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04/28/2020 - tp-00adc5be-8926-11ea-bd01-024 (temp temp) - Critical Thinking Skills
 12 Critical reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Applying critical thinking when
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 looking for a job. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
What is critical reflection? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Critical consideration of the ‘best fit’
Why engage in critical reflection?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 jobs for you. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Decide your approach and purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Use the clues: Information provided by
Approach: Outcome, focus, model, method. . . . 192 employers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Approach: Method and audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Where do job applicants go wrong?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Approach: Relating experience and theory . . . . . . 194 Where job applicants go wrong: Examples. . . . . . 222
Decide your approach: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Employer demand for critical thinking skills . . . . . 223
Resource: Outline approach to reflection . . . . . . . . 196 How critical thinking skills are useful in
Reflection phases 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 work roles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Examples of phase 1 reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Demonstrating critical thinking to employers. . . 225
Examples of phase 2 reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Critical self-evaluation of job applications:
Models of reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Deciding on your model for reflection . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
The Core Model for critical reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Applying reflection to professional practice . . . . . 205 Texts for Activities in Chapters
Reflection and professional judgement. . . . . . . . . . . 206 8, 9 and 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Good and bad critical reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Presenting your reflection to others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Practice activities on longer texts . . . . . . 235

13 Critical thinking for your future

career and employability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Appendix: Selected search engines
and databases for online literature
Thinking critically about your life and searches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
career planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Self-evaluation: Thinking critically Answers to activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
about your career path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Thinking critically about your career:
Taking action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

 Contents vii

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 Introduction

Building our ‘critical muscle’

Nobody is an absolute beginner when it comes to recheck every detail. We have to decide
to critical thinking. Our most everyday activities how much information is really required and
require us to make use of some of the basic skills what level of doubt is acceptable for each new
involved in critical thinking, such as: circumstance. The levels and types of knowledge
we need vary depending on the task, such as
••working out whether we believe what we see or whether we are simply switching on a light,
hear;
inventing a new form of electrical circuit or
••taking steps to find out whether something is treating someone for electrocution. Similarly,
likely to be true;
critical thinking involves:
••arguing our own case if someone doesn’t believe
us. ••identifying correctly when we need to gain more
information;
However, just because we can think critically,
this doesn’t mean we always do, or that we do ••selecting effectively the right type and level of
information for the purpose;
it well. This is to be expected, as we don’t need
to employ the same level of critical thinking for ••the appropriate level of critical analysis to use in
the specific circumstances.
everything we do.
This book helps you to build on your existing skills,
For everyday activities, we take a certain
to develop your ‘critical muscle’.
amount on trust, and this saves us from having

not demonstrating much criticality….

viii Introduction

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 Do critical thinking skills matter?

The value of critical thinking skills

Critical thinking abilities are essential – at every age, for everyone, in all contexts, in every aspect of life.
Applying critical thinking skills even in everyday situations reaps all kinds of benefits.

Making good decisions For sharpening awareness

about a purchase or and attention – so you notice
For making a sound appraisal
business transaction. things that really matter.
of issues and problems, and of
potential solutions to these.

Interpreting correctly the Being more conscious of the

Being more aware of
requirements of terms and conditions consequences of your own actions –
the world around you.
(‘small print’) before agreeing to and those of other people.
downloads or signing a document.

It is rewarding to refine your thinking skills – and Success in most professions requires good critical
the benefits can be unexpected. For example, you thinking skills. Academic study also requires
may find you are: increasingly sophisticated levels of critical analysis
at every level of study. Whether for work or for
••absorbing more when watching videos or study, you may be expected to apply critical
reading; thinking to:
••better at telling when other people are being
inconsistent or jumping to conclusions; ••what you hear, see, and do;
••quicker at spotting alternative interpretations to ••the material you read;
issues, stories and case histories; ••how you interpret new situations and events;
••faster and clearer in forming an opinion on ••what you write, say or present to other people;
issues. ••your own learning and professional practice.
 Do critical thinking skills matter? ix

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 About this book

Aims of this book ••recognise the arguments of specialist authors;

This book aims to help readers develop an
••locate arguments in key texts with greater
speed;
understanding of what is meant by critical thinking
and to develop their own reasoning skills. These
••engage in dialogue with the arguments used by
both experts and their peers;
skills are essential to those progressing to higher
levels of academic study, whether at advanced or
••produce better critical, analytical writing of their
own for marked assignments;
degree level. However, the underlying concepts
are useful to anyone who wishes to:
••recognise the difference between critical analysis
and other kinds of writing, such as description.
••understand the concepts used in critical
thinking; Using activities in this book
••develop clearer thinking; Critical thinking is an activity. It isn’t sufficient to
••interpret and produce arguments more read about it: it has to be practised. The book
effectively;
offers activities to apply the concepts it introduces
••be more observant of what they see and hear. and to practise new skills. It may be that, after
This book focuses mainly on aspects of critical completing one or two of the activities that
thinking that can be applied to work and study, accompany a new concept, you find that aspect
and which help individuals to think about how they very easy. If so, move on to the next aspect.
think. It is not intended to be an advanced study of However, many people find some or all aspects
abstract reasoning or logic. For these, the reader is of critical thinking to be difficult at first. If this is
referred to works such as A. Garnham and J. Oakhill true of you, be reassured that this way of thinking
(1994), Thinking and Reasoning, and A. Fisher (2004), becomes easier with practice.
The Logic of Real Arguments. Rather, the purpose of
The answers pages do not simply provide a correct
this book is to focus on the basics of clear thinking.
answer: they also explain the reasons behind the
For those new to critical thinking answers so as to develop further the concept that
has been practised. Reading through these should
The book will assist you in practical ways such as
help you to clarify your understanding about that
helping you to:
aspect of critical thinking.
••recognise and understand the technical terms in A wide range of topics is used as examples
critical thinking so you know what other people
and as practice material. You do not need any
are referring to when they mention these, and
background knowledge of the subjects covered in
so you can apply them yourself as relevant;
these. It is possible to do all the activities no matter
••build confidence in your own ability to apply what your subject discipline or area of interest. The
critical thinking techniques;
activities require you only to apply critical thinking
••examine closely the opinions, views and to the material provided.
arguments presented by other people;
••challenge other people’s views from an informed Companion website materials
perspective when this is appropriate.
A companion website has been created to assist
For students your use of the material in this book. This includes
Students will find the book particularly useful in templates of some of the questionnaires, and longer
developing the ability to: texts which support activities. Look for the icon to

x About this book © Stellla Cottrell (2005, 2011, 2017) Critical Thinking Skills, Palgrave

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 see which material is available online. You might also media, whether written, audio or televisual.
like to browse the site to see what is available for you However, in order to simplify the text, the terms
there at www.palgravehighered.com/cts3e. ‘author’ and ‘audience’ are used throughout,
irrespective of the type of media.
Passages used in the book Author
All of the passages in the book have been specially This refers to the person who creates the message,
designed to illustrate the key points of each whether this is written, spoken or delivered
chapter and to provide appropriate practice through another medium. It doesn’t necessarily
material. They draw on a range of different mean the ‘author’ of a book.
academic disciplines but are written in such a
way that you do not need to be an expert in the Audience
subject to understand the material. This refers to whoever receives the message,
None of the passages in this book is reproduced whether through conversation, books, television,
from any other text. However, some draw on the video downloads and/or podcasts, or other
writing of others for background information. medium. The audience, in this respect, may be a
Where this is the case, details of the original source viewer, a reader, a listener, or an observer.
are given at the end of the chapter to enable you Glossary
to follow up subjects that interest you.
A glossary of technical terms used in critical
thinking is provided on page xiv.
Purpose of short and longer
passages Contents of the chapters
For the main body of the book, especially the The book is organised to help you build your
early chapters, the passages are short in order to skills in critical thinking, starting from a basic
introduce new learning points and to give you understanding of what critical thinking is, through
the opportunity for quick practice in applying to applying techniques and strategies when
these. Usually, at least three examples of each reading and producing your own critical writing.
learning point are provided, as that is regarded as
Chapter 1 introduces critical thinking, looking
the minimum number of practice tries required in
at the range of underlying skills and attitudes
order to anchor new learning into memory.
associated with critical thinking, and why it is
In articles, books and other source material, the beneficial to develop critical thinking skills. It
learning points will not always be as apparent as emphasises the importance of self-awareness as
in the short passages provided here in the early an aspect of making accurate judgements and
chapters. It is important to develop the ability bringing suitable objectivity to critical reasoning.
to apply critical awareness when reading longer
texts. For these, you will need to balance different Many people find critical thinking to be a
perspectives and weigh up material from a range challenging activity when they first begin. The
of sources, synthesising the material to form your chapter looks at the barriers that might prevent you
own judgements. from developing critical thinking skills and ways of
overcoming these. You are invited to evaluate your
Longer practice passages are provided in Chapters current skills in order to focus on those aspects of
4 and 11, and in the practice section towards the the book that are the most useful for you.
end of the book. These enable you to work on
several aspects of critical thinking simultaneously, Chapter 2 looks at important sub-skills of critical
and are also available on the companion website, thinking skills such as focusing your attention, identi­
at www.palgravehighered.com/cts3e. fying similarities and differences, sequencing,
categorising, and close reading. These are skills that
underlie more advanced critical thinking as well as
Terminology: Author and audience personal management skills, so improving these can
The different aspects of critical thinking covered benefit many aspects of academic work and personal
in this book can be applied to material in varied and working life. The chapter provides an opportunity

 Do critical thinking skills matter? xi

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 for you to evaluate your skills and then to practise Chapter 6 focuses on ‘reading between the
those aspects which need further development. lines’, identifying aspects of the author’s position
and argument that are not directly stated. These
Chapter 3 ‘What’s their point?’, introduces include underlying assumptions and ‘implicit
argument as a central aspect of critical reading. arguments’. The chapter also looks at what is
It identifies the main features and components of meant by the ‘premises’ on which arguments
arguments within critical thinking, and provides are predicated and at identifying ‘false premises’.
practice in identifying these different elements. Finally, it examines what is meant by denoted
This is useful in helping you to find the most and connoted meanings, and the importance
significant passages in your specialist texts, and to of identifying hidden connotations within an
do so more quickly. argument.

Chapter 4 builds on the previous chapter, Chapter 7 provides a different perspective on

looking at the differences between critical evaluating an argument, this time focusing on
arguments and other types of writing that may flaws within the reasoning. It looks at confusions
appear to be arguments, such as disagreements. that are made between cause and effect, and
It also looks at how, when reading, to distinguish introduces the concept of ‘meeting necessary
critical argument from summaries, explanations and sufficient conditions’. It also introduces the
and descriptions. As arguments can become lost most common types of flawed argument, such as
within other details, this chapter gives practice false analogies, unfair use of emotive language,
in identifying more easily the material relevant tautology, and misrepresentation.
to the main argument. Such skills are also useful
for improving reading speed and accuracy and in Chapter 8 focuses on finding and evaluating
helping you to identify whether your own writing sources of evidence to support an argument. It
has a sufficiently critical focus. examines the difference between primary and
secondary sources, looks at how to conduct
Chapter 5 focuses on the quality of reasoning. a literature search, and provides criteria for
It gives you practice in evaluating how well evaluating and selecting different kinds of
authors present their arguments in terms of evidence. Concepts such as authenticity, validity,
structure, logical order, internal consistency, currency and reliability are introduced. The
the way in which reasons are used to support chapter also looks at a range of methods used to
each other, and the use of interim conclusions. ensure the evidence is robust, such as checking
Understanding the structure of an argument for representative sample sizes and levels of
is beneficial both in making reading faster and probability, and triangulating evidence.
more effective, and in structuring your own
arguments. Chapter 9 looks at specific ways of applying
critical thinking to reading and note-making,
Chapters 6 and 7 develop skills in analysing such as orientating to the task of critical reading,
the details of an argument. These skills help you making accurate interpretations, and categorising
to read texts and interpret arguments at a deeper and selecting material in order to make the process
rather than a superficial level. This is especially of reading and note-making more effective. It
important for evaluating academic arguments or, examines the relationship of theory to argument,
for example, checking that you understand the and looks at ways of categorising theories in order
implications of contracts in the workplace or the to ease comparison between different arguments.
nuances of political arguments used at election The chapter also emphasises the importance of
time. As you develop these skills, you will be better noting the sources of evidence, as an essential
able to engage in debating the issues raised by aspect of critical note-making.
experts or by specialist authors, checking whether
they are consistent in what they are saying and The next two chapters focus on the application of
whether their arguments contain flaws that are not critical thinking to the act of writing.
immediately obvious.

xii Do critical thinking skills matter?

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 Chapter 10 looks at characteristics of critical
Critical reflection
writing, and especially the importance of maintaining
a focus on your potential readers, setting the scene As with all academic work and professional
for them. It gives details about how to use language good practice, you will benefit from reflecting
to structure and signpost arguments so that the upon the points raised in each chapter and,
reader is clear about which stage of the argument is in particular, your own current ways of
being presented and the direction of your argument. approaching these. Some chapters provide
Critical writing uses tentative language to express prompts to assist such reflection.
conclusions and this is also examined. The chapter
You are likely to gain more from using the book
looks specifically at how students can apply what
if, as you work through a section, you pause
they have learnt about critical thinking to each stage
to consider from time to time how that aspect
of writing their own essays.
of critical awareness would benefit your own
study, writing or professional work.
Chapter 11 provides an opportunity to evaluate
two critical essays. The emphasis in this chapter It is well worth taking such time to pause and
is not on identifying and evaluating arguments, consider the implications of the key points
but rather on evaluating longer texts as pieces in order to help you see the significance and
of critical writing. The two essays differ in how relevance of the materials and critical strategies
effective they are at applying the conventions to your own work or study.
required for critical, analytical writing. Checklists
and commentaries are provided to help you
approach the task and to evaluate your responses.
A further checklist is provided as an optional tool Using critical reflection
for you to use, or adapt, to evaluate your own
critical writing. Additional practice activities are At various points in the text, you are
10° rotation
provided on the companion website at encouraged to pause and reflect on a particular
www.palgravehighered.com/cts3e. point. You may find it is beneficial to jot down
your thoughts as this can help you to formulate
Chapter 12 looks at critical thinking from a and clarify your thinking. It is useful to have a
different perspective. Critical reflection is used, light notebook for your reflective activity, or to
increasingly, within professional practice and set up a folder or a notes page for this purpose
for student assignments. The chapter provides on your device.
practical means of addressing this challenging
form of critical activity, taking you through the
steps of planning your reflection, relating personal
experience to theory and practice in a critical way,
and presenting these skilfully for assessment.

Chapter 13 is about applying critical thinking

skills when looking for work and applying for jobs.
It looks at the different ways that critical thinking
is relevant to your career path, from the way you
consider your options, through to making a critical
evaluation of your own job applications so that
these give you the best chance of success. The
chapter looks at employers’ need for employees
who can apply critical abilities, and at where job
applicants go wrong in failing to demonstrate such
skills.

 Do critical thinking skills matter? xiii

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 Glossary

When we discuss arguments, a number of specific Nothing then contradicts or undermines the
terms are sometimes employed. Some that are main message. An argument may be internally
useful to know in the initial stages of learning consistent but still be inconsistent in other
about critical thinking are listed below. respects, such as not being consistent with the
evidence or with the opinions of experts in the
Argument   Using reasons to support a point
field.
of view, so that known or unknown audiences
may be persuaded to agree. An argument may Consistency – logical consistency  An argument
include disagreement, but is more than simply is logically consistent when the reasons are
disagreement if it is based on reasons. provided in a logical manner – that is, in the best
order, with each linked to previous or following
Argument – the overall argument  The overall
arguments so as to build up a case. A logically
argument presents the author’s position. It is
consistent argument will be internally consistent.
composed of contributing arguments, or reasons.
In a logically consistent argument, the reasons
The term ‘line of reasoning’ is used to refer to a set
support the conclusion.
of reasons, or contributing arguments, structured
to support the overall argument. Discursive   Discursive writing develops and
elaborates an argument, moving successively from
Arguments – contributing arguments  Individual
one point to the next in a given direction, towards
reasons are referred to as arguments or ‘contributing
conclusions. It does this in a thoughtful way that
arguments’.
engages critically with the evidence base and the
Assertions   Statements which are made without theories and arguments of others, drawing out
providing any supporting evidence or justification. implications and significance.
These may turn out to be true or untrue.
Line of reasoning   The line of reasoning is
Conclusion   Reasoning should lead towards an established through the order in which reasons
end point, which is the conclusion. The conclusion and evidence are presented. This order should
should normally relate closely to the author’s main make it clear to the reader how the argument is
position. In critical thinking, a conclusion is usually to be interpreted and what the structure of the
a deduction drawn from the reasons, or evidence. argument is. The line of reasoning should lead
The final section of an essay is also referred to as the forwards with a clear direction, with one piece of
conclusion. This is examined in detail on page 166. reasoning leading in an obvious way to the next,
rather than hopping from one point to another in
Conclusion – intermediate conclusions  The
a random way, or leading the audience round in
author may draw interim conclusions during the
circles.
course of an argument, before arriving at final
conclusions. Each interim conclusion is based on Logical order   Good arguments present
only some of the evidence or a particular set of reasons and evidence in a structured way, so that
reasons. These intermediate conclusions may be information builds on what has already been said.
used to provide evidence, or to serve as reasons, in See ‘line of reasoning’.
the next stage of the argument.
Position   A point of view, supported by
Consistency – internal consistency  An reasoning.
argument is internally consistent when all parts of
Predicate   The foundation of the argument; the
the line of reasoning contribute to the conclusion.
aims of the argument; an underlying point of

xiv Glossary

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 view; the assumption that underlies the argument.
Example of key terms used together
For example: the argument was predicated on a
Marxist interpretation of wealth; the programme was ••Proposition 1: One of the expedition team is
predicated on the assumption that the prisoner was suspected of having pneumonia.
innocent. ••Proposition 2: A serious storm has been
predicted in the area.
Premises   Propositions believed to be true and
used as the bases for the argument; the basic ••Proposition 3: The mountainside can be
dangerous during some storms.
building blocks for the argument – that is, the
reasons for believing that the conclusion is true. ••Proposition 4: Some members of the team
are not familiar with the area or with
Premises that are not well founded are referred to
mountaineering.
as false premises.
••Conclusion: It isn’t a good moment to launch
Propositions   Statements believed to be true an expedition into the mountains.
and presented as arguments or reasons for
consideration by the audience. A proposition may Premises
turn out to be true or false. It is not a good time for the expedition to go
Reasons   Contributing arguments put forward to into the mountains as a storm is expected and
support the overall argument or line of reasoning. some of the team may not have the health or
experience to cope with this.
Reasons – independent reasons  The author
may use several reasons to support the conclusion, False premises
each of which may be valid in its own right but The argument against launching the expedition
may have nothing to do with the other reasons sounds convincing. However, it could be based
given. on false premises: a storm may not be due, the
Reasons – joint reasons   Reasons provided to dangers might be exaggerated, or the team
support an argument when they are connected in may be more experienced than described, or
some way and mutually reinforce each other. the team member may have only a minor cold.
In that case, the argument against launching the
Salience   ‘Salient’ simply means ‘relevant to the expedition would be based on false premises.
argument’.
Predicate
Substantive point   The central point that is
being made, or the core of the argument. This The argument against the expedition is
expression is used to focus attention on the main predicated on an assumption that the safety
point, especially if an argument has been diverted of the team should take priority over the
towards more minor issues and when the key requirements of the expedition.
message is becoming obscured.
Salience
Tautology   Unnecessary repetition, when the The question of safety is salient to the debate
author makes the same point but in different about whether to launch the expedition. Other
words. For example, in poor arguments, a things may not be salient to that argument. For
tautology may be used to make it appear as if example, the facts that a team member was
there are two reasons to support a conclusion, good at sports at school 20 years ago, or had
when the first reason has merely been reproduced hiccups yesterday, are probably not salient to
in a different way. the discussion.

 Glossary xv

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 Acknowledgements

I would like to convey my thanks, here, to the examples that have relevance to readers from
many people whose thoughts, reflections, different backgrounds. Where this has been
feedback and work has contributed to this edition. used as background reading, it is acknowledged
in the end of the relevant chapter or in the
First of all, I offer many thanks to all those students
bibliography.
who, through study skills sessions, emails, workshops
and conversations talked about what they found I am grateful to students who have given
challenging about critical thinking and what helped permission for their work to be used, especially
them to make sense of what was involved. For Charlotte French and Sophie Kahn for extracts
many, talking about what they found difficult was a from their reflective journals, project summaries
brave act of critical self-evaluation. I hope that their and project rationales whilst students at the
courage, openness and efforts may also help others, University of Leeds. I also thank Jacqui Ambler for
especially those who find the mysterious words her work on student projects and the reflections
‘more critical analysis needed’ in the feedback on she brought to my attention.
their work and are unsure what is expected.
As always, I am immensely grateful to the staff at
Secondly, I am grateful to all those lecturers and Palgrave who keep a sharp eye on the currency
teachers who took the trouble to point out to their of the material, collect invaluable feedback from
students that they needed to improve their critical teaching staff and students, and who work so hard
and analytical abilities and pointed them in the to draw together the various aspects of the book.
direction of help. I am grateful to Helen Caunce, Georgia Walters,
Olivia Lynch and Ann Edmondson.
Thirdly, I thank the readers of the first two editions
and early drafts of each edition for their excellent A very special thank you to Suzannah Burywood
suggestions. Any remaining weaknesses and errors and Claire Dorer who are immense sources of
are my own. inspiration and motivation, and without whom this
book would not have happened.
I have drawn in general terms on the research
from a wide range of disciplines in developing

xvi Acknowledgements

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 Chapter 1
What is critical thinking?
Learning outcomes

This chapter gives you opportunities to:

••understand what critical thinking is

••recognise some of the benefits associated with critical thinking skills
••recognise the personal qualities associated with critical thinking
••recognise barriers to the development of good critical thinking skills
••assess your current understanding of critical thinking and identify your priorities
for improvement

Introduction
This chapter provides a general orientation to You are invited to consider, in this chapter, how far
critical thinking. It examines what is meant by such barriers could be affecting your own thinking
‘critical thinking’, the skills associated with it, and abilities and how you will manage these.
the barriers that can hinder effective development
of critical approaches. Many people can find it
difficult to order their thoughts in a logical,
consistent and reasoned way. This book
starts from the premise that skills
in reasoning can be developed
through a better understanding of
what critical thinking entails, and
by practice. What did
my mom say
Critical thinking is a cognitive
about no such
activity, associated with using the Yay! thing as a free
mind. Learning to think in critically Food lunch?
analytical and evaluative ways
means using mental processes such as
attention, categorisation, selection and
judgement. However, many people
who have the potential to develop
more effective critical thinking can be
prevented from doing so for a variety
of reasons apart from a lack of ability.
In particular, personal and emotional, or
‘affective’, reasons can create barriers.

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 What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking gives you the tools to use

Critical thinking as a process
scepticism and doubt constructively so that you
Critical thinking is a complex process of can analyse what is before you. It helps you to
deliberation which involves a wide range of skills make better and more informed decisions about
and attitudes. It includes: whether something is likely to be true, effective or
productive. Ultimately, in order to function in the
••identifying other people’s positions, arguments world, we have to accept the probability that at
and conclusions;
least some things are as they seem. This requires
••evaluating the evidence for alternative points trust. If we can analyse clearly the basis of what we
of view; take as true, we are more able to discern when it is
••weighing up opposing arguments and evidence reasonable to be trusting and where it is useful to
fairly; be sceptical.
••being able to read between the lines, seeing
behind surfaces, and identifying false or unfair Method rather than personality trait
assumptions;
Some people seem to be more naturally sceptical
••recognising techniques used to make certain whilst others find it easier to be trusting. These
positions more appealing than others, such as differences may be because of past experiences
false logic and persuasive devices; or personality traits. However, critical thinking is
••reflecting on issues in a structured way, not about natural traits or personality; it is about a
bringing logic and insight to bear; certain set of methods aimed at exploring evidence
••drawing conclusions about whether arguments in a particular way. Sceptical people can require
are valid and justifiable, based on good structured approaches that help them to trust in
evidence and sensible assumptions; the probability of an outcome, just as those who
••synthesising information: drawing together are more trusting require methods to help them
your judgements of the evidence, synthesising use doubt constructively.
these to form your own new position;
••presenting a point of view in a structured, Critical thinking and argument
clear, well-reasoned way that convinces
others. The focus of critical thinking is often referred
to as the ‘argument’. Chapter 3 identifies the
features of an argument in critical thinking. The
argument can be thought of as the message that
Scepticism and trust is being conveyed, whether through speech,
Ennis (1987) identified a range of dispositions and writing, performance or other media. Critical
abilities associated with critical thinking. These thinking helps you to identify the obvious and
focused on: the hidden messages more accurately, and to
understand the process by which an argument is
••the ability to reflect sceptically; constructed.
••the ability to think in a reasoned way.
Scepticism in critical thinking means bringing an
element of polite doubt. In this context, scepticism
doesn’t mean you must go through life never
believing anything you hear and see. That would
not be helpful. It does mean holding open the
possibility that what you know at a given time may
be only part of the picture.

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 Reasoning

Knowing our own reasons Critical analysis of other people’s

Critical thinking is associated with reasoning or reasoning
with our capacity for rational thought. The word
Critical reasoning usually involves considering
‘rational’ means ‘using reasons’ to solve problems.
other people’s reasoning. This requires the skill
Reasoning starts with ourselves. It includes:
of grasping an overall argument, but also skills in
••having reasons for what we believe and do, and analysing and evaluating it in detail.
being aware of what these are;
••critically evaluating our own beliefs and actions; Critical analysis of other people’s
••being able to present to others the reasons for reasons can involve:
our beliefs and actions.
This may sound easy, as we all assume we know what ••identifying their reasons and conclusions;
we believe and why. However, sometimes, when we ••analysing how they select, combine and order
are challenged on why we believe that something is reasons to construct a line of reasoning;
true, it becomes obvious to us that we haven’t really ••evaluating whether their reasons support the
thought through whether what we have seen or conclusions they draw;
heard is the whole story or is just one point of view.
There are also likely to be occasions when we find we
••evaluating whether their reasons are well
founded, based on good evidence;
are not sure what we consider to be the right course
of action or a correct interpretation.
••identifying flaws in their reasoning.
It is important to examine the basis of our own
beliefs and reasoning, as these will be the main Constructing and presenting
vantage points from which we begin any critical reasons
analysis. Reasoning involves analysing evidence and
drawing conclusions from it. The evidence may
then be presented to support the conclusion. For
Challenging our own assumptions example, we may consider that it is a cold day.
Our brains like to assume that they are right. Someone who disagrees may ask why we believe
Research has shown that we are wired to make this. We may use evidence such as a thermometer
quick assumptions – to take the easiest route reading and observation of weather conditions.
to jump to the most likely conclusion rather Our reasons may be that the temperature is low
than to slow down and examine our reasoning and there is ice on the ground.
(Kahneman, 2011). This means we can easily We use basic examples of reasoning such as this
miss essential information and omit relevant every day. For professional and academic work, we
considerations. are usually required to present our reasoning using
Focusing on our reasons, and examining the formal structures such as essays, or reports with
foundations of these systematically, can help us recommendations. This requires additional skills
uncover our assumptions. When we are more such as knowing how to:
aware of these, we can test them out, too, in a ••select and structure reasons to support a
systematic way. conclusion;
••present an argument in a consistent way;
••use logical order;
••use language effectively to present the line of
reasoning.

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 Why do critical thinking skills matter?

Sharpening our minds

As we have seen, we often assume that we have All my own work!
the full story, the right answer, or the best solution
when that is not the case. It is easy to slip into
simply repeating something we have heard, or
describing what we have read, without much
thought. We may consider that we are using
critical skills when we are merely stating what we
believe to be self-obviously true.
Such thinking leads to mistakes, weak
understandings, unconscious bias, unfairness,
and errors of judgement. Most of these won’t
be significant, but some could have serious
consequences. Critical awareness sharpens our
minds so that we are better able to identify where Your annual self-appraisal says you
we need to slow down and apply more systematic have excellent skills in construction,
critiques of our thinking processes and actions. marketing skills and self-presentation.
Fortunately for you, my poor critical
thinking skills force me to agree.
For academic and professional life
Advances in knowledge and professional
practice are made through recognising where Benefits of good critical abilities
improvements can be made to what has gone
before. This involves being able to break down 1 Ability to spot your own and other people’s
existing understandings and practice into their assumptions.
component parts, such as what are assumed to be 2 Ability to spot inconsistencies and potential
facts, or good evidence, or sound methods, or the errors that merit further investigation.
assumptions made about how different pieces of
3 Ability to make fair, sound decisions.
information are connected.
4 Less likelihood of being misled or cheated.
Academic study and research-based enquiry 5 Ability to notice what is relevant and
require us to slow down our processing of significant – so saving time and effort.
information. The methodologies used for
6 Ability to bring greater accuracy and
conducting research, and the feedback received
precision to different parts of a task.
from peers, help in identifying flaws in the way
7 Clearer thinking and communication.
we arrive at conclusions. That has an impact on
the speed, accuracy, efficiency, and fairness of our 8 Better problem-solving skills, such as in
thoughts and actions. identifying where improvements could be
made and evaluating potential solutions.
9 Ability to take a systematic approach, to
Realistic self-appraisal ensure essentials are not overlooked.
Good critical thinking skills, if applied well, can 10 Greater speed and accuracy in analysing
help us to make much more realistic and accurate complex information.
appraisals of our own abilities, interests and 11 Confidence in taking on more complex
thinking processes. This is useful in helping us to problems and challenges.
make decisions about where to focus our energies
12 Possibility of seeing the world through
when looking for work, pursuing further training,
different eyes – with sharper awareness.
or making life choices.

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 Underlying skills and attitudes

Critical thinking rarely takes place in a vacuum.

Perseverance, accuracy and precision
Higher-level critical thinking skills usually require
some or all of the skills and attitudes listed Critical thinking involves accuracy and precision
below. and this can require dedication to finding the right
answer. It includes:

Underlying thinking skills ••Attention to detail: taking the time to note small
clues that throw greater light on the overall issue.
Critical thinking assumes abilities in a range of skills ••Identifying trends and patterns: this may be
such as categorising, selection and differentiation, through careful mapping of information, analysis
comparing and contrasting. These skills are of data, or identifying repetition and similarity.
examined in Chapter 2.
••Repetition: going back over the same ground several
times to check that nothing has been missed.

Knowledge and research ••Taking different perspectives: looking at the same

information from several points of view.
Good critical thinkers can often detect a ••Objectivity: putting your own likes, beliefs and
poor argument without a good knowledge interests to one side with the aim of gaining the
of the subject. However, critical thinking most accurate outcome or a deeper understanding.
usually benefits from background research.
Finding out more about a subject helps
••Considering implications and distant consequences:
what appears to be a good idea in the short
you to make a more informed judgement term, for example, might have long-term effects
about whether relevant facts, alternative that are less desirable.
explanations and options have been covered
sufficiently.

Reflection: Emotional self-

Emotional self-management management
Critical thinking sounds like a dispassionate process 10° rotation
but it can engage emotions and even passionate For me, the emotions that are most difficult to
responses. This should not surprise us when we manage when others disagree with me are:
consider that reasoning requires us to decide
between opposing points of view. In particular,
we may not like evidence that contradicts our
own opinions or beliefs. If the evidence points in a
direction that is unexpected and challenging, that
can rouse unexpected feelings of anger, frustration
or anxiety.
The academic world traditionally likes to I deal with these by:
consider itself as logical and immune to
emotions, so if feelings do emerge, this can
be especially difficult. Being able to manage
your emotions under such circumstances
is a useful skill. If you can remain calm, and
present your reasons logically, you will be
better able to argue your point of view in a
convincing way.

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 Self-awareness for accurate judgement

Good critical thinking involves making accurate Becoming more self-aware takes courage. It can
judgements. We noted above that our thinking be unsettling to find out things about ourselves
might not be accurate if we are not fully aware of we didn’t know, as most of us like to think we
the influences that affect it. These can include such know ourselves very well. It is also challenging to
things as our own assumptions, preconceptions, question our belief systems. We think of these as
bias, dislikes, beliefs, things we take for granted part of our identity and it can be unsettling if we
as normal and acceptable, and all those things feel our identity is called into question.
about our selves and our world that we have never
Furthermore, the result of your critical thinking
questioned.
might place you in a minority amongst your
People who are outstanding at critical thinking friends, family or colleagues. Nobody else might
tend to be particularly self-aware. They reflect interpret the evidence in the same way as you. It
upon and evaluate their personal motivations, takes courage to argue an alternative point of view,
interests, prejudices, expertise and gaps in their especially when it is possible that you might be
knowledge. They question their own point of view wrong.
and check the evidence used to support it.

Reflection: Challenging
Reflection: Influences opinions
on my thinking 10° rotation
For me, the things I find most difficult about
10° rotation
For me, the influences on my own thinking challenging the opinions of other people are:
that I need to be most aware of so they don’t
prejudice my thinking are:

I will deal with these by: I deal with these by:

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 Personal strategies for critical thinking

Below, three lecturers describe how they view Example 2 indicates that, as well as the words on
critical thinking. the page or material being critiqued, there are
wider contextual and other considerations to be
Example 1 taken into account.

••I may make a quick first reading to get the Example 2

overall picture and check my initial response.
I see whether it rings true or contradicts I put my energy into looking for the heart of
what I believe to be true. the issue: what is really being said, and why?
••I compare what I read with what I already The answers may not be on the page; they may
know about the topic and with my be in the wider history of a debate, a cultural
experience. clash, or conflicting bids for project money. It is
surprising how often the wider context, popular
••I summarise as I go along, and hold the debates, even a desire to be seen to be saying
overall argument in my head to make sense
of what comes next. what is currently in fashion, have a bearing on
what a given passage is really saying.
••I look for the author’s position or point of view,
asking ‘What are they trying to “sell me”?’
••As I read, I check each section and ask myself The third lecturer wouldn’t disagree with what
if I know what it means. If not, I check has gone before, but adds another dimension.
again – sometimes it is clearer when I read Analysis encourages a focus on the detail, and
the second time. If it is still unclear, I remind on considering many different angles. This can
myself to come back to it later as the rest of generate a large body of evidence or a long list of
the passage may make it clearer. points for consideration. An important aspect of
••I then read more carefully, seeing what your critical analysis is to sift through this wealth
reasons the writers present and checking of information, and make good judgements about
whether I am persuaded by these. what is the most significant.
••If I am persuaded, I consider why. Is it
because they make use of experts in the Example 3
field? Is there research evidence that looks
The trick is being able to see the wood for the
thorough and convincing?
trees; identifying what is relevant amongst a
••If I am not persuaded, then why not? I check mass of less relevant information. It isn’t enough
whether this is a ‘gut level’ thing or whether just to understand; you have to be constantly
I have good reasons for not being convinced. evaluating whether something is accurate,
If I have relied on a gut response, I check for whether it gets to the heart of the issue,
hard evidence such as whether I have read whether it is the most important aspect on
other material that contradicts it. which to focus, whether it is the best example
••I then create my own position, and check to use – and whether what you are saying about
that my own point of view is convincing. it is a fair representation of it.
Could I support it if I was challenged?

All three examples illustrate different aspects of the

Here the lecturer is describing an overall strategy critical thinking process:
for reading and analysing the text in a critically
analytical way. The final point refers to ‘creating’ ••an analytical strategy for the material;
a personal position by synthesising the available ••understanding of the wider context;
material – and then submitting this to critical ••an evaluative and selective approach;
analysis too. ••being self-critical about your own
understanding, interpretation and evaluation.

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 Critical thinking in academic contexts

Development of understanding Reflection: ‘Knowing

Students are expected to develop critical thinking without understanding?’
skills so that they can dig deeper below the surface 10° rotation
Do you recognise anything of yourself in
of the subject they are studying and engage
Bodner’s description of students? What effect
in critical dialogue with its main theories and
would the approach he suggests have on your
arguments. This is usually through engaging in
learning and understanding?
critical debate in seminars, presentations or writing
produced for assessment or publication.
One of the best ways of arriving at a point
where we really understand something is by
doing, or replicating, the underlying research
for ourselves. However, as undergraduates, and
indeed in everyday life, there simply isn’t time
to research everything we encounter. The depth
of understanding that comes through direct
experience, practice and experimentation has to
be replaced, at times, by critical analysis of the
work of other people.
Students need to develop the ability to evaluate
critically the work of others. Whilst some find
this easy, others tend to accept or apply the
results of other people’s research too readily, Both positives and negatives
without analysing it sufficiently to check that
the evidence and the reasoning really support In academic contexts, ‘criticism’ refers to an
the main points being made. Bodner (1988), analysis of positive features as well as negative
for example, describes chemistry students as ones. It is important to identify strengths and
being unable to ‘apply their knowledge outside satisfactory aspects rather than just weaknesses,
the narrow domain in which it was learnt. to evaluate what works as well as what does not.
They “know” without understanding.’ Bodner Good critical analysis accounts for why something
suggests that, instead of focusing primarily on is good or poor, why it works or fails. It is not
standard chemical calculations in books, students enough merely to list good and bad points.
should be looking for answers to questions
such as ‘How do we know …?’ and ‘Why do we
believe …?’
Comprehensive: Nothing is
excluded
Bodner’s description is likely to be just as true
of students in other subjects. It is not unusual For most academic programmes, students are
for students, and for people generally, to rely expected to take a well-reasoned, evidence-based,
unquestioningly on research that is based on a small critical approach to what they hear, see, read, and
sample of the population, or that is based on faulty learn. That is the case even when considering the
reasoning, or that is now out of date. Evidence work of respected academics.
from small or isolated projects is often treated as if Normally, any theory, perspective, data, area of
it were irrefutable proof of a general principle, and research or approach to a discipline could be
is sometimes quoted year after year as if it were an subjected to critical analysis. Some colleges, such
absolute truth. Chapter 8 looks further at critically as religious foundations, may consider certain
examining and evaluating evidence. subjects to be out of bounds, but this is not typical.

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Random documents with unrelated
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but vain labour and motion of body; for it is little profit to one to
abandon his fatherland, unless he does good away from it.’[878]
Nam et postquam Abraham corpore patria exivit,[879] tunc
ei[880] dominus dixit. ‘For even Abraham himself, it was after he had
left his own country, and after separating from it according to the
body, that the Lord gave him this counsel, when He said, “Exi de
terra tua,” “Withdraw thy mind henceforth from thy country and
from thy land, and let not thy intention be towards returning to it
again.”’
Ac si aperte diceret, carnalia vitia patriæ in qua fueras
corpore, mente simul et corpore devita. ‘As if it was what God
Himself would openly say to Abraham, “Avoid in body and mind from
henceforth, in thy pilgrimage, the sins and vices of the country in
which thou didst formerly abide according to the body;” for it is the
same to one as if he would abide[881] in his fatherland, if he followed
the customs of his fatherland in his pilgrimage.’
Non enim in via pedum sed in via morum proximatur ad
Dominum. ‘For it is not by way of foot, nor by motion of body, that
one draws nigh unto God, but through the exercise[882] of good
customs and virtues.’
Aliquando mente tamen patria relinquitur et non corpore
sicut sunt quidam qui quamvis in patria peragunt vitam
regione, patriam tamen vivendo carnaliter non norunt, sed
justis causis quibusdam cogentibus in suis locis manent
habitantes quasi non habitantes. ‘Another time, however, one
leaves his fatherland from zeal of heart and mind, although he
leaves it not in body, as happens to the dignitaries who spend their
lives in their own countries until death, because laics and clerics[883]
detain them in the lands in which they may be, on account of the
extent of their usefulness to all; and because that it is not through[884]
carnality they remain in their fatherland, their good-will[885]
comprehends pilgrimage for them with the Lord.’
Aliquando mente et corpore, ut sunt hii quibus dicitur.
‘Sometimes, moreover, one leaves his country altogether in body
and mind, as the Apostles and the people of the perfect pilgrimage
left it, to whom the Lord promised great benefits in the Gospel, when
He said, “Vos qui dereliquistis omnia propter me, patrem et
matrem, uxorem filios et filias, agrum et omnia quae habere
potuistis, centuplum accipietis in hoc saeculo, et vitam
eternam in futuro.” “Make sure of this,” said Jesus, “little or
much[886] as you have abandoned for my sake your country and
kindred, your possessions and worldly pleasures, that you shall
receive a hundred times the equivalent of good from me here in this
world, and in the perpetual life beyond after the judgment of doom.”’
Hii sunt veri peregrini[887] qui cum psalmista possunt dicere.
‘These are truly the people of the perfect pilgrimage in whose
persons the prophet said, in proclaiming and giving thanks to God,
“Advena sum apud te, Domine, et peregrinus sicut omnes
patres mei,” “I give thee thanks for it, O God,” says the prophet,
“that I am in pilgrimage and exile in the world, after the example of
the seniors[888] who have gone before.”’
Multitudes of the faithful servants of the Lord, moreover, both of
the Old and New Testament, have perfectly observed this profitable
counsel, viz., left their country and land, their patrimony and kindred,
for the sake of the Lord of the elements, and went in voluntary
pilgrimage to far distant countries, in the same way as he observed
it, and abandoned his natural inheritance for the love and fear of the
Lord—the eminent saint and eminent sage, and the elect son of
God, for whom there is a festival and commemoration at the
occurrence[889] of this season and time, i.e. Sanctus presbyter[890]
Columba, viz., the illustrious priest of Inis-Gaidel,[891] the battle-brand
who was endowed with the talents and various gifts of the Holy
Ghost, to wit, the person[892] Saint Colum Cille, son of Fedlimidh
[son[893] of Fergus Cennfoda, son of Conall Gulban, son of Niall
Naoighiallach].
When the Christians, moreover, celebrate the festival and
solemnity of Colum Cille’s obit, is on the fifth of the ides of June, as
regards the day of the solar month[894] every year, in this day to-day,
etc. The learned of the Gaidel likewise relate, at that time every year,
a few particulars[895] in illustration of the good family and nobility of
Saint Colum Cille, and also of the innumerable prodigies and
miracles the Lord wrought for him in the world here, and of the
distinguished end and termination He ultimately granted to his
victorious career, viz., his reaching to his own true patrimony and
true inheritance, i.e. to the possession of Paradise in the presence of
God for ever.[896]
Noble, then, was the family of Colum Cille in respect of the world,
viz., of the race of Conall son of Niall was he.[897] He was eligible to
the kingship of Eriu according to family,[898] and it was offered[899] to
him, if he himself had not abandoned it for God.
It is manifest, moreover, that he was an elect son of God, because
the patron saints[900] of Ireland were foretelling him before his birth. In
the first place, the senior of the priests of Ireland, viz., Old Mochta of
Lugbad,[901] foretold the person Colum Cille, one hundred years
before his birth; for on one occasion Mochta’s cook, MacRith his
name, went with a cup of nuts in his hand for him, whereupon
Mochta said to him, ‘Not mine,’ said he, ‘is the land from which those
nuts were brought; preserve them until the person comes whose
land it is.’ ‘When will that time come?’ asked the cook. ‘At the end[902]
of a hundred years,’ said Mochta.
Mochta was wont, then, to turn his face towards the north when
praying. His people used to ask him why he did so; ut dixit[903] to
them:—

A youth shall be born out of the north,

With[904] the rising of the nations;[905]
Ireland shall be made fruitful by the great flame,
And Alba, friendly to him.

The father of baptism and doctrine of the Gaidel, viz., [Saint][906]

Patrick, foretold him, when he was blessing Conall in Sith-Aedha, the
time he placed his two hands on Conall and his son, Fergus son of
Conall, to wit, his right hand on the head of Fergus, and his left hand
on the head[907] of Conall. Conall wondered at that, and asked him
why he had placed his hands so, when Patrick uttered this rann:[908]

A youth shall be born of his tribe,

Who’ll be a sage, a prophet, a poet, etc.
Beloved[909] the bright, clear luminary,
That will not utter falsehood.
He’ll be a sage, and will be devout,
 Will be an abbot with[910] the king of royal graces;
He’ll be lasting, and be ever good;
The eternal kingdom be mine, by his protection.

Brigid[911] also foretold him when she said:—

The son of Eithne long-side,

Good is he and flourishing;
Mild Colum Cille without stain;
’Twere not too much to observe[912] him.

Bishop Eoghan of Ard-Stratha[913] likewise foretold him, when he

said:—

The son that shall be born to Fedlimidh

Will be eminent above all clerics—
Fedlimidh, son of Fergus,
Son of Conall, son of Niall.

Buite[914] son of Bronach also, at the hour of his death, foretold the
person Colum Cille, on which occasion he said to his people,
‘A child illustrious before God and men will be born on this night
to-night, and he shall come here before thirty years from this night.
Twelve men, moreover, will be his company; and he it is that will
discover my grave, and measure[915] my cemetery; and our union
shall be in heaven and in earth.’
As the birth of Colum Cille was thus predicted by the patron saints
of Eriu, so was it manifested[916] in visions and dreams, as it was
manifested[916] in the vision that appeared to his mother, viz., it
seemed to her that a large garment was given to her which reached
from Innsi-mod[917] to Caer-nam-brocc,[918] and there was not of the
colours [of the world[919]] a colour that was not in it. She saw a young
man in splendid raiment, who bore the garment away from her into
the air. And Eithne was grieved at this. And she thought that the
same young man came towards her again, and said to her, ‘My good
woman,’ said the young man, ‘thou shouldst not exhibit grief, but joy
and gladness[920] were fitter for thee; for what this garment signifies
is, that thou wilt bear a son, and Eriu and Alba will be full of his
teaching.’
The attendant woman[921] also saw a vision, viz., that the fowls of
the air, and of the earth, as she thought, carried the bowels of Eithne
throughout the regions of Eriu and Alba. [Eithne[922] herself, however,
gave the interpretation of that vision; and what she then said is, ‘I
shall bear a son,’ said she, ‘and his teaching shall extend throughout
the regions of Eriu and Alba.’]
As it was[923] predicted by the patron saints[924] of Eriu, moreover,
and as it was[923] seen in visions, so was Colum Cille born.
Gortan,[925] then, is the name of the place in which he was born.
On the seventh of the ides of December, moreover, as regards the
day of the solar month, he was born; on Thursday, as regards the
day of the week.
Illustrious, indeed, was the boy born there—the son of the King of
heaven and earth, viz., Colum Cille, son of Fedlimidh, son of Fergus,
son of Conall Gulban, son of Niall Naoighiallach. His mother, then,
was of the Corprige[926] of Leinster, viz., Eithne ‘the noble,’[927]
daughter of Dima son of Noe.
Immediately after his birth, moreover, he was taken in order that
the illustrious priest Cruithnechan, son of Cellachan, should baptize
him. And he (Cruithnechan) subsequently fostered[928] him, after the
angel of God had told him to do so.
When the time, then, arrived to him that he should learn,[929] the
cleric[930] went to a certain prophet who was in the country to ask him
when it would be right for the boy to begin. As soon as the prophet
observed the heavens,[931] what he said was,[932] ‘Write now for him
his alphabet.’ It was then written in a cake; and how Colum Cille ate
the cake was thus, viz.—the half of it at the east side of water,[933]
and the other half at the west side of water. [The prophet[934] said,
through the gift of prophecy, ‘Thus shall this boy’s land be, viz., the
half of it to the east of the sea (i.e. in Alba), and the other half of it to
the west of the sea, to wit, in Eriu.’]
It was not long after that until he and his guardian went to Brugach
son of Dega, the bishop, to the Raths of Magh-enaig[935] in Tir-Enna.
It was commanded to his guardian, the cleric,[936] to perform the
office of priest in that place on the festival. But great shame seized
him, so that he was unable to recite the psalm that fell[937] to him.
That psalm, then, is ‘Misericordias.’[938] But the son of grace, Colum
Cille, recited the psalm in the place[939] of his guardian, although he
had not read but his alphabet before that; so that the names[940] of
God and Colum Cille were magnified through that great miracle.
Another time he and his guardian[941] went to attend a sick man. As
they were going through a wood, the cleric’s (Cruithnechan’s) foot
slipped on the path,[942] so that he fell, and died[943] suddenly. He
(Colum Cille) placed his cloak under the cleric’s head, thinking[944]
that he was asleep, and began rehearsing[945] his lessons, so that
some nuns heard his loud reading as far as their church. What the
learned relate is that there was a mile and a half between them, and
the sound of his voice used to be often heard that distance, ut dixit:
—

The sound[946] of Colum Cille’s voice—

Great its sweetness above all clerics—
To the end of fifteen hundred paces,
Though vast the distance, so far ’twas clear.

The nuns came afterwards, and found the cleric dead before them;
[947]
and they told him (Colum Cille) to resuscitate[948] the cleric for
them. He went[949] forthwith to resuscitate[948] the cleric; and the cleric
arose from death, at the word of Colum Cille, as if he had been
asleep.
Colum Cille made an offering, after that, to the Lord of the
elements, and solicited three requests from Him, viz., chastity, and
wisdom, and pilgrimage. The three were fully given unto him.
He subsequently bade farewell to his guardian; and the guardian
earnestly gave him permission[950] and a benison. Afterwards, he
went to the illustrious bishop, viz., to Finden of Maghbile,[951] to learn
knowledge. One time there Finden said that wine[952] was wanting
from the offering. Colum Cille blessed the water, so that it was turned
into wine, and put into the mass chalice. The name of God and
Colum Cille was magnified by that miracle.
He afterwards bade fate well to Finden, and went to Master
Gemman.[953] One time as he was learning[954] his lessons with
Gemman, they saw a girl coming towards them, escaping before a
certain murderer, until she fell in their presence, and the ruffian[955]
killed her. Colum Cille laid[956] a word of malediction upon him, so that
he died immediately.
He (Colum Cille) afterwards took leave of Gemman, and went to
Finden of Cluain-Eraird.[957] He asked of Finden in what place he
would make his bothy. Finden told him to make it at[958] the door of
the church. He then made his bothy, and it was not at[958] the door of
the church at that time. He said, moreover, that it would be the door
of the city afterwards; and this thing was even fulfilled.
At supper-time[959] each man in turn of the apostles[960] used to
grind his quern. An angel of the God of heaven, however, that used
to grind in place of Colum Cille. That was the honour the Lord used
to give to him, because of his nobility above all.
A vision appeared another time to Finden, viz., two moons
ascended from Cluain-Eraird, to wit, a golden moon, and another, a
silvery moon. [The golden moon went to the north of the island,[961]
so that Eriu and Alba were illumined by it.] The silvery moon went
and rested over[962] the Shannon, so that Eriu in the centre was
illumined by it. Colum[963] Cille, moreover, with his grace, and with his
good actions, and with the gold of his nobility and wisdom, was the
golden moon. Ciaran, son of the carpenter,[964] with the splendour of
his virtues and good actions, was the silver moon.
Colum Cille afterwards bade farewell to Finden, and went to
Glaisnoiden,[965] for there were fifty persons learning in that place
with Mobii, including Cainnech, and Comgall, and Ciaran. Their
bothies, moreover, were at the west side of the water.[966]
One night there and the bell was struck for matins. Colum Cille
went to the church. There was a great flood that night in the river.
Colum Cille, nevertheless, went through it with his clothes on.
‘Bravely dost thou come there to-night, descendant of Niall,’ said
Ciaran[967] and said Mobii. ‘God is able,’ said Colum Cille, ‘to ward off
the labour from us.’ As they were coming out of the church, they saw
the bothies at the east side of the water, in the vicinity of the church.
One time there a large church was built by Mobii, and the clerics
were considering what each of them would like to have the church
full of.[968] ‘I should like,’ said Ciaran, ‘its full of “sons of the church,”
who frequent the canonical hours.’[969] ‘I should like,’ said Cainnech,
‘its full of books, to be used by “sons of life.”’ ‘I should like,’ said
Comgall, ‘its full of sickness and diseases to be in my own body, to
my subjugation and chastisement.’
Colum Cille, however, chose[970] its full of gold and silver, to make
reliquaries and monasteries therewith. Mobii said that it should not
be so; but that Colum Cille’s community would be richer than every
community, both in[971] Eriu and Alba.
Mobii told his protégés to leave the place in which they were, for
that an unknown[972] plague would come there, viz., the Buid
Chonaill;[973] and he further said to Colum Cille that he should not
receive land until permitted by him (Mobii).
Each of them went his way afterwards.
Colum Cille proceeded to Cenel-Conaill. The way he went was
across the river, the name of which is Biur.[974] There he said, ‘Bir
against fochainne,’[975] and the plague did not therefore reach beyond
that. And this is still a lasting miracle, for every plague that is carried
over it does not go beyond that, according to the ‘word’ of Colum
Cille.
Colum Cille went afterwards to Daire,[976] viz., the royal dun of
Aedh, son of Ainmire. He was king of Eriu at that time.
The king offered that dun to Colum Cille; and he refused it,
because of Mobii’s command. As he was coming out of the dun,
however, he met with two of Mobii’s people; and they had Mobii’s
girdle for him, and permission for him to possess land, after the
death of Mobii; ut dixit Colum Cille:—

Mobii’s girdle[977]
Was not as rushes round hair;[978]
It was not opened before satiety,
Nor closed about a lie.

Colum Cille settled[979] after that in the fort of Aedh, and founded a
church there, besides working many miracles in it.
[Colum[980] Cille burned the place, after receiving it from the king,
with everything that was in it. ‘That is foolish,’ said the king, ‘for if you
had not burned it, there would be no want of drink or food in it.’ ‘No
one shall be a night fasting there against his will,’ said Colum Cille.
But the fire spread to the extent that it was like to burn the whole
wood,[981] until Colum Cille uttered[982] the rann, to protect the wood,
[981]
viz.—

Dant[983] in duile geir.

And this is sung against every fire, and against every thunder,
from that time to this. And if any one recites it at lying down and at
getting up, it will protect him from lightning, and it will protect the nine
he wishes simul.]
One time he sent his monks into the wood, to cut wattles,[984] to
make a church for himself in Derry. Where the wattles were cut was
in the land of a certain young man who lived contiguous to the
recles.[985] It was annoying to him that the timber should be cut in his
land without his own permission.
When Colum Cille, therefore, heard this thing, he said to his
people: ‘Take him,’ said he, ‘the value of his timber of barley grain,
and let him put it in the ground.’[986] It had then passed beyond the
middle of summer. The grain was subsequently taken to the young
man, and he put it in the ground; and it grew so that it was ripe about
Lammas afterwards.
One time as he was in Derry a little child was brought to him to be
baptized. There was no water then near him. But he made the sign
of the cross over the rock that was before him, so that a fountain of
water burst out of it, and the child was baptized from it afterwards.
Another time, also, he was in Derry, and he meditated going to
Rome and to Jerusalem. He went another time from Derry to Tor-
inis[987] of Martin, and brought away the gospel that had been on
Martin’s bosom 100 years in the earth; and he left it in Derry.
Great were the prodigies and miracles, truly, God wrought for[988]
Colum Cille in Derry. He (Colum Cille) loved that city very much,
moreover; as he said,

The reason why I love Derry is,

For its quietness, for its purity;
For ’tis full of angels white,
 From one end to the other.

Colum Cille afterwards founded Rath-Both.[989] There he

resuscitated the carpenter from death, after he had been drowned in
the mill pool. In Rath-Both, also, a ploughshare was wanting to his
people; but he blessed the hands of the little boy who was in his
company, whose name was Fergna, so that he made the
ploughshare; and he was skilful in smith-craft from that time forth,
through his (Colum Cille’s) blessing.
He went afterwards on a visit of instruction[990] to the king of
Tethba,[991] whose name was Aedh, son of Brenand, who gave him
the place in which Dermach[992] is to-day, so that a recles was built by
him there.
In Dermach,[992] moreover, sour apples were given to him; but he
blessed them, so that they were sweet. And it was from Dermach
that a sword that had been blessed was sent by him to Colman Mòr,
[993]
son of Diarmait. The virtue[994] that attached to the sword was,
that no one could die in its presence.
A certain man who was in sickness, therefore, requested it, and
the sword was given to him, so that he had it. A year, moreover, the
sword was in his possession, and he was neither dead nor alive
during that time; but when the sword was afterwards taken away
from him, he died immediately.
After that, therefore, he blessed Dermach, and left a custodian of
his people there, viz., Cormac Ua Liathain.[995]
He went subsequently to Aedh Slane,[996] son of Diarmait. He
arrived at the place in which to-day is Cenandas,[997] viz., it was the
dun of the king of Eriu then, the dun of Diarmait mac Cerbaill. When
Colum Cille tarried[998] at the door of the dun, he began predicting
what would be the fate of the place[999] afterwards; and he said to
Becc mac Dead,[1000] i.e. the royal prophet of Diarmait mac Cerbaill:
—

Tell me, O Becc—

Broad, bright-grassed Cenandas—
What clerics shall possess it,
What young men[1001] shall abandon it?
 Ut dixit Becc:—

The clerics who are on its floor

Sing the praises of a king’s son;
Its young men[1001] depart from its threshold;
A time shall be when ’twill be sure.[1002]

He afterwards marked out that city in the form in which it is, and
blessed it all; and said that it should be the highest[1003]
establishment[1004] he would have in the lands, although it was not in
it his resurrection would be. And as he was uttering[1005] this
prophecy he turned his face to the south-west, and laughed very
much. Boithin asked him the cause of the joy. ‘A son[1006] of life,’ said
Colum Cille, ‘that shall be born in one night[1006] to the Lord, in this
solitude[1007] to the west;’ to wit, Grafann[1008] of Cill-Scire he predicted
then, as it was fulfilled afterwards.
A great oak, moreover, under which Colum Cille was whilst he was
in that place—that oak lived for long ages, until it was thrown down
by a great storm of wind; when a certain man took some of its bark
to tan his shoes. As soon, however, as he put on his shoes after
tanning them, leprosy seized[1009] him from the sole of his foot to the
top of his head.
Colum Cille went afterwards to Aedh Slane; and he uttered[1010] a
prophecy unto him, and said to him that he would be long-lived if he
were not fratricidal. If he committed fratricide, however, there would
not be but four years of his age.[1011]
He (Colum Cille) then blessed a cloak[1012] for him (Aedh Slane),
and said that he could not be wounded while that cloak would be
about him. Aedh Slane, however, committed fratricide, against
Colum Cille’s injunction, on Suibhne,[1013] son of Colman. At the end
of four years afterwards he went on an expedition. He forgot his
cloak. He was slain on that day.
Colum Cille founded many churches after that in Brega.[1014] He
also left many patrons[1015] and reliquaries in them. He left Ossine,
son of Cellach, in Cluain-mor of Fir-arda.[1016]
He went after that to Manister.[1017] It was there his crozier[1018]
struck against the glass ladder by which Buite ascended to heaven,
so that its sound was heard throughout the whole church; and he
discovered the grave of Buite, and measured his church,[1019] as
Buite himself predicted on the day of his death. For great was the
number of churches he marked out, and of books he wrote, as the
poet said:—

Three hundred he measured, without fault,[1020]

Of churches fair,’tis true;
And three hundred splendid,[1021] lasting books,
Noble-bright he wrote.

Whatever book, moreover, his hand would write, how long soever
it would be under water, not even one letter in it would be obliterated.
[1022]

He founded a church in Rechra[1023] of the east of Brega, and left

Deacon Colman in it.
One time they were in that church, viz., Colum Cille, and Comgall,
and Cainnech. Comgall said that Colum Cille should make the
offering of the body and blood of Christ in their presence. Colum
Cille obeyed them[1024] regarding that. And it was then that Cainnech
saw a fiery column over Colum Cille’s head, while he was engaged
in the offering. Cainnech told this to Comgall, and both of them
afterwards saw the column.
He founded a church in the place where Sord[1025] is to-day: and
left an eminent man of his people there, to wit, Finan Lobur. And he
left there the Gospel his own hand had written. He also marked out a
well there, the name of which is Sord,[1026] i.e. pure, and blessed a
cross; for it was a custom of his to make crosses and polaires,[1027]
and book-satchels, and ecclesiastical implements, as the poet
said[1028]:—

He blessed three hundred excellent[1029] crosses,

Three hundred wells that abundant were;
A hundred fine artistic polaires;[1027]
With a hundred croziers, with a hundred satchels.

One day Colum Cille and Cainnech were on the sea-shore. There
was a great storm on the sea. Cainnech said, ‘What sings the
wave?’[1030] ‘Thy people,’ said Colum Cille, ‘that were in danger a
while ago, on the sea, so that one of them died; and the Lord will
bring him to us in the morning[1031] to-morrow, to this shore on which
we are.’
[Colum[1032] Cille left a cleric of his people in Derry, to wit, Dacuilen,
in his comarbship;[1033] viz., a cleric of his (Colum Cille’s) own tribe
was he. And he left to the Cenel-Conaill[1034] the vice-abbotship of the
same place, and the headship of its divines.
He[1035] went afterwards to Drumcliff,[1036] and blessed that place,
and left a man of his people there, viz., Mothairen[1037] of Drumcliff;
and he left the headship, and the patronage, and the comarbship, of
that place with the Cenel-Conaill[1034] for ever.]
One time Brigid was going over the Curragh of the Liffey.[1038] And
when the virgin saw the beautiful shamrock-flowery[1039] plain before
her, what she said in her mind was, that if she had the ownership[1040]
of the plain, she would present it to the Lord of the elements.
This thing, moreover, was manifested to Colum Cille, and he in his
recles[1041] in Sord;[1042] and he said, with a loud voice, ‘What has
occurred to the virgin saint is strange; for it is the same to her if the
land she offered to Him belonged to the Lord,[1043] as if it rightfully
belonged to herself.’
He went afterwards to the Leinstermen, with whom he left
numerous churches which he had founded, including
Druimmonach[1044] and Moen,[1045] and several other churches.
Colum Cille proceeded afterwards to Clonmacnois, with the hymn
which he had composed for Ciaran; because he composed many
eulogies of God’s people, as the poet said[1046]:—

Thrice fifty noble lays the apostle made,

Whose miracles are more numerous than grass;
Some in Latin, which were beguiling;[1047]
Some in Gaelic, fair the tale.

It was in Cluain,[1048] also, the little boy went to him, and pulled a
small hair[1049] out of his garment without being observed by him. God
manifested this thing to him, however; and he predicted for the boy,
that he would be a sage, and would be devout. He is Ernan[1050] of
Cluain-Deochra[1051] to-day.
Colum Cille went after that into the territories of Connacht, on his
visit of instruction, when he founded many churches and
establishments in that province, including Es-mic-Eirc[1052] and
Druim-cliabh.[1053] He left Mothoria[1054] in Druim-cliabh,[1053] and left
with him a bachall[1055] which he himself had made.
Colum Cille went after that across Es-Ruaidh,[1056] and founded
many churches amongst Conall[1057] and Eoghan.[1058]
He founded Torach,[1059] and left an eminent man of his people in it,
to wit, Ernaine.
When Colum Cille, however, had made the circuit of all Eriu; and
when he had sown faith and religion; when numerous multitudes had
been baptized by him; when he had founded churches and
establishments, and had left in them seniors,[1060] and reliquaries,
and relics of martyrs, the determination that he had determined from
the beginning of his life came into[1061] his mind—viz., to go in
pilgrimage. He then meditated going,[1062] across the sea, to preach
the word of God to the men of Alba, and to the Britons, and to the
Saxons. He went, therefore, on a voyage.
His age was 42 when he went. He was 34 [years] in Alba. His
entire age was 77. And the number that went with him,[1063]
moreover, was 20 bishops, 40 priests, 30 deacons, and 50 students,
ut dixit:—

His company was forty priests,

Twenty bishops of noble worth;
For the psalm-singing, without dispute,
Thirty deacons, fifty youths.[1064]

He went afterwards, in good spirits,[1065] until he reached the place

the name of which to-day is Hii-Coluim-Cille. On Quinguagesima
night, moreover, he arrived.
Two bishops that were in the place[1066] came to receive his
submission[1067] from him. But God manifested to Colum Cille that
they were not in truth bishops; wherefore it was that they left the
island to him,[1068] when he exposed[1069] their real history and career.
 Colum Cille then said to his people, ‘It is good for us that our roots
should go under the ground here.’ And he said to them, ‘It is
permitted to you, that some one of you may go under the clay of this
island, to consecrate it.’
Odran rose up obediently,[1070] and what he said was, ‘If you would
accept me,’ said he, ‘I am ready for that.’
‘O Odran,’ said Colum Cille, ‘thou shalt have the reward therefore,
viz., his prayer shall not be granted to any one at my grave,[1071]
unless it is from thee[1072] he asks it first.’ Odran went then to heaven.
He (Colum Cille) afterward founded the church of Hii. He had
thrice fifty persons in it[1073] for meditation,[1074] under monastic rule,
[1075]
and sixty for manual labour, as the poet said[1076]:—

Illustrious the soldiery[1077] that was in Hii,

Thrice fifty in monastic rule;
With their Curachs, along the sea,
For rowing were threescore men.

When Colum Cille founded Hii, he went on his circuit of instruction

among the men of Alba, and the Britons and Saxons, until he
brought them to faith and religion, after he had wrought many
miracles, and had awakened the dead from death.
There was a certain man in the country, moreover, to whom Colum
Cille preached until he believed, with all his people, in the Lord. This
thing filled the demon with envy;[1078] and he afflicted[1079] the son of
that man with a heavy illness, so that he died thereof. The Gentiles
were afterwards reproving Christ and Colum Cille, until he (C. C.)
made earnest prayer to God, and awakened the dead boy from
death.
As Colum Cille was on a certain day preaching to the multitudes, a
certain man went from them across the river that was near them, in
order that he might not be listening to the Word of God. The serpent
seized him in the water, and killed him immediately. His body was
brought into the presence of Colum Cille, who made a cross with his
bachall over his (the dead man’s) breast; and he arose forthwith.
A severe illness attacked[1080] his attendant, whose name was
Diarmait, so that he died; but he (C. C.) prayed for him,[1081] and he
was awakened from death. And not only this, but he (C. C.)
entreated for him (Diarmait) an existence of seven years after
himself.
One time when Cainnech came away from him, from Hii, he forgot
his bachall in the east.[1082] When he arrived hither,[1083] he found his
bachall before him here, and Colum Cille’s shirt along with it, viz.,
this was Cainnech’s share of his (C. C.’s) rechull;[1084] and the reason
why he (C. C.) did this was because he knew that he was nigh unto
his death.
A great blushing affected him[1085] one time in Hii. The cause of the
blushing was demanded of him. ‘God’s fire from heaven,’ said he,
‘that has now come upon three cities in Italy, and has killed three
thousand men, besides women, and boys, and girls.’
Another time he heard a shout in the port[1086] of Hii, whereupon he
said:—

A rustic[1087] is in the port,

With his bachall in his hand,
Who’ll visit my hornlet,
And spill my ink.
He will then bend down,[1088]
To visit my pax,
And he’ll touch my hornlet,
And will leave it empty.

Another time Baithin left Colum Cille cooking a beef for the
labourers. There was an ex-warrior[1089] of the men of Eriu with them,
viz., Maeluma, son of Baetan. Colum Cille asked him what was the
extent of his appetite[1090] when he was a young warrior. Maeluma
said, ‘I would consume a fat beef for my fill[1091] when I was a young
warrior.’ Colum Cille commanded him that he should eat his fill.
Maeluma did so for him, and ate the whole beef. Baithin came
afterwards and asked if the food was ready. Colum Cille commanded
Maeluma to collect all the bones of the beef in one place, and it was
done so. Colum Cille then blessed the bones; and their own flesh
was round them after that, and was taken to the workmen.
 [When[1092] Colum Cille had been thirty years in Alba, great anxiety
seized the men of Eriu to see him, and speak with him, before he
died;[1093] and messengers went[1094] from them to meet him, that he
might come to speak with them to the great convention of Druim-
Ceta, that he might bless them in that place, men, boys, women, and
that he might heal their diseases and pestilences. Or it is for three
reasons Colum Cille came from the east[1095]—viz., to retain the
poets in Eriu (for their exactions were great, to wit, thirty was the full
company with an ollamh,[1096] and fifteen with an anradh[1097]); and to
make peace between the men of Eriu and the men of Alba regarding
the Dal-Riada (for there was[1098] a battle-meeting between the men
of Eriu and Alba concerning them,[1099] if Colum Cille had not come
from the east to pacify them[1100]); and to release Scannlan, son of
Cennfaeladh[1101]—the son of the king of Ossory—whose father,
moreover, had given him in hostageship into the hands of Aedh,[1102]
son of Ainmire. And Colum Cille was surety to him that he would be
released at the end of a year; and he was not released, and no
hostage was accepted in his stead. And a wicker building[1103] was
constructed round him, without any passage out of it save a way
through which a modicum of salt food, and a small allowance[1104] of
ale, used to be given to him. And fifty warriors were wont to be
around the building[1103] outside, guarding him. And there were nine
chains upon him in the building.[1103] And when he would see any one
going past what he would say is, ‘A drink,’ says he.
And this thing was reported to Colum Cille, to Hii, and he wept
greatly at what he had heard; and this it was that brought him quickly
from the east.
It is how Colum Cille, moreover, came from the east, and a
blackened cloth over his eyes, and his collar[1105] down over that, and
the hood[1106] of the cape down over that again, in order that he might
not see the men of Eriu, nor its women; because he prophesied it
before, when he went to Alba at first, and he uttered the rann—

There is a grey eye

That views Eriu backwards.
It will not see henceforth[1107]
The men of Eriu, or its women.
 And it was to certify this the poet[1108] said—

Though mild Colum did come

From the east in a boat,[1109] across the sea,
He saw naught in noble Eriu,
After coming into the great convention.

It was reported to Aedh, son of Ainmire, moreover, that Colum

Cille had come to the convention, and he was greatly vexed at what
he heard, and he said that whoever he might be from whom he (C.
C.) would obtain respect in the assembly, it would be avenged[1110] on
him.
They afterwards saw Colum Cille going towards the convention;
and the assembly[1111] that was nearest to him was the assembly[1111]
of Conall, son of Aedh, son of Ainmire; and he was a worthy son of
Aedh.
As Conall saw them,[1112] therefore, he incited the rabble of the
assembly[1111] against them, so that three score men[1113] of them
were captured and wounded.[1114] Colum Cille inquired, ‘Who is he by
whom this band has been launched at us?’ And it was told to him
that it was by Conall. And Colum Cille cursed Conall, until thrice nine
bells[1115] were rung against him,[1116] when some man said, ‘Conall
gets bells (cloga),’ and it is from this that he is called ‘Conall
Clogach.’[1117] And the cleric deprived him of king-ship,[1118] and of his
reason and intellect in the space of time that he would be prostrating
his body.
Colum Cille went afterwards to the assembly[1111] of Domhnall, son
of Aedh, son of Ainmire. And Domhnall immediately rose up before
him, and bade him welcome,[1119] and kissed his cheek, and put him
in his own place. And the cleric left him many blessings,[1120] viz., that
he should be fifty[1121] years in the sovereignty of Eria, and be battle-
victorious during that time; and that every word he would say would
be fulfilled by him; that he would be one year and a half in the illness
of which he would die, and would receive the body of Christ every
Sunday during that time.
It was told to the queen[1122] that her son[1123] was cursed, and the
kingship [promised] to Domhnall. The queen said to her handmaid,
‘Go to Aedh, and say to him that if that crane-cleric[1124] finds respect
with him, I shall not be peaceable towards him.’
This thing was reported to Colum Cille, and he granted[1125] to the
queen and to her handmaid that they should be two cranes[1126] in
Druim-Ceta,[1127] from that day to the day of judgment, ut poeta dixit:
—

The queen’s anger grew therefrom—

From Domhnall being in the kingship—
The promise of kingship given to Domhnall,
And her own son without land.
‘What crane-work[1128] is that thou dost?’
Said the queen, most wickedly.
‘I’ll not be in peace with Aedh, plainly,
For showing thee respect, O Cleric.’
‘Thou hast leave to be a crane,’
Said the cleric furiously;
‘As just punishment to thy handmaid,
She’ll be a crane along with thee.’
Aedh’s wife and her waiting-maid,
Were turned into herons.[1129]
They live still,[1130] and make complaint,
The two old herons of Druim-Ceta.

And Colum Cille then said to Domhnall that they should both go to
converse with Aedh, son of Ainmire. And Domhnall was much afraid
to converse with the king. But Colum Cille said, ‘Be not much afraid,
for the Holy Spirit shall be protecting thee against him.’ They went
together to speak to the king.
Grievous fear seized the king afterwards [on seeing the cleric[1131]],
because of the great miracle he had previously wrought.
The clerics came subsequently into the assembly. The king rose
and bade them welcome.
‘Our demand must be granted,’ [said Colum Cille[1132]].
‘You shall get it truly,’ said the king.
‘The poets must be retained,’ said Colum Cille.
 ‘It shall not be done,’ said the king, ‘for their evils against us are
great.’
‘Say not so,’ observed the cleric, ‘for the praises they will sing[1133]
for thee shall be enduring, as the praises the poets sung for him are
enduring for Cormac,[1134] grandson of Conn. And the treasures that
were given for them were transitory, while the praises live after
them.’
And the cleric composed this little ‘rhetoric,’[1135] viz.—

‘Cormac well broke battles,’ etc.

‘It is not I who will expel them,’ said Aedh. The poets were retained
through this.
‘Release Scannlan,’[1136] said Colum Cille.
‘I shall not do so,’ answered the king, ‘until he dies in the hut in
which he is.’
‘We will not pursue the subject further,’ said Colum Cille; ‘but if it
be pleasing to God, may it be he that shall take off my shoes[1137] to-
night, at matins, in whatsoever place I may be.’
Colum Cille went afterwards from the assembly, until he came to
the Dubh-regles[1138] at Derry. It was not long after Colum Cille’s
departure until a thunderbolt came into the convention, and they all
turned their faces to the ground. Afterwards there came a bright
cloud to Scannlan, to the place in which he was, and a voice in the
cloud said to him, ‘Rise, O Scannlan, and leave thy chains and thy
prison, and come forth, and put thy hand in mine.’
Scannlan came out, and the angel in front of him. The guards
heard the noise of something passing by them; and what the guards
said was, ‘Who is this going past us?’ ‘Scannlan,’ said the angel. ‘If it
was he, you would not say so,’ answered they. They (Scannlan and
his deliverer) went[1139] afterwards to Derry.
The time the Cleric (C. C.) about matins, was going westwards[1140]
through the chancel-screen, it was Scannlan that assisted to take off
his shoes. And what Colum Cille said is, ‘Who is this?’
‘Scannlan,’ answered he.
‘Hast any news?’ asked Colum Cille.
‘A drink,’ said Scannlan.
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