Functionalism (architecture)

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In architecture, functionalism is the principle that buildings should be designed
based solely on their purpose and function. An international functionalist architecture
movement emerged in the wake of World War I, as part of the wave of Modernism. Its
ideas were largely inspired by a desire to build a new and better world for the people,
as broadly and strongly expressed by the social and political movements of Europe
after the extremely devastating world war. In this respect, functionalist architecture is
often linked with the ideas of socialism and modern humanism.

A new slight addition to this new wave of architecture was that not only should
buildings and houses be designed around the purpose of functionality, architecture
should also be used as a means to physically create a better world and a better life for
people in the broadest sense. This new functionalist architecture had the strongest
impact in Czechoslovakia, Germany, Poland,[1] the USSR and the Netherlands, and
from the 1930s also in Scandinavia and Finland.

This principle is a matter of confusion and controversy within the profession,

particularly in regard to modern architecture, as it is less self-evident than it first
appears. The tower of the
Helsinki Olympic
Stadium (Y. Lindegren &
T. Jäntti, built in 1934–
History of functionalism 38)

The theoretical articulation of functionalism in buildings can be traced back to the

Vitruvian triad, where utilitas (variously translated as 'commodity', 'convenience', or 'utility') stands alongside
firmitas (firmness) and venustas (beauty) as one of three classic goals of architecture. Functionalist views were
typical of some Gothic Revival architects. In particular, Augustus Welby Pugin wrote that "there should be no
features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety" and "all ornament
should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building".[2]

In 1896, Chicago architect Louis Sullivan coined the phrase Form follows function. However, this aphorism does
not relate to a contemporary understanding of the term 'function' as utility or the satisfaction of user needs; it
was instead based in metaphysics, as the expression of organic essence and could be paraphrased as meaning
'destiny'.[3]

In the mid-1930s, functionalism began to be discussed as an aesthetic approach rather than a matter of design
integrity (use). The idea of functionalism was conflated with a lack of ornamentation, which is a different matter.
It became a pejorative term associated with the baldest and most brutal ways to cover space, like cheap
commercial buildings and sheds, then finally used, for example in academic criticism of Buckminster Fuller's
geodesic domes, simply as a synonym for 'gauche'.
For 70 years the influential American architect Philip Johnson held that the profession has no functional
responsibility whatsoever, and this is one of the many views today. The position of postmodern architect Peter
Eisenman is based on a user-hostile theoretical basis and even more extreme: "I don't do function."[4]

Modernism
Popular notions of modern architecture are heavily influenced by the work of the Franco-Swiss architect Le
Corbusier and the German architect Mies van der Rohe. Both were functionalists at least to the extent that their
buildings were radical simplifications of previous styles. In 1923, Mies van der Rohe was working in Weimar
Germany, and had begun his career of producing radically simplified, lovingly detailed structures that achieved
Sullivan's goal of inherent architectural beauty. Le Corbusier famously said "a house is a machine for living in";
his 1923 book Vers une architecture was, and still is, very influential, and his early built work such as the Villa
Savoye in Poissy, France, is thought of as prototypically function.

In Europe

Czechoslovakia
The former Czechoslovakia was an early adopter of the functionalist style, with notable examples such as Villa
Tugendhat in Brno, designed by Mies van der Rohe in 1928, Villa Müller in Prague, designed by Adolf Loos in
1930, and the majority of the city of Zlín, developed by the Bata shoe company as a factory town in the 1920s[5]
and designed by Le Corbusier's student František Lydie Gahura.

Numerous villas, apartment buildings and interiors, factories, office blocks and department stores can be found
in the functionalist style throughout the country, which industrialised rapidly in the early 20th century while
embracing the Bauhaus-style architecture that was emerging concurrently in Germany.[6] Large urban
extensions to Brno in particular contain numerous apartment buildings in the functionalist style, while the
domestic interiors of Adolf Loos in Plzeň[7] are also notable for their application of functionalist principles.
 Secondary Industrial Villa Tugendhat (Brno), Villa Müller (Prague), 1930,
School (Mladá Boleslav), 1928, Ludwig Mies van der Adolf Loos
1927, Jiří Kroha Rohe

Brno Crematorium (Brno), Hotel Avion (Brno), 1928, Zlín, factory city built by the
1930, Ernst Wiesner Bohuslav Fuchs Bata Company

Tomas Bata Memorial

(Zlín), 1933, František Lydie
Gahura

Nordic "funkis"
In Scandinavia and Finland, the international movement and ideas of modernist architecture became widely
known among architects at the 1930 Stockholm Exhibition, under the guidance of director and Swedish architect
Gunnar Asplund. Enthusiastic architects collected their ideas and inspirations in the manifesto acceptera and in
the years thereafter, a functionalist architecture emerged throughout Scandinavia. The genre involves some
peculiar features unique to Scandinavia and it is often referred to as "funkis", to distinguish it from
functionalism in general. Some of the common features are flat roofing, stuccoed walls, architectural glazing and
well-lit rooms, an industrial expression and nautical-inspired details, including round windows.[8] The global
stock market crisis and economic meltdown in 1929, instigated the needs to use affordable materials, such as
brick and concrete, and to build quickly and efficiently. These needs became another signature of the Nordic
version of functionalist architecture, in particular in buildings from the 1930s, and carried over into modernist
architecture when industrial serial production became much more prevalent after World War II.[9]
As most architectural styles, Nordic funkis was international in its scope and
several architects designed Nordic funkis buildings throughout the region.
Some of the most active architects working internationally with this style,
includes Edvard Heiberg, Arne Jacobsen and Alvar Aalto. Nordic funkis
features prominently in Scandinavian urban architecture, as the need for
urban housing and new institutions for the growing welfare states exploded
after World War II. Funkis had its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s, but
functionalist architecture continued to be built long into the 1960s. These
later structures, however, tend to be categorized as modernism in a Nordic
context.

Denmark
Vilhelm Lauritzen, Arne Jacobsen and C.F. Møller were among the most
active and influential Danish architects of the new functionalist ideas and
Arne Jacobsen, Poul Kjærholm, Kaare Klint, and others, extended the new
approach to design in general, most notably furniture which evolved to Typical railing, flat roof, stucco and
become Danish modern.[10] Some Danish designers and artists who did not colour detail in Nordic funkis (SOK
work as architects are sometimes also included in the Danish functionalist warehouse and offices, 1938,
movement, such as Finn Juhl, Louis Poulsen and Poul Henningsen. In Finland)
Denmark, bricks were largely preferred over reinforced concrete as
construction material, and this included funkis buildings. Apart from
institutions and apartment blocks, more than 100,000 single-family funkis houses were built in the years 1925–
1945. However, the truly dedicated funkis design was often approached with caution. Many residential buildings
only included some signature funkis elements such as round windows, corner windows or architectural glazing
to signal modernity while not provoking conservative traditionalists too much. This branch of restrained
approach to the funkis design created the Danish version of the bungalow building.[11][12]

Fine examples of Danish functionalist architecture are the now listed Kastrup Airport 1939 terminal by Vilhelm
Lauritzen, Aarhus University (by C. F. Møller et al.) and Aarhus City Hall (by Arne Jacobsen et al.), all including
furniture and lamps specially designed for these buildings in the functionalist spirit. The largest functionalist
complex in the Nordic countries is the 30,000-sq. m. residential compound of Hostrups Have in Copenhagen.[13]
 Det Grønne Funkishus Bellavista (1934), Bakkegården (1935–38),
(1932), Frederiksberg. Klampenborg Aarhus
Early funkis, facade detail.

Champagnehuset (1936), Skovvangsskolen (1937), Frederiksgade no. 1 (1939),

Copenhagen Aarhus Aarhus

Strandparken (1938), The Standard (1937), Knippelsbro bridge (1935),

Aarhus. Typical pastel Copenhagen. Former Copenhagen
colour for stuccoed funkis. custom house.
 Aarhus City Hall (1941), Lyngby City Hall (1941), Dronningegården (1958),
Aarhus. Marble facade. Lyngby Copenhagen. Late funkis.

Aarhus University (1933 Aarhus University. This

onwards) building is from 1974.

Finland
Some of the most prolific and notable architects in Finland, working in the funkis style, includes Alvar Aalto and
Erik Bryggman who were both engaged from the very start in the 1930s. The Turku region pioneered this new
style and the journal Arkkitehti mediated and discussed functionalism in a Finnish context. Many of the first
buildings in the funkis style were industrial structures, institutions and offices but spread to other kinds of
structures such as residential buildings, individual housing and churches. The functionalist design also spread to
interior designs and furniture as exemplified by the iconic Paimio Sanatorium, designed in 1929 and built in
1933.[14][9][15]

Aalto introduced standardised, precast concrete elements as early as the late 1920s, when he designed
residential buildings in Turku. This technique became a cornerstone of later developments in modernist
architecture after World War II, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. He also introduced serial produced wooden
housing.[14]
 Tennispalatsi (1937) in Helsinki-Malmi Airport Stora Enso head office
Helsinki Terminal (1938) (1962) in Helsinki

Helsinki Olympic Stadium Lasipalatsi (1936) in Hotel Vaakuna (1940) in

(1938) Helsinki Helsinki

Paimio Sanatorium (1931) Viipuri Library (1927) in

in Paimio Vyborg

Poland
Interbellum avant-garde Polish architects in the years 1918–1939 made a notable impact in the legacy of
European modern architecture and functionalism. A lot of Polish architects were fascinated by Le Corbusier like
his Polish students and coworkers Jerzy Sołtan, Aleksander Kujawski (both co-authors of Unité d'habitation in
Marseille[16]) and his coworkers Helena Syrkus (Le Corbusier's companion on board of the S.S. Patris, an ocean
liner journeying from Marseille to Athens in 1933 during the CIAM IV[17]), Roman Piotrowski and Maciej
Nowicki. Le Corbusier said about Poles (When the Cathedrals Were White, Paris 1937) "Academism has sent
down roots everywhere. Nevertheless, the Dutch are relatively free of bias. The Czechs believe in 'modern' and
the Polish also." Other Polish architects like Stanisław Brukalski was meeting with Gerrit Rietveld and inspired
by him and his neoplasticism. Only a few years after the construction of Rietveld Schröder House, Polish
architect Stanisław Brukalski built his own house[18] in Warsaw in 1929 supposedly inspired by Schröder House
he had visited. His Polish example of the modern house was awarded bronze medal in Paris world expo in 1937.
Just before the Second World War, it was fashionable to build in Poland a lot of large districts of luxury houses
in neighbourhoods full of greenery for wealthy Poles like, for example, district Saska Kępa in Warsaw or district
Kamienna Góra in seaport Gdynia. The most characteristic features in Polish functionalist architecture 1918–
1939 were portholes, roof terraces and marble interiors.

Probably the most outstanding work of Polish functionalist architecture is the entire city of Gdynia, modern
Polish seaport established 1926.

Bohdan Lachert villa with Stanisław Brukalski villa Polish eagle basalt relief on
roof garden (1929) in with roof terrace (1929) in the building of the Ministry
Warsaw. The house was Warsaw of Infrastructure (by Rudolf
considered as the best Świerczyński, 1931) in
implementation of so-called Warsaw
villa architecture at the time
in Warsaw (opinion by
professor Lech
Niemojewski in 1929). It's
the house inspired by the
form of ocean liner.[19]

Small station Michalin near Roman Piotrowski ZUS Bohdan Damięcki Gdynia
Warsaw (1936) by Insurance building (1936) in Maritime University (1937)
Kazimierz Centnerszwer. Gdynia
Typical modern railway
station built in series near
Warsaw.
 Narcyz Obrycki villa (1937) Tadeusz Kossak villa Juliusz Żórawski Housing
in Gdynia (1938) in seaport Gdynia. Unit "Glass House" (1938-
Three large porthole 1941) in Warsaw with
windows in the back. luxury apartments 177m2
each and large roof terrace

Russia
In Russia and the former Soviet Union, functionalism was known as Constructivist architecture, and was the
dominant style for major building projects between 1918 and 1932. The 1932 competition for the Palace of the
Soviets and the winning entry by Boris Iofan marked the start of eclectic historicism of Stalinist Architecture and
the end of constructivist domination in Soviet Union.

Mosselprom building (David Melnikov House in Moscow. Narkomfin Building,

Kogan, 1923–4) It is at the top of UNESCO's apartment house (Moisei
list of "Endangered Ginzburg, 1930)
Buildings". There is an
international campaign to
save it.

Red Carnation Factory, St

Petersburg (Yakov
Chernikhov)
Examples
Notable representations of functionalist architecture include:

Aarhus University, Denmark

ADGB Trade Union School, Germany
Administratívna budova spojov, Bratislava, Slovakia
Obchodný a obytný dom Luxor, Bratislava, Slovakia
Villa Tugendhat, Brno, Czech Republic
Kavárna Era, Brno, Czech Republic
Kolonie Nový dům, Brno, Czech Republic
Veletržní palác, Prague, Czech Republic
Villa Müller, Prague, Czech Republic
Zlín city, Czech Republic
Tomas Bata Memorial, Zlín, Czech Republic
Obchodný a obytný dom Luxor
Booth House, Bridge Street, Sydney, Australia
(Residential and Commercial House
Bullfighting Arena, Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal Luxor), 1937, in Bratislava
Glass Palace, Helsinki, Finland (Slovakia)
Hotel Hollywood, Sydney, Australia
Knarraros lighthouse, Stokkseyri, Iceland
Pärnu Rannahotell, Estonia
Pärnu Rannakohvik, Estonia
Södra Ängby, Stockholm, Sweden
Stanislas Brukalski's villa, Warsaw, Poland
Modernist Center of Gdynia, Poland
Villa Savoye, Poissy, France

Södra Ängby, Sweden

The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended
a functionalist or international style with garden city ideals. Encompassing
more than 500 buildings, it remains the largest coherent functionalistic villa
area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-
century after its construction 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural
heritage.[20]

Södra Ängby, 1938

Zlín, Czech Republic
Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely
reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company
and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the
Garden city movement.

Zlín's distinctive architecture was guided by principles that were strictly observed during its whole inter-war
development. Its central theme was the derivation of all architectural elements from the factory buildings. The
central position of the industrial production in the life of all Zlín inhabitants was to be highlighted. Hence the
same building materials (red bricks, glass, reinforced concrete) were used for the construction of all public (and
most private) edifices. The common structural element of Zlín architecture is a square bay of 20x20 feet
(6.15x6.15 m). Although modified by several variations, this high modernist
style leads to a high degree of uniformity of all buildings. It highlights the
central and unique idea of an industrial garden city at the same time.
Architectural and urban functionalism was to serve the demands of a modern
city. The simplicity of its buildings which also translated into its functional
adaptability was to prescribe (and also react to) the needs of everyday life.

The urban plan of Zlín was the creation of František Lydie Gahura, a student
at Le Corbusier's atelier in Paris. Architectural highlights of the city are e.g.
Zlín in the Czech Republic
the Villa of Tomáš Baťa, Baťa's Hospital, Tomas Bata Memorial, The Grand
Cinema or Baťa's Skyscraper.

Khrushchyovka
Khrushchyovka (Russian: хрущёвка, IPA: [xrʊˈɕːɵfkə]) is an unofficial name
of type of low-cost, concrete-paneled or brick three- to five-storied apartment
building which was developed in the Soviet Union during the early 1960s,
during the time its namesake Nikita Khrushchev directed the Soviet
government. The apartment buildings also went by the name of
"Khruschoba" (Хрущёв+трущоба, Khrushchev-slum).

Functionalism in landscape architecture Panel khrushchovka in Tomsk,

Russia.
The development of functionalism in landscape architecture paralleled its
development in building architecture. At the residential scale, designers like
Christopher Tunnard, James Rose, and Garrett Eckbo advocated a design philosophy based on the creation of
spaces for outdoor living and the integration of house and garden.[21] At a larger scale, the German landscape
architect and planner Leberecht Migge advocated the use of edible gardens in social housing projects as a way to
counteract hunger and increase self-sufficiency of families. At a still larger scale, the Congrès International
d'Architecture Moderne advocated for urban design strategies based on human proportions and in support of
four functions of human settlement: housing, work, play, and transport.

See also
Modernist architecture; streamline moderne
Enrique Yáñez

Literature
Vers une Architecture and Villa Savoye: A Comparison of Treatise and Building – A multipart essay
explaining the basics of Le Corbusier's theory and contrasting them with his built work.
Behne, Adolf (1923). The Modern Functional Building. Michael Robinson, trans. Santa Monica: Getty
Research Institute, 1996.
Forty, Adrian (2000). "Function". Words and Buildings, A Vocabulary of Modern Architecture. Thames &
Hudson, p. 174–195.
Michl, Jan (1995). Form follows WHAT? The modernist notion of function as a carte blanche (http://janmichl.c
om/eng.fff-hai.html) 1995. Read more articles on www.beautytips.pk
References
1. "Adrian Yekkes: Gdynia – Poland's modernist masterpiece" (http://adrianyekkes.blogspot.com/2018/06/gdyni
a-polands-modernist-masterpiece.html). June 29, 2018.
2. A.W.N.Pugin, The true principles of pointed or Christian architecture: set forth in two lectures delivered at St.
Marie's, Oscott.
3. Forty, A. ‘Words & Buildings: Function’, pp 174.
4. Branko Mitrovic, Philosophy for Architects, New York: Chronicle Books, 2012. p.153.
5. Rail, Evan (2012-06-15). "Exploring Czech Functionalism in Brno" (https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/17/trav
el/exploring-czech-functionalism-in-brno.html). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 (https://search.worldc
at.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved 2019-05-28.
6. "Discovering Brno's Architecture" (https://www.travelandleisure.com/articles/form-and-function). Travel +
Leisure. Retrieved 2019-05-28.
7. "Adolf Loos in Plzeň" (https://www.adolfloosplzen.cz/en/). adolfloosplzen.cz. Retrieved 2019-05-28.
8. William C Miller (2016): Nordic Modernism: Scandinavian Architecture 1890–2017, The Crowood Press Ltd.,
ISBN 978 1 78500 237 3
9. Roger Connah (2006). Finland: Modern Architectures in History. Reaktion Books.
10. Andrew Hollingsworth, Danish Modern, 2008, Gibbs Smith, p. 31.
11. Jeanne Brüel (2014): "Funkishuset – en bevaringsguide", (in Danish) Bygningskultur Danmark
12. Johan Hage: Funkishuset (https://issuu.com/johanhage/docs/web_funkishuset) (in Danish)
13. Niels-Ole Lund (2008): Nordic Architecture, Arkitektens Forlag, ISBN 9788774072584
14. YIT: Functionalism is a Finnish thing (https://www.yitgroup.com/en/news-repository/news/functionalism-is-a-fi
nnish-thing)
15. Malcolm Quantrill (2012). Finnish Architecture and the Modernist Tradition. Taylor & Francis.
16. Le Corbusier l'unité d'habitation de Marseille Jacques Sbriglio 2013
17. Józef Piłatowicz POGLĄDY HELENY I SZYMONA SYRKUSÓW NA ARCHITEKTURĘ W LATACH 1925–
1956 Warszawa 2009
18. "Willa Barbary i Stanisława Brukalskich, Warszawa – Zabytek.pl" (https://zabytek.pl/pl/obiekty/warszawa-will
a-barbary-i-stanislawa-brukalskich). zabytek.pl.
19. Architektura w Warszawie. Lata 1918–1939. Marta Leśniakowska Warszawa 2006
20. Detailed references listed in the article on Södra Ängby.
21. Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow. Landscape Design: A Cultural and Architectural History. New York: Abrams, 2001.
pp. 23, 454–455

External links
Fostinum: Czech and Slovak Functionalist Architecture (https://www.fostinum.org/czech-and-slovak-functiona
list-architecture.html)

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