CSC 221

TABLE OF CONTENT

Section One: Introduction to Computer

Section Two: Application Software (Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel)

Section Three: Microsoft Access Database

Section Four: Statistical Package (SPSS)

Section Five: Agricultural Information System

Section Six: Algorithm and Flowchart

STUDENTS DATA AND SCORES

NAME: Olajide Temidayo Oluwatamilore MATRIC NO: 20180586

DEPARTMENT: ANIMAL NUTRITION COLLEGE: COLANIM

INDEX NUMBER:

SECTIONS SCORES SIGNATURE

1

2
3
4
5
6
TOTAL

WORKBOOK
 SECTION ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

1.1 Definition of Computer

 A computer is an automatic device made up of mechanical, electromechanical and
electronic components that can accept store and retrieve vast amount of data/information
and also carry out operations (such as arithmetic or logic) under a stored program at high
speed and subsequently come out with results in useful form (information).
 A computer is any machine or electronic device which under the control of a stored
program, can accept data in a prescribed form, process the data, and supply the results as
information in a specified form.

Figure 1: A labelled computer system

1.2 Basic Operations Performed By Computer Systems

All computer systems perform the following five basic operations:

a. INPUT: The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
b. STORAGE: The computer system stores the data and instructions and makes them
available for processing as and when required.
c. PROCESSING: The computer performs arithmetic or logical operations on data and
converts them into useful information.
 d. OUTPUT: This is the process of producing the results of processing to the user, such
as a printed report or a report that can be viewed on the computer monitor.
e. CONTROL: The computer controls the manner and sequence in which all the above
operations are performed.

input Processing output

storage
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

a. SPEED: It has the ability to process at very fast rate. It can perform millions of
operations in a second.
b. STORAGE: The memory unit has the capacity to store large amount of information
and to release information when needed. The large volume of data can be conveniently
stored, accessed and altered.
c. ACCURACY: Computer accuracy is very high. Due to the fact that it is an error
detecting machine, error in computer are due to human rather than technological
weakness. This brings in the notion of Gabbage In, Gabbage Out (GIGO). That is, if
we feed the computer with wrong data, we will receive wrong result.
d. AUTOMATIC: Computer is more than calculator where you need press the necessary
keys before an operation is performed. Here you just need to write a program into the
computer where instructions are transferred by the control unit for execution. The CPU
follows these instructions one after the other until it meet an instruction that say stop
execution.
e. DILIGENCE: Being a machine, computer does not suffer from human traits of
tiredness. It will still perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first
job.
f. VERSATILITY: The computer can perform four basic operation. It has the ability to
(i) pass information between itself and the external world through I/O devices, (ii)
moves data internally within the CPU, (iii) perform basic arithmetic operation, (iv)
perform operation of comparism.
 g. EFFICIENCY: It is known for enhancing efficiency in data processing environments,
offices, home etc. for its has the ability to process data quickly and produce reports
professionally.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computer can be classified according to

(a) Nature of data processed (Type)

(b) Usage (Purpose)

(c) Physical Structure (size)

(d) Generation

(a) Classification according to Nature of data processed

This is generally the way in which data can be represented within computer. The three types
are analog, digital and hybrid computers.

 Analog computers
Analog computers are computer that represent information in a continuous form. Examples are
slide rule and speedometer. This type of computers measure physical magnitude such as
temperature, pressure, voltage, speed, density, etc. The results are not always precise. Analog
computers are used for scientific and engineering purposes.

 Digital computers
These are computer that represent information in discrete or digital or binary form i.e. by a
coded set of electrical pulses. These computers represent numbers and letters as digits in a
certain code and is the type used in commercial data processing. Digital computers are popular
for both business and scientific data processing.

 Hybrid
The computer that combines the features of both the digital and analog computers is called the
hybrid computer. They are mostly used in scientific and technical application.

(b) Classification according to Usage

The digital computer system can further be subdivided into specific-purpose and general-
purpose computer. These express the purpose for which they were designed.

 General Purpose
These are computer designed to solved a wide variety of problems and can be used to carry out
different jobs or task. General purpose computer can perform any kind of jobs be it business
application or scientific application with equal efficiency simply by changing the application
programs stored in the main memory.

 Specific-Purpose
These are computer developed for a specific task or job and the programs are in-built in the
computer by the manufacturers. They cannot be used for any other jobs apart from the restricted
jobs. Examples are computers designed for air traffic control, weapon guidance systems,
robots, monitoring and control systems, satellite, space research control, etc.

(c) Classification according to physical structure

Computer can be identified by their size namely:

 Super computers : are the largest, fastest, most powerful, most expensive computers. They
are special purpose computers manufactured for applications in area like: Defense, space
mission explorations, nuclear physic, weather forecasting, oil exploration. Examples:
CRAY1, CRAY2, CRAY C, and CRAY X-MP.
 Mainframe computers: are usually sophisticated and large computer systems with high
powered and high memory capacity of more than 32 megabytes. The disk storage capacity
is usually in Gigabytes and the word size is between 48 and 64 bits. It uses a multi-user
operating system and has no limit to the number of users it serves, as they can serve between
100 and 1000 users; they are very expensive and encourage multi-tasking. It is mostly used
in large establishment such as Banks, Insurance companies, Hospitals, universities and
Commercial establishments. Examples of mainframe computers are IBM- 360/370 system,
NCR V-8800 system.
 Mini computer: encourages multi-tasking and multi-user operating system; uses magnetic
tape or disk and they are used by small firms and can accommodate about 100 users. Typical
word size for mini computers is about 32 bits, the RAM memory size was about 2MB.
Examples include HP 1000 and HP 3000, IBM 38, MV 400, PDP 11, VAX
750, VAX 6000, NCR 9300.
 Microcomputer: is a computer whose central processing unit (CPU) is based on a
microprocessor. They are the most popular, easy to use and smallest in size. It is a single
user system and single tasking; uses floppy disk and hard disk for storage. Examples are
IBM PC, Apple Macintosh. Microcomputer can be further classified in four as follows: (i)
Desktop computers, (ii) Laptop computers (iii) Notebook computers, (iv) Palmtop
computers.

(d) Classification according to Generations

● 1st Generation computer (1946-1958) : Makes use of vacuum tube or valve. It has very
large size; power consumption was too high and a lot of heat was generated; very expensive
to buy; slow in operation and often unreliable and required constraint maintenance;
operation instruction had to be fed into it manually. Example: ENIAC.
● 2nd Generation computer (1959 – 1964): The development of Transistor in Bell’s
Laboratory in U.S. led to the invention of computers in this generation. These use the
transistor as the basic building block in the logic component. They are smaller, faster and
cheaper; consumes less power and more reliable; have lower running cost and used more
sophisticated English-like computer languages e.g. COBOL, FORTRAN; External storage
on magnetic tape (or magnetic disks). Example: NCR 304.
● 3rd Generation computer (1964 – 1971): They are built with Integrated Circuits (ICs)
consisting of transistors, diode and resistor. It uses disk as storage media; introduce
timesharing, multiprogramming and operating system; more powerful, cheaper and smaller
in size; reduction in heat generation and require lesser power; their internal memory
increased and compatibility was introduced. Examples are IBM S360-S370 series.
● 4th Generation computer (1971 –1983): Uses microprocessor (an IC with Very Large
Scale Integration); very small in size; much more powerful in processing speed and storage
capacity; required minimal maintenance; uses menu-driven.
● 5th Generation computer: makes use of artificial intelligence i.e. ability to process the
natural language. The main attractions over previous computers are the speed and power.

COMPUTER ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION

 TEMPERATURE: majority of computers are utilized between temperatures ranging from

300 to 350C. Examples are computer system used in process control e.g. mining, steel plant,
etc.
 HUMIDITY: The presence of water vapour where computer is situated can affect the
system.
 DUST: The presence of dust greatly affects the accuracy of the system, so it should be
protected from dust.
 SHOCK: Due to the fragile nature of computer component and the computer itself, this
exposes them to smallest shock.
 POWER SUPPLY: Fluctuating andfailure of power supply greatly affect the computer
system thereby resulting in lost of data in the main memory and also destroy the computer.
 FIRE EXTINGUISHER: This is provided in computer installation in case of fire
outbreaks.

1.6 SOFTWARE

Software can be defined as the sets of instruction and procedures passed to the computer to
perform certain activities or tasks. That is, it is the set of instruction directed to a computer
system to perform a specific task. It is often called computer program. It is the program, which
direct the operations of computer systems. It is the invisible part of the computer system.
Without the software, the computer system is useless.

There are two types of software namely:

▪ System software
▪ Application software
(a) SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is sets of one or more programs designed to control and supervise the
operation and performance of a computer system. They are the software that acts as interface
between the hardware and the user or computer resources. The overall control of the hardware
operations and the user self-written programs is done by the system software. The computer
manufacturer is responsible for the development of systems software and therefore, they cannot
be modify or edit by the computer users.

The systems software may be divided into the following:

▪ Operating systems
▪ Utilities and service programs
▪ Translators
▪ Database Management System

(b) APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software or program is a computer program designed to help users perform a

certain kind of activity. Depending on the task(s) for which it was designed, an application
program can manipulate text, numbers, graphics or a combination of these elements.

Application software consists of a number of programs designed to perform specific tasks for
users.

OPERATING SYSTEMS

The operating system can be describe as a collection or a set of programs which operates the
computer and allow a number of programs to be run on the computer without human
intervention by an operator. It lies between the application software and the computer
hardware. The operating system has three main functions:

1. Manage the computer’s resources, such as the central processing unit, memory, disk-
drives and printer.
2. Establish a user interface
3. Provide services or applications software.

Other related functions include:

i. Job scheduling and traffic controller operation

ii. Input/output programming
iii. Protecting itself from the user, protecting the user from other user
iv. Secondary storage management
v. Calling other program into the computer’s memory
vi. To boot the computer system
 vii. Communication with the computer operator usually by means of console typewriter

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Single-user Operating System: This is a type of system that allows one user to work in a
computer at a time e.g.

i. MS-DOS: Micro Soft Disk Operating system

ii. CP/M: Control Program for micro computer
iii. OS/2: Operating system 2
iv. PC/DOS: Personal Computer Disk Operating System

Multi-user Operating System: This is a type of system that allows two or more users to share
the computer resources. i.e. Printer. Examples are:

i. PC/MOS: Personal Computer Multi-user Operating System

ii. AOS/DVS: Advance Operating System with Distributed Visual Storage
iii. XENIX: A Multi-user Multitasking Operating system developed by UNIX.

Network Operating System (NOS): This is an operating system that allows communication
between two or more computer users. It can be describe as a group of computer devices linked
together over transmissions so that information and resources can be shared .e.g. Novel
Netware.

It has its advantages which include:

i. NOS. supports data security

ii. NOS. supports troubleshooting i.e. Computer XY on the network failed to receive a
message intended for it.
iii. NOS. supports administrative control i.e. tracks the on-line hour’s numbers of
message to and from each computer.

UTILITIES AND LIBRARY PROGRAMS

These are programs which enable one to carryout certain standard functions within the system
such as copying files, sorting data, merging files, editing files, file maintenance e.t.c.

TRANSLATORS

These are programs used to convert programs written in other computer language into machine
language. The assembler, compiler or interpreters are all type of translator.

Assembler: An assembler translates a source program written in assembly language

into the machine language i.e.
 Source program Assembler program Machine language

Compiler: A translator that converts the symbolic statements of a high-level language

into computer executable machine language. It translates your entire program at one
time, i.e.

Source program Compiler Object program

Executable prog

Interpreter: Is a program that accepts a source program written in that language as

input and execute it. The difference between a compiler and an interpreter is that the
interpreter does not produce an object program to be executed; it executes the source
program itself. Also it translates the program line – by – line i.e.
Source program Interpreter Target program

Note: Debugging in programming means detecting, locating and correcting bugs (mistakes)
usually by running the program.

Microsoft Windows
Starting up a Computer
The process of starting up a computer system is listed below:
● Connect all parts of the computer and ensure they are well connected
● Remove all secondary storage disks from the disk drives
● Switch on the power socket on the wall followed by the ON switch button on the
computer and the monitor
● Wait for few seconds for the computer to complete the booting process.

Components of Windows Desktop

The Start Menu and Start Button are user interface elements used in the versions of the
Microsoft Windows operating systems. The Start Button provides a central launching point for
application and tasks.
Traditionally, the Start Menu provides a customizable nested list of programs for the user to
launch, as well as a list of most recently opened documents, a way to find files and get help,
and access to the system settings. Later enhancements via Windows Desktop Update included
access to special folders like “My Documents,” “Favourites” (browser bookmarks), etc.
Windows XP's Start Menu was expanded to encompass various My Documents folders
(including My Music and My Pictures), and transplanted other items like My Computer and
My Network Places from the Windows desktop.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
 1. List the steps involved in starting up a computer

Connect all parts of the computer and ensure they are well connected
Remove all secondary storage disks from the disk drives
Switch on the power socket on the wall followed by the ON switch button on the computer
and
the monitor

Wait for few seconds for the computer to complete the booting process

2. What kind of operating system environment is the screen below?

Windows Operating System

3. What are the features you can see on the screen above?

The Start Menu

Start Button
Icons
Taskbar
 4. Describe the screen shown below?

The screen below shows “My Documents,” “Favorites” (browser bookmarks), etc. Windows XP's
Start Menu was expanded to encompass various My Documents folders (including My Music and
My Pictures), and transplanted other items like My Computer and My Network Places from the
Windows desktop.

5. Briefly describe five characteristics of computer.

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while performing
mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second.
The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data inconsistency
or inaccuracy.
 Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and accuracy.
It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of
human beings.

Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same
accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set of
input any number of times, we will get the same result.

Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual intervention.

Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data. Secondary storage
are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.
 6. Mention the two basic types of operating systems and give three examples of each.

. Single-user Operating System: This is a type of system that allows one user to work in a
computer at a time e.g.
i. MS-DOS: Micro Soft Disk Operating system
ii. CP/M: Control Program for micro computer
iii. OS/2: Operating system 2
iv. PC/DOS: Personal Computer Disk Operating System

Multi-user Operating System: This is a type of system that allows two or more users to share the
computer resources. i.e. Printer. Examples are:
i. PC/MOS: Personal Computer Multi-user Operating System
ii. AOS/DVS: Advance Operating System with Distributed Visual Storage
iii. XENIX: A Multi-user Multitasking Operating system developed by UNIX.
Section 2 question A-F
 SECTION TWO

APPLICATION SOFTWARES (MICROSOFT WORD AND MICROSOFT EXCEL)

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software or program is a computer program designed to help and users perform a
certain kind of activity. Depending on the task(s) for which it was designed, an application
program can manipulate text, numbers, graphics or a combination of these elements.
Application software consists of a number of programs designed to perform specific tasks for
users.

Classification of Application Software

(i) Commercial Packages: These are packages developed by software houses.

Commercially produced applications software falls into two main categories:

▪ Application specific / special – purpose packages: These are packages designed for
a specific task such as a company payroll program used to store employee details and
generates details of pay for each individual employee.

▪ Generalized packages / General – purpose packages: which may be used for a wide
variety of purposes. An example of a general-purpose package is a word processor, a
program which allows the computer to be used somewhat like an electronic typewriter
and is therefore appropriate to numerous text processing tasks. Other examples are
spreadsheets, databases, graphics package including desktop publishing (DTP), etc.
What characterizes this software type as belonging to the category of general-purpose
packages is that they have been designed to be very flexible and applicable to a wide
range of different tasks. For instance, a spreadsheet can be used easily for simple
accountancy procedures as for stock control; a database can be used with equal facility
to store information on technical papers from journals, stock item details and personnel
details for payroll purposes.

Microsoft word
Let us consider an office scene. Many letters are typed in the office. The officer dictates a letter.
The typist first types a draft copy of the letter. The officer goes through it to check mistakes
regarding spelling errors, missing words, etc. and suggests corrections. The typist changes the
letter as suggested by the officer. This is a simple example of word processing. First let us
define Word processing and Word processor.

Word Processor:this is a software package that enables a computer user to create, edit, print
and save documents for future retrieval and reference.
Word Processing: this is an act of using the computer or other electronic equipment for the
manipulation of text which involves creation, editing, storage and printing.

There are several Word processor packages that can be used in Windows operating systems.
They are:
 ✔ Microsoft Office Word (MS Word)
✔ WordPerfect
✔ OpenOffice.org Writer
✔ Ability Write
✔ WordPad

Features of Word Processors

Most Word Processor available today allows more than just creating and editing documents.
They have wide range of other tools and functions, which are used in formatting the documents.
The following are the main features of a Word Processor:

1. Wordwrap: automatic arrangement of text in lines of specified length without the

necessity of touching the return key.
2. Justification: automatic alignment of text to both the left and right margins.
3. Indents: the setting of temporary margins within a document differing from the
primary margins used.
4. Insertion: the entry of new text within previously typed material without erasing the
existing material.
5. Overstriking: the substitution of new text for old by typing over the old text.
6. Deletion: erasure of text from the screen, or of whole documents from the disk.
7. Search and Replace: moving directly to specified words or parts of words within a
document and replacing them with different words or word portions.
8. Copying or Cutting: the duplication or moving of blocks of text within a document.
9. Pagination: automatic division of a document into pages of specified numbers of
lines.
10. Page Numbering: automatic sequential numbering of pages.

Using the Word Processing Package

 We learnt previously, that there are various types of Word processing packages. Now we are
going to learn how to use the Word processor. We will utilize the most commonly used word
processor package called MS-Word 2007.

MS-Word 2007 Environment

The MS-Word 2007 environment has a very user-friendly environment. Its features are clearly
named, organized and easily assessable. Microsoft Office 2007 also introduces a feature called
"Live Preview", which temporarily applies formatting on the focused text or object when you
place your mouse cursor over any formatting button. The temporary formatting is removed
when the mouse pointer is moved from the button. This allows users to have a preview of how
the option would affect the appearance of the object, without actually applying it.

Help

Ribbon

Figure: MS-Word 2007 Environment

The description of each of the feature of the MS-Word environment is explained below:
1. Office Button: it contains a menu of file-related commands. When you click the Office
Button you will see the available commands such as New, Open, Save, Save As etc. To
select a command, click on it.

2. Quick Access Tool Bar: it provides a set of frequently used commands. The default options
are to save a file, to undo the last action, and to repeat your most recent action. You can
add other options by clicking on the drop down menu of beside the Quick Access Tool Bar.

More options

3. Ribbon: it is a panel that houses a fixed arrangement of command buttons and icons. It
organizes the commands as a set of tabs; each grouping into relevant commands.

4. Ribbon Tabs: it provide you with a set of tools that are relevant to what you are currently
doing. In the example above, the Hometab contains formatting and editing options.

5. Title Bar: it displays the name of the program and the name of the current document. If
you haven’t named the document yet, then it will be called something like Document1.

6. Window Controls: they areused to minimize, resize or close a window. This feature is in
every program that you open in windows. To minimize means to reduce the window unto
the task bar. Resize changes the size of the window to fill the screen or to appear as part of
the screen. You click close to end the program.
Resize

Mini

Close

7. Vertical Scroll Bar: thisis used to scroll up and down the page. You can also click on the
little down arrow below the scrollbar to move down the page. If your page is wider than
 the screen display, then you will also see a Horizontal scrollbar across the bottom of the
window.

8. Status and Information Bar: it displays useful information about your document, such as
the page count and number of words. You can right-click the status bar to show u more
options of more information you will like to view on the status bar. Check the items you
want to see; uncheck those you don’t want to see on the status bar.

Status bar options

9. Help: at the top right corner of your MS Word screen, you’ll see a small blue circle
containing a question mark. Just click on the question mark to open the MS Word Help
window. You can also access the Help window by pressing the [F1] key on your keyboard.
To get help on a specific topic, type a word or phrase in the blank area at the top of the
window and then click the Search button; alternatively, you can click on any of the Help
topics listed in the window. Click the X in the top right corner to close the Help window.
 10. Text Area: Just below the ruler is a large area called the text area. You type your document
in the text area. The blinking vertical line in the upper-left corner of the text area is the
cursor. It marks the insertion point. As you type, your text displays at the cursor location.

Text Ar e

Cu

Using MS-Word 2007

In this section you are going to learn how to use the MS-Word 2007 processor to perform the
some tasks, as follows:

1. Open MS-Word 2007:

To start the MS-Word 2007 program, follow these steps:

 i. At the left corner of the task bar in the Windows Desktop, click the Windows Start
Button.

Start Button

Note that the illustration above was done in Windows 7. The Start button for other
Windows Operating Systems like Windows XP and Windows Vista are located in the
same place. So you can still follow the steps – they follow the same path.

ii. In the Start Menu, as shown below, click the entry for All Programs

All Programs

iii. In the displayed list of all the programs in the computer, scroll down to Microsoft
Office folder. Click it; and it will show you the list of all Microsoft packages installed
in your system.
All Programs

iv. Then click Microsoft Office Word 2007;and then, the program opens.

2. Create a Document
To create a new document in MS-Word 2007, follow these steps:
i. Click the office button.
ii. In the left pane of the displayed menu, click Open.

iii. A dialog box pops up. From the middle pane, choose Blank document from the
two options: Blank document and New blog post.
 iv. Now, click Create in the bottom of the right pane in the dialog box, and the new
document opens.

3. Edit a Document:
In the newly opened document, type the following text.

The Office button, located on in the top-left of the window, replaces the File menu and
provides access to functionality common across all Office applications, plus including
opening, saving, grinding, printing, and sharing a file. It can also close the application.
Using the Office Button in MS-Word 2007:

i. Click in front of the word “Office” on the first line to insert the cursor.
ii. Press the space bar on the keyboard, and type “2007”.
iii. Insert the cursor in front of the word “in”on the first line and press Backspace, on
the keyboard three times to remove the word and the space after it.
iv. On the third line, as seen above, click in after “applications,” and press Delete five
times to remove the word “plus”.
v. Double click the word “grinding” on the third line. The word is selected. Then
press Delete on the keyboard.
vi. Afterwards, press together, the CTRL key and Z key on the keyboard i.e CTRL+Z
to undo the action just performed. Alternatively click the blue arrow inside the
Quick Access Tool Bar that turns backwards. To redo the action, i.e. in order for
 the word “grinding” to be deleted again, click the blue arrow turning upwards in
the Quick Access Tool Bar. The keyboard shortcut for redo is CTRL+Y.
vii. Click in front of “Using the Office Button in MS-Word 2007:” hold the SHIFT
button on the keyboard and press the forward arrow button till you reach the “2007:”
Right-click on the selected word. In the displayed menu, chose cut. Right-click in
the beginning of the paragraph i.e. before “The Office Button...” and chose Paste.
Note that Cut will delete the selected word; while copy will still leave the selected
word in place.
viii. To select the whole paragraph, triple click any word in the paragraph.
ix. To select a body of text containing several paragraphs, press CTRL+A on the
keyboard.
4. Format Document
You may want to change the appearance of the text in the Word document to your taste.
Formatting is the term used to describe this phenomenon. Carry out the following steps
to learn formatting:
i. Select the text you wish to format.
ii. In the Ribbon, make sure that the Home tab is selected. Move your mouse
pointer to the menu for changing the font style. Note that Font Style is the same
as Font face.

Font face

iii. In the dropdown menu, move your mouse pointer over the different font faces,
and the live preview feature of MS-Word 2007 will show you how each look.
Pick any font of choice.
iv. In the same way you can change the size of your text when you click in the
menu for font size, located just before the font face.
v. You can Bolden the selected text, italicize or underline when you click on B, I
and U respectively. Also to draw a line across your text, click abc. These
buttons are located just below the menu for font face.
 5. Save a Document
After you have finish editing and formatting your work in MS-Word, it will be very
appropriate to save it in your computer or some external storage device; so that you can
access it later. To do this:
i. Click the Office Button.
ii. In the displayed menu select Save As. Note that you will use Save option when you
are working on a document that had been previously saved in your computer. On
the other hand, you will use Save As either when you saving a new document that
have been saved before or you want to save a copy of the document in another
location.
iii. Once you click Save As, the Save As dialog box pops up as shown below:

Location
to save
file

File
name
text
box

iv. In the file name text box, type the name you want to use to save the document and
in the left pane of the dialog box, you can choose the location to save you file.
v. Then click save.

6. Retrieve a Document
In a situation whereby you need to open an existing word document that you have created
before or that you collected from somebody, you can open such a document in MS-Word
2007 by following these steps:
 i. Click the office button.
ii. In the displayed menu, Click Open. In the Open dialog box, click the location of the
file from the file location section in the left pane. You may need to scroll down to
see other locations.

iii. Once you have located the file, click on the file and then click Open in the right
bottom section of the Open dialog box.
iv. Then the file opens.

7. Print a Document
After you have finished working on your document, you may want to have the document
as a hardcopy. Printing involves the following steps:
i. Click the Office Button.
ii. In the displayed menu, click print.
iii. In the Print dialog box that pops up, choose the available printer from the Printer
name text box as labeled below:
Printer name

iv. Then click OK to print.

8. Close MS-Word Document

In this case you may want to close the present document you are working with, but do not
want to close MS-Word 2007 program, take the following steps:
i. Click the Office button.
ii. In the displayed menu choose the last option in the left pane – CLOSE. Note that
to close the program you should click on Exit Word on the bottom right pane of the
menu displayed.
2.6 Microsoft Excel
🔾🔾 Definition of a Spreadsheet

a. A spreadsheet is a program that manipulates number and string data in rows

and columns

🔾🔾 Advantages of a Spreadsheet

a. Main advantage of using a spreadsheet program is that it enables you to

perform simple row-and-column arithmetic

🔾🔾 Introduction to Excel

a. Excel is a spreadsheet program with various components

b. Rows-are referenced by the row number

⮚ 1:1 is the reference to the first row

c. Columns-are referenced by the column name such as “A”

d. Cell-is an intersection of a row and a column

⮚ It can contain various types of data – numeric/character

⮚ A cell is referenced by the combination of a column and row name.

E.g., first cell A1 is in column A and row 1

🔾🔾 Worksheet-contains rows and columns of cells. A sample worksheet is displayed

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🔾🔾 The Microsoft Excel Window includes the following components:

● Rows: Rows are referenced by the numbers.

● Columns: Columns are referenced by the alphabets.

● Cell: A cell is an intersection of a row and a column. Cells can contain various
types of data. A cell is referenced by the name of the column and row. For
example, the first cell A1 is in column A and row 1.

● Worksheet: A worksheet contains rows and columns and their intersection

forms the cells. A worksheet consists of 65,536 rows and 256 columns.

● Workbook: A workbook consists of worksheets. It is also referred to as an

Excel file. A workbook can be defined as a set of worksheets.
 ● Title bar: A title bar displays the name of the current workbook.

● Menu bar: A menu bar consists of various menus, such as File, Edit, and
View.

● Toolbar: A toolbar contains buttons that provide easy access to the commands
and functions of Excel.

● Formula bar: A formula bar contains tools for creating and editing formulas.

● Name box: A name box displays the name of a selected cell and a range of
cells.

● Task Pane: A task pane serves as an additional navigation tool substituting

the frequently used dialog boxes. The task pane appears each time you start
Excel.

● Horizontal scroll bar: A horizontal scroll bar serves as a tool to view the left
or right part of the worksheet that is not displayed on the screen.

● Vertical scroll bar: A vertical scroll bar serves as a tool to view the top or
bottom part of the worksheet that is not displayed on the screen.

● Sheet Tab: A sheet tab helps to navigate between worksheets in a workbook.

Starting Excel
🔾🔾 To start Excel, we perform the following
Click Start � Programs � Microsoft Excel

🔾🔾 A blank workbook is opened.

 Creating a Workbook
🔾🔾 Task 1: Identify the type of data to be inserted in the worksheet

● Before you decide the type of data to be inserted in the worksheet you should
know about the methods of representing information in a worksheet

● You can represent information in the following manner in a worksheet:

⮚ Data - includes normal text, numbers and date

⮚ Charts - graphically represent data in a worksheet

⮚ Pictures - pictorially represent data in a worksheet

🔾🔾 Task 2: Determine the type of data manipulation required

● You can perform the following types of data manipulation:

⮚ Generate a series of data

 ⮚ Perform calculations on data

🔾🔾 Task 3: Determine whether you have to generate a series of data, e.g.,

● Text - includes series like Product'1, Product2, Products

● Number - includes series like 1, 2, 3

● Date - includes series like Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and January,

February, March

🔾🔾 Task 4: Determine whether you have to perform calculations on data

● Types of calculations include:

⮚ Mathematical - includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division

⮚ Statistical - includes finding average, maximum and minimum values

⮚ Financial

You can use formulas and functions to perform calculations in a worksheet

To Create a Workbook
🔾🔾 To create a workbook, perform the following steps:

1. Select the File � New command (New Workbook task pane is displayed on
the right-hand side of the screen)

The New
Workbook
task pane
displays
the
following
sections:

Open
a
 2. Select the Blank Workbook option from the New section. This opens a new
workbook, as shown:

🔾🔾 Alternatively, you can hold down the Ctrl key and press the N key to create a
workbook.

By default, the first cell A1 in a new worksheet is active when you create a new workbook.

Opening a Workbook
🔾🔾 When you start Excel, it opens a blank workbook

🔾🔾 To open an existing workbook, perform the following steps:

1. Select the File � Open command from Microsoft Excel Window to display
the Open dialog box

2. From the Look in drop-down list, select the folder that contains the file you
want to open

An alternative way to browse to the required location of the file is to click the Up one
level icon ()
 3. Select the required file(s) from the list of files displayed in the dialog box

4. Click the Open button to open the selected file(s)

To open multiple adjacent files, select the first file in the block from the Open dialog box,
press the Shift key, and select the last file

Saving the Workbook

🔾🔾 Saving a workbook is similar as in saving any file in microsoft office (word, power
point, etc)

🔾🔾 After adding data to a workbook, you need to save it for future use

🔾🔾 Steps to save a workbook

1. Select the File � Save command from the Microsoft Excel Window (Save As
dialog box is displayed)

2. From the Save in list, select the folder in which you want to save the
workbook

3. Enter a file name in the File name text box of the Save As dialog box

4. Select the type of file that has to be saved from the Save as type drop-down
list

5. Click the Save button to save the workbook

Alternatively, you can hold down the Ctrl key and press the S key to save a workbook
 Closing the Workbook
🔾🔾 You need to close a workbook after you finish working on it

🔾🔾 To close a workbook, perform the following steps:

1. Select the File�Close command.

⮚ If the workbook has any unsaved changes, the Microsoft Excel

message box appears as shown in the following figure:

2. Click the Yes button to save the changes before closing the workbook. Click
the No button to close the workbook without saving the changes. Click the
Cancel button to return to the active worksheet without saving the workbook.

Performing Operations on Data

🔾🔾 You can perform the following operations on the data in worksheets and workbooks:

● Entering data

● Moving and Copying data

● Deleting data

🔾🔾 You can enter text, numbers, and date and time entries in a worksheet

🔾🔾 Entering Text and Numbers

● To enter text or numbers in a single cell, perform the following steps:

1. Select cell in which you want to enter the text or number

2. Type data in the cell

⬥ As you type in the cell, the contents of the cell also appear in
the Formula bar

3. Press the Enter key

 ● If you want to edit the data of the cell, double-click on the cell or press the F2
key

🔾🔾 Entering Date and Time

● To enter date and time in a cell, perform the following steps:

1. Select the cell where the date and time is to be entered and type the
required date and time.

2. There are many formats to enter the date, the most common are date
with hyphen or slashes, for example, 08-10-2006 or 08/10/2006

● To enter the current date, select the required cell and hold down the Ctrl key
and press the ; key.

To enter the current time, select the required cell and hold down the combination of Ctrl and
Shift keys and then press the : key.

🔾🔾 Moving and Copying Data

● You can move data from one location to another. You can move data by using
the Edit menu or by using the shortcut key

● To move the contents of selected cells, perform the following steps:

1. Select the range of cells having data to be moved

2. Select the Edit � Cut command

⬥ In case the cell needs to be moved to a location across

worksheet or across workbook, select the destination
worksheet.

3. Select the cell in the destination worksheet

4. Select the Edit � Paste command to move the selected contents

● Alternatively, select the required cells, and drag the border of the selected cells
to the desired location in the current worksheet

🔾🔾 Copying Data in a Worksheet

● When you want the same data to be present at several locations, it is best to
copy this data rather than type it at each location

● You can copy data within a worksheet, across worksheets, across workbooks,
or even to and from other applications

● You can copy a part of the cell’s content or the entire cell. To copy the content
you can use menu command or by using the shortcut key.
 ● The steps to copy data to another location in the same worksheet are:

1. Select the range of cells to be copied

2. Select Edit � Copy command to copy the contents of the selected

range of cells

⬥ In case the cell needs to be pasted to a location across

worksheet or across workbook, select the destination worksheet

3. Select the cell in the destination worksheet

4. Select the Edit � Paste command to copy the selected contents

● A Paste Options button will appear next to the pasted data

Alternatively, select the required cells, hold down the Ctrl key, and drag the selected cells to
the desired location in the current worksheet

Using Formula and Functions

🔾🔾 At times there may be a need to perform some calculations on some numerical data
that is represented in an Excel worksheet

🔾🔾 To perform calculations, a formula can be used

🔾🔾 Formulas in Excel begin with an equal sign (=)

🔾🔾 E.g., =A1+A2+A3 is a formula to add the contents of cells A1, A2, and A3

The Formula bar is a bar at the top of the Excel window that displays the formula of the
active cell

E
E nter
nter For
Formul
a

🔾🔾 The Formula bar is displayed by default. You can choose not to view the Formula Bar

To stop viewing the Formula Bar, select View � Formula Bar command. You can later
view the Formula Bar by selecting the same option.

🔾🔾 Entering Formulas in a Worksheet

 ● A formula can be typed in a cell to calculate and display the result of the
formula in that cell. Eg., in a cell A1 a formula given as =B4+C5 adds the cell
contents of cell B4 and cell C5 and display the result in cell A1

● The formula specified must be preceded by an equal to (=) sign otherwise the
calculation will not be performed

● Listed below are some examples of formulas:

⮚ =35 * 44

⮚ =23 ^ 2

⮚ =C5 -C3

⮚ =C1+C2+C3+C4+C5

⮚ =S3 - D6 * 44 / 3

🔾🔾 An important and useful feature of Excel is that it automatically recalculates the value
of the cell that contains a formula if the values of the cells to which the formula refers
to change. For example, the formula =C3+C4 in cell C5 is recalculated if the values of
cells C3 or C4 change.

Functions
🔾🔾 Excel provides many functions - mathematical, statistical, logical, etc.

🔾🔾 Mathematical functions

● Sum(), Product()

● E.g, to calculate the sum of values stored in cells C1 to C5, use

=SUM(C1:C5).

🔾🔾 Statistical functions

● Average(), Max(), Min(), Count(), Round()

● Eg., to find the average of the values in cells C1 to C5, use

=AVERAGE(C1:C5).

🔾🔾 Date and time functions

● Now(), Today(), Date(), Time()

● Eg., =TIME(9,0,0) returns 9:00 A.M and =TIME(20,15,30) returns 8:15 P.M.

🔾🔾 Logical functions
 ● If(), Not()

E.g., For the formula =If(B2>70, “A”, “B”), a grade A is displayed if marks are above 70
and a grade B is displayed if marks are below or equal to 70.

C6 =
Practical Exercises on
Excel N180.00

a) Create a spreadsheet with the following C7 =

entries: B2 = CHICKEN INN N200.00

A4 = FOOD ITEM C8 =

A5 = PORTION N170.50

CHIPS A6 = SADZA

& STEW A7 = RICE

& CHICKEN A8 =

HAMBURGER

A9 = SOFT

DRINKS C10 =

SUB TOTAL

C11 = SUB TAX @

15% C12 = TOTAL

COST

B4 =

QUANTITY B5

=3

B6 = 1

B7 = 1

B8 = 2

B9 = 3

C4 = UNIT

COST C5 =

N135.00
C9 = N65.00

D4 = COST
PERFORM THE FOLLOWING:

i. Make B2 bold, underlined and size 16.

ii. Make all headings, i.e. A4 – D4, bold.

iii. Put borders on all entries of the sheet.

iv. Save document as Qn2data and print it.

b) Input the formulae for the cost price of each item D5 – D9

c) Input the formulae for the calculated amounts for subtotals, sales tax and total costin D10 –
D12 respectively.

d) Save the document as chicken and print it.

MS Word Practical Exercises

Type the passage below, font size 12 point, & save it as virus.

Protect Yourself: Computer Viruses

Viruses, Trojan horses & worms are human-made software programs created
specifically to wreak havoc on personal computers and networks. The chance of
contracting one of these computer viruses over the Internet has increased dramatically.
In fact, unless you run anti-virus software, your computer will almost certainly become
infected. Typically, you get a virus by opening infected e-mail attachments.

Questions

1. Change the font type of the whole document to Courier or Courier new
2. Center the heading, underline it, increase the font size to 20 & change the font
type to Tahoma.
3. Perform a word count and type the number of words at the bottom of the
passage.
4. Double-space the paragraph.
5. Replace every occurrence of the word computer with the word PC & every
occurrence of the word viruses with the word WORMS.
6. Make the word worms bold & italic.
7. Save it as virus2 & produce a printout.

ANSWER THE FOLOWING QUESTIONS INSIDE THIS WORKBOOK

1. What does each of the following screen shots indicate in MS-word 2007
 .

.INTERNET EXLORER
WINDOW MEDIA PLAYER
FILE EXPLORER
Internet explorer: Internet Explorer is a series of graphical web browsers developed by Microsoft and included in the
Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, starting in 1995. It was first released as part of the add-on package Plus! for
Windows 95 that year

Window media layer: is a media player and media library application developed by Microsoft that is used for playing audio,
video and viewing images on personal computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system, as well as on Pocket PC
and Windows Mobile-based devices.

File explorer: previously known as Windows Explorer, is a file manager application that is included with releases of the
Microsoft Windows operating system from Windows 95 onwards. It provides a graphical user interface for accessing the file
systems.

B.
----------------Text Area
To start the MS-Word 2007 program, follow these steps:

i. At the left corner of the task bar in the Windows Desktop, click the Windows Start Button.

Start Button
Note that the illustration above was done in Windows 7. The Start button for other Windows
Operating Systems like Windows XP and Windows Vista are located in the same place. So you
can still follow the steps – they follow the same path.
ii. In the Start Menu, as shown below, click the entry for All Programs

All Programs
iii. In the displayed list of all the programs in the computer, scroll down to Microsoft Office
folder. Click it; and it will show you the list of all Microsoft packages installed in your system.

iv. Then click Microsoft Office Word 2007;and then, the program opens.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

All Programs
 C.
C.
Create a Document To create a new document in MS-Word 2007, follow these steps:
i. Click the office button.
ii. In the left pane of the displayed menu, click Open.

iii. A dialog box pops up. From the middle pane, choose Blank document from the two options: Blank document and New blog post

D.
D.. All Programs
i. Click the office button.
ii. In the left pane of the displayed menu, click Open.

iii. A dialog box pops up. From the middle pane, choose Blank document from the two options: Blank document and New
blog post.

iv. Now, click Create in the bottom of the right pane in the dialog box, and the new document opens.
 E.

You may want to change the appearance of the text in the Word document to your taste. Formatting is the term used to describe this phenomenon. Carry
out the following steps to learn formatting:

i. Select the text you wish to format.

ii. In the Ribbon, make sure that the Home tab is selected. Move your mouse pointer to the menu for changing the font style. Note that Font Style is the
same as Font face.

iii. In the dropdown menu, move your mouse pointer over the different font faces, and the live preview feature of MS-Word 2007 will show you how each
look. Pick any font of choice.

iv. In the same way you can change the size of your text when you click in the menu for font size, located just before the font face.

v. You can Bolden the selected text, italicize or underline when you click on B, I and U respectively. Also to draw a line across your text, click abc. These
buttons are located just below the menu for font face.

Name

F.

After you have finish editing and formatting your work in MS-Word, it will be very appropriate to
save it in your computer or some external storage device; so that you can access it later. To do
this:
i. Click the Office Button.
ii. In the displayed menu select Save As. Note that you will use Save option when you are working
on a document that had been previously saved in your computer. On the other hand, you will use
Save As either when you saving a new document that have been saved before or you want to save a
copy of the document in another location.
iii. Once you click Save As, the Save As dialog box pops up as shown below:

iv. In the file name text box, type the name you want to use to save the document and in the left
pane of the dialog box, you can choose the location to save you file.

v. Then click save

Cell
 G.

H.

Row
1. What does each of the following screen implies in MS Excel
A.
 B.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sheet

Horizontal

C.
 D.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

E.

F.

S
Vertical Scrollba r t

a
t
u
s
B
a
r
 SEC

TION THREE

What is a Database? DATABASE

MANAGEME

NT SYSTEM

A database is an organized collection of related information or data.

● A database can consist of a single data file (flat file database) or multiple files that can
be linked or related to each other (relational database).
● Within each file, data for a particular subject or entry is known as a record. A record
is typically displayed as a row in a tabular display of data.
● Each item of information within each record is known as a field or variable. A field is
typically displayed as a column in a tabular display of data.

How to Design/Define Your Data Structure

● Before entering data into a database file, the file's structure must be defined first.
Exactly how this is done varies by software type, but the following components are
available in good database software:
● Name of field -- a single word name used as a shorthand reference for a field
✔ Keep it short (8 characters or under is recommended, though not required)
✔ Avoid special characters such as #,-,*,... While some software will allow these
special characters in a name, others will not, creating problems when you
transfer data between formats. Avoid spaces in a name for the same reason. Use
an underbar (_) in place of a space.
● Label for field -- (optional) a longer description of data stored in the field.
● Type of field -- there are 2 basic types of fields that dictate the manner in which data is
stored, character and numeric. Other field formats are often available, too. (e.g. date).
o Numeric -- containing only numbers
o Text or Character -- allowing letters, numbers, other keyboard characters
o Other field types:
▪ Logical -- Yes/No or True/False
▪ Date -- containing dates in a specified format (in some programs dates
are stored as character data, in others, numeric)
● Format for field -- specifies the number of digits or spaces available for entering and
displaying data, or other specialized formats.
o Numeric formats specify the number of digits before and after the decimal
place
o Character formats typically define the number of spaces or columns needed
o Date and Date/Time formats specify the order (month/day vs day/month) and
presentation of data, e.g., 07JUN2001 vs 06/07/2001
● Data type: It is necessary to define the data type for each field.
 Introduction to MS Access
Access is the Microsoft’s database software package. It is a powerful relational database
management system that is designed for use on PCs.

● It can be used to create databases with multiple linked files; specialized forms for data entry
and viewing of data; computation of new variables; creation of new files from combinations
of merging and subsetting of other files; development of summary reports.
● MS ACCESS is designed to link with MS Excel and MS Word for easy sharing of files and
creation of reports across formats.
● Additionally MS ACCESS permits the creation of forms for web-acquisition of data, as
well as reports in html format that can be readily posted on the web.
● As a user of Access, you first define – by naming – a database or project.
▪ This will create a file with an .mdb (microsoft data base) extension, in the directory
you select.

Within a project you can then create:

▪ Tables: flat files for storing data, where columns represent fields or variables, and rows
contain data on a particular subject.
▪ Queries: sets of criteria for subsetting, merging or computing with data from your tables
to create new tables with summary results, or for use in creating reports.
▪ Forms: formats for entering and displaying data on the screen. Forms can be used to
access and enter or display data in more than 1 table as you move through a
questionnaire.
▪ Reports: are used to display summary results from data in tables or queries.
▪ Pages: web-pages for accessing / entering data through the internet.
▪ Macros: sets of actions that are stored as a unit, and can be applied within forms, queries
or reports.
▪ Modules: sets of programming statements (visual basic) that are stored together to
perform a set of actions. Can be used to run routine sets of pre-written queries and
reports.
● In this course we will focus on the development of TABLES and FORMS.
 How to Create a Table
Step 1: Launch MS Access and open a new project

FILE > NEW > BLANK DATABASE

Step 2: TIP - Begin by selecting “create table in design view”

▪ Click CREATE TABLE IN DESIGN VIEW

▪ ENTER
Step 3: Enter the information on your “key” variable. This is also your linking variable that
you would use if you had multiple tables.

In this little example, the “key” or “linking” variable is not so relevant because we will be
creating just one table (meaning that, actually, there are not multiple tables to link).
Nevertheless, this step should be followed anyway.

● FIELD NAME - Type id. .

▪ DATA TYPE - Click on the little drop down menu at the upper right. From the drop
down menu, select number
▪ FIELD PROPERTIES - This is at the bottom of your screen. You will be positioned
in the tab called “GENERAL”. Make the following selections
▪ Field size: Long integer
▪ Decimal places: 0
▪ Caption: ID
▪ Required: Yes
▪ Indexed: Yes (No duplicates)
▪ “Key” icon - Click on the little “key” icon to tell Access that this is your “key”
variable
Step 4: Now enter the data structure information on all your other variables.

For each of your variables, you will enter 3 pieces of information.

● FIELD NAME - Type in your variable name here. Remember to choose variable names
that are meaningful and short.
▪ DATA TYPE - Click on the little drop down menu to the right of the field name. Once
this is selected, look at the bottom of your screen. A set of additional choices is available
under “field properties”.
▪ Field size (affects storage requirements -- # bytes) for both character and numeric data.
▪ Default value – a value automatically entered, unless you overtype it. Tip – A zero is
sometimes displayed as default for numeric data, and typically you will not want this.
Use the backspace to have a field left empty as a default.
▪ Required – use with care – place a requirement on all essential data, such as ID fields.
Overuse is a problem – you will not be allowed to save and exit data if you have left
required fields empty.
▪ DESCRIPTION - This where you type in your variable label.

Step 5: Save your table.

FILE > SAVE AS Table1

Click enter

Click on the “x” at the upper right to close.

How to Create a Form

The next step is creating a form for data entry.

● While you can enter data directly into the table you have created, you can gain much
more control of data entry by creating a form.
● Forms give you the option of creating a data entry page that looks something like the
data collection form itself.
● This can be a great aid in keeping your place on the form as you enter data from a long
and complex form. It allows the option of displaying additional text or instructions on-
screen as you enter data.

Forms also allow you to enter data into more than one table or data file, from a single form.

Step 1: Start your form by selecting “forms” from the panel at left. Then choose “create form
by using wizard”

FORMS > “create form by using wizard”

Step 2: From the drop down list of tables/queries, choose the table that corresponds to the
form you are now creating

● You can then open the form in design view and add text, and move fields around, create
separate pages to group display on the screen, and other features.
● Design view gives you a toolbox with special features such as check boxes, and other
features that allow mouse actions for entry of data, in addition to entering text or
numbers.
Step 4: Choose the variables (“fields”) that you want to include on your form.

Step 5: Choose a layout for your form

The form wizard then “walks” you through some design choices, specifically form layout,
background appearance, naming, etc.

How to Enter Data

We’re ready to enter data! The entered data will populate designed TABLE.

Step 1: Launch MS Access and select designed form

MS Access will show you your data entry form ready for you to use:

Step 2: Enter your data

How to move to the next form for data entry:

At the bottom of the screen, locate a forward arrow - CLICK

Step 3: Save and Exit

Click on the X at the upper right of the forms window.

Practical Questions
1. Create a database called STAFF SALARIES
2. Create a table within the database called HIGH GRADE SALARIES with the
following details (i.e. surname, firstname, ministry, department, personnel number,
gender and salary), ten (10) records & produce a print out.
3. Insert a column AGES after gender.
4. Change FIRST NAME to CHRISTIAN NAME.
5. Delete one record
6. Sort in ascending order by salaries.
7. Save as new salaries and produce another printout.
8. Design a columnar & tabular report extracting the following; Surname, Christian
name, Ministry, Department, Salary. Save as salaries & produce a print out.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS INSIDE THIS WORKBOOK

1. Given the following fields, Name, ID Number, Age, Salary, Address. What are the
data types as it appears in MS Access.

Alphanumeric data because is a description of data that is both

letters and numbers. For example, "1a2b3c" is a short string of
alphanumeric characters.

2. Create a database of 5 records for the given fields in question 1 above.

3. Extract a custom report consisting of the ID number, age and Salary.

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 SECTION FOUR

STATISTICAL PACKAGE

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL PACKAGES

There are many statisticalpackages (Stata, SPSS, SAS, Splus, etc.)
Statistical packages can be used for
 Analysis
 Data Manipulation
 Data Management
Different statistical packageshave different strengths

STATISTICAL PAKAGE FOR THE SOCIAL SCIENCE (SPSS) AT A GLANCE

In 1968 at Stanford University, Norman H. Nie, a social scientist and doctoral candidate, C.
Hadlai (Tex) Hull, who has just completed master of business administration, and Dale H.
Bent, a doctoral candidate in operations research, developed a software system based on the
idea of using statistics to turn raw data into information that is essential for decision-making.
This statistical software system was called SPSS, the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences. This software is the root of present day PASW, the Predictive Analytics Software.

Nie, Hull and Bent developed SPSS because they need to quickly analyse volumes of social
science data gathered through various methods of research. Nie represented the target
audience and set the requirements, Bent had the analysis expertise and designed the SPSS
system file structure; and Hull wrote the programmes. The initial work on SPSS was done at
Stanford University with the intention that it would only be used within the university. With
the launch of the SPSS user’s manual in 1970, however, the demand for SPSS software
expanded. The original SPSS user’s manual has been described as “Sociology’s most
influential book”. Because of its growing demand and popularity, a commercial entity, SPSS
Inc. was formed in 1975. Up to the mid-1980s SPSS was only available for mainframe
computers.

With advances of personal computers in the early 1980s, the SPSS/PC was introduced in
1984 as the first statistical package for PC that worked on the MS-DOS platform. Similarly,
SPSS was the first statistical product for the Microsoft Windows (version 3.1) operating
system when a version for Windows 3.1 was launched in 1992.

Since then SPSS has been regularly updated to fit in and exploit the advance features of new
operating systems, and to fulfil the growing needs among users.

Organization of SPSSStatistics Software Package

SPSS has a base system with additional optional components or modules. Most of the
optional components are add-ons to the base system. However, some optional components,
such as the Data Entry component, works independently.

The base system, main component for running SPS, has the following functions:
  Data handling and manipulation: importing from and exporting to the other data
file formats, such as Excel, dBase, SQL and Access; and allowing sampling, sorting,
ranking, subsetting, merging, and aggregating the data sets.
 Basic statistics and summarisation: Codebook, Frequencies, Descriptive statistics,
Explore, Crosstabs, Ratio statistics, Tables.
 Significance testing: Means, t-test, ANOVA, Correlation (bivariate, partial,
distances) and Nonparametric tests.
 Inferential statistics: Linear and non-linear regression, Factor, Cluster and
Discriminant analysis.

DATA HANDLING

Before conducting any statistical or graphical analysis, one must have the data in a formamenable to a
reliable and organised analysis.
Reading (opening) the data set
Data can be obtained in several formats:
SPSS files
Spreadsheet - Excel, Lotus
Database - dbase, paradox
Files from other statistical programs
ASCII text
Complex database formats - Oracle, Access

Reading SPSS data

In SPSS, go to FILE/OPEN.
Click on the button “Files of Type.”
Select any of these options depending on the type of file that you have. “SPSS (*.sav)., “dBase
(*.dbf), “Excel(*.xls).
Click on “open”

Reading data from other statistical programs (SAS, STATA, etc.)

A data file from SAS, STATA, TSP, E-Views, or other statistical programs cannot be opened directly
in SPSS. Rather, while still in the statistical program that contains your data, you must save the file in
a format that SPSS can read. Usually these formats are Excel 4.0 (.xls) or Dbase 3 (.dbf).

Defining the attributes of variables

After you have opened the data source, you should assign characteristics to your variables.
These attributes must be clearly defined at the outset before conducting any graphical orstatistical
procedure:
1. Type (or data type). Data can be of several types, including numeric, text, currency, andothers (and
can have different types within each of these broad classifications). Anincorrect type-definition may
not always cause problems, but sometimes does and shouldtherefore be avoided. By defining the type,
you are ensuring that SPSS is reading and usingthe variable correctly and that decimal accuracy is
maintained.
2. Variable label. Defining a label for a variable makes output easier to read but does nothave any
effect on the actual analysis. For example, the label "Staff IdentificationNumber" is easier to
understand than thename of the variable, staf_id.
3. Missing value declaration. This is essential for an accurate analysis. Failing to define themissing
values will lead to SPSS using invalid values of a variable in procedures, therebybiasing results of
statistical procedures.
4. Column format can assist in improving the on-screen viewing of data by using appropriatecolumn
sizes (width) and displaying appropriate decimal places. It doesnot affect or change the actual stored
values.
5. Value labels are similar to variable labels. Whereas "variable" labels define the label to useinstead
of the name of the variable in output, "value" labels enable the use of labels insteadof values for
specific values of a variable, thereby improving the quality of output. Forexample, for the variable
gender, the labels "Male" and "Female" are easier to understandthan "0" or "1.”
To define the attributes, click on thetitle of the variable that you wish todefine.
Go to DATA/ DEFINE
VARIABLE (or double-click on theleft mouse).

Variable Type
Choose the Type of data that the variable should be stored as. The most common choice is“numeric,”
which means the variable has a numeric value. The other common choice is“string,” which means the
variable is in text format. Below is a table showing the data types:
TYPE EXAMPLE
Numeric 1000.05
Comma 1,000.005
Scientific 1 * e3(the number means 1 multiplied by 10raised to the power 3, i.e. (1)*(103)
Dollar $1,000.00
String Alabama
SPSS usually picks up the format automatically. As a result, you typically need not worry aboutsetting
or changing the data type. However, you may wish to change the data type if:
1. Too many or too few decimal points are displayed.
2. The number is too large. If the number is 12323786592, for example, it is difficult toimmediately
determine its size. Instead, if the data type were made “comma,” then thenumber would read as
“12,323,786,592.” If the data type was made scientific, then the number would read as “12.32*E9,”
which can be quickly read as 12 billion. ("E3" is thousands, "E6" is millions, "E9" is billions.)
3. Currency formats are to be displayed.
4. Error messages about variable types are produced when you request that SPSS conduct a
procedure7. Such a message indicates that the variable may be incorrectly defined.

To change the data "Type," click on the relevant variable. Go to DATA/ DEFINE VARIABLE.
Sorting of Data
Sorting defines the order in which data are arranged in the data file and displayed on your screen.
When you sort by a variable, X, then you are arranging all observations in the file by the values of X,
in either increasing or decreasing values of X. If X is text variable, then the order is alphabetical. If it
is numerical, then the order is by magnitude of the value. Sorting a data set is a prerequisite for
several procedures, including split file, replacing missing values, etc.
Go to DATA

Filtering data
It will often be the case that you will want to select a Sub-set of the data according to certain criteria.
In effect, you want to temporarily “hide” some data based on some criteria run your analysis, then
have those cases back in your data set. Such data manipulation is refered to as data filtering. It allows
a more pointed analysis in which sections of the sample (and thereby of the population they represent)
can be studied while disregarding the other sections of the sample.
If your analysis, indicates the need to study such sub-set separately, then use DATA/ SELECT CASE
to create such sub-sets.
UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS
A proper analysis of data must begin with an analysis of the statistical attributes of each variable
in isolation - univariate analysis. From such an analysis we can learn:
 how the values of a variable are distributed - normal, binomial, etc.
 the central tendency of the values of a variable (mean, median, and mode)
 dispersion of the values (standard deviation, variance, range, and quartiles)
 presence of outliers (extreme values)
 if a statistical attribute (e.g. - mean) of a variable equals a hypothesized value

Graphs (bar, line, area, and pie)

Simple bar graphs
Bar graphs can be used to depict specific information like mean, median, cumulative
frequency,cumulative percentage, cumulative number of cases, etc.
Select GRAPHS/BAR.
Select “Simple” and “Summaries ofGroups of Cases.”
Click on the button “Define.”

Select the variable of your choice. Place it intothe box “Category Axis.” Thisdefines the X-axis.

On the top of the dialog box you will see the options for the information on the variable of your
choicethat can be shown in the bar graph. Select the option “N of Cases.” Click on “OK."
The same procedure is followed for other types of graph.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

1. The table below shows the number of kilo of cassava produces on the UNAAB farm
during 1995 and 2005. With reference to this table use SPSS to determine the year(s)
which

Year (t) Number of kilo of yam (P) Number of kilo of maize (S)
1995 200 75
1996 185 80
1997 225 100
1998 250 85
1999 240 80
2000 195 100
2001 210 110
2002 225 105
2003 250 95
2004 230 110
2005 235 100

a. The least number of kilo of yam was produced.

b. The greatest number of kilo of maize was produced

c. The greatest of decline in yam production occurred.

d. The combined production of yam and maize was at maximum.

2. Let P and S denote respectively the number of kilo of yams and maize produced
during the year t and on the UNAAB farm. It is clear that P and S are both functions
of t. Using SPSS package to do the following
a. Find P when t = 2004

b. Find s when t =1997 and 2003.

c. Find t when P=225

 SECTION FIVE

AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of many countries in the Asia-Pacific region as
nearly 60 percent of its population derives livelihood from agriculture. The region has several
hot spots of rural poverty, as most farmers in the region are smallholders with diverse farming
systems, which are highly risk prone. In addition, these farmers have poor access to support
services such as extension and the agricultural markets, knowledge, technology and financial
credit. Obviously, a revolution is needed not only to produce more food in the region, but also
to enable participation of its farmers more equitably in innovations and markets to reduce rural
poverty, generate better rural livelihoods and maintain quality of life and environment. This
revolution could be termed as knowledge revolution and there are already some visible signs
that Asia-Pacific rural agriculture is in midst of it. The new Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) are bringing about and sustaining this revolution by empowering the
resource-poor farmers with up-to-date knowledge and information about agricultural
technologies, best practices, markets, price trends, consumer preferences, sources of finance,
weather, soil-moisture conditions and the environment. AIS can also be used to monitor the
daily financial transactions of the farming activities. An example of this is the use of
Spreadsheet application for the purpose of keeping financial records.

EXPERT SYSTEMS (ES)

Concepts of Expert System

Expert system can be defined as a tool for information generation from knowledge. Information
is either found in various forms or generated from data and/or knowledge. Text, images, video,
audio are forms of media on which information can be found, and the role of information
technology is to invent, and devise tools to store and retrieve this information. Statistical
information is a good example of information generated from data while advises generated by
an expert system is a good example of information generated from knowledge.

An ES is a computer application that performs a task that would otherwise be performed by a

human expert. For example, there are expert systems that can diagnose human illnesses, make
financial forecasts, and schedule routes for delivery vehicles. Some expert systems are designed
to take the place of human experts, while others are designed to aid them. Expert systems are
part of a general category of computer applications known as artificial intelligence. To design
an expert system, one needs a knowledge engineer, an individual who studies how human
experts make decisions and translates the rules into terms that a computer can understand.

In other words, an expert system is a computer program that simulates the judgement and
behavior of a human or an organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a particular
field. Typically, such a system contains a knowledge base containing accumulated experience
and a set of rules for applying the knowledge base to each particular situation that
is described to the program. Sophisticated expert systems can be enhanced with additions to
the knowledge base or to the set of rules. Among the best-known expert systems have been
those that play chess and that assist in medical diagnosis.

ES is considered as artificial intelligence based system that converts the knowledge of an expert
in a specific subject into a softwarecode. This code can be merged with other such codes (based
on the knowledge of other experts) and used for answering questions (queries) submitted
through a computer.

5.2 Components of Expert System

Expert systems typically consist of three parts.

i. A knowledge base which contains the information acquired by interviewing experts,

and logicrules that govern how that information is applied;

ii. An Inferenceengine that interprets the submitted problem against the rules and logic of
information stored in the knowledge base; and

iii. An Interface that allows the user to express the problem in a human language such as
English. Despite its earlier high hopes, expert systems technology has found application
only in areas where information can be reduced to a set of computational rules, such as
insuranceunderwriting or some aspects of securitiestrading. Also called rule based system.

5.3 Advantages of Expert Systems

a. Permanence - Expert systems do not forget, but human experts may

Many copies of an expert system can be made, but training new human experts is time-
consuming and expensive. It can increase throughput and decrease personnel costs. Although
expert systems are expensive to build and maintain, they are inexpensiveto operate.
Development and maintenance costs can be spread over many users. The overall cost can be
quite reasonable when compared to expensive and scarce human experts. With expert systems
similar transactions handled in the same way. The system will make comparable
recommendations for like situations. Humans are influenced by recency effects (most recent
information having a disproportionate impact on judgment) primacy effects (early information
dominates the judgment).

b. Documentation - An expert system can provide permanent documentation of the decision

process
c. Completeness - An expert system can review all the transactions, a human expert can only
review a sample.
d. Timeliness - Fraud and/or errors can be prevented. Information is available sooner for
decision making.
e. Breadth - The knowledge of multiple human experts can be combined to give a system
more breadth that a single person is likely to achieve.
f. Reduce risk of doing business
 o Consistency of decision making
o Documentation
o Achieve Expertise
g. Entry barriers - Expert systems can help a firm create entry barriers for potential
competitors.
h. Differentiation - In some cases, an expert system can differentiate a product or can be
related to the focus of the firm.
i. Computer programs are best in those situations where there is a structure that is noted as
previously existing or can be elicited.

Need of Expert Systems in Agriculture

The need of expert systems for technical information transfer in agriculture can be identified
by recognizing the problems in using the traditional system for technical information transfer,
and by proving that expert systems can help to overcome the problems addressed, and are
feasible to be developed.

Information Transfer Problems

Static Information: Examining the information stored and available in the agriculture domain
revealed that this information is static and may not respond to the growers need. All extension
documentations give general recommendations because there are many factors, if taken into
consideration, so many different recommendations should be included in the document.

Specialties Integration: Most of the extension documents handle problems related to certain
specialty: plant pathology, entomology, nutrition, or any other specialty. In real situations the
problem may be due to more than one cause, and may need the integration of the knowledge
behind the information included in the different extension documents and books.

Combination of more than one information source: Images may need sometimes an
expert to combine other factors to reach an accurate diagnosis, and even if a diagnosis is
reached, the treatment of the diagnosed disorder should be provided through extension
document.

Updating: Changes in chemicals, their doses, and their effect on the environment should be
considered. Updating this information in documents and distribute them takes long time. The
same arguments can be made for audio tapes that are another form of extension documents but
in voice instead of written words. Video tapes are more stable than other media as the
information provided through the tape describes usually well-established agricultural
operations. However, if the tape includes information as what is
commonly included in documents and audio
tapes, this information should be updated.

Information unavailability: Information may not be available in any form of media. It is only
available from human experts, extensionists, and/or experienced growers. In addition, the
information transfer from specialists & scientists to extensionist and farmers, represents a bottle
neck for the development of agriculture on the national level. The current era is witnessing a
vast development in all
fields of agriculture. Therefore there is a need to transfer the information of experts in certain
domain to the general public of farmers, especially that the number of experts in new
technologies is lesser than their demand.

QUESTIONS
1. Briefly enumerate the benefits of ICT to agriculture.

2. What is your view on the introduction of expert system into farming?

3. What do you understand by expert system in the light of agricultural information
system.
 SECTION SIX
ALGORITHM

6.1 Concept and Role of Algorithm

An algorithm is a sequence of actions whose task is to resolve a problem. An algorithm is
composed of a sequence of actions, each organized in steps. Each step modifies the states of
the set of information items. Each action corresponds to a step that the performer completes.

Algorithm and Program

What difference is there between an algorithm and a program? The firstthing to underline is
that an algorithm is meant in general to be performedby a human while the computer
performs a program. Also, a programis a sequence of instructions, each of which causes an
action. But does asequence of instructions cause a sequence of actions? The answer is not
onlynegative but we can point out that each sequence of actions causes dynamic
sequences which are not only unknown beforehand but are in fact infinitethe algorithm for a
phone call is an example, assembly of an applianceanother).In a program the static sequence
(lexicographical sequence) describesmultiple dynamic sequences (possible different
executions). In short, associatedwith the instructions that cause the actions we need phrases
orlinguistic mechanisms that, according to whether a certain event is verifiedor not, drives the
performer to carry out one sequence of actions ratherthan another. These instructions are
called control instructions.

Control Structures

What kinds of control instructions are necessary in order to describethe algorithms? The
definition of the dynamic sequences happens throughlinguistic mechanisms that implement
three fundamental operations:
(a) Sequence: the instructions are performed in "sequence" that is in theorder in which they
were written.
(b) Selection: the instructions to be executed are selected according towhether a logical event
is verified or not.
(c) Iteration: a block of instructions must be repeated; the execution andthe repetition of the
block are stopped when a logical event is verifiedor not.

Properties ofAlgorithm

The concept of algorithm is one of the most importantelements of computer science. It is

useful to frame a problem andto transform it into a solution that is correct and efficient. This
is thefirst property of an algorithm that forms a part of it. Correctness is theproperty reflecting
the extent to which the algorithm is able to reach asolution without errors. Think for example
of the sequence of actions necessaryfor the collection of a sum of money through ATM
machines. Thesequence of actions is, necessarily, prearranged and therefore any alterationof
the sequence can cause an error jeopardizing its result (missing issue ofbanknotes, ejection of
the card, etc.). The efficiency of an algorithm is theproperty that regards the rapidity by
which a solution is reached. It is clearthat, for instance, the assembly instructions of an
appliance are often noteven read by the installer. Why is that? Evidently the repetition of
thisactivity, by the expert has conferred to him such a speed that he is able toefficiently repeat
the assembly much more quickly than someone doing itfor the first time. On the other hand,
the beginner may try their solution
of the problem without reaching the solution immediately (some steps mayneed to be
redone). The computer scientist should therefore seek or designalgorithms that are both
correct and efficient.
An algorithm should have numerous other properties that we will nowlist. Generality is the
property that confers to the algorithm a fundamentalvalue: it must be designed to solve a
class of problems. The algorithmmust be finite in terms of the sequence of actions to do and
defined bythese individual actions. Besides, it must be effective which means that eachsingle
action can be recognizable through its effect; in a word it should bereproducible. Finally the
algorithm must be comprehensible by the onewho performs it.
What we have said allows us to return to the concept of algorithmonly to point out that it is
not only known but also widely used in dailylife. Make a phone call, make a coffee, get
dressed, etc. are examples ofalgorithms and each of us carry them out in different ways. The
algorithmtherefore depends on the performer that can be, for example, a human ora computer.
It must describe in all details, the actions and the entitiesnecessary for the resolution of a
problem.More generally in an algorithm there are static entities called objects.
These could be of three types:
⮚ input,
⮚ output,
⮚ algorithm,

Input

Objects
A

output

Objects

Performer

The relationship between algorithm, input, output and performer.

Algorithmic Tools:
• A pseudocode is a procedure of the operations for accomplishing a task without
details of any programming language syntax. It is another tool commonly used to
represent an algorithm. Pseudocode presents an artificial and informal way for
programmers to develop algorithms. It is a "text-based" detail (algorithmic) design
tool. It must be noted that all statements like while, do, for, if, switch that show
dependency are to be indented.
Pseudocode is anEnglish language constructs modelled to looklike statements available in
most programminglanguages. It has some basic and peculiar attributes. They are:
⮚ Steps are presented in a structured manner (numbered, indented, and so on)
⮚ No fixed syntax for most operations is required
⮚ Less ambiguous and more readable than natural language
⮚ Emphasis is on process, not notation
⮚ Well-understood forms which allow logical reasoning about algorithm behaviour
• It can be easily translated into a programming language.
Pseudocode-Example
Example 1: To display information in terms of Age
If Customer Age is greater than or equal to 40
Print “Adult“
Else
Print “Youth"

Example 2: To find average of N exam score

Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero
Input the first score
while the user has not as yet entered the score
add this score into the running total
add one to the score counter
input the next score
if the counter is not equal to zero
set the average to the total divided by the counter
print the average
else
print 'no score is entered'
A flowchart is a graphical representation of the step by step procedure for accomplishing a
task. Symbols are used in flowchart to represent operations performed in an attempt to solve a
problem.

Flowcharts are a graphical means of representing an algorithm, as should be expected, they

have advantages and disadvantages compared to pseudocode. One of their primary
advantages is that they permit the structure of a program to be easily visualized - even if all
the text were to be removed. The human brain is very good at picking out these patterns and
keeping them "in the back of the mind" as a reference frame for viewing the code as it
develops.

1 Basic Flowchart Shapes

The shapes we will use are the circle, the rectangle, the parallelogram, the diamond, and the
arrows that interconnect them.
 Circle - Entry/Exit Point

The circle indicates the entry and exit point for the program - or for the current segment of
the program. The entry point has exactly one arrow leaving it and the exit point has exactly
one arrow entering it. Execution of the program - or of that segment of the program - always
starts at the entry point and finishes at the exit point.

Rectangle - Task

The rectangle represents a task that is to be performed. That task might be as simple as
incrementing the value of a single variable or as complex as you can imagine. The key point
is that it also has a single entry point and a single exit point.

Parallelogram - Input/Output

The parallelogram is used to indicate that some form in input/output operation is occurring.
They must also obey the single entry single exit point rule which makes sense given that they
are a task-block except with a slightly different shape for the symbol. We could easily
eliminate this symbol and use the basic rectangle but the points at which I/O occur within our
programs are extremely important and being able to easily and quickly identify them is
valuable enough to warrant dealing with a special symbol.

Since a Task block can be arbitrarily complex, it can also contain I/O elements. Whether to
use a rectangle or a parallelogram is therefore a judgment call. One way to handle this is to
decide whether a task's primary purpose is to perform I/O. Again, that is a judgment call.
Another option is to use a symbol that is rectangular on one side and slanted on the other
indicating that it is performing both I/O and non-I/O tasks.

Diamond - Decision Point

The diamond represents a decision point within our program. A question is asked and
depending on the resulting answer, different paths are taken. Therefore a diamond has a
single entry point but more than one exit point. Usually, there are two exit points - one that is
taken if the answer to the question is "true" and another that is taken if the answer to the
question is "false". This is sufficient to represent any type of branching logic including both
the typical selection statements and the typical repetition statements. However, most
languages support some type of "switch" or "case" statement that allows the program to select
one from among a potentially large set of possible paths. The basic two-exit-point diamond is
fully capable of representing this construct, but it is generally cleaner and more useful to
represent it using a as many exit points from the diamond as there are paths.
 Arrow - Interblock Flow

The arrows simply show which symbol gets executed next. The rule is that once an arrow
leaves a symbol, it must lead directly to exactly one other symbol - arrows can never fork and
diverge. They can, however, converge and join arrows coming from other blocks.

Examples
I. Compute the average of 3 grades (valid input: 1-9); if anyone is 0 or negative, a message
Bad data is printed
Solution:
Get values for x, y, z
If x < 1 or y < 1 or z < 1 then
Print message, .Bad data.
Else
Set Average to (x + y + z) / 3
Print the value of Average
Stop

2. Compute the sum of n integers where n > 0

Get value for n, the number of integers
Get values for I1, I2, ., In, a list of n integers
Set the value of Sum to 0
Set the value of k to 1
Repeat until k > n
Add Ik to Sum
Add 1 to k
End of the loop
Print the value of Sum
Stop
PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
1. Draw a flowchart to add 5 integers with each integer less than 9.

2. Write some pseudo code to solve some specific Agricultural related problems in your field
of study.
3. Draw the flowchart for the problem solved in question 2.