper.
He soon had read all that interested him, and as there was still an
hour before dinner time he began to "write" his lecture: "On the
prolongation of animal life by π-Rays."
He attached a double leather head-band to his head. At each end of
the band was attached a round metal disc that pressed closely on
the temples. From each metal disc an insulated wire led to a small
square box, the Menograph, or mind-writer.
He then pressed a button and a low humming was heard;
simultaneously two small bulbs began to glow with a soft green
fluorescent light. Grasping a button connected with a flexible cord to
the Menograph, he leaned back in his chair.
After a few minutes' reflection he pressed the button, and at once a
wave line, traced in ink, appeared on a narrow white fabric band,
the latter resembling a telegraph recorder tape.
The band which moved rapidly, was unrolled from one reel and
rolled up on another. Whenever the inventor wished to "write" down
his thoughts, he would press the button, which started the
mechanism as well as the recording tracer.
(Below is shown the record of a Menograph, the piece of tape being
actual size.

Where the wave line breaks, a new word or sentence commences;

the three words shown are the result of the thought which expresses
itself in the words, "In olden times." ...)
The Menograph was one of Ralph 124C 41+'s earliest inventions,
and entirely superseded the pen and pencil. It was only necessary to
press the button when an idea was to be recorded and to release
the button when one reflected and did not wish the thought-words
recorded.
Instead of writing a letter, one sent the recorded Menotape, and
inasmuch as the Menolphabet was universal and could be read by
anyone—children being taught it at an early age—it was considered
that this invention of Ralph's was one of his greatest gifts to
humanity: Twenty times as much work could be done by means of
the Menograph as could be done by the old-fashioned writing, which
required considerable physical effort. Typewriters soon disappeared
after its invention. Nor was there any use for stenographers, as the
thoughts were written down direct on the tape, which was sent out
as a letter was sent centuries ago.
As was his custom in the evening he worked for some hours in the
laboratory, and retired at midnight. Before he fell asleep he attached
to his head a double leather head-band with metal temple plates,
similar to the one used in connection with the Menograph.
He then called for his man, Peter, and told him to "put on" Homer's
Odyssey for the night.
Peter went down to the library on the 15th floor, and took down
from a shelf a narrow box, labeled Odyssey, Homer. From this he
extracted a large but thin reel on which was wound a long narrow
film. This film was entirely black but for a white transparent wave-
line running through the center of it.
Peter returning to Ralph's bedroom placed the reel containing the
film in a rack and introduced the end of the film into the
Hypnobioscope. This wonderful instrument, invented by Ralph,
transmitted the impulses of the wave-line direct to the brain of the
sleeping inventor, who thus was made to "dream" the Odyssey.
It had been known for centuries that the brain could be affected
during sleep by certain processes. Thus one could be forced to
dream that a heavy object was lying on one's chest, if such an
object was placed on the sleeper's chest. Or one could be forced to
dream that one's hand was being burnt or frozen, simply by heating
or cooling the sleeper's hand.
It remained to Ralph, however, to perfect the Hypnobioscope, which
transmitted words direct to the sleeping brain, in such a manner that
everything could be remembered in detail the next morning.
This was made possible by having the impulses act directly and
steadily on the brain. In other words, it was the Menograph
reversed, with certain additions.
Thus, while in a passive state, the mind absorbed the impressions
quite readily and mechanically and a story "read" by means of the
Hypnobioscope left a much stronger impression than if the same
story had been read while conscious.
For thousands of years humanity had wasted half of its life during
sleep—the negative life. Since Ralph's invention, all this was
changed. Not one night was lost by anyone if anywhere possible,
conditions permitting. All books were read while one slept. Most of
the studying was done while one slept. Some people mastered ten
languages, during their sleep-life. Children who could not be
successfully taught in school during their hours of consciousness,
became good scholars if the lessons were repeated during their
sleep-life.
The morning "newspapers" were transmitted to the sleeping
subscribers by wire at about 5 a.m. The great newspaper offices had
hundreds of Hypnobioscopes in operation, the subscriber's wire
leading to them. The newspaper office, notified by each subscriber
what kind of news is desirable, furnished only such news.
Consequently, when the subscriber woke up for breakfast he already
knew the latest news, and could discuss it with his family, the
members of which were also connected with the newspaper
Hypnobioscope.

FOOTNOTES:
[1] At the time this was written there was no newspaper of that
name.

3
DEAD OR ALIVE?
An apologetic cough came through the entrance to the laboratory. It
was nearing one o'clock of the following day.
Several minutes later it was repeated, to the intense annoyance of
the scientist, who had left orders that he was not to be interrupted
in his work under any circumstances.
At the third "ahem!" he raised his head and stared fixedly at the
empty space between the doorjambs. The most determined optimist
could not have spelled welcome in that look.
Peter, advancing his neck around the corner until one eye met that
of his master, withdrew it hastily.
"Well, what is it?" came from the laboratory, in an irritated harsh
voice.
Peter, in the act of retreating on tiptoe, turned, and once more
cocked a solitary eye around the door-jamb. This one feature had
the beseeching look of a dog trying to convey by his expression that
not for worlds would he have got in the way of your boot.
"Beg pardon, sir, but there's a young—"
"Won't see him!"
"But, sir, it's a young lady—"
"I'm busy, get out!"
Peter gulped desperately. "The young lady from—"
At this moment Ralph pressed a button nearby, an electromagnet
acted, and a heavy plate glass door slid down from above, almost
brushing Peter's melancholy countenance, terminating the
conversation summarily.
Having secured himself against further interruption Ralph returned
to the large glass box over which he had been working, and in which
one could see, through greenish vapors, a dog, across whose heart
was strapped a flat glass box filled with a metal-like substance.
The substance in the box was Radium-K. Radium, which had been
known for centuries, had the curious property of giving out heat for
thousands of years without disintegrating and without apparently
obtaining energy from any outside source.
In 2009, Anatole M610 B9, the great French physicist, found that
Radium obtained all its energy from the ether of space and proved
that Radium was one of the few substances having a very strong
affinity for the ether. Radium, he found, attracted the ether violently
and the latter surging back and forward through the Radium became
charged electrically, presenting all the other well known phenomena.
Anatole M610 B9 compared the action of Radium on the ether with
that of a magnet acting upon a piece of iron. He proved this theory
by examining a piece of pure metallic Radium in an etherless space,
whereupon it lost all its characteristics and acted like a piece of
ordinary metal.
Radium-K, as used by Ralph, was not pure Radium, but an alloy
composed of Radium and Argonium. This alloy exhibited all the usual
phenomena of pure Radium and produced great heat, but did not
create burns on animal tissue. It could be handled freely and without
danger.
The dog lying in the glass box had been "dead" for three years. Just
three years previous, in the presence of twenty noted scientists
Ralph 124C 41+ had exhibited a live dog and had proceeded to drain
off all its blood till the dog was pronounced quite dead and its heart
had stopped beating. Thereupon he had refilled the empty blood
vessels of the animal with a weak solution of Radium-K bromide, and
the large artery through which the solution was pumped into the
body had been closed.
The flat box containing Radium-K was then strapped over the dog's
heart and it was placed in the large glass case. The latter was filled
with Permagatol, a green gas having the property of preserving
animal tissue permanently and indefinitely. The purpose of the box
containing Radium-K was to keep the temperature of the dog's body
at a fixed point.
After the case was completely filled with gas, the glass cover was
sealed in such a manner that it was impossible to open the case
without breaking the seals. The scientists had agreed to return after
a lapse of three years to witness the opening of the box.
There were several delicate instruments inside the box and these
were connected by means of wires to recording instruments on the
side, and these Ralph inspected twice each day. Throughout the
three years the "dead" dog had never stirred a muscle. His
temperature had not varied 1/100 of a degree and his respiratory
functions had shown no signs of life. To all intents and purposes the
dog was "dead."
The time was close at hand for the final stages of what Ralph
considered to be his greatest experiment. Three years ago when he
faced his fellow scientists at the end of the first stage of this work,
he electrified them by announcing that he expected to prove that
this dog, which they had all pronounced "dead," could be restored to
life, unharmed, unchanged, with no more effects upon the dog's
spirits, habits, and nature, than had the animal taken but a short
nap.
For three years this experiment of Ralph 124C 41+ had been the
subject of innumerable scientific papers, had been discussed
intermittently in the newspapers and the date of the final phase of
the great experiment was fixed in the mind of every human being on
the planet.
If the experiment succeeded it meant the prolongation of human life
over greater periods of the earth's history than had ever been
possible. It meant that premature death except through accident
would be ended.
Would he succeed? Had he attempted the impossible? Was he
challenging Nature to a combat only to be worsted?
These thoughts obtruded themselves into his consciousness as he
began the preparations for the great test of the afternoon. He
pumped out the Permagatol from the box until the green vapor had
completely disappeared. With infinite care he then forced a small
quantity of oxygen into the box. The instruments recording the
action of the respiratory organs indicated that the oxygen reaching
the dog's lungs had stimulated respiration.
This being all he could do for the present, he pressed the button
that raised the glass barrier, and summoned Peter by means of
another button.
That individual, looking a trifle more melancholy than usual,
responded at once.
"Well my boy," said Ralph good-humoredly, "the stage is all set for
the experiment that will set the whole world by the ears.—But you
don't look happy, Peter. What's troubling your dear old soul?"
Peter, whose feelings had evidently been lacerated when the door
had been lowered in his face, replied with heavy dignity.
"Beg pardon, sir, but the young lady is still waiting."
"What young lady?" asked Ralph.
"The young lady from Switzerland, sir."
"The—which?"
"The young lady from Switzerland, sir, and her father, sir. They've
been waiting half an hour."
If a bomb had exploded that instant Ralph could not have been
more astounded.
"She's here—and you didn't call me? Peter, there are times when I
am tempted to throw you out—"
"Pardon sir," replied Peter firmly, "I made bold to assume that you
might be interested in the young lady's arrival, and presumed to step
into the laboratory to so inform—"
But his master had gone, shedding his laboratory smock as he went.
Peter, gathering his dignity about him as a garment, reached the
doorway in time to see the elevator slide downwards out of sight.
And in it, Ralph, his heart thumping in a most undignified way, was
acting more like a schoolboy than a master of science. He twitched
at his tie with one hand and smoothed his hair with the other,
peering into the elevator's little mirror anxiously. Discovering a
smudge on his cheek he checked the car between floors while he
wiped away the spot with his handkerchief.
When he reached the reception room he sprang from the elevator
eagerly and hurried in. Seated by one of the windows were Alice
212B 423 and her father. Both turned as he entered, and the girl
rose to her feet and with a charming gesture held out both hands.
"We just had to come," she said prettily, and in perfect English. "You
didn't give us an opportunity to thank you yesterday, and anyhow,
we felt that telephot thanks were not nearly so nice. That is, father
thought we really ought to come in person—of course, I did, too. I
wanted to see you ever so much"—she broke off, and then, realizing
the implication of her words, went on hastily with reddened cheeks
and downcast eyes, "I mean, to—to thank you, you know."
"It was wonderful of you," he declared still holding her two hands,
and utterly unmindful of the fact that she was gently trying to
disengage them. Indeed, he was not conscious of anyone or
anything but her, until the voice of her father brought him to the
realization that there was someone else in the room.
"We need no introduction I think," said the gentleman, "but I am
James 212B 422 and I must ask you to pardon our intrusion upon a
busy scientist's time, but I felt that we should come personally to
thank you for the great service you have done us both. She is my
one daughter, sir, and I love her dearly—dearly—"
"I can quite understand that," said Ralph with an unconscious ardor
that caused Alice, who had completely recovered from her
momentary confusion, to dimple and blush delightfully.
"I'm afraid, father dear," she said, "that we are keeping a busy man
too long. Your man," she added, turning to Ralph, "said you were
engaged in a wonderful experiment, and could not be disturbed."
"Busy? Not at all," said Ralph gracelessly. "You should not have been
kept waiting one moment, and I am very indignant with Peter for not
breaking down the door. He should have known, when he saw you,
that you were not to wait."
"Oh, please, don't scold him because of me," said Alice, not,
however, at all displeased with the implied compliment.
"I didn't know yesterday that you spoke English," he said, "so I used
the language-rectifier, but I see that you speak it perfectly. That is a
great relief to me, I assure you, for I speak French very indifferently.
But tell me," he continued, "how did you get here so soon? The
afternoon transatlantic aeroliner is not due yet, and it can hardly be
twenty-four hours since you left Switzerland."
"We had the honor of being the first passengers to arrive by means
of the new Subatlantic Tube," said James 212B 422. "As you are
doubtless aware, the regular passenger service opens next week,
but being one of the consulting engineers of the new
electromagnetic tube, my daughter and I were permitted to make
the first trip westward. We made it in perfect safety, although it was
a little risky, as some small portions of the tube are not entirely
completed."
"And we were so anxious to get here as quickly as possible," broke
in Alice with a glance at Ralph.
"But you shouldn't have risked your lives, in an untested tube," he
exclaimed. And then, the scientist in him to the front: "Tell me all
about this new tube. Busy with my own work I have not followed its
progress closely enough to know all its details."
"It has been most interesting work," said James 212B 422, "and we
regard it as quite an achievement in electrical engineering. The new
tube runs in a straight line between New York and Brest, France. If
the tube were to run straight along the bottom of the ocean the
distance between the two points would be from 3600 to 3700 miles
due to the curvature of the earth. For this reason the tube was
pushed straight through the earth, thereby making the distance only
3470 miles.
"You will understand it better by examining this chart," and unfolding
a plan, he proceeded to elaborate on the finer points of the tube
construction. "The greatest trouble," he went on, "our engineers
experienced near the middle of the tube; this point is 450 miles
nearer the center of the earth and the heat became very marked. It
was necessary to install large liquid-air plants at several points in the
tube to reduce the heat, and now as you ride through no heat is
noticed.
"We boarded the spacious steel car, which resembles a thick cigar, at
Brest last night at midnight, and arrived at the New York terminal at
noon today. There was only one stop, a few hundred miles out from
Brest, because of several short-circuited electromagnets.
"There are no wheels to the tube car and it is propelled by
magnetism only. At each three hundred feet is stationed a powerful
tubular electromagnet, about thirty feet long, through which the
tube car passes. Each electromagnet exerts a tremendous pull upon
the car three hundred feet away, this being the only steel object,
and the car rushes toward the electromagnet with a tremendous
speed. When the car is only two feet away from this electromagnet,
the current is cut off automatically by the car itself, the latter
plunging through the open space of the magnet coil, only to be
influenced now by the next electromagnet, three hundred feet
distant.
"The momentum acquired by the pull of the former electromagnet
propels the car with ever-increasing speed, and by the time it has
passed through twenty-five electromagnets it has reached the speed
of three hundred miles an hour. It then continues at a steady pace
till the end of the journey.
"As the car is held suspended entirely by magnetism, there is
practically no friction whatever, as there are no wheels or rails. The
only friction is from the air, and in order that this may not heat the
car it is equipped with a double wall, the space between the inner
and outer walls being a vacuum. Consequently the temperature
inside is comfortable at all times. Once inside the car, we retired and
slept as soundly as in our swinging beds at home. There were no
shocks, no noise, no rocking—all in all the trip was so delightful, that
I must say the new tube is a decided success!"
"Fine, fine," said Ralph enthusiastically. "This new tube is going to
revolutionize intercontinental travel. I suppose it won't be long now
before we will regard our tedious twenty-four hour journeys as
things of the past. Tell me," turning to Alice who had been an
interested listener, "how did the trip impress you?"
"Oh," she exclaimed eagerly, "it was delightful! So smooth and fast!
I was so excited. Really, it was over too soon."
As she spoke Ralph watched her with keen interest. Here was a girl
who attracted him. Beneath the vivacity that so fascinated him he
sensed the strength of her character, and the depth of her mind.
"I am so glad to be in New York," she was saying. "Do you know,
this is my first visit here for ages. Why, the last time I can just barely
remember, I was such a little girl. Father has been promising me a
trip for years," with a laughingly reproachful glance at him, "but it
took an avalanche to get us started."
"I'm afraid I've been a neglectful father of late years," said her
father, "but my work has kept me tied pretty close to home. I, too,
am pleased to be here once more, and my visit promises to be
doubly interesting, for I understand that your great dog experiment
will be completed today. I am looking forward to receiving the
earliest reports of it at the hotel."
"But I can't permit you to spend your days here in a hotel,"
protested Ralph. "Of course you must both be my guests. Yes, yes,"
as they seemed about to demur, "I won't take no for an answer. I
am counting on showing you New York, and, as for my experiment,
it will give me great pleasure to have you both present in my
laboratory this afternoon at four."
He pressed a button. "Peter will show you to your rooms, and I will
send some one for your luggage."
"You are more than kind," said James. "This is quite unexpected, but
none the less delightful. As to attending the meeting in your
laboratory this afternoon, it is an honor, sir, that I appreciate deeply."
At this moment Peter stepped from the elevator and Ralph, after
giving him instructions to show his guests to their apartment, and
directions as to their bags, escorted them to the car and returned to
the laboratory.

Promptly at four, Ralph greeted a notable group of fellow scientists,

who had come from all corners of the planet to witness the
completion of the famous "Dead-Alive Dog" experiment. A host of
reporters lined the walls. Alice and her father were seated near
Ralph.
A number of the twenty scientists who had witnessed the beginning
of the experiment three years before were dubiously contemplating
the glass box, and one or two of the reporters, unawed by the
personages in the laboratory, seven of whom were "Plus" men,
seemed to find much covert amusement in the whole affair.
Finally, when all of the preparations were completed, and Ralph's
two assistants had stationed themselves beside the glass box
containing the body, the young scientist addressed the gathering.
"Ladies and gentlemen," he said, "you have come here to witness
the final phase of my dog experiment. The preliminary phases you
observed three years ago this day in this room. The seals you put in
place are intact, and you may see them for yourselves, untouched as
you left them.
"As I explained three years ago I formulated the theory that a well
preserved animal, though dead to all intents and purposes, could be
revived, or new life given to it, provided the body had not undergone
decomposition; and also provided that none of the organs had
suffered in the least.
"I found that the rare gas Permagatol would conserve animal tissue
and animal organs indefinitely; when it is used in conjunction with a
weak solution of Radium-K bromide, mixed with antiseptic salts, no
part of an animal body would undergo any change for many years.
"I also found that the body would have to be kept at a fixed
temperature and this was possible by the use of Radium-K alloy. I
am now ready to prove my theory."
He signaled to his assistants, and with their aid, the seals were
broken and the glass cover of the case removed.
A profound silence prevailed. Every eye was focussed on the dog
and many of those present found it difficult to remain seated.
Ralph coolly and deliberately freed the dog of his bandages and
attachments and placed him on an operating table in plain view of
everyone.
From then on he and his aides moved rapidly. First the dead dog's
artery was opened and the Radium-K bromide solution drained off. A
young goat was brought in and strapped on the table, and in a very
few seconds one of its arteries had been opened and connected to
the dead dog's main artery. In less than a minute the dog's body
was full of fresh warm blood and immediately efforts were made to
bring the dog back to life.
Oxygen was freely administered and the heart was artificially
pulsated by means of an electrical vibratory apparatus.
At the same time one of the assistants had trained a vacuum tube
on the dog's head and its cathode shot the powerful F-9-Rays into
the animal's brain. No sooner had these rays, which are among the
most powerful brain stimulants, been trained on the dog than he
began to show weak signs of life. One of the hind legs was drawn up
with a jerk as if in a fit. Then came a faint heave of the chest,
followed by a weak attempt to breathe.
A few minutes later the body seemed to contract and a shiver ran
through it from head to tail. A deep respiration followed, and the
animal opened its eyes as if awakening from a long sleep.
In a few minutes more the dog was lying on its paws and licking up
milk when Ralph turned to the group and said:
"Gentlemen, the experiment is concluded and I believe the condition
of the animal at this moment establishes sufficient proof of my
theory."
As the reporters eagerly dashed from the laboratory to get to the
nearest Telephot in order to communicate the news to the waiting
world the scientists gathered around Ralph and one of them, a white
haired old man considered to be the dean of the "Plus" men, voiced
the sentiment of the entire group.
"Ralph, this is one of the greatest gifts that science has brought to
humanity. For what you have done with a dog, you can do with a
human being. I only regret for myself that you had not lived and
conducted this experiment when I was a young man, that I might
have, from time to time, lived in suspended animation from century
to century, and from generation to generation as it will now be
possible for human beings to do."
The vista opened up by the results of this experiment in the minds
of the other scientists had dazed them and it was with the most
perfunctory good-byes that they left the scene of the experiment,
enveloped with their thoughts of the future.
Tired and exhausted by the nervous strain of the afternoon Ralph, a
few minutes later, lay down on his bed for a few hours' rest. But as
he closed his eyes there came to him a vivid picture of a pair of
warm dark eyes, radiating admiration, trust and something more
that aroused an emotion he had never before experienced.

4
FERNAND
On the following morning, Ralph, breakfasting alone, sent Peter to
the apartments of his guests to ascertain at what hour they would
be ready to do a little sight-seeing with him as guide.
He himself, in the habit of rising at an early hour, had not expected
to see either Alice or her father much before noon, and it was a
decided surprise to him, to see the latter enter the room a moment
after Peter had gone on his errand.
"I see that you, too, like to get up with the birds," said the scientist
after they had exchanged morning greetings.
"And Alice also, when she is at home; but the journey, and our
exciting day following it have tired her. I shall just have a bite to eat
with you, if you will permit me, and then I must be off to keep an
appointment with one of the chief engineers of the Tube."
"Then you will be unable to accompany us on our tour of the city?"
"Yes, but don't let that interfere with your plans. I know that Alice
will be safe with you," smiled her father, "and I daresay you young
people can get along very well without me."
"I'm sorry," replied Ralph, but in his heart he could not but rejoice
that he was to spend the day alone with her who, in a few short
hours had so captivated him. Perhaps something of this showed in
his face, for James 212B 422 smiled to himself.
Peter returned and presently Ralph and James were seated together
at the table. They conversed in a more or less desultory manner
until just before the end of the meal when Alice's father, laying down
his napkin, said:
"Before I leave you I have a request to make, a strange one, you
may think." He hesitated. "A short time ago I said that I felt that
Alice would be safe in your care. I had a special reason for making
the remark. The fact is, I am a little worried about her. A young
man, by name Fernand 60O 10, has been making rather a nuisance
of himself lately. He has asked her to marry him, a number of times,
and she has refused, and he has begun to force his attentions on
her in a manner which savors something of persecution.
"In fact, he went so far, four days ago, as to threaten her. Exactly
what passed between them I don't know, but I do know that,
although she treated the matter lightly at the time, she is frightened.
I have an impression that he may try to kidnap her if she does not
accept him, and though, in these enlightened days such a thing
seems ridiculous—well, the affair makes me a little nervous myself.
When we left Switzerland I understood that he was there, but he
may have followed Alice here. If he has and renews his unpleasant
surveillance I shall know that my fears have some grounds."
"What does this Fernand look like?" asked Ralph.
"Oh, a nice looking fellow—at least, the women think so. Personally,
I don't care for him. He is tall and dark, and has the sort of
temperament that seems to delight in opposition. His eyes have a
sullen expression, and his mouth is somewhat weak. She has, by the
way, another admirer, a thoroughly harmless chap, who is here on a
visit at present. He is the Martian Llysanorh' CK 1618, and he is
really hopelessly infatuated, but being, as I say, a very decent chap
who respects the law against marriage between the Martians and
Terrestrials, he has never annoyed her in any way. On the other
hand they are very good friends, and I doubt very much whether
she even suspects that he has any other feeling for her than that of
a devoted friend."
As he was speaking, a picture leapt to Ralph's mind. He saw again
two faces, each in the center of a Telephot, who, among the crowds
of applauding admirers regarded him with such intentness. If these
were the two men who cared for Alice, each in his own way, it was
not surprising that they had displayed more than a passing interest
in the man who had rescued her from what seemed to be certain
death, and who was a possible rival.
He recounted the incident to James, who agreed with him that in all
likelihood his suspicions were correct, and the two men parted for
the day, the older bearing with him the comforting reassurance that
Ralph would take care of his daughter as he would himself.
It was nearing eleven when Alice appeared, bright-eyed after her
long rest. She laughingly apologized for being so late, and they set
out at once.
"You know," he said before they started, "we New Yorkers are
strange birds. We only like our city when we are far away from it, or
when we can take some stranger about to show him or her the
marvels of the town. As a matter of fact the real, dyed-in-the-wool
New Yorker hates the town and only stays in it because it has cast a
spell over him which he cannot escape."
By this time they had arrived at the street level of the building and
Ralph bade Alice sit down on a chair in the vestibule. He pressed a
nearby button twice and a servant brought two pairs of what
appeared to be roller-skates.
In reality they were Tele-motor-coasters. They were made of
alomagnesium and each weighed only about one and one-half
pounds. Each had three small, rubber-covered wheels, one in front
and two in the rear. Between the wheels was a small electric motor
—about the size of a lemon; this motor could only be operated by
high frequency currents and, despite its small size, could deliver
about one-quarter horsepower.
Ralph explained the coasters and their use to his companion; and
after they had put them on by means of an ingenious clutch,
whereby the coaster could be snapped onto the shoe in less than
five seconds, they both went out into the street. From each coaster
a thin insulated wire led up the wearer's back to the hat or cap. Here
it was attached to the collector, which was a stiff pin about eight
inches long, projecting half-way out from the hat or cap. This pin
sucked up, as it were, the high frequency electricity and carried it to
the small motors, which latter propelled the coaster. To control the
speed of the motor, one simply lifted up the front part of the
coaster; this not only cut off the current, but automatically braked
the two rear wheels.
When the two rolled out in the street, Alice at once remarked upon
the splendid condition of the roads.
"You see," the scientist explained, "for centuries the city had to
content itself with temporary pavements, until about fifty years ago
it woke up and covered every street with steelonium.
"You will notice that there are no cracks or fissures. Steelonium
won't rust and is ten times as strong as steel. We now make our
streets by putting down large slabs of the metal, six inches thick.
After they are in place we weld them together electrically and the
result is a perfect street composed of a uniform sheet of metal
without cracks or breaks; no dirt or germs can collect. The sidewalks
are made in the same manner.
"As a matter of fact, the Tele-motor-coasters would not be possible
were it not for the metallic streets. The flat spring which trails on the
street between the two rear wheels must make continuous contact
with the metallic 'ground,' else the current cannot flow."
"But where does the current come from?" asked the girl.
"You have perhaps noticed already the white slender posts at the
edge of the sidewalk, and on their tops umbrella-like insulators
which carry a thick spiked wire. This wire, as you see, is about
fifteen feet above the curb and carries the high frequency current
which not only supplies our coasters with power, by way of our
needle collectors, but also propels all the vehicles which you see
gliding so noiselessly."
They were well under way and rolled along at a speed of about
twenty miles an hour. They passed thousands of citizens, all coasting
at high speed. There was no noise but the peculiar hum produced by
the thousands of motors, a sound which was in nowise annoying.
Each sidewalk was divided in two parts. On the outside only people
going in one direction, on the inside only people going in the
opposite direction could coast. Collisions, therefore, were impossible.
If a person rolling on the outside wished to enter a store, it was
necessary to go to the end of the block, and then turn to the left,
which brought him on the inside of the sidewalk where he could roll
up to his destination. Of course, this was only necessary when the
sidewalk was crowded, nothing preventing one's crossing it if but
few people were on the block.
The trolley car had long since become obsolete as well as the
gasoline-driven automobile. Only electromobiles carrying either
passengers or freight were to be seen. Each vehicle was equipped
with a short collector mast by means of which the electrical energy
was conveyed to the motors. The wheels of all vehicles were rubber-
covered. This accomplished two purposes: one to insulate the
vehicle from the metallic street, the other to minimize the noise to
the greatest extent.
Although Alice had had a good scientific training, some of the
wonders of New York amazed her and she, as strangers had done
for centuries, asked questions continuously, while her companion
eagerly explained everything with a pleasure peculiar to the New
Yorker, loving his town.
"What are those strange spiral wire affairs hanging high over all
street crossings?" was one of her first questions.
"Those illuminate our streets at night," was the answer. "They are
iridium wire spirals, about ten meters in diameter, hanging forty
meters up in the air, at the intersection of all our streets. This
evening you will see how the entire spiral will glow in a pure white
light which is absolutely cold. The wire throws out the light, and
after sundown you will find that the streets will be almost as light as
they are now. Each spiral furnishes over one-half million
candlepower, consequently one is needed only where streets
intersect, except on very long blocks, when a smaller spiral is hung
in the middle."
Presently, while crossing a large square they passed Meteoro-Tower
No. 26, of the seventh district, and Ralph at once launched off into
praise of it.
"While you of other countries have a good weather service, we in
New York boast of having the finest climate of any town on the face
of the globe. As you may imagine, our weather-engineers always
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