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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2021) of the UN,

food waste is defined as food that is intended for human consumption that is wasted and

lost, and refers not only to food that consumers don’t finish at restaurants and are thrown

out at home, but also raw materials and produce that are lost in the farming stage,

harvesting processes, during transportation, and storage. Shockingly, about one third of

global food supplies are wasted or lost, potentially as much as 40% of food or 2.5 billion

tons around the world is wasted every year (Lai, 2021). Based on Food Print

Organization (2018), food waste is caused by a variety of factors, such as bad weather,

processing problems, overproduction, unstable markets, overbuying, poor planning,

confusion over labels and safety, and more. Reducing food loss and waste would improve

agri-food systems and help towards achieving food security, food safety, and food quality

while delivering on nutritional outcomes. It would also contribute “significantly to the

reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, as well as pressure on land and water resources”

(FAO, 2021).

Reducing food waste plays a role in ensuring a future. It not only has social and

environmental benefits but also prevents the wastage of resources involved in food

production and distribution. There are several methods for converting food waste into

products. One technique is to make briquettes that can be used as a cheap substitute for

fuel. These briquettes can be made from a variety of waste materials, including food
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scraps. The trash is carbonized in a specially built container with airflow, then ground

into a fine powder and combined with a binding agent. According to the study of

Romallosa ARD et al. (2017), it has shown that the stimulated production of biomass

briquettes obtained from the municipal waste stream could lead to a feasible on-site fuel

production line after determining its usability, quality and applicability to the would-be

users.

Briquettes made of biomass can be used in place of coal and charcoal for biofuel.

The main purpose of briquettes is to heat industrial boilers so that steam may be

converted into energy. Coal is con-fired in briquettes to produce the heat that powers the

boiler. Biomass briquettes have been used by humans since the beginning of recorded

history. Fuels like coal or oil can be substituted by biomass briquettes, which are

manufactured from agricultural waste and used to heat boilers in manufacturing facilities.

Briquettes made of biomass are a renewable energy source that prevents the atmosphere

from being filled with carbon from fossil fuels (Sharma M. K. et al., 2015).

This study focused on the utilization of various vegetable food scraps to create

bio-briquette charcoal for households’ source of fuel energy. The study discusses the

production, characterization, processing (preparation, size reduction, drying, pyrolysis,

densification- shaping and sizing, and binding with corn starch as binding agent), and

quality evaluation methods of briquettes. The researchers conduct this study because food

waste is a considerable issue globally. By finding ways to convert food waste into a

product, it can help reduce waste and contribute towards a more sustainable future. It can

also generate economic, social, and environmental benefits while helping researchers
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develop more efficient and sustainable methods for producing bio-briquettes from

environmental waste.

Statement of the Problem

This study generally aims to know the efficiency of various vegetable food scraps

as alternative bio-briquettes.

Specifically, this study seeks answers to the following questions:

1. What is FS Briquettes?

2. What is the best formulation in terms of:

a. Density

b. Combustibility

c. Burning rate/Boiling water test

3. What are materials and procedures utilized in the study?

Assumptions

The researchers assumed that the production of bio-briquettes will help

individuals’ households’ alternative fuel sources in an easier and cheaper way. This study

will center in reducing the economic problem in food waste disposal but also prevents the

wastage of resources involved in food production and distribution.

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Hypothesis

To determine the best briquette, the researchers will use the following hypothesis:

H0: There is no significant difference between the generic charcoal and different

formulations of FS briquettes in terms of density, combustibility, and burning rate.

Ha: There is a significant difference between the generic charcoal and different

formulations of FS briquettes in terms of density, combustibility, and burning rate.

Significance of the Study

This study would be beneficial to the following:

Individuals. This study provides insights that can be utilized as inspiration to produce

charcoal allowing individuals to save an amount of money.

Community. The community can benefit from the research because it offers an excellent

and more affordable source of energy. It doesn’t include any chemicals that could harm

the neighbourhood and it is non-polluting.

Environment. Since the materials used are environmental waste, the research will

benefit the environment. Instead of being thrown in the trash or somewhere, the food

scraps will become an environmentally friendly product.

Future Researchers. This study may be used as a guide and source material for

researchers who conduct similar studies in the future.

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Scope and Delimitation

This experimental study covers the Caramoan Market located at Solnopan,

Caramoan, Camarines Sur and local shops located in Tawog, Caramoan, Camarines Sur

where food waste is commonly encountered. It will be limited only to the vegetable food

waste/scraps that will be found on the said market and shops.

Locale of the Study

This study will be conducted at Caramoan, Camarines Sur, Bicol Region. This

location was chosen by the researchers for the study because it has food waste and scraps,

which are a prevalent issue that has to be addressed.

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Figure 1: Locale of the Study

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CHAPTER II

This chapter summarizes the related literature and studies from online sources for

the review. The topics covered are the food scraps/vegetable wastes and bio-briquettes

produced from food scraps/waste.

Review of Related Literature

The Philippines produces about 35 million tons of vegetable waste annually,

revealing that the management of agricultural waste in the country needs to be improved,

and there needs to be more awareness among farmers and local government unit about

the proper disposal and utilization of these wastes (Kumari, M., 2022). Food waste,

particularly when avoidable, incurs loss of resources and considerable environmental

impacts due to the multiple processes involved in the life cycle (Tonini D. et al., 2018).

According Di Talia, E. et al. (2019), food waste is at the centre of intense debate

in the scientific world. Food waste at the consumption stage is direct consequences of

consume buying behaviour. This makes the analysis of domestic food waste particularly

interesting, as there are great opportunities for intervention to reduce it.

Based on Sanchez, P. D. C. et al. (2022), global energy demand is expected to

increase in the next few years due to the corresponding increase in the world’s

population. The world’s increasing energy demand is the ultimate reason to utilize

alternate sources such as renewable energy. There are various forms of renewable energy

sources. However, biomass is the always widely available source of renewable energy
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worldwide. Agricultural wastes such as rice husks, corn cobs, and bagasse results from

various agricultural activities. These wastes are commonly left piled in the field to

decompose or burn in open fires which consequently provide risks to the environment

and animal and human health. The bio-briquettes product is suitable as an energy source

commonly used for electricity generation, heat, and cooking fuel. They are the perfect

replacement for wood logs. Effectively utilizing agro residues, when abundantly

available, can help energy conservation efforts and increase farmers’ incomes. This

article highlights the effective utilization of agro and industrial biomass residues in the

form of briquettes (Dinesha, P. et al., 2019).

According to Marreiro, H. M. P. et al. (2023), one method for turning biomass

into energy is the densification of raw materials into fuel briquettes. This process makes

solid fuel uniform, gives it superior physical and energetic qualities, makes it easier to

store and carry, and promotes more evenly distributed burning. Given the significance of

these traits, this study includes a review of the literature, focusing on the experimental

levels of the briquetting process’ variables as well as on the most important quality

metrics for producing briquettes. We also conduct a survey of the primary technologies

employed in the manufacture of briquettes, along with statistical analysis and

experimental design techniques employed in the planning and validation of process. The

raw material granulometry, pressure, beginning moisture, compaction duration, and

binder are most often employed process factors for the production of briquettes,

according to research. To get stronger energy and physical reactions, other variables are

applied, such as the biomass proportion, process temperature, and thermal pre-treatments.

Divergences were found between the studies regarding the applicability and interactions
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of some process variables on the briquette quality variables, demonstrating the necessity

of modelling the experiments mathematically.

The conversion of biomass to high-density briquettes is a potential solution to

solid waste problems as well as to a high dependence on fuel wood in developing

countries. In this study, the potential of converting vegetable waste to briquettes using

waste paper as a binder was investigated. A sample size of 30 respondents was

interviewed using a self-administered questionnaire at the D-line fruit and vegetable

market in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Carrot and cabbage leaves were selected for briquetting

based on their availability and heating value. This waste was sun-dried, pulverized,

torrefied and fermented. Briquettes were produced with a manual briquette press after the

processed vegetable waste was mixed with waste paper in four paper:waste ratios, i.e.,

10:90, 15:85, 20:80 and 25:75. The moisture content, densities and cooking efficiency of

the briquettes were determined using the oven-drying method, the water-displacement

method, and the water-boiling test, respectively. There was no observed trend in moisture

content values of the briquettes, which varied significantly between 3.0% and 8.5%.

There was no significant variation in the densities, which ranged from 0.79 g/cm3 to 0.96

g/cm3 for all the briquette types. A degree of compaction above 300% was achieved for

all the briquette types. Water-boiling test results revealed that 10:90 paper:sun-dried

cabbage briquettes had the highest ignitability of 0.32 min. Torrefied carrot briquettes

with 25% paper had the least boiling time and the highest burning rates of 9.21 min and

4.89 g/min, respectively. It was concluded that cabbage and carrot waste can best be

converted into good-quality briquettes after torrefaction (Akande, Olugbemiro &

Olorunnisola, Abel., 2018).

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The process of reducing moisture content (MC) of biomass to the minimum

required is essential to initiate the densification process. The acceptable moisture content

should be between 5-15% (Solano et al., 2016). Drying can be done through natural

drying or forced drying. Natural drying is defined as a method where biomass is exposed

to solar radiation and wind to allow material to be dried naturally without heating

externally. The hours and days used in natural drying depend on the moisture content of

the commodity, and the surrounding temperature and humidity. Material moisture content

should be reduced to the optimum level required for densification. (Solano et. al., 2016;

Suryaningsih et al., 2018).

Moreover, the biomass should have low moisture content for it affects the

densification process and briquette’s quality, has high caloric value, low ash content with

lower than 4% because greater than this may cause slagging (Dinesha et al., 2019; Kpalo

& Zainuddin, 2020). Drying the biomass before the briquetting process is done to

decrease its moisture content (MC) to 5-15%, which is the acceptable MC for

densification (Solano et al., 2016).

Review of Related Studies

The study of Idris, S. et al. (2021) said that one option for handling the disposal of

food wastes was turn it into fuel source, such charcoal briquettes. In the current study,

food waste was microwave-irradiated to create charcoal. The chemical and physical

properties of binders used in briquetting, such as potato starch and carboxymethyl

cellulose (CMC), at ratios of 5%, 10%, and 15%, were examined. The results showed that
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the starch-based briquette performed better in terms of combustion quality than the one

made using carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). This study explored into using food waste as

a fuel source by turning it into charcoal briquettes by microwave radiation and

additionally examined on how binders like potato starch and carboxymethyl cellulose

(CMC) affected the chemical and physical properties of the briquettes. This study also

found out that briquettes made with starch as the binder performed better in terms of

combustion quality than those made with carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and discovered

that high-quality charcoal briquettes can endure impact during packaging, handling, and

transportation.

Afsal, A. et al. (2020) concluded that this paper explores the safe and efficient

disposal of vegetable market waste (VMW) in India, a prevalent issue in urban areas,

often left untreated or deposited in dumpsites. To address this issue, researchers have

explored the conversion of VMW into high-density briquettes. In this study, binary

briquettes were then compared with firewood, coal, and conventional sawdust briquettes.

The results showed that the composite briquettes had improved combustion

characteristics like higher calorific value and more volatile matter content compared with

pure VMW briquettes. The percentage volatile matter content of VMW briquette

enhanced from 71.72% to 83.2% for the composite briquette of VMW and SD with the

highest percentage at the proportion 25:75 (VMW: SD). The calorific value of bio-

briquettes ranges from 14.002 to 15.721 MJ/kg and the highest heating value was

obtained for the composite briquette of VMW and SD with proportion 25:75. Even

though lignin contents of vegetable market waste were lesser (3.23-5.51%) compared to

other ligno-cellulosic biomass briquettes were produced.

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Another study was carried out to explore the characteristics of biomass briquettes

produced with different proportion of dry leaves, sawdust, and rice husk with starch as

binder. The briquettes were created in the laboratory with a compression testing machine

at a pressure of 150MPa. The biomass particles, which are smaller than 1.18mm, were

utilized. The heating value and the ultimate analysis were determined by means of an

empirical formula based on the values obtained from the proximate analysis. After a

drying period of 7 days, the quality of the briquettes was evaluated. Briquette made from

100% dry leaves showed the highest density (1.193g/cc) heating value (4789kcal/kg),

shatter resistance (89%), and water resistance 68.56%) and fixed carbon (25.58%). The

heating value and durability performance have validated the use of dry leaves for the

preparation of briquettes (Ajith Kumar TT et al., 2022).

Bamisaye, Abayomi & Rapheal, Ige & Adegoke, Abimbola & Idowu, Mopelola

& Elinge, Cosmos. (2022), conducted a that study focuses on the production of alkali-

pretreated solid biofuel from cabbage waste using cassava waste as binder. Proximate

analysis, ultimate analysis, calorific value, and physicochemical parameters of treated

cabbage briquette (TCB) and untreated cabbage briquette (UCB) were assessed before

and after delignification. Eco-friendliness and the presence of potential toxic elements

(PTEs) in both UCB and TCB were evaluated using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence

(EDXRF). While surface modification and bond orientation of TCB and UCB samples

were monitored using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform

infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometer, respectively, ultimate analysis recorded a mean

carbon value of 47.98 ± 0.13 wt% (UCB) and 49.48 ± 0.06 wt% (TCB). The recorded

mean density values of 0.58 ± 0.10 and 0.64 ± 0.22 g/cm³ were noted for UCB and TCB,
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respectively, with compressive strength of 0.62 ± 0.03 (UCB) and 0.69 ± 0.20 N/mm²

(TCB) at p < 0.05, while the calorific values were 10.20 ± 0.12 and 13.41 ± 0.02 MJ/kg

for UCB and TCB, respectively, at p < 0.05. EDXRF results ascertained a reduction in

PTEs concentration which aligns with the recorded low mean TCB ash content value of

1.94 ± 0.22% at carbon counts of 1000. The FTIR recorded a shift in C-O stretch of TCB

and UCB with recorded values of 1006 and 1002 cm⁻¹, respectively, signifying surface

modification, while the SEM micrographs show a surface disruption and modification

with flakes-like morphology. The finding of this study shows that delignification

improves the combustion properties of the treated solid biofuel when compared to the

untreated briquette samples.

In the study of Arifianti, Qurrotin & Gabriel, Azmi & Hidayatulloh, Syarif &

Ummatin, Kuntum. (2020), The current research aimed to increase the calorific value of

woody cutting waste briquette with paper waste pulp as binder. There were three different

binder variation used in this study, they are 5 %, 10 %, and 15 %. To create a briquette, a

cylindrical iron mold with diameter of 3.5 cm and height of 3 cm and a hydraulic press

with 2 t power were applied. The physical characteristics of the combination woody

waste briquette and paper waste pulp, such as moisture content, ash content, volatile

matter and carbon fix were examined using proximate analysis. The calorific value of

briquetted fuel was tested by bomb calorimeter. The combustion test was performed to

determine the combustion characteristic of briquettes, for example initial ignition time,

temperature distribution, and combustion process duration. The general result shows that

the calorific value of briquette stood in the range of 4 876 kCal kg –1 to 4 993 kCal kg –1
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. The maximum moisture content of briquette was 5.32 %. The longest burning time was

105 min.

Another study conducted by Borowski, Gabriel & Stępniewski, Witold & Wójcik

Oliveira, Katarzyna. (2017) the results of a study on the effect of starch binder on the

mechanical, physical and burning properties of charcoal briquettes. Two types of binders

were repeatedly used to make briquettes of native wheat starch and modified wheat

starch, at 8% of the whole. Briquetting was performed in a roller press unit, and pillow-

shaped briquettes were made. The moisture of the mixed material ranged from 28 to 32%.

The product, whether the former or the latter, was characterized by very good mechanical

properties and satisfactory physical properties. Moreover, the type of starch binder had no

effect on toughness, calorific heating value, volatiles, fixed carbon content and ash

content. However, the combustion test showed quite different burning properties. As

briquettes should have short firing up time and lower smokiness, as well as high

maximum temperature and long burning time, we have concluded that briquettes with

native wheat starch as a binder are more appropriate for burning in the grill.

Starch is one such adhesive that has been found to be effective in improving the

quality of briquettes. In fact, a study conducted by (Wirabuana and Alwi, 2021), found

that adding starch as binder at various concentrations (3%, 4%, 5%, and 6%) to Durian

peel charcoal resulted in briquettes with better quality.

Synthesis

These studies support the production of sustainable fuel sources from organic
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waste, particularly food scraps and vegetable trash. Enhancing waste management

techniques and raising awareness is essential in the Philippines, where 35 million tons of

vegetable waste are produced annually (Kumari, 2022). Moreover, food waste's negative

environmental effects emphasize the importance of waste reduction (Di Talia et al.,

2019). In order to address waste issues and meet energy demands, biomass—a renewable

energy source—is essential (Dinesha et al., 2019). The physical and energy qualities of

raw materials are improved by densifying them into high-density briquettes (Maucite et

al., 2023). Furthermore, studies examine the impact of various binders on briquette

properties. While Afsal et al. (2020) improve the disposal of vegetable waste using high-

density briquettes that exhibit improved combustion features, Idris et al. (2021)

demonstrate the superiority of starch-based briquettes in terms of durability and

combustion. Together, these studies highlight briquettes as a sustainable substitute that

addresses waste management and environmental issues by producing high-quality fuel

from a variety of organic waste sources and binders.

This present study will focus on the making of briquettes, which is different from

previous studies. The researcher will create briquettes made of food scraps and vegetable

waste, cornstarch, and paper pulp as binder and analyze their physical characteristics.

Conceptual Framework

The research used the input, process, and output (IPO) model, it aids in

identifying the factors and procedures associated with a research project. It can also assist

in constructing a framework that systematically arranges and presents the study’s

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concepts in a manner. Below this, is the figure 2 that shows the conceptual framework of

the study.

The input is to identify the materials that are needed in making the briquette

including the food scraps, such as fruit peels, vegetable waste, and other organic material

and the binding agent or additives that help in the formation and stability of the

briquettes.

The research process includes shredding/grinding to reduce their size and

facilitate the briquette formation process, mixing the shredded food scraps with binding

agents or additives to enhance the cohesion and strength of the briquettes, compaction to

form its desired shape and size, and undergo drying or curing process to remove their

combustion properties. The research procedure also entails testing and recording, using

water boiling test (WBT) and burning rate of the briquettes. According to

Globalgoals.goldstandard.org (2019) water boiling test (WBT) is used to calculate the

thermal efficiency of cook stoves. According to D. Viegas et al. (2018) burn rate (BR) is

the amount of fuel mass that is consumed per unit of time in the course of combustion

process. Using these tests it can help identify the significant difference between using the

generic coal from the briquette.

The result is the effectiveness of using the briquettes as a sustainable energy

source that is environmentally friendly materials and cheaper than buying traditional

charcoal, the amount of food waste/scraps will be reduced, and the “FS Briquette”

product made.
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FS Briquette

INPUT PROCESS OUPUT

Raw Materials 1. Shredding/Grinding “FS (Food Scraps)
Mixing Compaction Briquette”
1. Food Scraps
2. Binding Agents Drying/Curing
2. Water Boiling Test
(WBT)
Burning Rate (BR)
3. Hypothesis Testing

Feedback

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework

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Gap Bridged by the Study

Food scraps/vegetable waste have become a widespread issue in every

community, particularly in Caramoan local markets and local stores that sell crops. This

issue encourages researchers to create briquettes. In addition, according to numerous

studies, a large amount of vegetables/food is wasted and serves no purpose, which

identified a research gap that researchers wanted to fill.

Definition of Term

For clarity and understanding, the following terms were defined conceptually and

operationally. (pls define these terms on how you used them in your study)

FS Briquette - a block of compressed charcoal or coal dust used as fuel. Redefine this

based on your study. (1 simple definition of your FS briquette will do)

Burning rate - refers to the speed or rate at which a substance, such as a fuel or

combustible material, undergoes combustion or burns

Combustibility- the quality of being combustible (specify this; sabi baga natin bawal

magdefine using the same term)

Density - a measure of how compact the mass in a substance or object is.

Food scraps- are parts of food items that are typically discarded rather than eaten. (sabi

niyo ito yung sira-sira veges from market)

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Pyrolysis- the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures, often in an

inert atmosphere. (saang part to papasok?)

Water boiling test - refers to a method or experiment used to assess the ability of a

substance or material to generate enough heat to bring water to its boiling point
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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology used in conducting the research on food

scraps briquette. It outlines the research design, data gathering instrument, data gathering

procedure, and statistical tool that will be utilized to achieve the objectives of the study.

Research Design

This study will be using experimental method. The experimental method will be

used to create biomass briquettes using vegetable scraps (cabbage leaves and carrots),

and starch (cornstarch) and paper pulp as binding agent.

Data Gathering Instrument

2. What is the best formulation in terms of: a. Density; b. Combustibility; and c. Burning

rate/Boiling water test?

This part should discuss how will you gather the needed data to answer this SOP.

Discuss how the equipment will be utilized to test the products’ density, combustibility,

and burning rate.

To collect the needed data, the researchers will use a stopwatch as a research

instrument. The researchers will use a stopwatch to correctly measure the burning time of

the briquette during the experiment. The stopwatch held a crucial role in guaranteeing
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reliable and precise data gathering, and conclusions were formed from the analysis of the

collected data. (Revise, Add more discussion on instrument for other tests).

Data Gathering Procedure

Step 1: Preparation

Data on how to carry out the study was gathered and will be used as guide by the

researchers. Then, the instruments and materials required to carry out the investigation

will be prepared by the researchers.

Step 2: Variable Selection

List of variables that will affect your briquettes’ quality and production process.

This could include the type of scraps, moisture content, binder type drying time and final

briquette weight and dimensions.

Step 3: Data Collection Planning

The researcher designed a detailed plan for how you will collect data for each

variable. This include the tools and methods of data collection.

Step 4: Data Collection Execution

This carries out the collection of data, strictly following the planned methods to

ensure consistency.

Step 5: Evaluation of the Product

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Lastly, the gathered data where then organized presented with tables and photo

documentations. During this step, the results were analyzed and re-study further

evaluation.

Statistical Tools

The researcher will use both descriptive and inferential statistics. The researcher

will use a descriptive statistic to get an initial snapshot of the data like average burn time,

density, and energy output which describes and summarize the characteristics of the

briquettes. In addition, this study will use the Analysis of Variance. ANOVA is a

statistical technique that will be used to determine if there exists a significant difference

on the characteristics of briquettes between the generic coal and the different

formulations of FS briquettes.
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Bibliography

Please add here all the references you utilized in this paper.