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Exam 3 Study guide

The document outlines essential weather concepts, including the dynamics of wind, pressure systems, and global circulation patterns. It also covers tropical weather phenomena such as ENSO and tropical cyclones, as well as characteristics of mid-latitude weather, including air masses and fronts. Key elements include the forces affecting wind, the structure of tropical cyclones, and the identification of weather fronts.

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13 views4 pages

Exam 3 Study guide

The document outlines essential weather concepts, including the dynamics of wind, pressure systems, and global circulation patterns. It also covers tropical weather phenomena such as ENSO and tropical cyclones, as well as characteristics of mid-latitude weather, including air masses and fronts. Key elements include the forces affecting wind, the structure of tropical cyclones, and the identification of weather fronts.

Uploaded by

dsyrcinemonkey
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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A.

Weather Basics

1. Pressure and Wind


- a. Wind – Wind is the horizontal movement of air, caused by differences in atmospheric
pressure. It is measured by its speed and direction, with tools like anemometers. Wind direction
is defined by the direction from which it originates. Horizontal winds are typically depicted on a
wind rose, while vertical air movements are termed updrafts (rising, unstable air) and downdrafts
(sinking, stable air).

- b. Forces Affecting Wind


- i. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) – This force initiates wind movement by causing air to
flow from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. The strength of the PGF depends
on the distance between isobars (lines of equal pressure); closer isobars mean a stronger gradient
and faster wind.
- ii. Coriolis Force – An apparent force caused by Earth's rotation that deflects moving air to
the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The Coriolis
force increases with wind speed and latitude, being strongest at the poles and nonexistent at the
equator.
- (a) Geostrophic Wind – The result of a balance between the PGF and the Coriolis force,
causing wind to blow parallel to isobars, typically seen in upper-level atmospheric winds.
- iii. Friction – A force that acts near the Earth's surface, slowing down wind and causing it to
cross isobars at an angle. Friction reduces wind speed and weakens the Coriolis effect, allowing
surface winds to move slightly inward towards low-pressure areas and outward from high-
pressure areas.

- c. High and Low Pressure Systems


- i. Thermally-Created Pressure Systems – Created due to differential heating. Equatorial low
pressure forms from intense solar heating, causing air to rise, while polar high pressure forms
from cooling, causing air to sink.

- d. Global Circulation
- i. Three-Cell Structure – Earth’s global circulation pattern is divided into three primary cells
per hemisphere:
- Hadley Cell – Dominates the tropical region and drives trade winds, intertropical
convergence, and the formation of tropical rain belts.
- Ferrel Cell – Lies between the Hadley and Polar cells, driving the westerlies in the mid-
latitudes.
- Polar Cell – Dominates the polar regions, driving polar easterlies.
- ii. Surface Pressures – Surface pressure zones include the equatorial low, subtropical high,
subpolar low, and polar high. These zones influence climate patterns and wind systems globally.
- iii. Surface Winds – Driven by pressure systems, these include:
- Northeast and Southeast Trade Winds – Occur near the equator, directed towards the
intertropical convergence zone.
- Westerlies – Found in the mid-latitudes, driven by the Ferrel cell and responsible for
much of the weather in temperate regions.
- Polar Easterlies – Occur near the poles, driven by the Polar cell.

B. Weather Systems

2. Tropical Weather
- a. ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation)
- i. Definition – A climate pattern marked by periodic variations in sea surface temperatures
(El Niño/La Niña) and sea-level pressures (Southern Oscillation) in the Pacific Ocean.
- ii. History – Described by Sir Gilbert Walker, who observed pressure shifts and called it the
"Southern Oscillation." Norwegian meteorologist Jacob Bjerknes later linked this phenomenon
to the warming/cooling of Pacific waters, coining the term "El Niño."
- iii. Weather Changes During ENSO – During El Niño, warmer Pacific waters disrupt
typical weather patterns, leading to heavy rains in South America and droughts in Australia and
Indonesia. La Niña, the cooling phase, can bring opposite effects.
- iv. Teleconnections – ENSO influences weather globally, affecting conditions far from the
Pacific. For example, El Niño shifts the jet stream southward, altering storm tracks and affecting
rainfall and temperatures across North America.

- b. Defining the Tropics


- i. Location – The tropics lie between approximately 30° N and 30° S latitude.
- ii. Characteristics of Weather – High sun angle results in consistently warm temperatures
and high humidity, with minimal seasonal variation.
- iii. Storm Systems – Frequent thunderstorms, tropical storms, and hurricanes (cyclones,
typhoons) due to warm, moist air and tropical convergence.

- c. Tropical Cyclones
- i. Definition – Large, rotating storm systems originating in the tropics, characterized by
strong winds and heavy rain. These are known as hurricanes in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific,
typhoons in the western Pacific, and cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
- ii. Formation
- (a) Easterly Waves – Disturbances in the trade winds can initiate cyclone development as
air converges and rises.
- (b) Stages of Development – The stages include tropical disturbance, tropical depression,
tropical storm, and tropical cyclone (hurricane).
- iii. Structure – Cyclones have a low-pressure center, or eye, surrounded by an eye wall with
the most intense winds and rain. Spiraling rain bands extend outward from the center.
- iv. Saffir-Simpson Scale – Ranks cyclones by sustained wind speeds:
- (a) Deadliest Hurricanes – Ranked by fatalities.
- (b) Costliest Hurricanes – Ranked by economic impact.
- (c) Strongest Hurricanes – Ranked by maximum sustained wind speed.
- v. Hurricane Season – Peaks in warmer months when sea surface temperatures support
storm development.
- vi. Hurricane Forecasting – Forecasting uses tools like satellites, Doppler radar, and
computer models to predict storm tracks, intensity, and potential impacts.

3. Mid-Latitude Weather
- a. Defining the Mid-Latitudes – The region between 30° and 60° latitude in each hemisphere,
characterized by distinct seasonal changes.

- b. Characteristics of Mid-Latitude Weather


- i. Air Masses
- (a) Definition – A large volume of air with uniform temperature and humidity.
- (b) Source Regions – Areas with consistent surface characteristics, such as polar ice or
tropical oceans, where air masses form.
- (c) Types of Air Masses – Include:
- Continental Polar (cP) – Cold, dry air from polar regions.
- Continental Tropical (cT) – Warm, dry air from deserts.
- Maritime Polar (mP) – Cool, moist air from high-latitude oceans.
- Maritime Tropical (mT) – Warm, moist air from tropical oceans.
- Arctic (A) – Extremely cold, dry air from the Arctic.
- (d) Air Mass Modification – Air masses change as they move over different surfaces,
warming, cooling, or gaining moisture.

- ii. Fronts
- (a) Definition – A boundary between two air masses of different temperatures and
humidities.
- (b) Stationary Front – A non-moving boundary between air masses, often causing
prolonged, steady precipitation.
- (c) Cold Front – A boundary where a cold air mass advances into a warmer one, typically
bringing thunderstorms and cooler weather behind it.
- (d) Warm Front – A boundary where a warm air mass advances over a cooler one, often
bringing widespread clouds and steady precipitation.
- (e) Occluded Front – Occurs when a cold front overtakes a warm front, lifting the warm
air off the surface and often causing complex weather patterns.

- iii. Finding a Front – Fronts are identified by shifts in temperature, wind direction, and
humidity, as well as changes in cloud and precipitation patterns.

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