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Matrix
Analysis of
Structures
Third Edition, SI Version

Aslam Kassimali
Southern Illinois University—Carbondale

Australia ● Brazil ● Canada ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

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2 Matrix Algebra 23
2.1 Definition of a Matrix 24
2.2 Types of Matrices 25
2.3 Matrix Operations 27
2.4 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method 39
Summary 45
Problems 46

3 Plane Trusses 49
3.1 Global and Local Coordinate Systems 50
3.2 Degrees of Freedom 53
3.3 Member Stiffness Relations in the Local Coordinate System 59
3.4 Finite-Element Formulation Using Virtual Work 68
3.5 Coordinate Transformations 77
3.6 Member Stiffness Relations in the Global Coordinate System 86
3.7 Structure Stiffness Relations 90
3.8 Procedure for Analysis 106
Summary 123
Problems 124

4 Computer Program for Analysis of Plane Trusses 129

4.1 Data Input 130
4.2 Assignment of Structure Coordinate Numbers 141
4.3 Generation of the Structure Stiffness Matrix 144
4.4 Formation of the Joint Load Vector 149
4.5 Solution for Joint Displacements 151
iv

4.6 Calculation of Member Forces and Support Reactions 153

Summary 160
Problems 161

5 Beams 163
5.1 Analytical Model 164
5.2 Member Stiffness Relations 172
5.3 Finite-Element Formulation Using Virtual Work 186
5.4 Member Fixed-End Forces Due to Loads 192
5.5 Structure Stiffness Relations 198
5.6 Structure Fixed-Joint Forces and Equivalent Joint Loads 207
5.7 Procedure for Analysis 215
5.8 Computer Program 228
Summary 248
Problems 248

6 Plane Frames 252

6.1 Analytical Model 253
6.2 Member Stiffness Relations in the Local
Coordinate System 259
6.3 Coordinate Transformations 271
6.4 Member Stiffness Relations in the Global
Coordinate System 279
6.5 Structure Stiffness Relations 287
6.6 Procedure for Analysis 302
6.7 Computer Program 322
Summary 339
Problems 339

7 Member Releases and Secondary Effects 345

7.1 Member Releases in Plane Frames and Beams 346
7.2 Computer Implementation of Analysis for
Member Releases 366
7.3 Support Displacements 367
7.4 Computer Implementation of Support
Displacement Effects 390
7.5 Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors 395
Summary 415
Problems 416

8 Three-Dimensional Framed Structures 422

8.1 Space Trusses 423
8.2 Grids 438
8.3 Space Frames 461
Summary 499
Problems 499

9 Special Topics and Modeling Techniques 504

9.1 The Structure Stiffness Matrix Including Restrained Coordinates—
An Alternative Formulation of the Stiffness Method 505
9.2 Approximate Matrix Analysis of Rectangular
Building Frames 511
9.3 Condensation of Degrees of Freedom, and Substructuring 519
9.4 Inclined Roller Supports 535
9.5 Offset Connections 538
9.6 Semirigid Connections 542
9.7 Shear Deformations 546
9.8 Nonprismatic Members 553
9.9 Solution of Large Systems of Stiffness Equations 560
Summary 576
Problems 577

10 INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 580

10.1 Basic Concept of Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis 582
10.2 Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis of Plane Trusses 587
Summary 609
Problems 609

Appendix A Computer Software 611

Appendix B Flexibility Method 613

Bibliography 620

Answers to Selected Problems 622

Index 637

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
preface
The objective of this book is to develop an understanding of the basic princi-
ples of the matrix methods of structural analysis, so that they can be efficiently
implemented on modern computers. Focusing on the stiffness approach,
Matrix Analysis of Structures, SI Version covers the linear analysis of two- and
three-dimensional framed structures in static equilibrium. It also presents an
introduction to nonlinear structural analysis and contains the fundamentals of
the flexibility approach.
The book is divided into ten chapters. Chapter 1 presents a general
introduction to the subject, and Chapter 2 reviews the basic concepts of matrix
algebra relevant to matrix structural analysis. The next five chapters (Chapters 3
through 7) cover the analysis of plane trusses, beams, and plane rigid frames.
The computer implementation of the stiffness method is initiated early in the
text (beginning with Chapter 4), to allow students sufficient time to complete
development of computer programs within the duration of a single course.
Chapter 8 presents the analysis of space trusses, grids, and space rigid frames,
Chapter 9 covers some special topics and modeling techniques, and Chapter 10
provides an introduction to nonlinear structural analysis. All the relationships
necessary for matrix stiffness analysis are formulated using the basic principles
of the mechanics of deformable bodies. Thus, a prior knowledge of the clas-
sical methods of structural analysis, while helpful, is not essential for under-
standing the material presented in the book. The format of the book is flexible
enough to enable instructors to emphasize topics that are consistent with the
goals of the course.
Each chapter begins with a brief introduction that defines its objectives,
and ends with a summary outlining its salient features. An important general
feature of the book is the inclusion of step-by-step procedures for analysis, and
detailed flowcharts, to enable students to make an easier transition from theory
to problem solving and program development. Numerous solved examples are
provided to clarify the fundamental concepts, and to illustrate the application
of the procedures for analysis.
A computer program for the analysis of two- and three-dimensional
framed structures is available on the publisher’s website, https://login.cengage
.com. This interactive software can be used by students to check their answers
to text exercises, and to verify the correctness of their own computer programs.
The MATLAB® code for various flowcharts given in the book is available to
instructors for distribution to students (if they so desire). A solutions manual,
containing complete solutions to text exercises, is also available for instructors.

vii

A NOTE ON THE REVISED EDITION

While maintaining the original theme of this book, that detailed explanation
of concepts is the most effective way of teaching Matrix Analysis of Structures,
SI Version the following improvements and changes have been made in this
third edition:
●● Over 20% of the problems from the previous edition have been replaced
with new ones.
●● About 10% of the examples from the previous edition have been
changed/upgraded.
●● The shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams for beams and
frames have been added in Chapters 5 and 6 to illustrate the transition
from the sign convention used in matrix analysis to the classical beam
sign convention used for constructing such diagrams for design pur-
poses.
●● The coverage of shear deformations is expanded (Chapter 9).
●● Some photographs have been replaced with new ones, and the page
layout has been redesigned to enhance clarity.
●● The computer software has been upgraded and recompiled to make it
compatible with the latest versions of Microsoft Windows.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my thanks to Timothy Anderson of Cengage Learning for
his constant support and encouragement throughout this project, and to Charu
Verma and Rose Kernan for all their help during the production phase. The
comments and suggestions for improvement from colleagues and students who
have used previous editions are gratefully acknowledged. All of their sugges-
tions were carefully considered, and implemented whenever possible. Thanks
are also due to the following reviewers for their careful reviews of the manu-
scripts of the various editions, and for their constructive suggestions:

Riyad S. Aboutaha C. Armando Duarte

Georgia Institute of Technology University of Illinois, Urbana-
Osama Abudayyeh Champaign
Western Michigan University Fouad Fanous
Amjad Aref Iowa State University
University at Buffalo Larry J. Feeser
Sez Atamtuktur Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Clemson University Barry J. Goodno
George E. Blandford Georgia Institute of Technology
University of Kentucky George J. Kostyrko
Kenneth E. Buttry California State University
University of Wisconsin-Platteville Marc Levitan
Joel P. Conte Louisiana State University
University of California, San Diego

Daniel G. Linzell Nima Rahbar

The Pennsylvania State University Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Vernon C. Matzen Rudolf Seracino
North Carolina State University North Carolina State University
Everett E. McEwen Michael D. Symans
University of Rhode Island Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Joel Moore Richard L. Wood
California State University University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Ahmad Namini
University of Miami

Finally, I would like to express my loving gratitude to my wife, Maureen,

for her unfailing support and expertise in helping me prepare this manuscript,
and to my sons, Jamil and Nadim, and my granddaughter, Flower, who are a
never-ending source of love, pride, and inspiration for me.
Aslam Kassimali

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1.1 Review the Historical Background of Matrix Structural
Analysis
1.2 Differentiate Among the Classical, Matrix, and
Finite-Element Methods of Structural Analysis
1.3 Define Flexibility and Stiffness Methods
1.4 Classify Common Types of Framed Structures
1.5 Define Analytical Models
1.6 Define Fundamental Relationships for Structural
Analysis
1.7 Distinguish Between Linear and Nonlinear Analysis
1.8 Download the Accompanying Computer Software

Beijing National Olympic Stadium—Bird’s Nest

(Eastimages/Shutterstock.com)
1

Structural analysis, which is an integral part of any structural engineering proj-

ect, is the process of predicting the performance of a given structure under a pre-
scribed loading condition. The performance characteristics usually of interest in
structural design are: (a) stresses or stress resultants (i.e., axial forces, shears, and
bending moments); (b) deflections; and (c) support reactions. Thus, the analysis
of a structure typically involves the determination of these quantities as caused by
the given loads and/or other external effects (such as support displacements and
temperature changes). This text is devoted to the analysis of framed structures—
that is, structures composed of long straight members. Many commonly used
structures such as beams, and plane and space trusses and rigid frames, are clas-
sified as framed structures (also referred to as skeletal structures).
In most design offices today, the analysis of framed structures is routinely
performed on computers, using software based on the matrix methods of struc-
tural analysis. It is therefore essential that structural engineers understand the
basic principles of matrix analysis, so that they can develop their own computer
programs and/or properly use commercially available software—and appreci-
ate the physical significance of the analytical results. The objective of this text
is to present the theory and computer implementation of matrix methods for
the analysis of framed structures in static equilibrium.
This chapter provides a general introduction to the subject of matrix com-
puter analysis of structures. We start with a brief historical background in Sec-
tion 1.1, followed by a discussion of how matrix methods differ from classical and
finite-element methods of structural analysis (Section 1.2). Flexibility and stiffness
methods of matrix analysis are described in Section 1.3, the six types of framed
structures considered in this text (namely, plane trusses, beams, plane frames,
space trusses, grids, and space frames) are discussed in Section 1.4, and the devel-
opment of simplified models of structures for the purpose of analysis is considered
in Section 1.5. The basic concepts of structural analysis necessary for formulating
the matrix methods, as presented in this text, are reviewed in Section 1.6, and
the roles and limitations of linear and nonlinear types of structural analysis are
discussed in Section 1.7. Finally, we conclude the chapter with a brief note on the
computer software that is provided on the publisher’s website for this book (Sec-
tion 1.8) (https://cengage.com/engineering/matrixanalysis3e/kassimali/software).

1.1 Historical background

The theoretical foundation for matrix methods of structural analysis was laid
by James C. Maxwell, who introduced the method of consistent deformations
in 1864, and George A. Maney, who developed the slope-deflection method in
1915. These classical methods are considered to be the precursors of the matrix
flexibility and stiffness methods, respectively. In the precomputer era, the main
disadvantage of these earlier methods was that they required direct solution of
simultaneous algebraic equations—a formidable task by hand calculations in
cases of more than a few unknowns.
The invention of computers in the late 1940s revolutionized structural anal-
ysis. As computers could solve large systems of simultaneous equations, the
analysis methods yielding solutions in that form were no longer at a disadvantage,

but in fact were preferred, because simultaneous equations could be expressed

in matrix form and conveniently programmed for solution on computers.
S. Levy is generally considered to have been the first to introduce the
flexibility method in 1947, by generalizing the classical method of consistent
deformations. Among the subsequent researchers who extended the flexibility
method and expressed it in matrix form in the early 1950s were H. Falkenheimer,
B. Langefors, and P. H. Denke. The matrix stiffness method was developed by
R. K. Livesley in 1954. In the same year, J. H. Argyris and S. Kelsey presented
a formulation of matrix methods based on energy principles. In 1956, M. T.
Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp derived stiffness matrices
for the members of trusses and frames using the finite-element approach, and
introduced the now popular direct stiffness method for generating the structure
stiffness matrix. In the same year, Livesley presented a nonlinear formulation
of the stiffness method for stability analysis of frames.
Since the mid-1950s, the development of matrix methods has continued
at a tremendous pace, with research efforts in recent years directed mainly to-
ward formulating procedures for the dynamic and nonlinear analysis of struc-
tures, and developing efficient computational techniques for analyzing large
structures. Recent advances in these areas can be attributed to S. S. Archer,
C. Birnstiel, R. H. Gallagher, J. Padlog, J. S. Przemieniecki, C. K. Wang, and
E. L. Wilson, among others.

1.2 Classical, Matrix, and Finite-Element

Methods of Structural Analysis
Classical versus Matrix Methods
As we develop matrix methods in subsequent chapters of this book, readers
who are familiar with classical methods of structural analysis will realize
that both matrix and classical methods are based on the same fundamental
principles—but that the fundamental relationships of equilibrium, compatibil-
ity, and member stiffness are now expressed in the form of matrix equations,
so that the numerical computations can be efficiently performed on a computer.
Most classical methods were developed to analyze particular types of
structures, and since they were intended for hand calculations, they often in-
volve certain assumptions (that are unnecessary in matrix methods) to reduce
the amount of computational effort required for analysis. The application of
these methods usually requires an understanding on the part of the analyst
of the structural behavior. Consider, for example, the moment-distribution
method. This classical method can be used to analyze only beams and plane
frames undergoing bending deformations. Deformations due to axial forces
in the frames are ignored to reduce the number of independent joint transla-
tions. While this assumption significantly reduces the computational effort, it
complicates the analysis by requiring the analyst to draw a deflected shape of
the frame corresponding to each degree of freedom of sidesway (independent
joint translation), to estimate the relative magnitudes of member fixed-end mo-
ments; a difficult task even in the case of a few degrees of freedom of sidesway

if the frame has inclined members. Because of their specialized and intricate
nature, classical methods are generally not considered suitable for computer
programming.
In contrast to classical methods, matrix methods were specifically devel-
oped for computer implementation; they are systematic (so that they can be
conveniently programmed), and general (in the sense that the same overall
format of the analytical procedure can be applied to the various types of framed
structures). It will become clear as we study matrix methods that, because of
the latter characteristic, a computer program developed to analyze one type
of structure (e.g., plane trusses) can be modified with relative ease to analyze
another type of structure (e.g., space trusses or frames).
As the analysis of large and highly redundant structures by classical meth-
ods can be quite time consuming, matrix methods are commonly used. How-
ever, classical methods are still preferred by many engineers for analyzing
smaller structures because they provide a better insight into the behavior of
structures. Classical methods may also be used for preliminary designs, for
checking the results of computerized analyses, and for deriving the member
force-displacement relations needed in the matrix analysis. Furthermore,
a study of classical methods is considered to be essential for developing an
understanding of structural behavior.

Matrix versus Finite-Element Methods

Matrix methods can be used to analyze framed structures only. Finite-element
analysis, which originated as an extension of matrix analysis to surface struc-
tures (e.g., plates and shells), has now developed to the extent that it can be
applied to structures and solids of practically any shape or form. From a
theoretical viewpoint, the basic difference between the two is that, in matrix
methods, the member force-displacement relationships are based on the exact
solutions of the underlying (Euler-Bernoulli) differential equations, whereas in
finite-element methods, such relations are generally derived by work-energy
principles from assumed displacement or stress functions.
Because of the approximate nature of its force-displacement relations,
finite-element analysis generally yields approximate results. However, as will
be shown in Chapters 3 and 5, in the case of linear analysis of framed structures
composed of prismatic (uniform) members, both matrix and finite-element
approaches yield identical results.

1.3 Flexibility and Stiffness Methods

Two different methods can be used for the matrix analysis of structures: the
flexibility method, and the stiffness method. The flexibility method, which is
also referred to as the force or compatibility method, is essentially a generaliza-
tion in matrix form of the classical method of consistent deformations. In this
approach, the primary unknowns are the redundant forces, which are calculated
first by solving the structure’s compatibility equations. Once the redundant
forces are known, the displacements can be evaluated by applying the equa-
tions of equilibrium and the appropriate member force-displacement relations.

The stiffness method, which originated from the classical slope-deflection

method, is also called the displacement or equilibrium method. In this approach,
the primary unknowns are the joint displacements, which are determined first
by solving the structure’s equations of equilibrium. With the joint displacements
known, the unknown forces are obtained through compatibility considerations
and the member force-displacement relations.
Although either method can be used to analyze framed structures, the
flexibility method is generally convenient for analyzing small structures
with a few redundants. This method may also be used to establish mem-
ber force-displacement relations needed to develop the stiffness method. The
stiffness method is more systematic and can be implemented more easily
on computers; therefore, it is preferred for the analysis of large and highly
redundant structures. Most of the commercially available software for struc-
tural analysis is based on the stiffness method. In this text, we focus our at-
tention mainly on the stiffness method, with emphasis on a particular version
known as the direct stiffness method, which is currently used in professional
practice. The fundamental concepts of the flexibility method are presented in
Appendix B.

1.4 Classification of Framed Structures

Framed structures are composed of straight members whose lengths are signifi-
cantly larger than their cross-sectional dimensions. Common framed structures
can be classified into six basic categories based on the arrangement of their
members, and the types of primary stresses that may develop in their members
under major design loads.

Plane Trusses
A truss is defined as an assemblage of straight members connected at their ends
by flexible connections, and subjected to loads and reactions only at the joints
(connections). The members of such an ideal truss develop only axial forces
when the truss is loaded. In real trusses, such as those commonly used for
supporting roofs and bridges, the members are connected by bolted or welded
connections that are not perfectly flexible, and the dead weights of the mem-
bers are distributed along their lengths. Because of these and other deviations
from idealized conditions, truss members are subjected to some bending and
shear. However, in most trusses, these secondary bending moments and shears
are small in comparison to the primary axial forces, and are usually not con-
sidered in their designs. If large bending moments and shears are anticipated,
then the truss should be treated as a rigid frame (discussed subsequently) for
analysis and design.
If all the members of a truss as well as the applied loads lie in a single
plane, the truss is classified as a plane truss (Fig. 1.1). The members of plane
trusses are assumed to be connected by frictionless hinges. The analysis of
plane trusses is considerably simpler than the analysis of space (or three-di-
mensional) trusses. Fortunately, many commonly used trusses, such as bridge
and roof trusses, can be treated as plane trusses for analysis (Fig. 1.2).

P1 P1 P1

Fig. 1.1 Plane Truss

Fig. 1.2 Roof Truss

(MP kullimratchai/Shutterstock.com)

Beams
A beam is defined as a long straight structure that is loaded perpendicular to its
longitudinal axis (Fig. 1.3). Loads are usually applied in a plane of symmetry
of the beam’s cross-section, causing its members to be subjected only to bend-
ing moments and shear forces.

Plane Frames
Frames, also referred to as rigid frames, are composed of straight members
connected by rigid (moment resisting) and/or flexible connections (Fig. 1.4).
Unlike trusses, which are subjected to external loads only at the joints, loads on
frames may be applied on the joints as well as on the members.

Plane of
symmetry
P
w M

Longitudinal axis

Fig. 1.3 Beam

Fig. 1.4 Skeleton of a Structural Steel Frame Building

(Joe Gough/Shutterstock.com)

If all the members of a frame and the applied loads lie in a single plane,
the frame is called a plane frame (Fig. 1.5). The members of a plane frame are,
in general, subjected to bending moments, shears, and axial forces under the
action of external loads. Many actual three-dimensional building frames can be
subdivided into plane frames for analysis.

Space Trusses
Some trusses (such as lattice domes, transmission towers, and certain aero-
space structures (Fig. 1.6)) cannot be treated as plane trusses because of the
arrangement of their members or applied loading. Such trusses, referred to
as space trusses, are analyzed as three-dimensional structures subjected to
three-dimensional force systems. The members of space trusses are assumed
to be connected by frictionless ball-and-socket joints, and the trusses are sub-
jected to loads and reactions only at the joints. Like plane trusses, the members
of space trusses develop only axial forces.

w2 w2

w1 w1

Fig. 1.5 Plane Frame

Fig. 1.6 A Segment of the Integrated Truss Structure which

Forms the Backbone of the International Space Station
(Photo Courtesy of National Aeronautics and Space Administration
98-05165)

Grids
A grid, like a plane frame, is composed of straight members connected together
by rigid and/or flexible connections to form a plane framework. The main differ-
ence between the two types of structures is that plane frames are loaded in the
plane of the structure, whereas the loads on grids are applied in the direction per-
pendicular to the structure’s plane (Fig. 1.7). Members of grids may, therefore, be
subjected to torsional moments, in addition to the bending moments and corre-
sponding shears that cause the members to bend out of the plane of the structure.
Grids are commonly used for supporting roofs covering large column-free areas
in such structures as sports arenas, auditoriums, and aircraft hangars (Fig. 1.8).

X
w1

P2
M2
P1 P3
M1

Fig. 1.7 Grid

Fig. 1.8 National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C. (Under Construction)
(Photo courtesy of Bethlehem Steel Corporation)

Fig. 1.9 Space Frame

(MNTravel/Alamy Stock Photo)

Space Frames
Space frames constitute the most general category of framed structures. Mem-
bers of space frames may be arranged in any arbitrary directions, and connected
by rigid and/or flexible connections. Loads in any directions may be applied on
members as well as on joints. The members of a space frame may, in general,
be subjected to bending moments about both principal axes, shears in both
principal directions, torsional moments, and axial forces (Fig. 1.9).

1.5 Analytical Models

The first (and perhaps most important) step in the analysis of a structure is to
develop its analytical model. An analytical model is an idealized representation
of a real structure for the purpose of analysis. Its objective is to simplify the
analysis of a complicated structure by discarding much of the detail (about
connections, members, etc.) that is likely to have little effect on the struc-
ture’s behavioral characteristics of interest, while representing, as accurately
as practically possible, the desired characteristics. It is important to note that
the structural response predicted from an analysis is valid only to the extent
that the analytical model represents the actual structure. For framed structures,
the establishment of analytical models generally involves consideration of is-
sues such as whether the actual three-dimensional structure can be subdivided
into plane structures for analysis and whether to idealize the actual bolted or
welded connections as hinged, rigid, or semirigid joints. Thus, the develop-
ment of accurate analytical models requires not only a thorough understanding
of structural behavior and methods of analysis, but also experience and knowl-
edge of design and construction practices.

In matrix methods of analysis, a structure is modeled as an assemblage of

straight members connected at their ends to joints. A member is defined as a
part of the structure for which the member force-displacement relationships to
be used in the analysis are valid. The member force-displacement relationships
for the various types of framed structures will be derived in subsequent chap-
ters. A joint is defined as a structural part of infinitesimal size to which the ends
of the members are connected. In finite-element terminology, the members and
joints of structures are generally referred to as elements and nodes, respectively.
Supports for framed structures are commonly idealized as fixed supports,
which do not allow any displacement; hinged supports, which allow rotation
but prevent translation; or, roller or link supports, which prevent translation in
only one direction. Other types of restraints, such as those which prevent rota-
tion but permit translation in one or more directions, can also be considered in
an analysis, as discussed in subsequent chapters.

Line Diagrams
The analytical model of a structure is represented by a line diagram, on which
each member is depicted by a line coinciding with its centroidal axis. The
member dimensions and the size of connections are not shown. Rigid joints are
usually represented by points, and hinged joints by small circles, at the inter-
sections of members. Each joint and member of the structure is identified by a
number. For example, the analytical model of the plane truss of Fig. 1.10(a) is
shown in Fig. 1.10(b), in which the joint numbers are enclosed within circles to
distinguish them from the member numbers enclosed within rectangles.

(a) Plane Truss

5 4 6

5 6 9 10
7 8
1 4

1 2 2 3 3
(b) Analytical Model

Fig. 1.10

1.6 Fundamental Relationships for

Structural Analysis
Structural analysis, in general, involves the use of three types of relationships:
●● equilibrium equations,
●● compatibility conditions, and
●● constitutive relations.

Equilibrium Equations
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at
rest when subjected to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equi-
librium, then all of its members and joints must also be in equilibrium.
Recall from statics that for a plane (two-dimensional) structure lying in the
XY plane and subjected to a coplanar system of forces and couples (Fig. 1.11),
the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed in
Cartesian (XY) coordinates as

oF X
50 oF Y
50 oM 5 0 (1.1)

These equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium for plane

structures.
For a space (three-dimensional) structure subjected to a general three-
dimensional system of forces and couples (Fig. 1.12), the equations of equilib-
rium are expressed as

oF 5 0 X oF 5 0 Y oF 5 0 Z (1.2)
oM 5 0 X oM 5 0 Y oM 5 0 Z

For a structure subjected to static loading, the equilibrium equations must

be satisfied for the entire structure as well as for each of its members and joints.
In structural analysis, equations of equilibrium are used to relate the forces
(including couples) acting on the structure or one of its members or joints.
F2

M2
F3
M3
F1
Y

M4
M1

F4
0 X

Fig. 1.11

M3
F2

M1
F4
M2

F5 M4

X
0

Fig. 1.12

Compatibility Conditions
The compatibility conditions relate the deformations of a structure so that its
various parts (members, joints, and supports) fit together without any gaps or
overlaps. These conditions (also referred to as the continuity conditions) ensure
that the deformed shape of the structure is continuous (except at the locations
of any internal hinges or rollers), and is consistent with the support conditions.
Consider, for example, the two-member plane frame shown in Fig. 1.13.
The deformed shape of the frame due to an arbitrary loading is also depicted,
using an exaggerated scale. When analyzing a structure, the compatibility con-
ditions are used to relate member end displacements to joint displacements
that, in turn, are related to the support conditions. For example, because joint 1
of the frame in Fig. 1.13 is attached to a roller support that cannot translate
in the vertical direction, the vertical displacement of this joint must be zero.
Similarly, because joint 3 is attached to a fixed support that can neither rotate
nor translate in any direction, the rotation and the horizontal and vertical dis-
placements of joint 3 must be zero.
The displacements of the ends of members are related to the joint displace-
ments by the compatibility requirement that the displacements of a member’s
end must be the same as the displacements of the joint to which the member
end is connected. Thus, as shown in Fig. 1.13, because joint 1 of the example
frame displaces to the right by a distance d1 and rotates clockwise by an angle
u1, the left end of the horizontal member (member 1) that is attached to joint 1
must also translate to the right by distance d1 and rotate clockwise by angle u1.

1 19 1 2

29 d3
θ1
θ2
d1

2
θ2
Undeformed
shape

Deformed
shape
3

Fig. 1.13

Similarly, because the displacements of joint 2 consist of the translations d2 to

the right and d3 downward and the counterclockwise rotation u2, the right end
of the horizontal member and the top end of the vertical member that are con-
nected to joint 2 must also undergo the same displacements (i.e., d2, d3, and u2).
The bottom end of the vertical member, however, is not subjected to any dis-
placements because joint 3, to which this particular member end is attached,
can neither rotate nor translate in any direction.
Finally, compatibility requires that the deflected shapes of the members
of a structure be continuous (except at any internal hinges or rollers) and be
consistent with the displacements at the corresponding ends of the members.

Constitutive Relations
The constitutive relations (also referred to as the stress-strain relations)
describe the relationships between the stresses and strains of a structure in
accordance with the stress-strain properties of the structural material. As dis-
cussed previously, the equilibrium equations provide relationships between the
forces, whereas the compatibility conditions involve only deformations. The
constitutive relations provide the link between the equilibrium equations and
compatibility conditions that is necessary to establish the load-deformation re-
lationships for a structure or a member.
In the analysis of framed structures, the basic stress-strain relations are
first used, along with the member equilibrium and compatibility equations,
to establish relationships between the forces and displacements at the ends of
a member. The member force-displacement relations thus obtained are then

treated as the constitutive relations for the entire structure, and are used to link
the structure’s equilibrium and compatibility equations, thereby yielding the
load-deformation relationships for the entire structure. These load-deformation
relations can then be solved to determine the deformations of the structure due
to a given loading.
In the case of statically determinate structures, the equilibrium equations
can be solved independently of the compatibility and constitutive relations to
obtain the reactions and member forces. The deformations of the structure, if
desired, can then be determined by employing the compatibility and constitu-
tive relations. In the analysis of statically indeterminate structures, however,
the equilibrium equations alone are not sufficient for determining the reactions
and member forces. Therefore, it becomes necessary to satisfy simultaneously
the three types of fundamental relationships (i.e., equilibrium, compatibility,
and constitutive relations) to determine the structural response.
Matrix methods of structural analysis are usually formulated by direct ap-
plication of the three fundamental relationships as described in general terms
in the preceding paragraphs. (The details of the formulations are presented
in subsequent chapters.) However, matrix methods can also be formulated by
using work-energy principles that satisfy the three fundamental relationships
indirectly. Work-energy principles are generally preferred in the formulation of
finite-element methods, because they can be more conveniently applied to de-
rive the approximate force-displacement relations for the elements of surface
structures and solids.
The matrix methods presented in this text are formulated by the direct
application of the equilibrium, compatibility, and constitutive relationships.
However, to introduce readers to the finite-element method, and to familiarize
them with the application of the work-energy principles, we also derive the
member force-displacement relations for plane structures by a finite-element
approach that involves a work-energy principle known as the principle of vir-
tual work. In the following paragraphs, we review two statements of this prin-
ciple pertaining to rigid bodies and deformable bodies, for future reference.

Principle of Virtual Work for Rigid Bodies

The principle of virtual work for rigid bodies (also known as the principle of
virtual displacements for rigid bodies) can be stated as follows:
If a rigid body, which is in equilibrium under a system of forces (and
couples), is subjected to any small virtual rigid-body displacement,
the virtual work done by the external forces (and couples) is zero.
In the foregoing statement, the term virtual simply means imaginary, not
real. Consider, for example, the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 1.14(a). The
free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 1.14(b), in which PX and PY
are the components of the external load P in the X and Y directions, respec-
tively, and R1, R2, and R3 represent the reactions at the fixed support 1. Note that
the beam is in equilibrium under the action of the forces PX, PY, R1, and R2, and
the couple R3. Now, imagine that the beam is given an arbitrary, small virtual
rigid-body displacement from its initial equilibrium position 1–2 to another

1 2

L
(a)

R1 PX
Y
R3 1 2

X (b)

Virtual displaced 29
position
δdX
19 (δθ)L
δθ

PY
δdY

R1 PX
1 2
R3
Initial equilibrium
R2 position δdX
L
(c)

Fig. 1.14

position 19–29, as shown in Fig. 1.14(c). As this figure indicates, the total vir-
tual displacement of the beam can be decomposed into rigid-body translations
ddX and ddY in the X and Y directions, respectively, and a rigid-body rotation
du about point 1. Note that the symbol d is used here to identify the virtual
quantities. As the beam undergoes the virtual displacement from position 1–2
to position 19–29, the forces and the couple acting on it perform work, which
is referred to as the virtual work. The total virtual work, dWe, can be expressed
as the algebraic sum of the virtual work dWX and dWY, performed during trans-
lations in the X and Y directions, respectively, and the virtual work dWR, done
during the rotation; that is,
dWe 5 dWX 1 dWY 1 dWR (1.3)

During the virtual translation ddX of the beam, the virtual work performed by
the forces can be expressed as follows (Fig 1.14c):
dWX 5 R1ddX 2 PX ddX 5 (R1 2 PX) ddX 5 _ o F + dd
X X
(1.4)

Similarly, the virtual work done during the virtual translation ddY is given by

dWY 5 R2ddY 2 PY ddY 5 (R2 2 PY) ddY 5 _ o F + dd Y Y

(1.5)

and the virtual work done by the forces and the couple during the small virtual
rotation du can be expressed as follows (Fig. 1.14c):

dWR 5 R3du 2 PY (L du) 5 (R3 2 PY L) du 5 _ o M➀ + du (1.6)

The expression for the total virtual work can now be obtained by substitut-
ing Eqs. (1.4–1.6) into Eq. (1.3). Thus,

dWe 5 _ o F + dd X o M➀ + du
X
1_ o F + dd Y Y
1_ (1.7)

However, because the beam is in equilibrium, o F X

5 0, oF Y
5 0, and
o M➀ 5 0; therefore, Eq. (1.7) becomes
dWe 5 0 (1.8)

which is the mathematical statement of the principle of virtual work for rigid
bodies.

Principle of Virtual Work for Deformable Bodies

The principle of virtual work for deformable bodies (also called the principle
of virtual displacements for deformable bodies) can be stated as follows:
If a deformable structure, which is in equilibrium under a system of
forces (and couples), is subjected to any small virtual displacement
consistent with the support and continuity conditions of the struc-
ture, then the virtual external work done by the real external forces
(and couples) acting through the virtual external displacements (and
rotations) is equal to the virtual strain energy stored in the structure.
To demonstrate the validity of this principle, consider the two-member
truss of Fig. 1.15(a), which is in equilibrium under the action of an external
load P. The free-body diagram of joint 3 of the truss is shown in Fig. 1.15(b).
Since joint 3 is in equilibrium, the external and internal forces acting on it must
satisfy the following two equations of equilibrium:
1S oF 5 0 X
2F1 sin u1 1 F2 sin u2 5 0
1 c oF 5 0 Y
F1 cos u1 1 F2 cos u2 2 P 5 0 (1.9)

in which F1 and F2 denote the internal (axial) forces in members 1 and 2,

respectively; and u1 and u2 are, respectively, the angles of inclination of these
members with respect to the vertical as shown in the figure.
Now, imagine that joint 3 is given a small virtual compatible displace-
ment, dd, in the downward direction, as shown in Fig. 1.15(a). It should be
noted that this virtual displacement is consistent with the support conditions
of the truss in the sense that joints 1 and 2, which are attached to supports, are

2
1 Initial equilibrium
1 position 2

θ1 θ2

Virtual displaced
position
δd 3

P
(a)

F1 θ1 F2
θ2 3

2
(δ
sθ

d)
co

co
d)
θ2

sθ
θ1

(θ

1
Y 3
δd

X P Virtual joint
Real joint displacements
forces
(b)

Fig. 1.15

not displaced. Because the reaction forces at joints 1 and 2 do not perform any
work, the total virtual work for the truss, dW, is equal to the algebraic sum of
the virtual work of the forces acting at joint 3. Thus, from Fig. 1.15(b),
dW 5 Pdd 2 F1(dd cos u1) 2 F2(dd cos u2)

which can be rewritten as

dW 5 (P 2 F1 cos u1 2 F2 cos u2) dd (1.10)

As indicated by Eq. (1.9), the term in parentheses on the right-hand side of

Eq. (1.10) is zero. Therefore, the total virtual work, dW, is zero. By substituting
dW 5 0 into Eq. (1.10) and rearranging terms, we write
P(dd) 5 F1(dd cos u1) 1 F2(dd cos u2) (1.11)

in which the quantity on the left-hand side represents the virtual external work,
dWe, performed by the real external force P acting through the virtual external
displacement dd. Furthermore, because the terms (dd) cos u1 and (dd) cos u2 are
equal to the virtual internal displacements (elongations) of members 1 and 2,

respectively, we can conclude that the right-hand side of Eq. (1.11) represents
the virtual internal work, dWi, done by the real internal forces acting through
the corresponding virtual internal displacements; that is,
dWe 5 dWi (1.12)

Realizing that the internal work is also referred to as the strain energy, U, we
can express Eq. (1.12) as

dWe 5 dU (1.13)

in which dU denotes the virtual strain energy. Note that Eq. (1.13) is the math-
ematical statement of the principle of virtual work for deformable bodies.
For computational purposes, it is usually convenient to express Eq. (1.13)
in terms of the stresses and strains in the members of the structure. For that
purpose, let us consider a differential element of a member of an arbitrary
structure subjected to a general loading (Fig. 1.16). The element is in equilib-
rium under a general three-dimensional stress condition, due to the real forces
acting on the structure. Now, as the structure is subjected to a virtual displace-
ment, virtual strains develop in the element and the internal forces due to the
real stresses perform virtual internal work as they move through the internal
displacements caused by the virtual strains. For example, the virtual internal
work done by the real force due to the stress sx as it moves through the virtual
displacement caused by the virtual strain d«x can be determined as follows:
real force 5 stress 3 area 5 sx (dy dz)
virtual displacement 5 strain 3 length 5 (d«x) dx

y
σy

τxy
τyz τxy

τyz
σx

τzx τzx
x
dy
σz dz

dx
z

Fig. 1.16

Therefore,

virtual internal work 5 real force 3 virtual displacement

5 (sx dy dz) (d«x dx)
5 (d«x sx) dV

in which dV 5 dx dy dz is the volume of the differential element. Thus, the vir

tual internal work due to all six stress components is given by
virtual internal work in element dV
5 (d«xsx 1 d«ysy 1 d«zsz 1 dgxytxy 1 dgyztyz 1 dgzxtzx) dV (1.14)

In Eq. (1.14), d«x, d«y, d«z, dgxy, dgyz, and dgzx denote, respectively, the virtual
strains corresponding to the real stresses sx, sy, sz, txy, tyz, and tzx, as shown in
Fig. 1.16.
The total virtual internal work, or the virtual strain energy stored in the
entire structure, can be obtained by integrating Eq. (1.14) over the volume V
of the structure. Thus,

dU 5 # (d« s 1 d« s 1 d« s 1 dg t
V
x x y y z z xy xy
1 dgyztyz 1 dgzxtzx ) dV(1.15)

Finally, by substituting Eq. (1.15) into Eq. (1.13), we obtain the statement of
the principle of virtual work for deformable bodies in terms of the stresses and
strains of the structure.

dWe 5 # V
(d«xsx 1 d«ysy 1 d«zsz 1 dgxytxy 1 dgyztyz 1 dgzxtzx) dV (1.16)

1.7 Linear versus Nonlinear Analysis

In this text, we focus our attention mainly on linear analysis of structures.
Linear analysis of structures is based on the following two fundamental
assumptions:
1. The structures are composed of linearly elastic material; that is, the
stress-strain relationship for the structural material follows Hooke’s law.
2. The deformations of the structures are so small that the squares and
higher powers of member slopes, (chord) rotations, and axial strains are
negligible in comparison with unity, and the equations of equilibrium
can be based on the undeformed geometry of the structure.
The reason for making these assumptions is to obtain linear relationships
between applied loads and the resulting structural deformations. An impor-
tant advantage of linear force-deformation relations is that the principle of

superposition can be used in the analysis. This principle states essentially

that the combined effect of several loads acting simultaneously on a structure
equals the algebraic sum of the effects of each load acting individually on the
structure.
Engineering structures are usually designed so that under service loads they
undergo small deformations, with stresses within the initial linear portions of
the stress-strain curves of their materials. Thus, linear analysis generally proves
adequate for predicting the performance of most common types of structures
under service loading conditions. However, at higher load levels, the accuracy
of linear analysis generally deteriorates as the deformations of the structure
increase and/or its material is strained beyond the yield point. Because of its
inherent limitations, linear analysis cannot be used to predict the ultimate load
capacities and instability characteristics (e.g., buckling loads) of structures.
With the recent introduction of design specifications based on the ultimate
strengths of structures, the use of nonlinear analysis in structural design is in-
creasing. In a nonlinear analysis, the restrictions of linear analysis are removed
by formulating the equations of equilibrium on the deformed geometry of the
structure that is not known in advance, and/or taking into account the effects of
inelasticity of the structural material. The load-deformation relationships thus
obtained for the structure are nonlinear, and are usually solved using iterative
techniques. An introduction to this still-evolving field of nonlinear structural
analysis is presented in Chapter 10.

1.8 Software
Software for the analysis of framed structures using the matrix stiffness method
is provided on the publisher’s website for this book, https://cengage.com
/engineering/matrixanalysis3e/kassimali/software. The software can be used by
readers to verify the correctness of various subroutines and programs that they
will develop during the course of study of this text, as well as to check the answers
to the problems given at the end of each chapter. A description of the software,
and information on how to install and use it, is presented in Appendix A.

Summary
In this chapter, we discussed the topics summarized in the following list:
1. Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given struc-
ture under prescribed loads and/or other external effects.
2. Both matrix and classical methods of structural analysis are based on
the same fundamental principles. However, classical methods were developed
to analyze particular types of structures, whereas matrix methods are more gen-
eral and systematic so that they can be conveniently programmed on computers.
3. Two different methods can be used for matrix analysis of structures;
namely, the flexibility and stiffness methods. The stiffness method is more sys-
tematic and can be implemented more easily on computers, and is therefore
currently preferred in professional practice.

4. Framed structures are composed of straight members whose lengths are

significantly larger than their cross-sectional dimensions. Framed structures
can be classified into six basic categories: plane trusses, beams, plane frames,
space trusses, grids, and space frames.
5. An analytical model is a simplified (idealized) representation of a real
structure for the purpose of analysis. Framed structures are modeled as assem-
blages of straight members connected at their ends to joints, and these analyti-
cal models are represented by line diagrams.
6. The analysis of structures involves three fundamental relationships:
equilibrium equations, compatibility conditions, and constitutive relations.
7. The principle of virtual work for deformable bodies states that if a
deformable structure, which is in equilibrium, is subjected to a small compat-
ible virtual displacement, then the virtual external work is equal to the virtual
strain energy stored in the structure.
8. Linear structural analysis is based on two fundamental assumptions:
the stress-strain relationship for the structural material is linearly elastic, and
the structure’s deformations are so small that the equilibrium equations can be
based on the undeformed geometry of the structure.

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
2.1 Define a Matrix
2.2 Identify the Different Types of Matrices
2.3 Perform Common Matrix Operations
2.4 Solve Simultaneous Equations Using the Gauss-Jordan
Elimination Method

Somerset Corporate Center Office Building, New Jersey, and its Analytical Model
(Photos courtesy of Ram International. Structural Engineer: The Cantor Seinuk Group, P.C.)
23

In matrix methods of structural analysis, the fundamental relationships of equi-

librium, compatibility, and member force-displacement relations are expressed
in the form of matrix equations, and the analytical procedures are formulated
by applying various matrix operations. Therefore, familiarity with the basic
concepts of matrix algebra is a prerequisite to understanding matrix structural
analysis. The objective of this chapter is to concisely present the basic concepts
of matrix algebra necessary for formulating the methods of structural analysis
covered in the text. A general procedure for solving simultaneous linear equa-
tions, the Gauss-Jordan method, is also discussed.
We begin with the basic definition of a matrix in Section 2.1, followed by
brief descriptions of the various types of matrices in Section 2.2. The matrix
operations of equality, addition and subtraction, multiplication, transposition,
differentiation and integration, inversion, and partitioning are defined in Sec-
tion 2.3; we conclude the chapter with a discussion of the Gauss-Jordan elimi-
nation method for solving simultaneous equations (Section 2.4).

2.1 Definition of a Matrix

A matrix is defined as a rectangular array of quantities arranged in rows
and columns. A matrix with m rows and n columns can be expressed as follows.

3 4
A11 A12 A13 . . . ... A1n
A21 A22 A23 . . . ... A2n
A 5 [A] 5 A31 A32 A33 . . .
... A3n (2.1)
. . . . . . . . . . . . Aij ... ith row
Am1 Am2 Am3 . . . ... Amn

jth column m3n

As shown in Eq. (2.1), matrices are denoted either by boldface letters (A) or by
italic letters enclosed within brackets ([A]). The quantities forming a matrix are
referred to as its elements. The elements of a matrix are usually numbers, but
they can be symbols, equations, or even other matrices (called submatrices).
Each element of a matrix is represented by a double-subscripted letter, with
the first subscript identifying the row and the second subscript identifying the
column in which the element is located. Thus, in Eq. (2.1), A23 represents the
element located in the second row and third column of matrix A. In general, Aij
refers to an element located in the ith row and jth column of matrix A.
The size of a matrix is measured by the number of its rows and columns
and is referred to as the order of the matrix. Thus, matrix A in Eq. (2.1), which
has m rows and n columns, is considered to be of order m 3 n (m by n). As an
example, consider a matrix D given by

3 4
3 5 37
8 26 0
D5
12 23 2
7 29 21

The order of this matrix is 4 3 3, and its elements are symbolically denoted
by Dij with i 5 1 to 4 and j 5 1 to 3; for example, D13 5 37, D31 5 12,
D42 5 29, etc.

2.2 Types of Matrices

We describe some of the common types of matrices in the following para-
graphs.

Column Matrix (Vector)

If all the elements of a matrix are arranged in a single column (i.e., n 5 1), it
is called a column matrix. Column matrices are usually referred to as vectors,
and are sometimes denoted by italic letters enclosed within braces. An example
of a column matrix or vector is given by

34
35
9
B 5 {B} 5 12
3
26

Row Matrix
A matrix with all of its elements arranged in a single row (i.e., m 5 1) is re-
ferred to as a row matrix. For example,

C 5 [9 35 212 7 22]

Square Matrix
If a matrix has the same number of rows and columns (i.e., m 5 n), it is called
a square matrix. An example of a 4 3 4 square matrix is given by

3 4
6 12 0 20
15 29 237 3
A5 (2.2)
224 13 8 1
40 0 11 25
main diagonal
As shown in Eq. (2.2), the main diagonal of a square matrix extends from the
upper left corner to the lower right corner, and it contains elements with match-
ing subscripts—that is, A11, A22, A33, . . . , Ann. The elements forming the main
diagonal are referred to as the diagonal elements; the remaining elements of a
square matrix are called the off-diagonal elements.

Symmetric Matrix
When the elements of a square matrix are symmetric about its main diagonal
(i.e., Aij 5 Aji), it is termed a symmetric matrix. For example,

3 4
6 15 224 40
15 29 13 0
A5
224 13 8 11
40 0 11 25

Lower Triangular Matrix

If all the elements of a square matrix above its main diagonal are zero,
(i.e., Aij 5 0 for j . i), it is referred to as a lower triangular matrix. An exam-
ple of a 4 3 4 lower triangular matrix is given by

3 4
8 0 0 0
12 29 0 0
A5
33 17 6 0
22 5 15 3

Upper Triangular Matrix

When all the elements of a square matrix below its main diagonal are zero
(i.e., Aij 5 0 for j , i), it is called an upper triangular matrix. An example of a
3 3 3 upper triangular matrix is given by

3 4
27 6 17
A5 0 12 11
0 0 20

Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix with all of its off-diagonal elements equal to zero (i.e.,
Aij 5 0 for i ? j), is called a diagonal matrix. For example,

3 4
6 0 0 0
0 23 0 0
A5
0 0 11 0
0 0 0 27

Unit or Identity Matrix

If all the diagonal elements of a diagonal matrix are equal to 1 (i.e., Iij 5 1
and Iij 5 0 for i ? j), it is referred to as a unit (or identity) matrix. Unit

atrices are commonly denoted by I or [I]. An example of a 3 3 3 unit

m
matrix is given by

3 4
1 0 0
I5 0 1 0
0 0 1

Null Matrix
If all the elements of a matrix are zero (i.e., Oij 5 0), it is termed a null matrix.
Null matrices are usually denoted by O or [O]. An example of a 3 3 4 null
matrix is given by

3 4
0 0 0 0
O5 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

2.3 Matrix Operations

Equality
Matrices A and B are considered to be equal if they are of the same order
and if their corresponding elements are identical (i.e., Aij 5 Bij). Consider, for
example, matrices

3 4 3 4
6 2 6 2
A 5 27 8 and B 5 27 8
3 29 3 29

Since both A and B are of order 3 3 2, and since each element of A is equal to
the corresponding element of B, the matrices A and B are equal to each other;
that is, A 5 B.

Addition and Subtraction

Matrices can be added (or subtracted) only if they are of the same order. The
addition (or subtraction) of two matrices A and B is carried out by adding
(or subtracting) the corresponding elements of the two matrices. Thus, if
A 1 B 5 C, then Cij 5 Aij 1 Bij; and if A 2 B 5 D, then Dij 5 Aij 2 Bij . The
matrices C and D have the same order as matrices A and B.

E x ample 2.1 Calculate the matrices C 5 A 1 B and D 5 A 2 B if

3 4 3 4
6 0 2 3
A 5 22 9 and B 5 7 5
5 1 212 21

S olutio n

3 4 3 4
(6 1 2) (0 1 3) 8 3
C 5 A 1 B 5 (22 1 7) (9 1 5) 5 5 14 Ans
(5 2 12) (1 2 1) 27 0

3 4 3 4
(6 2 2) (0 2 3) 4 23
D 5 A 2 B 5 (22 2 7) (9 2 5) 5 29 4 Ans
(5 1 12) (1 1 1) 17 2

Multiplication by a Scalar
The product of a scalar c and a matrix A is obtained by multiplying each ele-
ment of the matrix A by the scalar c. Thus, if cA 5 B, then Bij 5 cAij.

E x ample 2.2 Calculate the matrix B 5 cA if c 5 26 and

3 4
3 7 22
A5 0 8 1
12 24 10

S olutio n

3 4 3 4
26(3) 26(7) 26(22) 218 242 12
B 5 cA 5 26(0) 26(8) 26(1) 5 0 248 26 Ans
26(12) 26(24) 26(10) 272 24 260

Multiplication of Matrices
Two matrices can be multiplied only if the number of columns of the first matrix
equals the number of rows of the second matrix. Such matrices are said to be
conformable for multiplication. Consider, for example, the matrices

3 4
1 8
3 4
6 27
A5 4 22 and B 5 (2.3)
21 2
25 3
(3 3 2) (2 3 2)
The product AB of these matrices is defined because the first matrix, A, of the
sequence AB has two columns and the second matrix, B, has two rows. How-
ever, if the sequence of the matrices is reversed, then the product BA does not
exist, because now the first matrix, B, has two columns and the second matrix,
A, has three rows. The product AB is referred to either as A postmultiplied by
B, or as B premultiplied by A. Conversely, the product BA is referred to either
as B postmultiplied by A, or as A premultiplied by B.
When two conformable matrices are multiplied, the product matrix thus ob-
tained has the number of rows of the first matrix and the number of columns of the

second matrix. Thus, if a matrix A of order l 3 m is postmultiplied by a matrix B of

order m 3 n, then the product matrix C 5 AB has the order l 3 n; that is,

A B 5 C
(l 3 m) (m 3 n) (l 3 n)
equal

(2.4)

3 33 3 3 3
B1 j
i th row Ai1 Ai2 Aim B2 j Ci j i th row
..

..
.
..
.
. 5
..
.
Bm j

j th column
j th column

Any element Cij of the product matrix C can be determined by multiplying
each element of the ith row of A by the corresponding element of the jth col-
umn o f B (see Eq. 2.4), and by algebraically summing the products; that is,

Cij 5 Ai1B1j 1 Ai2B2j 1 . . . 1 AimBmj (2.5)

Eq. (2.5) can be expressed as

m
Cij 5 oA B
k51
ik kj
(2.6)

in which m represents the number of columns of A, or the number of rows of B.

Equation (2.6) can be used to determine all elements of the product matrix C 5 AB.

E x ample 2.3 Calculate the product C 5 AB of the matrices A and B given in Eq. (2.3).

S olutio n

3 43 3 4
1 8 22 9
C 5 AB 5 4
25
22
3
6
21
27
2
5 4 26
233
232
41
Ans

(3 3 2) (2 3 2) (3 3 2)

The element C11 of the product matrix C is determined by multiplying each element of
the first row of A by the corresponding element of the first column of B and summing
the resulting products; that is,

C11 5 1(6) 1 8(21) 5 22

Similarly, the element C12 is obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row of
A by the corresponding elements of the second column of B and adding the resulting
products; that is,

C12 5 1(27) 1 8(2) 5 9

The remaining elements of C are computed in a similar manner:

C21 5 4(6) 1 (22)(21) 5 26

C22 5 4(27) 22(2) 5 232
C31 5 25(6) 1 3(21) 5 233
C32 5 25(27) 1 3(2) 5 41

A flowchart for programming the matrix multiplication procedure on

a computer is given in Fig. 2.1. Any programming language (such as FOR-
TRAN, BASIC, or C, among others) can be used for this purpose. The reader
is encouraged to write this program in a general form (e.g., as a subroutine),
so that it can be included in the structural analysis computer programs to be
developed in later chapters.
An important application of matrix multiplication is to express simultane-
ous equations in compact matrix form. Consider the following system of linear
simultaneous equations:

A11x1 1 A12x2 1 A13x3 1 A14x4 5 P1

A21x1 1 A22x2 1 A23x3 1 A24x4 5 P2
(2.7)
A31x1 1 A32x2 1 A33x3 1 A34x4 5 P3
A41x1 1 A42x2 1 A43x3 1 A44x4 5 P4

in which xs are the unknowns and As and Ps represent the coefficients and
constants, respectively. By using the definition of multiplication of matrices,
this system of equations can be expressed in matrix form as

3 43 4 3 4
A11 A12 A13 A14 x1 P1
A21 A22 A23 A24 x2 P2
5 (2.8)
A31 A32 A33 A34 x3 P3
A41 A42 A43 A44 x4 P4

or, symbolically, as
Ax 5 P (2.9)
Matrix multiplication is generally not commutative; that is,

AB ? BA (2.10)

Even when the orders of two matrices A and B are such that both products AB
and BA are defined and are of the same order, the two products, in general, will

Start

Input A(L, M), B(M, N)

Dimension C(L, N)

I51

no
I # L?

yes
J51

no
J # N?

yes

C(I, J) 5 0.0

K51

no
K # M?

yes
C(I, J) 5 C(I, J) 1 A(I, K)*B(K, J)

K5K11

J5J11

I5I11

Output C

Stop

Fig. 2.1 Flowchart for Matrix Multiplication

not be equal. It is essential, therefore, to maintain the proper sequential order
of matrices when evaluating matrix products.

E x ample 2.4 Calculate the product AB and BA if

A5 3271 28
2 4
and B 5
6
4 3 23
25 4
Are the products AB and BA equal?

S olutio n

AB 5 3271 28
2 4 364 23
25
5 4 3
226
234
37
11
4 Ans

BA 5 364 23
25 4 3271 28
2
5 4 3
27
39
254
242
4 Ans

Comparing products AB and BA, we can see that AB ? BA. Ans

Matrix multiplication is associative and distributive, provided that the se-

quential order in which the matrices are to be multiplied is maintained. Thus,
ABC 5 (AB)C 5 A(BC) (2.11)
and
A(B 1 C) 5 AB 1 AC (2.12)
The product of any matrix A and a conformable null matrix O equals a
null matrix; that is,

AO 5 O and OA 5 O (2.13)
For example,

3262 4 300 004 5 300 004

24
8

The product of any matrix A and a conformable unit matrix I equals the
original matrix A; thus,
AI 5 A and IA 5 A (2.14)
For example,

3262 4 310 014 5 3262 4

24 24
8 8

and

310 014 3262 4 3 4

24 2 24
5
8 26 8

We can see from Eqs. (2.13) and (2.14) that the null and unit matrices serve
purposes in matrix algebra that are similar to those of the numbers 0 and 1,
respectively, in scalar algebra.

Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging its corresponding rows and
columns. The transposed matrix is commonly identified by placing a superscript T
on the symbol of the original matrix. Consider, for example, a 3 3 2 matrix

3 4
2 24
B 5 25 8
1 3
332
The transpose of B is given by

3242 4
25 1
BT 5
8 3
233
Note that the first row of B becomes the first column of BT. Similarly, the sec-
ond and third rows of B become, respectively, the second and third columns of
BT. The order of BT thus obtained is 2 3 3.
As another example, consider the matrix

3 4
2 21 6
C 5 21 7 29
6 29 5

Because the elements of C are symmetric about its main diagonal (i.e., Cij 5 Cji
for i ? j), interchanging the rows and columns of this matrix produces a matrix
CT that is identical to C itself; that is, CT 5 C. Thus, the transpose of a sym-
metric matrix equals the original matrix.
Another useful property of matrix transposition is that the transpose of a
product of matrices equals the product of the transposed matrices in reverse
order. Thus,

(AB)T 5 BTAT (2.15)

Similarly,
(ABC)T 5 CT BTAT (2.16)

E x ample 2.5 Show that (AB)T 5 BTAT if

3 4
9 25
3 4
6 21 10
A5 2 1 and B 5
22 7 5
23 4

S olutio n

3 43 3 4
9 25 64 244 65
AB 5 2
23
1
4
6
22
21
7
10
5
5 4 10
226
5
31
25
210

There is but one channel for large vessels into the principal anchorage,
and through that the Amethyst was guided by a native pilot at flood-tide, for
at low-water the whole of the rocks are nearly dry.

After the cargo was out, there was some delay about getting a freight for
England, as the main dependence of the colony is upon the naval and
military establishments that have been formed there, and on the shipyards
and saltworks; and now there had been a falling off in onions and whale oil,
which are among the chief exports of the "vexed Bermoothes."

To this delay was added another. The Amethyst had sprung her
maintopmast in a sudden gale of wind, one of those "Bermuda squalls" so
dreaded by all navigators of those seas, and she had suffered other damages,
which compelled the Captain to place her in the hands of the dockyard
people; thus, as there was plenty of leave-going, Derval was frequently on
shore, and on one of these occasions a rather curious adventure befel him.

Joe Grummet had prepared Derval for seeing much that was novel in
these Summer Isles, as they were not inaptly named from Sir George
Summers, who was driven there in a storm in 1609, and whose heart is
buried in one of them; but Joe could not prevail upon him to accept the
genuine old nautical idea that the land and the coral crust composing it is so
thin as to be easily broken, even by a stroke of the foot. But so many
wrecks took place among their shoals, that the Spaniards of old named them
Devils Isles, and Joe knew by tradition the strange story regarding a mighty
multitude of rats, that came, no one knew from where, and, multiplying
exceedingly, swarmed over all the isles, and ate up the corn, the fruit, and
all green things for a period of five years, after which came a cloud of
ravens out of the sky and destroyed them in turn, since when no raven has
been seen in the Bermudas.*
* This story is told in the Atlas Geographus, 1717, vol. v.

Derval saw whales trapped and harpooned among the coral reefs, while
the very sharks contended with the natives for the blubber in the warm
shoal water, and more than once he had climbed Tibbs Hill, the highest
elevation there, only a hundred and eighty feet in altitude; and he had seen
the gangs of natives toiling at the cisterns in which rain-water is preserved
for the shipping, for there are few wells and no fresh-water streams, but the
dew-point ranges very high indeed.

One day, in his rambles, Derval came upon a little spot of remarkable
beauty near the sea-shore. Many caverns, the roofs of which sparkle with
brilliant spars, and having fantastic stalactites formed of the dripping water
—genuine coral caverns, beautiful as the transformation scene in a
pantomime, with their reflected lights, colours, shadows and uncertainties—
are to be found in many parts of these isles, having in them pools of cool
water delicious to bathe in.

Through one of these from the sea-shore—one in which it is said the

poet Waller wrote a portion of his poetical description of Bermuda, when in
exile there he penned his insipid "Battle of the Summer Isles,"—Derval
wandered to where its inner end opened on a beautiful little dell, an
amphitheatre of coral cliffs and verdure, at the bottom of which lay a salt
pool filled always by the sea at each flood tide, and therein he was certain
that more than once he saw a stealthy shark gliding.

Bordering it were the palmetto palms, with luscious fruit like plums in
colour, and those enormous leaves, each of which are of such amazing
length that they are used to roof houses; the oak, the ash, bananas, orange,
lemon, mahogany and caoutchouc trees all growing in luxuriance together,
and the coffee plant flourishing wild under the lofty cedars.

Delighted with the beauty of the cool and shady place, Derval stretched
himself at length upon the velvet sward, and proceeded to enjoy a cigar,
while watching, high above his head, the struggles of a small bird which
was caught in the web of a spider—one of those spiders there so remarkable
for their size and a peculiar kind of beauty, and the webs of which are, in
colour and substance, a veritable raw silk.

His attention was next attracted by the appearance of a lady and a young
girl walking slowly on the summit of a coral rock, or cliff, that overhung the
salt pool. The lady, who carried a large white sunshade, was proceeding
leisurely, reading a book, while the girl went hither and thither gathering
flowers.

"Take care, Clara darling," he heard the lady say; "keep back from the
edge of the rocks."

"Do let me gather these flowers," was the entreating reply, "and I shall
make you such a lovely bouquet."

"Stay, I insist upon it," said the lady.

"Oh, I shall be so very careful," replied the sweet little English voice,
which sounded so pleasantly to the ears of the listener,—but a shriek closed
the sentence.

When venturing to the verge to gather the coveted trifle, the girl had
fallen over, and vanished from the eyes of her horrified companion—her
governess, as she eventually proved to be—who fled, uttering wild and
breathless cries for assistance, for she knew that the little one had fallen
from a height of nearly a hundred feet.

At the same moment a half stifled cry escaped Derval, who, with the
keenest alarm, saw that in her descent a stump of laurel projecting from the
cliff had caught a portion of the girl's dress, a species of muslin scarf that
went round her waist, and there she hung, blind with terror and silent in her
agony, some fifty feet above the rocks that shelved steeply downward to the
pool or salt-water tarn.

"Keep still, girl, keep still!" cried Derval, who saw that already her frail
protection was beginning to rend, while he instantly commenced to climb
towards her, and as only a British sailor can climb, finding footing and
things to grasp where a landsman would have found none.
At last he reached her, but not without incredible difficulty and great
peril, at the very instant when the delicate scarf had nearly parted, and she
must have perished miserably on the rocks or in the water below. To make
assurance doubly sure, he grasped one part of her dress with his teeth,
another with his left hand, winding it at the same time round his arm, and
holding her thus, while she clutched his neck, he began his descent to the
base, breathless and silent; for to ascend, though the way was shorter,
proved impossible, as the rock over which she had fallen was an impending
one.

The base at last was reached, when Derval could scarcely respire, and
was trembling in every fibre with exertion and anxiety; and intent on
conveying his half-senseless charge to her friends without delay, as he knew
that their grief would be intolerable, he deemed his quickest way would be
through the cavern to the sea-shore; but he had not proceeded, far, when he
found the flood tide was already coming in so fast, that to pass or repass
was impossible, and he could but clamber up into a recess, and place her
there on a dry shelf of the coral formation till the tide ebbed again; and in
that strange shelter there was a reflected light from the rising water at both
ends, that while it produced some very curious and picturesque effects of
colour and shadow, enabled them to see distinctly around them.

"Thank you, thank you, sir,—oh so much, so very much!" sobbed the
child (she did not seem to be yet in her teens), and after the terror and
prolonged shock she had undergone, she wept bitterly and hysterically, with
her beautiful little head on Derval's shoulder, while his arm yet encircled
her; but his voice and manner were so kind, tender, and reassuring, that
after a time she became soothed, and "disengaging" herself from him, as the
novels have it, so shyly, so prettily, and like a little lady, said:

"Oh, what a fright my poor papa will be in, when Miss Sampler tells him
of my fall! How will he ever be able to thank you, sir!"

"Thank Heaven, thank Heaven—not me—that you are safe," said

Derval, earnestly. "Poor child! what a fate you have escaped!" he added
with a shudder as he looked at the tender and delicate form, the soft violet
eyes, the rich brown hair, and mignonne face, flushed with excitement, and
thought of what might have been, had he not been there—had he been too
late, or failed in his courageous attempt!

He gazed on her with all the interest the great service he had rendered,
her great beauty, and her present helplessness all seemed to excite, and he
said, half to himself:

"Had you fallen to the base, you had been instantly killed; if into the
water, the sharks——" and shudderingly he thought of his recent episode
near Tristan d'Acunha. "I shall ever bless heaven I was so near you, child!"

"I am not a child," said she with a pout on her rosy lip, as her colour
came back; "I am twelve years old."

"And who was the lady with you—your mamma?"

"Oh no; my dear mamma is dead."

"Who, then?"

"My governess, Miss Sampler. Do you live near this?" she asked.

"I am a sailor, and live in my ship. She is now in the dockyard. And you
—you must, of course, live near this?" he added, seeing that she was
without a head-dress.

"Yes; in the large white house that has great cannons in front of it, and
where a pretty flag is always flying till sunset, when boom! goes one of the
cannon, and down it comes."

"It is a garrison, then?"

"Oh no; it is papa's house. Oh, how papa will thank you for saving his
little girl—he loves me so much!" Her voice trembled and her soft eyes
filled as she said this, and added prettily, "I am the only one he has now; all
my sisters are buried beside mamma."

"Where?"
"In England, far, far away—in Devonshire."

"I know Devonshire well!" exclaimed Derval with growing interest.

"Do you?" she asked, while her earnest eyes dilated.

"May I ask your name?"

"Clara."

"A pretty name! Clara what?"

"Hampton. And yours?"

"Hampton too."

"How very, very odd!"

Derval laughed, as the little "situation" began to have "its charm," in one
way, but not quite in another. In their hiding-place, the whole floor of which
was now a stretch of deep and shining water, the sound of excited voices
reached them, as from a distance, from time to time—the voices of those
who, no doubt, were in search of the lost one, and with whom Derval could
not communicate, for there—either brought in by the flood-tide from the
sea, or by it out of the pool—he could see, at no great distance from the
perch occupied by himself and his shrinking companion, the back or dorsal
fin of a great shark above the surface of the smooth dead water, while the
whole of its awful length was visible beneath it.

The monster swam slowly to and fro—Derval, sailor-like, never

doubting but it heard their voices, and was only waiting if opportunity
served, or the water rose, to make a mouthful of each of them; but he felt
safe and secure, as they were above high-water mark, as he could see by the
colour of the coral walls; and when, ultimately, the tide did begin to ebb,
Jack Shark passed out with it, and eventually disappeared.

Before this came to pass, Derval and the rescued had conversed on many
things; and he found that, young though she was, there was a sweet,
womanly sympathy about her, that led him, unconsciously, to tell her much
concerning himself and his affairs, and how and why he left pleasant
Devonshire to become a sailor; how quickly he had risen to be third mate of
a handsome ship, what a fine fellow Captain Talbot was, and so forth, and
as the little lady listened to him, her soft eyes filled with interest and
wonder.

At last the ebbing tide left the floor of the cavern, and the shingly beach
without it, completely dry, when the red sinking sun was nearly level with
the sea, all crimsoned now; and giving his hand to his pretty namesake, he
led her forth, and she at once indicated a path that led from the shore to her
home. Ascending this, and passing through a grove of Palmetto palms, they
found themselves on the plateau of the rock from whence she had fallen,
and the appearance of the place made her shrink to Derval's side, while his
arm went kindly and instinctively round her. But they had not proceeded far
when they came upon a group of excited searchers, perhaps the same whose
voices Derval had heard, and among them were officers in undress, soldiers
from the garrison, seamen from the ships, planters, clerks, and blacks, their
white teeth and eyes gleaming, screaming, hallooing, and all bearing
ladders, ropes, poles, drags, and even lanterns, for the darkness was close at
hand now.

"Papa, Papa!" suddenly exclaimed the young lady, and snatching her
hand from that of Derval, she sprang like an antelope into the open arms of
a careworn and haggard, but tall and distinguished-looking man, who had a
decided air of good birth and breeding his planter-like costume, of a broad
straw hat and white linen coat and trousers, failed to mask; and in his close
embrace she sobbed hysterically.

"Safe, Clara—safe, my child!" said he in a broken voice; and then there

was a minute's pause, during which the haggard lines grief and alarm had
suddenly drawn on his face began already to fade out. "Oh, my darling, my
darling!—what miracle is this?"

"That gentleman saved me, Papa; saved me, saved me!" was the sobbing
reply.

"But how is she harmless after such a fall?" asked her father
shudderingly of those around him, and as if unable to believe the evidence
of his own senses, while the crowd closed round.

Derval briefly and modestly related all that had occurred.

Then the father of the rescued girl wept as he pressed and retained
Derval's hands in his; but failed to find language in which to thank him
coherently. After a time he asked:

"Do you belong to a ship of war, sir?"

"No, sir."

"To what, then?" asked the other, glancing at the uniform.

"To the ship Amethyst, of London, carrying the flag of the Royal Naval
Reserve," replied Derval, touching his cap, for somehow the bearing of him
he addressed bore the impress of one in no small authority.

The latter drew a handsome ring from his finger, and presented it to
Derval, saying:

"I beg that you will accept of this, and wear it in remembrance of one
whose gratitude you have won for life."

The stone was a magnificent onyx, and Derval saw, with a start, how that
it bore a shield with three choughs, and the motto Clarior e Tenebris. He
bowed, and placed it on his finger, saying:

"May I ask whom I have the honour of addressing?"

"This," said an officer (an aide-de-camp apparently), who stood near, "is
Lord Oakhampton, Governor of the Bermudas."

His remote kinsman and his father's enemy! Confusion, astonishment,

and then something of gratification filled the heart of Derval by turns, and
all together.

"I am deeply grateful to you, young gentleman, for the great service you
have rendered to me; but may I, in turn, ask your name, that I may never
forget it?"

"My name, like yours, my lord, is Hampton—Derval Hampton."

"Are you a Devonshire man?"

"Yes, my Lord; my father lives at Finglecombe."

Lord Oakhampton coloured, and a cloud came over his decidedly

handsome face, as he was well aware who Greville Hampton was, and what
his pretensions were; and now, with a little more of hauteur that hospitality
in his manner, he said:

"Dine with me at Government House to-morrow; eight is the hour, and I

shall be glad to see you then."

Derval muttered his thanks, and lifted his cap, but ere he retired Lord
Oakhampton shook his hand, Clara gave him hers confidently and
pleasantly, and the interview terminated, for the night had fallen and Derval
had to make his way back to the ship.

The episode in all its details gave him much food for thought, as he
proceeded slowly homeward. He knew not, till then, that Lord Oakhampton
was in the Colonial Service at all; neither did he know that by extravagance
the peer had found the salary of Governor of the "vexed Bermoothes," some
thousands per annum, a comfortable addition to a shattered income, while
his estates were at dry-nurse. Derval knew now, however, that he had done
an act demanding a supreme amount of gratitude, from a proud and rather
repellent man, who would, perhaps, rather have been indebted therefor to
any other person in the world, than the son of Greville Hampton; while, on
the other hand, Derval had been taught to view his lordship as his hereditary
enemy, the usurper of his father's rights, though why, or how, Derval could
not define; and that, more than all, in the days of his father's unexpected
penury and obscurity at Finglecombe, he had sedulously withheld all
countenance and assistance from him.

"By Jove!" thought he; "sharks, sea-lawyers, the sailor's natural foes,
seem to be my friends! One gets me promotion, vice poor Paul Bitts, and I
have the honour of saving a peer's daughter from another—my little
kinswoman, too. I wonder in what degree she is so—a charming little
creature, too!"

His father seemed of late to have taken but little interest in his
movements or his success; but perhaps this startling episode might kindle
some emotion of revengeful triumph that great good had been rendered for
evil done.

Derval duly presented himself at Government House next evening, and

was received by Lord Oakhampton with considerable impressment, and by
him was presented, as the rescuer of his child from a dreadful peril—all
Hamilton now rang with the story, though none knew precisely who the
hero was—to a select circle, composed of the heads of departments, civil
and military, the Chief Justice, the two puisne judges, and so forth; and as
Derval was a gentleman by birth, education, and breeding, all were
agreeably impressed by his appearance, for added thereto, he had now that
easy and perfectly self-possessed manner which is only to be acquired by
intercourse with the world, by travel, and some experience of life; and there
were many things combined, which made Derval Hampton, in expression
and bearing, older than his years.

Modest and reserved by nature and habit, he was, for a time, rather
abashed to find himself somewhat the lion of the evening, and was glad
when a little change was made in the current of the conversation, by the
appearance of Clara Hampton and her governess with the dessert; and
wonderfully bright and brilliant the little lady looked, all trace of
yesterday's alarm and shock having passed away; but, though she accorded
him her pretty hand very frankly, and with a wonderful smile of pleasure
and welcome, she was very shy with him now, as contrasted with the
mutual confidences they had exchanged in the cavern, "while Jack Shark
was swimming to and fro, keeping a species of blockade upon them," as
Derval laughingly said.

After a time she drew close to his side, and with great, yet childlike
gracefulness, presented him with a flower from her dress, saying:
"I made this bouquet for you. Papa says no one can make a button-hole
—why he calls it so, I don't know—like me."

So Derval gallantly kissed the little bouquet, and placed it in the lapelle
of his naval coat.

Ere he left, Lord Oakhampton, thawing considerably in his somewhat

measured manner—a manner born, as Derval knew, of circumstances far
remote from Bermuda—assured him, that if he could do aught for him in
anyway, to command his services. Very pleasant all this, thought Derval,
who supposed he had no true friends in the world save his shipmates on
board the Amethyst; but remembering his father's feud and claims, he
returned thanks very reservedly and took his departure.

For certain reasons, chiefly family considerations, and his own dislike of
all fuss and speculation, Derval said nothing of his adventure, or his visit to
Government House, on board the Amethyst, which lay at Ireland Island, the
chief place there for shipping; thus, great was the astonishment of his
"skipper," when an officer in undress military uniform arrived from
Hamilton, the chief town of these isles, with an official letter addressed to
"Captain Talbot, H.M. Royal Naval Reserve."

"For you, sir," said the aide-de-camp.

"From whom, sir?"

"His Excellency the Governor."

Captain Talbot was rather, as he afterwards told, "taken aback," but he

said:

"Won't you have a glass of sherry and a biscuit, sir?"

"Thanks, very much—no," replied the other, and stepped on shore, while
the surprise of Talbot increased very much when he read the letter twice
over, and then starting up, ordered Joe Grummet to "pipe all hands," and
bring them aft, "and run the ensign up to the gaff."
"Hats off, my lads," said the Captain, his face glowing with pleasure;
"for this comes from the Queen's representative."

The letter, of which we only give an outline, proved to be from "His

Excellency Lord Oakhampton, K.C.B., Governor of the Bermuda Islands,
&c. &c.," warmly recommending Mr. Derval Hampton to his captain and
owners for his gallant conduct, which was fully detailed therein; and
congratulating Captain Talbot on having such an officer under him in the
Amethyst.

Whereupon Joe Grummet took off his old battered tarpauline hat, from a
head that was getting grey now, and led the van of three stentorian cheers
for the third mate; and Derval heard them, as he had heard the letter, with
cheeks flushing scarlet, like those of a school-girl, and a wildly beating
heart.

And in honour of the whole event, which Hal Bowline duly engrossed on
the ship's log, Joe Grummet's whistle was next heard, summoning all hands
to "splice the main-brace," an invitation never unattended to by sailors, as
they are ever ready for a glass of grog.

The ship was now getting ready for sea, the hatches were being battened
down, the boats hoisted in, the studding-sail gear rove, the royal yards
crossed, &c., and Derval was compelled to spend much of his time on board
of the Amethyst; and now came the last day he could pass, perhaps, on
shore.

Unconsciously he wandered to the little dell of the palmetto and other

trees, the coral cliff and the salt pool, all of which impressed him so deeply
as the scene of a startling adventure. A fragment of Clara's muslin dress yet
fluttered from the laurel stump by which her fall had been arrested, either
on the rocks below or into the pool, where sharks were as usual swimming
whenever the flood tide floated them in; and as Derval surveyed the cliff up
which he had clambered to her assistance, now, when he had not the
impetus of excitement, he thought himself a very clever fellow, but doubted
whether he could achieve the same feat again.
Something glittering at the foot of the cliff caught his eye. It was a locket
of gold, the size of a florin, with the name Clara in pearls on one side—an
ornament doubtless lost by Miss Hampton on the day in question, and he
speedily possessed himself of it. Opening it, he found that it was empty, but
prepared at once to restore it, and do what the rules of society required, to
leave with it a farewell card at Government House.

On going thither he was informed that Lord Oakhampton had gone to

open the Assembly of Representatives (consisting of thirty-six in number,
four of whom are elected by each parish), so he inquired if he could see
Miss Clara Hampton.

The valets, who knew the service he had rendered her, ushered him at
once into the drawing-room, where he found her, with all her rich brown
hair loose for coolness, and fanning herself with a large circular fan,
composed of the snow-white feathers of some rare tropical bird, and
intently conning some task set her by Miss Sampler.

"I have come to bid adieu to your papa and yourself," said Derval.

"I am so sorry he is from home," she replied, as she gave him her hand,
and with more self-possession than she might have had, if a few years older,
invited him at once to be seated. The soft mignonne face seemed to Derval's
eyes more beautiful than ever in its childlike purity, and her violet eyes with
their long lashes were full of a bright and earnest expression.

After a little pause, he placed the locket in her hand.

"This, of course, is yours; I found it to-day at the place where—where—

I first had the pleasure of meeting you," said he, seeing that she shivered
and half closed her eyes.

"Oh, do not speak of that place!" she exclaimed, lifting up her hands; "I
shall never, never forget you or it either."

"I am sorry that the memory of me should be combined with a thought of

horror."
"Do not imagine I shall think of you in that way," she said very
earnestly; "and as for the locket—will you accept it—will you permit me to
give it to you? Pray do. Papa will be so pleased!"

And springing to his side, the engaging creature, with rapid and deft
little fingers, attached it to his watch-chain, exclaiming gleefully:

"Now, does it not look pretty?'

"Thanks, my dear Miss Clara," said Derval, looking almost tenderly into
her bright upturned face; "but there is something that would make it look
prettier and enhance its value to me."

"What?"

"A tiny lock of your hair, as a souvenir when I am far away from
Bermuda."

"Oh—is that all!" she exclaimed, and with the scissors that lay near her
she snipped off a tress and coiled it into the locket, laughing merrily the
while. "You will come and see Papa again to-morrow, and let him thank you
for me again," said she, interrupting Derval's thanks, and seeing that he had
risen from his chair.

"For me there is no to-morrow, of leave at least—we must sail ere the

tide ebbs, and make a good offing by sunset. And now," he added, yet
lingeringly, "I must say good-bye."

"Bon voyage, Miss Sampler would say; but a pleasant voyage home to
England I wish you with—with all my heart, Mr. Hampton," she said, as her
smile died away, for recalling the episode which made them acquainted, the
young girl's heart grew very full, and her beautiful eyes too.

"Will you give me one kiss ere I go?" said Derval, considering she was
but a child he addressed.

"Oh yes!" was the frank response, as she innocently held up her mouth,
and the memory of the kiss given by those sweet rosebud-like lips, haunted
Derval pleasantly for many a month to come, when many a league of ocean
lay between him and the Summer Isles.

Next day saw the Amethyst in the pilot's hands, working out of the
tortuous channel between the reefs, her yards being braced up sharp, and
her tacks being carried far aft to port and starboard alternately. As she
passed in view of Government House the ports were triced up and she fired
nineteen rounds from her brass nine-pounders in honour of Lord
Oakhampton, the flag on whose residence was dipped to her three times in
farewell.

By that time she was clear of all the rocks; her yards were squared, and
with a fair wind she bore away north-eastward into the evening sea, the
watery highway to "Old England."

Some two months after this found Derval, after quitting the Amethyst at
the West India Dock—ever in his mind associated with the awful day of
London fog in which he first saw it—hastening homeward on a few weeks'
leave, and having with him, sailor-like, presents for all there: a tiger-skin
from the Cape for his father's study; furs of the platypus, soft and grey, from
Australia, to make muffs and cuffs for Mrs. Hampton, and a shawl for her
too; a shark's skull for Mr. Asperges Laud; a model junk for little
Rookleigh; several cosy things for old Patty Fripp; and, moreover, he had
shells, horns, idols, queer ornaments, and all the curious omnium gatherum
which sailors usually pick up—the gathered spoil of years of wandering and
affection.

He disliked to carry the locket where Clara's hands had hung it. A day
might come—nay, surely would come—when he might have to discard the
gift, lest treasuring a woman's locket, with her name upon it and her hair
within it, might alarm some one dearer to him than life, and lead to serious
complications, although he had not met her yet—or thought so; thus the
locket was consigned to one of his secret repositories.

"Home—home!" he exclaimed to himself, and clapped his hands with

glee as the swift express train went tearing on through North Devon, and
the vale of Taunton, with its foliaged slopes, Coddon Hill and St. Peter's
ancient spire, came in sight; on and on yet, and ere long he should be at
Finglecombe!

Breathlessly he stood at the window of the carriage, in his eagerness

hailing each successive familiar feature in the view. It was the close of a
summer day, and his heart felt full as when he had knelt at his mother's knee
to lisp the prayers she taught him. There seemed to be something in the
white clouds flecking the blue sky; in the sweet fresh breath of the land
breeze, laden with the perfume of the orchards, the green leaves, and the
flowers; in the joyous song of the birds; in the pretty farms, in field after
field as he saw them, like great green seas of grass, studded with golden
buttercups and snow-white daisies; in the groups of children, in the herds of
cattle going to the pools to drink; in the voice of the lark soaring aloft; in
the familiar peal of the old church bell, like the voice of an early friend: that
all spoke to his brimming heart of England and of home!

At last the train went clanking into the station, where porters and
passengers were hurrying to and fro, and in their hot haste jostling each
other. Could this be Finglecombe? Changes were being effected, and in
progress, when he left; but he was by no means prepared for all he saw now.
There was no one to receive him on the platform, about which he looked as
one in a dream. He arrived, as he had departed, unseen by the eye of a
kinsman; and now, for the first time, something of the old chill he had felt
so often years ago, fell upon his heart.

A flaring placard, with views of Finglecombe, its terraces, villas, sea-

wall, and various projected improvements then caught his eye. It was
described as one of the most rising places on the western coast, in a
beautiful district, commanding a view of the Bristol Channel; for yachtsmen
and canoeists possessing an unrivalled field, and attractive walks and drives
for the excursionist or pedestrian; a hotel, telegraph, and railway station,
"advantages showing that, as a centre or head-quarters for the tourist,
Finglecombe was unrivalled indeed; combining, as it did, cheapness of
transit, and every means for amusement, with great natural beauty of
situation."
Had his father found the lamp of Aladdin to produce all this? thought
Derval, as memory went back to the solitary little cottage in the Combe,
where a slice of brown bread, a pat of golden butter, and a foaming jug of
beer, were once deemed a luxurious supper.

The Hampton family had a carriage now; but Derval, though expected,
was left to make his way home, how he chose or how he could.

A porter put his portmanteaus on a truck, and, when desired to follow

him to Mr. Hampton's house, received the order with profound respect. He
was a stranger, and knew not Derval, whose own mother might not have
recognised him now—tall, developed in every muscle, brown and manly in
visage, with a dark, if slight, moustache; but amid the "improvements" at
the Combe he became so bewildered, that he was fain to "drop astern" and
let the porter pilot him.

The handsome entrance gates were reached, and through the sweeping
approach, gravelled to perfection, and bordered by shrubbery and flower-
beds in all their splendour, Derval proceeded till he found himself, as one in
a dream, before the beautiful villa; and as a portion of that dream, too, he
found himself face to face with his father, who grasped his hand, yet gazed
upon him with an expression in which astonishment at the change in his
appearance, too evidently exceeded the emotion of welcome; nor was it till
Patty Fripp threw her arms round his neck, weeping over and kissing him,
in an obstreperous fashion all her own, that the spell seemed broken, and
that tears sprang to his own eyes, as the ready flood-gates of affection
opened.

"His mother's darling! his mother's darling and mine!" she continued to
exclaim. "Oh, Master Derval, Master Derval, how glad we are to have you
safe home again!"

Derval felt a sense of mortification and disappointment. Of all the

sudden and wonderful changes around him, he, the wandering sailor, had
been kept in utter ignorance! Why was this? As a surprise for him, perhaps,
hope suggested.
He found his father grayer, but less lined in visage than he could
remember him, for prosperity had smoothed out many a line that Mary had
seen growing, to her sorrow. Derval thought his manner nervous, and that
he welcomed him, perhaps with affection, but certainly with outward
constraint, especially when under the cold and observant eyes of Mrs.
Hampton; and when the latter put her large, if white and shapely, hand into
that of Derval, there flashed back upon his memory that which he had long
forgotten—how viciously she flogged him in the stable with her riding-
switch for poodling the cat.

She seemed quite unchanged since then, as young and handsome as ever,
for no thought, care, or consideration would ever write a line on her smooth
forehead and certainly brilliant face.

"This is your younger brother, Derval," said his father, as Rookleigh

came to take his place at the late dinner table. He had his mother's
expression of face; her light hazel eyes, only a little more green in tint and
shifty in expression, with short white lashes. Derval went to him cordially,
though he was no longer like the sleeping baby over whom he had wept on
the morning he left home, but a big hulking boy of eleven years old.

Rook, as they named him, eyed his elder brother sullenly, distrustfully,
and even malevolently, for already had his mother contrived to implant in
his dawning mind, that this tall sailor was a species of natural enemy; but
his face lighted up and his manner softened, when this enemy put a handful
of silver in his hand, and produced the model junk, some packets of
sweetmeats, a jack-knife, shells, and many knick-knacks, brought specially
for him from far beyond the sea; and eventually Master Rook, who coveted
everything that Derval had to give, contrived to "screw" loose change out of
him on every available occasion.

Greville Hampton listened with a curiously mingled expression in his

face—disdain of, and indignation at, Lord Oakhampton, when Derval
related the episode at Bermuda; and then something of real gratification
stole into his features on thinking that the peer's daughter should owe her
life and existence to the skill and prowess of his son! While, to anything in
which Derval shone with credit, Mrs. Hampton listened coldly, with disdain
nearly expressed in her light-coloured eyes, and had no word of womanly or
well-bred approbation for the feat he had performed, and of which the only
trophy he chose to show, was the signet ring of Lord Oakhampton, with the
three choughs under a coronet, at which Greville gave an angry grimace,
and sat slowly stroking a huge beard he had cultivated since Derval last saw
him.

"And so you like Captain Talbot and your ship, my boy?" said he, when
Mrs. Hampton and her peculiar care had betaken them to the drawing-room,
and to change the subject of the astounding alterations at Finglecombe, on
which Derval had naturally been expatiating.

"Like the Captain? He is a genuine brick!" said Derval; "and as for our
ship, no better sails the sea!"

"Fill your glass, Derval—that Burgundy is better than any we used to

have long ago."

"Thanks, Papa—'Governor,' I suppose I should call you in the parlance

of the present day—even Rook, I perceive, has adopted it."

"Bad form, I deem it—very."

"Whatever I call you, you will ever be the same dear old man to me!"
exclaimed Derval, as his eyes filled, and he wrung his father's hand. "But I
should like you to see the Amethyst under full sail before the wind, or even
close hauled with her tacks aboard!" he added, with all a seaman's genuine
enthusiasm in a really good craft. "She does indeed skim the waves, as if
she were the work of magic. I have often watched her, as Scott describes the
Mertouns watching Cleveland's vessel, as 'that rare masterpiece by which
human genius aspires to surmount the waves and contend with the winds,'
and you must know that we sailors think that a ship, like a woman, has a
will of her own, yet knows what the helmsman wants of her; so right was he
who said 'she walks the waters like a thing of life'—and this is precisely
what the Amethyst does. Buoyant as a duck, when before the wind, I have
seen her yard-arms nearly touch the great rollers on each side alternately."

So multifarious were his father's engagements, and so much was he pre-

occupied by his schemes, that Derval soon found his own society could be
spared, and one of his first acts was to visit the quaint old parsonage of the
Tudor times, and present to Mr. Asperges Laud the grim natural curiosity he
had for him—the head of a shark caught by Joe Grummet off Tristan
d'Acunha, and which he had scraped and polished till he had rendered it, as
he thought, a very high work of art indeed.

To reach the parsonage, he had to pass his mother's grave, and as he

approached the well-known spot, with his head uncovered, he experienced
somewhat of a shock, it seemed so neglected and forgotten; when under the
Southern Cross, and far beyond the equator, how often had his prayerful
thoughts come here, and how did he find it now?

The tiny, but pretty monumental cross, erected by his father in the days
of their limited means—then almost penury—had fallen down, and the little
patch of grass under which she lay was choked with weeds!

Even Mr. Asperges Laud had failed in the work of clearing and weeding
it again and again—often with his own hands. But Derval resolved that not
another day should pass, ere this desecration should end.

The kind old curate received him warmly and affectionately, as if he had
been his own father, and with tears in his eyes, held up his hand to bless
him.

Incidentally, he told him of the growing wealth of Finglecombe, and of

the great fortune his father was amassing. Derval, who had naturally
inferred that such was the case, now heard it distinctly for the first time,
though he had been kept in ignorance of it; and, as naturally, he again asked
of himself, why was this the case?

He strove to crush down the unpleasant suspicions of—he knew not

what—that would occur to him again and again, and sought to enjoy to the
full the brief term of his leave of absence. He sought all his old haunts, but
only to find changes; the shingly shore, which he had been wont to seek for
hours, and whence he saw the old weedy hull floating silently in the bay,
was now giving place to a sea-wall and marine parade; the Druidical stones
that formed the Pixies Parlour had become road metal, and the new hotel
occupied its site; the haunted mill with its moss-grown wheel had given
place to a new villa of astounding design; and he found nothing unchanged
but the Tiws-stone, or rock, named after the Saxon god (of the third day of
the week), on the summit of a hill, where in the deep snows of winter, it is
said, that on certain nights are traced the marks of a naked human foot, and
of a cloven hoof, while the shrieks of the "whist hounds" are heard with the
winding of unearthly horns, in the hollow below the hill.

So for a time, a very little time, he gave himself up to the full enjoyment
of the sleepy country life, which was so unlike what he had been leading for
fully four years past.

Yet in his father's house he felt singularly homeless; by the side of him
whose blood he inherited and of the brother whose blood he partly shared,
he felt as one without kindred, and ever and anon the thought occurred to
him, "What brought me here? I had no pressing invitation certainly; let me
get back to the Amethyst again!"

Still stronger grew this desire, when one day he overheard his step-
mother say:

"Greville dear, we must not have him with us long—with his sea
manners and ways; his oaths, no doubt, will come in time, and the mode of
treating the servant-maids too; for even they, and the ladies he may meet,
are so different to all he is accustomed to."

"Who sent him to sea?" asked her husband curtly, for her remarks were
alike unjust and untrue; but though they had a circle of rather fashionable
friends now, Derval was conscious that none were invited to meet him; and
thus coldness on the part of those who should have made him welcome,
requests often refused, and lectures from Mrs. Hampton, in a tone unsuited
to a lad past eighteen years, provoked a certain spirit of resistance in
Derval. So far were slights carried, that one day during his father's absence
young Rookleigh was placed at the head of the table. To see a boy of eleven
years of age there, made Derval laugh; but, as Selden says, "you may see by
a straw which way the wind is," and the preference was only a part and
parcel of her whole system.
One morning, shortly before the time for his departure came, there
occurred two events—or one, we should say, as each was but a part of the
other—which gave Derval some food for reflection.

Among the letters for post on the hall-table, he saw one in Mrs.
Hampton's handwriting, addressed to "Reeve Rudderhead, Esq., Mate, Ship
Amethyst, West India Dock, London."

"Who the dickens is he?" thought Derval; "we have no such man, and it
is improbable that there are two ships of the same name in the same dock."

He inquired of Mrs. Hampton who this Rudderhead was.

"He has succeeded Mr. Girtline in your ship."

"As first mate?"

"Yes."

"Who told you of this?"

"My aunt Rookleigh, by letter."

"And about what are you writing to him?" asked Derval, so abruptly or
suspiciously, that she coloured with annoyance and said:

"That is my business; besides, he is my cousin-german, and was an

admirer of mine in my girlish days," she added, and left the room.

Soon after Derval was in the library, penning a letter to Hal Bowline, and
while doing so, the appearance of his own name on the blotting-pad, several
times, in Mrs. Hampton's handwriting, attracted his attention, and very
naturally excited his curiosity. The blotting-paper was new, yellow tinted,
and clean otherwise, and anxious to know in what way she was interested in
his affairs, he deemed himself quite entitled to examine into the matter; and
he could make out, by the address which was thereto, that the fragments he
could decipher were part of his step-mother's letter to her nautical cousin,
Mr. Reeve Rudderhead, and though unconnected, they ran thus:—
"... so Derval, you see, is ... y, and for the old love you bore me ... good
round sum, rid ... him in any way ... lad and evil ... see him no more, again
...."

Derval read these strange fragments between him and the light again and
again, till he fairly committed them to memory. He could not make out the
mystery, or why she should be writing about him in any way. He quite
failed to understand it, nor could he exactly speak of it; but he had good
reason to remember it when several degrees of latitude lay between him and
Finglecombe.

He felt that his visit there had been a mistake; that his father was all but
alienated from him by a step-mother who wickedly hated him; that his step-
brother was a greedy, sullen, and most unlikeable youth. Thus, more than
ever, was his loving heart thrust back upon itself. Why was all this? What
had he done beyond the crime of being the eldest son of his father, that his
own flesh and blood should treat him thus?

He had but one unalloyed satisfaction during his visit. He received the
Albert Medal for saving the life of Lord Oakhampton's daughter, and as he
looked on it, his heart reverted again to the bright little maid in that isle of
"Vexed Bermoothes," and he wished that the Amethyst had been bound for
that region again, instead of Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania as we name it
now.

So the hour of his departure came, and with heedlessness and

mortification curiously mingling in his heart, he once more quitted his
home, on the very day preceding one which Mrs. Hampton had fixed for a
brilliant dinner-party, and when she knew that Derval must, without fail, be
on board his ship.

London: Printed by W. H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, S.W.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DERVAL HAMPTON:
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4 Computer Program for Analysis of Plane Trusses 129

4.6 Calculation of Member Forces and Support Reactions 153

6 Plane Frames 252

7 Member Releases and Secondary Effects 345

8 Three-Dimensional Framed Structures 422

9 Special Topics and Modeling Techniques 504

10 INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 580

Appendix A Computer Software 611

Appendix B Flexibility Method 613

Answers to Selected Problems 622

A NOTE ON THE REVISED EDITION

Riyad S. Aboutaha C. Armando Duarte

Daniel G. Linzell Nima Rahbar

Finally, I would like to express my loving gratitude to my wife, Maureen,

Beijing National Olympic Stadium—Bird’s Nest

Structural analysis, which is an integral part of any structural engineering proj-

1.1 Historical background

but in fact were preferred, because simultaneous equations could be expressed

1.2 Classical, Matrix, and Finite-Element

Matrix versus Finite-Element Methods

1.3 Flexibility and Stiffness Methods

The stiffness method, which originated from the classical slope-deflection

1.4 Classification of Framed Structures

Fig. 1.1 Plane Truss

Fig. 1.2 Roof Truss

Fig. 1.3 Beam

Fig. 1.4 Skeleton of a Structural Steel Frame Building

Fig. 1.5 Plane Frame

Fig. 1.6 A Segment of the Integrated Truss Structure which

Fig. 1.7 Grid

Fig. 1.9 Space Frame

1.5 Analytical Models

In matrix methods of analysis, a structure is modeled as an assemblage of

(a) Plane Truss

1.6 Fundamental Relationships for

These equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium for plane

For a structure subjected to static loading, the equilibrium equations must

Similarly, because the displacements of joint 2 consist of the translations d2 to

Principle of Virtual Work for Rigid Bodies

dWY 5 R2ddY 2 PY ddY 5 (R2 2 PY) ddY 5 _ o F + dd Y Y

dWR 5 R3du 2 PY (L du) 5 (R3 2 PY L) du 5 _ o M➀ + du (1.6)

However, because the beam is in equilibrium, o F X

Principle of Virtual Work for Deformable Bodies

in which F1 and F2 denote the internal (axial) forces in members 1 and 2,

which can be rewritten as

As indicated by Eq. (1.9), the term in parentheses on the right-hand side of

virtual internal work 5 real force 3 virtual displacement

in which dV 5 dx dy dz is the volume of the differential element. Thus, the vir­

1.7 Linear versus Nonlinear Analysis

superposition can be used in the analysis. This principle states essentially

4. Framed structures are composed of straight members whose lengths are

In matrix methods of structural analysis, the fundamental relationships of equi-

2.1 Definition of a Matrix

jth column m3n

2.2 Types of Matrices

Column Matrix (Vector)

Lower Triangular Matrix

Upper Triangular Matrix

Unit or Identity Matrix

­ atrices are commonly denoted by I or [I]. An example of a 3 3 3 unit

4 Computer Program for Analysis of Plane Trusses 129

6 Plane Frames 252

7 Member Releases and Secondary Effects 345

8 Three-Dimensional Framed Structures 422

9 Special Topics and Modeling Techniques 504

10 INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 580

Appendix A Computer Software 611

Appendix B Flexibility Method 613

Answers to Selected Problems 622

1.2 Classical, Matrix, and Finite-Element

1.6 Fundamental Relationships for

dWY 5 R2ddY 2 PY ddY 5 (R2 2 PY) ddY 5 _ o F + dd Y Y

dWR 5 R3du 2 PY (L du) 5 (R3 2 PY L) du 5 _ o M➀ + du (1.6)

in which dV 5 dx dy dz is the volume of the differential element. Thus, the vir

atrices are commonly denoted by I or [I]. An example of a 3 3 3 unit

Cij 5 Ai1B1j 1 Ai2B2j 1 . . . 1 AimBmj (2.5)

A11x1 1 A12x2 1 A13x3 1 A14x4 5 P1

Comparing products AB and BA, we can see that AB ? BA. Ans