PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

• KOHLBERG’S THEORY
Kohlberg's theory refers to Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development, which describe how
people's ability to reason about ethical dilemmas evolves over time. Kohlberg proposed that
individuals progress through a series of stages in their moral reasoning, grouped into three main
levels: Pre-conventional, Conventional, and Post-conventional. Each level is further divided into two
stages, making six stages in total.

Heinz’s story:-

Heinz was a devoted husband whose wife needed an expensive medication to survive. Unable to
afford it, he faced a moral dilemma: should he steal the drug to save her life or obey the law?

After discussing the situation with friends, some encouraged him to steal, while others insisted that
stealing was wrong. Ultimately, Heinz decided to confront the pharmacist but was refused a lower
price. Overwhelmed by desperation and love, he chose to steal the medication, believing that saving
a life justified his actions.

This story illustrates the complexities of moral reasoning and served as the basis for Kohlberg's
theory of moral development, highlighting how individuals justify their decisions based on various
principles.

1. Pre-conventional Level

This level is typical of children but can appear in adults as well. Here, moral reasoning is based on
self-interest and avoiding punishment.
 • Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation

o Right and wrong are determined by what is punished. Children obey authority to
avoid punishment.

• Stage 2: Self-Interest Orientation

o Individuals act based on their self-interest and personal gain. Reciprocity is a central
theme, but it's more about "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours."

2. Conventional Level

At this stage, individuals start to conform to societal rules and expectations. Moral reasoning is
centered on relationships and maintaining social order.

• Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships (Good Boy/Good Girl)

o Moral decisions are based on living up to social expectations and being seen as a
"good" person by others.

• Stage 4: Authority and Social Order Maintaining

o Individuals uphold laws and rules to maintain the order of society, believing that
rules and authority must be respected.

3.Post-conventional Level

• Stage 5: Reject Rigidity of Laws

o In this stage, individuals understand that laws are not absolute or unchangeable.
They reject the idea of rigid adherence to rules and recognize that laws should be
flexible and open to change based on the needs of society. Moral reasoning centers
around the idea that laws should serve the people, and when laws are unjust or
outdated, it is appropriate to challenge or reform them.

• Stage 6: Sense of Justice

o This stage focuses on an individual's strong internalized sense of justice and fairness.
Moral decisions are guided by ethical principles like equality, human dignity, and
respect for individual rights. People in this stage believe in upholding justice, even if
it requires going against laws or societal norms. They act based on universal values
rather than legal constraints, striving to achieve fairness for all individuals.

• GILIGAN’S THEORY

Carol Gilligan's theory is a response to Lawrence Kohlberg’s model of moral development,

emphasizing the role of gender in ethical reasoning. She argued that Kohlberg's stages were
male-centric and did not account for the ways in which women approach moral dilemmas.
According to Gilligan, women tend to view morality through a lens of care and relationships,
rather than justice and rules, which were the focus of Kohlberg's model.
Gilligan proposed a three-stage model of moral development, focusing on an ethic of care:
1. Pre-conventional: Orientation to Individual Survival
• This stage is characterized by self-interest and concern for personal survival. Individuals
make decisions based on what benefits them directly, similar to Kohlberg’s early stages, but
with a focus on self-care.
• Transition: From selfishness to responsibility, recognizing the need to care for others.

2. Conventional: Goodness as Self-Sacrifice

• In this stage, individuals prioritize the needs of others over their own. Moral decisions are
made based on social expectations and the desire to be seen as good by others. Women, in
particular, may equate goodness with selflessness, often sacrificing their own interests for
the benefit of others.
• Transition: From self-sacrifice to recognizing the need for a balance between self-care and
care for others, developing an awareness that both are important.

3. Post-conventional: Morality of Nonviolence

• At this final stage, individuals embrace a principle of nonviolence and understand the
importance of caring for both themselves and others. Moral decisions are guided by a
commitment to avoid harm to anyone, including oneself, and to achieve a balance of care in
relationships.
• The person at this stage values interconnectedness and aims for a moral perspective that
fosters mutual respect and care for all parties.

Key Differences from Kohlberg’s Theory:

• Ethic of Care vs. Ethic of Justice: While Kohlberg’s model emphasizes abstract principles of
justice, Gilligan's theory focuses on relationships, care, and compassion.
• Gender: Gilligan believed women were more likely to consider moral problems in terms of
the impact on relationships, while men might focus more on rules and justice.

• INTEGRITY AND ITS TYPES

Integrity in professional ethics refers to the quality of being honest and having strong moral
principles, along with a commitment to ethical behavior in a professional setting. It involves
acting consistently with ethical values such as honesty, fairness, responsibility, and
trustworthiness, even when it may be difficult or when no one is watching.
Integrity is a core principle of professional ethics across various fields, and it ensures that
professionals uphold public trust and demonstrate a commitment to ethical standards. There
are several types or dimensions of integrity in professional ethics:

1. Moral Integrity

• Moral integrity involves adherence to moral principles such as honesty, fairness, and justice.
It refers to the consistency between an individual’s personal ethical beliefs and their
professional actions.
• Example: A doctor disclosing all relevant risks of a treatment to a patient, even if it might
deter the patient from undergoing the procedure.

2. Intellectual Integrity

Intellectual integrity refers to honesty and rigor in academic, scientific, or intellectual work. It
involves acknowledging one's limitations, being open to new ideas, and avoiding plagiarism
or falsification of data.
• Example: A researcher providing accurate data and crediting all sources of information in a
research paper.

3. Professional Integrity

• Professional integrity refers to upholding the ethical standards, values, and codes of conduct
specific to one’s profession. It is about acting with consistency, reliability, and accountability
within a professional role.
• Example: A lawyer maintaining client confidentiality, even when pressured to reveal
information.

4. Personal Integrity

• Personal integrity involves staying true to one’s ethical principles and values in all situations,
both personal and professional. It’s about being consistent in behavior, regardless of
circumstances or context.
• Example: A manager treating employees fairly and respectfully both in the workplace and
outside, showing consistent character.

5. Data Integrity

• Data integrity refers to the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of data, particularly in
professions involving information management, research, or technology.
• Example: An IT professional ensuring the secure handling of sensitive customer information,
without tampering or unauthorized access.

6. Organizational Integrity

• Organizational integrity relates to the collective ethical standards and behavior of an

organization. It requires an organization to maintain consistency between its stated ethical
values and the actions of its employees and leadership.
• Example: A company refusing to engage in false advertising or misleading its customers
about product safety.

7. Financial Integrity

• Financial integrity refers to the ethical handling of financial transactions, resources, and
accounting practices. It involves honesty and transparency in all financial dealings.
• Example: An accountant providing truthful financial reports and not manipulating numbers
to benefit a client or employer.
• MORALITY, VALUES AND ETHICS

Morality Values Ethics

Refers to beliefs about what Refers to personal Refers to systematic rules or
is right and wrong behavior. principles or standards that guidelines for conduct, often
are important. within a professional or
societal context.
Shaped by culture, religion, Unique to each individual Applies universally within
or society. and can vary widely. specific professions,
organizations, or
philosophical frameworks
Example 1: Not lying Example 1: Valuing honesty Example 1: Following a
because it's considered as an important personal professional code of ethics
morally wrong by society. trait. in medicine or law.
Example 2: Helping others Example 2: Valuing hard Example 2: Adhering to
in need because it’s morally work as a key to success. confidentiality rules in legal
right. or business contexts.

• TYPES OF ETHICS

1. Normative Ethics
• Focus: What people should do.
• Example: You find a wallet and return it, because honesty is the right thing to do.

2. Applied Ethics
• Focus: Ethics in specific fields like medicine or technology.
• Example: A tech company asks you to build invasive software, but you refuse, valuing user
privacy.

3. Descriptive Ethics
• Focus: Observing what people actually do, without judgment.
• Example: Noticing that people remove shoes before entering homes in a culture, but not
judging whether it's right or wrong.

4. Meta-Ethics
• Focus: The nature of morality itself (what “good” or “bad” means).
• Example: Asking, “What makes an action morally right?”
Each type guides ethical decisions from different perspectives!

• RELATION BETWEEN HONESTY AND COURAGE

The relationship between honesty and courage is deeply interconnected, as being honest
often requires courage in difficult situations.
1. Honesty involves telling the truth and being transparent, even when it might lead to negative
consequences like criticism, conflict, or disapproval.
2. Courage is the ability to face fear, challenges, or discomfort to do what’s right, even when it’s
difficult.
How They Relate:
• Being honest takes courage: It requires bravery to speak the truth, especially when it's
unpopular, uncomfortable, or may result in personal loss.
• Courage supports honesty: Without the courage to face potential backlash or hardship, a
person may avoid being honest.
Example:
Imagine admitting a mistake at work that could affect your reputation. Honesty compels you
to own up to it, but courage gives you the strength to face the consequences.
In short, honesty often depends on courage to be upheld, and courage is reinforced by the
moral value of honesty.

• TYPES OF VIRTUES

1. Cardinal Virtues
• Prudence: Making wise decisions.
o Example: A student studies for an exam instead of partying.
• Justice: Treating others fairly.
o Example: A manager ensures equal pay for equal work.
• Fortitude: Courage in facing challenges.
o Example: A whistleblower exposes wrongdoing despite risks.
• Temperance: Moderation in desires.
o Example: Limiting sweets to maintain health.

2. Theological Virtues
• Faith: Trust in a higher power.
o Example: Praying during tough times.
• Hope: Expectation of positive outcomes.
o Example: Staying optimistic during recovery.
• Charity (Love): Selfless concern for others.
o Example: Volunteering at a shelter.

3. Moral Virtues
• Honesty: Being truthful.
o Example: A salesperson discloses all product information.
• Compassion: Empathy for others.
o Example: Supporting a friend in need.
• Courage: Standing up for what’s right.
o Example: Speaking out against bullying.

4. Civic Virtues
• Public-spiritedness: Commitment to the common good.
o Example: Participating in community clean-ups.
• Responsibility: Being accountable for actions.
o Example: Voting and staying informed on issues.
• Respect: Treating others with dignity.
o Example: Engaging in civil discussions with differing opinions.