UNIT-I

BASIC DESCRIPTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS, RAW

MATERIALS – THEIR DURABILITY & AGEING

Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics may be defined as a generic term which includes geotextiles, geomembranes,
geogrids, geonets, geocomposites and all other similar materials used by civil engineers to
improve or modify soil rock behaviour.
Classification of geosynthetics: - Geosynthetics are classified into following types.
(1) Geotextiles
(2) Geomembrane
(3) Geogrid
(4) Geocomposites
(1) Geotextiles and related products are being increasingly used the world over for every
conceivable application in civil engineering be it in roads, foundations or earth and earth
retaining structures. Their current use is estimated to be of the order of 1000 million sqm per
annum. The reasons for such wide spread use, are that they are
i. Good alternatives to conventional designs
ii. Sometimes, the only means of construction
iii. Amenable for rapid installations.
(2) Geomembrane is defined as a continuous membrane type liner and
barrier composed of asphaltic, polymeric of combination thereof materials
with sufficiently low permeability so as to control fluid migration in a
geotechnical engineering- related man-made project, structure or system.
(3) Geogrid is any sythetic planar structure formed by a regular network
of tensile elements with apertures of sufficient size to allow interlocking with surrounding soil,
rock, earth or any other geotechnical material. They are also characterised by high dimensional
stability and high tensile modulus at very low elongation.

(4) Geocomposites: When geogrids/geotextiles/geomembranes are

combined with woven or non-woven geotextiles or geogrids for
specific applications like drainage erosion control, bank protection
etc, they are designated as geocomposites.
Geonets/geowebs/geomats could be coarse woven/or joints obtained by partial melting made
of strips rigid filaments or extracted strands. They are generally flexible and junctions of
overlapping strands not firmly connected.
 Historical Development and Nomenclature of Geosynthetics
Historically, early civilizations have, used natural materials to improve soil behaviour e.g.,
ziggurautts of Babylonia wherein woven mats of reeds were used, and tree branches were
placed in the Great Wall of China. In India it is common to see dry branches and leaves or trees
being used to reinforce soft soil in which heavy trucks get hogged down in raining season
Textile material was perhaps first used in road construction in South Carolina in the early
1930's. The first use of a woven synthetic fabric for erosion control was in 1950's in Florida.
In 1960's, geotextiles were extensively used for erosion control- both in Europe as well as
U.S.A. Later in 1969 nonwoven fabrics were used as a filter In the upstream face of an earthen
dam. In 1971. use of woven fabrics as reinforcement for embankments constructed on very soft
foundations was initiated. Today the use of such materials is more common for a wide range of
civil engineering applications
The Nomenclature: - According to ASTM, a GEOTEXTILE is "any permeable textile
material used with foundation, soil, rock, earth or any other geotechnical engineering-related
material, as an integral part of a man-made project structure or system".
The term which is proposed in 1983 by Professor Robert M. Koerner, Director of Geosynthetic
Research Institute and now being increasingly used is geosynthetics which encompasses:
i. Geotextile
ii. Geomembranes
iii. Geogrids
iv. Geocomposites
 Functions of Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics serve the following basic functions.
(1) Fluid transmission: - A geotextile can
collect a liquid or a gas and convey it along
its own plane, providing fluid transmission
as shown in fig. This has been
conventionally termed as drainage
function:

(2) Filtration: - A geotextile acts as filter

when it is normal to its own plane, while
preventing from being carried away by
the illustrated in fig

(3) Separation: - When placed between a fine soil and a coal (gravel, stones etc.), a
geotextile prevents the coarse material from moving under the repeated applied loads
as shown in fig
(4) Protection: - A geotextile protects a material when it alleviate/contributes stresses and
strains transmitted to the pitching material. This can be
i. For surface protection, as in crosion fig

ii. For interface protection, i.e., alleviation of reflection cracking as shown in fig
 iii. Provide tensile modulus and strength through interface friction, as in fig

The last two functions are usually combined together and termed as reinforcement function. In
many applications geosynthetics may perform more than function. This is illustrated in fig.
 Application of Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics includes geotextile, geogrids, geonets etc. In civil engg. projects, Geosynthetics
are used in following application:
(1) Internal reinforcement retaining walls: Geotextiles and geogrids in internally
reinforced soil walls (Fig) allow reinforcement of the soil mass, creating a stable fill
area behind the wall face. This application is an alternative to conventional gravity or
cantilever retaining walls used in many civil engineering structures. In a retaining wall,
as a result of vertical loading a horizontal pressure builds up against the back of the
wall The consequent lateral displacement of the wall is minimised by the reinforcement.
The use of geosynthetics allows a significant reduction in concrete required, decreases

the cost of the wall construction, and reduces the load carrying requirements of the wall
facing element
(2) Steep slope reinforcement: - Geotextiles and geogrids can allow construction of slopes
with far steeper face angles as shown in fig than permitted by the soil's natural angle of
repose which allows for more efficient land use.

Reinforced Embankments Over soft soils: - If the foundation soils underlying the
embankment is too weak to permit the construction of an embankment to the required
 height, then geosynthetic-reinforced embankments can be provided with definite
advantage.

Conventional soil mechanics analysis techniques are used to evaluate the soil
conditions and the embankment geometry. From this analysis, a design can be generated
that provides the required reinforcement strength of geosynthetic. Both geotextiles and
geogrids can serve this function.
The geosynthetic is placed over the foundation soil, generally with minimal disturbance
of the existing materials. The embankment is then built using conventional construction
equipment until the required embankment height is reached. One or more layers of
geosynthetic may be used to provide the reinforcement necessary for embankment
stability.
(3) Subgrade stabilization: - A geosynthetic can improve load carrying capability and
reduce nutting when constructing roads over weak soils. The geosynthetic provides a
separation barrier to prevent fill from punching into the subgrade under construction
traffic. Typical woven and nonwoven geotextiles are used in this separation application.
The desired properties of the geosynthetics are dependent upon the subgrade support
strength and loads applied during construction. The geosynthetic may also provide
filtration and drainage functions if required Installation techniques vary with the
application, but geosynthetics are typically placed directly on the subgrade followed by
placement and compaction of adequate depth of stone.

Geosynthetic used under railway track (as shown in Fig) may provide for additional
roadbed filtration, planar (Lateral) permeability strength and modulus improvement,
and separation of subgrade and ballast. Through use of geotextile even reinforced rail
sleepers are in use in Netherlands, instead) of the conventional timber/concrete sleepers.
(4) Subsurface drainage: Geotextiles are used in subsurface drainage systems as a
permeable separator to keep soil out of the drainage media, but permit water to pass
freely Uncontrolled ground water can be destructive, so subsurface drainage is needed
under highways, parking lots, shorelines, walls etc Permittivity (capacity to water flow)
and pore size (opening size) are critical characteristics. Nonwoven fabrics because of
their high flow capacity and small pore size are typically used

In most subsurface drainage applications strength is not a primary concern. It is only

critical during installation Care should always be taken to assure an effective
installation.
(5) Drainage-Prefabricated composites:
Prefabricated drainage composites (Fig.) are engineered to replace costly, conventional
aggregate drain systems. They provide consistent in-place drainage and can reduce the
material cost, installation time and design complexity associated with aggregate
drainage systems.

(6) Erosion control/Turf reinforcement: - Three-dimensional erosion control mats are

used to establish a reinforced turf in ditches, channels and slopes The mat entangles
with the root and stem network of vegetation to great enhance its resistance to flow
velocity.
 Erosion mats used for tarf reinforcement have a strong, stable three-dimensional
structure with adequate porosity to retain soil while allowing roots and stems to grow
through Correct installation requires pinning the mat to the ground and burying mat
edges and ends Top soil cover may be used to enhance temporary erosion protection
and early vegetative grown
(7) Geomembrane protection: - Geotextiles may be placed on one or both sides of the
geomembrane (synthetic) to protect it from installation and design stresses. These
geosynthetic lining systems are gaining popularity in hazardous and non-hazardous
waste landfills. They replace conventional sand/protective layers.

Typical geotextiles used for geomembrane protection are medium- heavyweight

fabrics. Geotextiles protect the geomembrane by acting as cushion Geotextiles
minimize the chance of the liner being punctured by sharp objects and damaged from
construction stresses Important geotextile properties for this application are typically
weight fabric thickness and puncture burst and tear strength,
(8) Asphalt overlay: - Excess moisture in road bases is the primary caus of premature road
failures Ninety percent of subgrade and base moisture problems stem from rain and
melting snow or ice entering the road through the surface. Heavy vehicle loads can
cause extensive damage to roads especially when the base is wet and weakened.

(9) Erosion control under rip-rap: - To prevent the erosion of soil through the layer.
Geotextils are used as an interface as shown in fig. The geotextile is in lieu of a
conventional grade aggregate filter. In this application, large stone or in some cases
flexible concrete mattresses, are to protect the soil against erosion and wave attend use
of a geotextile in such situation usually provide stantial savings aver conventional
 aggregage filted terms with tar greater control during constructed particularly in
underwater applicatons.

(10) Erosion Control- Fabric-Forming Mats: -A cost effective alternative to stone np-rap
is a cone forming system. The mats as shown in fig are typically constructed of water
permeable double layer woven fabric. The fabrics are positioned on the area to be
protected, where they are filled with a pumper structural grout. In many cases, the mats
can be installed at a lower co than conventional methods since all construction is
performed in place.
 Process of Chain Scission in Degradation of Polymeric Material
Polyolefins in an unprotected state have poor resistance to sunlight with brittleness developing
in thin sections in less, than six months. This brittleness or loss of flexibility, resulting from
oxidation energized by the ultra-violet component of ordinary sunlight is accompanied by
physical changes, principally chain-scission or shortening This results in lowered molecular
weight, together with cross-linking. The net result of these changes is a brittle material having
little strength
In order to give protection against degradation initiated by UV light, the only form of
degradation which is a direct result of weathering alone, all Tensar geogrids incorporate an
appropriate amount of finely divided carbon black. From information provided by resin
suppliers, the lives to be expected for the various grades of Tensar geogrids were estimated.
These estimates are now believed to be conservative, as most research on UV degradation
has been carried out on samples much thinner than even the ribs of these geogrids (Raumann,
1982). It is notable that the materials with the heaviest filaments showed the least deterioration
20% loss in strength in 1 year, but even these fabrics had filaments of order of magnitude finer
than the ribs of Tensar geogrids.
The life of product containing 0.75% carbon black can be estimated from fig It can be seen that
with 0,75% carbon black PP degrades on more than 45 times as fast with 2.5% carbon black
and the rate of attrition is therefore 2.5 x 45= 11.25 m per year. At this rate the lightest Tensar
geogrid containing 0.75% carbon black (SS1) which has a minimum rib thickness of 0.5mm,
would retain 90% of its initial strength for 4.4 years. Thus, no significant deterioration will
occur even if geogrids are exposed on site for many months before burial.

The resistance to ageing of any given polyolefin-carbon black compound depends upon-three
factors:
i. Type and particle size of carbon black
ii. Concentration of carbon black and
iii. Dispersion of carbon black
In order to ensure extended UV protection, the carbon black must be a Channel type with a
particle size of less than or equal to 20 nanometres must concentrated at 2% minimum and
must be well dispersed in the polyolefin.
 Raw Materials Used in the Manufacture Geotextiles
The synthetic materials used for manufacture of geosynthetics include amorphous
thermoplastics, semicrystalline thermoplastics and elastomers Polymers are made by
chemically linking very large molecules together in chains. Following is a brief description of
the polymers used in geosynthetics.
(1) Polyolefins: -Polyolefins are made from any long chain synthetic polymer composed of at
least 85% by weight of ethylene propylene etc. In general, they offer a high degree
chemical inertness, light weight high strength and abrasion resistance.
Polypropylene (PP) a polyolefin made from propylene monomer obtained from naphtha is
Widely used in geosynthetics Increasing the linearity of the polymer structure increases
the density and strength of the polymer.
Polyethylene (PE) (a polyolefin) is made from ethylene monomer obtained from naphtha
and depending upon the nature of polymerisation, two varieties are usually obtained Low
Density Polyethylene (IDPE) and High-Density Polyethylene (HOPE).
By suitable modifications to ethylene monomer, other polymers such as chlortnai
polyethylene (CPE) and chloro-sulphonated polyethylene (CSPE Hypalon) are produced.
These are used in the manufacture of Geomembranes.

(2) Polyester (PET): - It is made from Dimethyl Terephthalate (DMT) and ethylene Geycol
(MEG) in place of DMT Modem processes use Pure Terephthalic Acid (PTA) All these
monomers are obtained from Naptba Polyester fibres offer high strength, as well as
chemical inertness to solvents sea water, acid and abrasion resistance it has high resistance
to creep and no variation in mechanical behaviour at temperatures up to 200°C.
(3) Polyamides (PA): - The polyamide family is extensive. Nylon is a polyamide obtained by
polymerising caprolactam monomer (which is made from Benzene or Buterdine obtained
from Naptha), Polyamides are high resistant to abrasion. They have certain sensitivity to
aqueous solution.
Polyvinyl chloride: - A polymer made from polymerisation of vinyl chloride monomer
(obtained from naptha) is polyvinyl chloride.
Elastomers: - Synthetic rubbers like butyl rubber, Neoprene, Ethylene propylene diene
monomer (EPDM) are included in this category. For all these the basic raw materials are
fractions of Naptha cracker
 Causes of Deterioration of Geosynthetics & Phenomenon of Durability
The possible causes of deterioration of geosynthetics are such as
i. Ultra violet degradation
ii. Thermal and oxidative degradation
iii. Chemical attack
iv. Microbial attack
v. Environmental stress cracking
Durability: - The term "durability" expresses the preservation in time of the characteristics or
performance, of a material which are checked at the time (of delivery or before placing and
service.
The whole question of durability has become of greater relevance in recent years as
geosynthetics structures have found their more sophisticated application in civil engineering
construction. Until the early 1980's most of the geosynthetics were used in passive roles. As
for example. Temporary consolidation of embankment Surfaces. separation of soil aggregate
layers in foundation and or drainage function etc. witnessed their major uses in early ages. In
all these cases, retention of mechanical properties over specified (short) times was not of
importance and hence not a performance requirement in the application. But more recently the
use of geosynthetics as reinforcing media in civil engineering structures with higher level of
quantifiable performance required. has been increased. In such more active end use
Catastrophic loss of mechanical properties during their design lifetimes could have serious
implication with regard to the stability of civil engineer structures as a whole or in part.
Consequently, the question of durability geosynthetics has become a matter of vital concern
 Degrading Agencies to Which Geosynthetics are Subjected to: -
No geosynthetic is ever exposed to a single degrading agency geotechnical situation, Instead,
the most easily identified factors are of acting in combination and thus attack on geosynthetic
structures occur in most complex and little understood manner. It must be recognized that pr to
and during installation, exposure to the environment and human activity can have serious
Implications with regard to geo-polymetric lifetimes both directly after actual damage or
indirectly. In the latter case, such exposure may sensitise the structure to more rapid and
Subsequent in-situ degradation. For example, UV exposure of a geosynthetic during
transportation, storage or installation can sensitise component polymer to hydrolytic damage
installation Similarly, weathering involves the critical exposure of Synthetic to the physical and
chemical effects of sunlight rain wind and atmosphere pollutant gases and particulates
The various degrading agencies are
i. UV
ii. Sunlight
iii. Air
iv. Rain
v. Wind
vi. Pollutant gases
vii. Stress
viii. Micro-organisms
 Polyester, Polyethylene & Polypropylene
This polymer is the prime candidate for their use in geosynthetic structure, because of its high
strength, modulus and creep resistance coupled with general chemical inertness However. It
may be physically attacked by polar aromatic species such as benzyl alcohol and phenols. it is
resistant to diesel and other fuel oils. Its principal chemical weakness lies in its sensitivity to
hydrolysis in acidic and especially basic media This, therefore, poses the question of long-term
durability of polyester in aqueous environments over the pH range 3-10 typical of values in
natural and pollutant soils. However, calculation based on laboratory ageing tests suggest that
in spite of some hydrolysis occurring in PET exposed to ambient alkaline condition of pH 7-
10 lifetime in excess of 50 years may be expected Moreover, its resistance to UV radiation is
not exceptional and thus, its storage and installation should be undertaken with care to avoid"
unnecessary exposure.
Both these conventionally melt spun performance geotextiles and geogrids. A prime weakness
of all aramid materials, however lies in their vulnerability to UV attack.
 Effect of Microbial & Chemical Attack on Durability of Polymers
Microbial attack: - In an extensive research programme by Albertsson, HDPE samples were
incubated at 250°C for 800 days in aerated cultures of various organisms: The HDPE was in
the form of 0.02mm thick unoriented film or fine milled powder and in most experiments was
used free of antioxidant in order to accelerate testing. Two effects were identified biotic auto-
oxidation, and a biological defect. No possible biological mechanism of degradation could be
found. The only effect found was that the micro-organisms consumed the very low molecular
weight extractable fraction of polymer This consumption was proportional to surface/volume
ratio and after two year was less than 0.1% per year for a powder with a surface/volume ratio
of 10.5m²/g. As Tenser and Melton geogrids have a maximum surface/volume ratio of = 5 x 10
m²/g. this effect would be barely measurable, even over 100 years. In addition, the rate of
consumption was reduced by a factor of 3 by the inclusion of an antioxidant in the polymer. It
is expected that PP will behave similarly.
Further work by Albertson states that average chain length strength of HDPE molecules above
weight average 1000 Mw (Molecular weight) are inert to microbial attack because of the lack
of suitable enzymes that split the C-C bond. Tensar HDPE Geogrids are produced from resins
with molecular weight averages between 150,000-200,000.
Griffin summarized that the biological resistance of polyolefins has in fact led to serious
concern about the effect on the environment of the longevity of the vast quantity of these
materials used in the modern packing industry. Research has therefore been carried out to try
and increase their biodegradability. The only method found to encourage the biological
breakdown of such products was the incorporation of a high proportion (up to 40%) nutrient
filler such as starch.
The resistance of HDPE to attack by large organisms was confer by the results of 15-year
marine exposure tests carried out from 1956 to 1970. No significant attack occurred on 'HDPE,
even from marine borers, the most aggressive organisms encountered.
Finally, the biological resistance of the particular polymer systems including stabilizers and
carbon black, used in Tensar Geogrids is confirmed by the approval given for similar
compounds to be used for portable, water conveyance.
Chemical attack: - It is defined as the resistance of manufacturing material to the chemical
action. Both HDPE and PP have good chemical resistance Soaking in wat for 6 months has no
effect on the stress-strain behaviour of Tensar SR2
In buried applications HDPE has been for even longer period particular in the critical
applications of distributing gas and drinking water. For some pipe diameters it has been the
main material for up to 30 years. For gas distribution, HDPE pipe supplied must have a
minimum life of 50 years The chemical resistance of HDPE increases with density and thus the
performance of the grades used for Tensar SR geogrids at SG 0.941 will exceed that of the pipe
grades at SG 0.935-0.945.
There is no known solvent which will dissolve either PP or HDPE at ambient temperatures.
 Modes of Failure of Reinforced Soil Beneath a Foundation
HDPE is highly resistant to most aggressive chemicals which make at first an attractive
material for in-soil applications But HDPE continuously deforms under a given load, until it
fails. This phenomenon is also termed as creep. Failure comes rapidly when the load is heavy
Being preceded by major deformation: this is termed ductile failure. Under small loads. Failure
comes slower but may be very sudden when it does occur with no significant indication This
is brittle failure which is very difficult to predict.
The process of brittle failure to which polyethylene is intrinsically prone may be greatly
accelerated in certain environments which favour the development of cracks and existing
defects, even if microscopic. Especially in the zone subjected to stresses
In the present state of knowledge and not to mention the various aggravating factors
encountered in sol reinforcement applications (installation temperature etc) it would seem
prudent to refer to some specifications such as those laid down by ASTM and the Plastic Pipe
Industries:
i. Service life must never exceed 50 years
ii. Tensile stress must not in practice, exceed 10% of short-term breaking stress (and possibly less
depending on a maximum deformation criterion);
iii. Each product must have come through a series of qualifying tests carried out at different
temperatures relying itself on certain correlations. This approach aims at ensuring that, in the
conditions of use. There is risk of the brittle failure zone being reached before the end of the
service life.