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1 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO THE ADOLESCENT: DEVELOPMENT

AND LEARNING

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1: Overview of Learning Unit 1

This unit introduces you to an understanding of the field of Psychology of Education and more specifically to
the life world of the adolescent. After studying this unit, you will be able to:

describe what Psychology of Education is all about;

incorporate scientific knowledge of human development and the teaching and learning processes;
explain the structure of the subject (Psychology of Education), which includes information on how learning
takes place, and for this module, specifically refers to the adolescent stage and how learners vary with regard
to their development and learning styles;
know who the most important educational psychologists of the 20th century are and briefly refer to each
one’s contribution;
explore the roles and responsibilities of teachers as facilitators of learning and development.

For you to be successful regarding the physical development of the adolescent you will have
to actively participate in: all online discussions; log into myUnisa to access your reading material; complete and
submit activities; and summarise the unit for yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you prepare for the exam. It is of
utmost importance that you ask for support if concepts are unclear to you via myUnisa.

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INTRODUCTION TO THE ADOLESCENT: DEVELOPMENT

AND LEARNING

1.2 PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE

The term ‘adolescence’ comes from the Latin verb adolescere, meaning ‘growing up’ or ‘to grow to adulthood’
(Berk, 2010; Gouws, 2019), and has no universally accepted definition (Pringle et al., 2016). In literature, you
will come across the different stages of human development, which are often described using developmental
milestones. As you recall from unit 0 (see page 1) we described ‘‘adolescent’’ also in terms of their educational
development, thus meaning school-going learners in the Intermediate (Grades 4-6), Senior Phase (Grades 7–9,)
and learners in the Further Education and Training Band (Grades 10–12). There is, however, a widespread
agreement that adolescence starts at puberty and ends with the uptake of mature social roles, such as
employment and child rearing (Pringle, et al.2016).

Study the section in Louw and Louw (2022:435–437) where demarcating the adolescent

is discussed.

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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

When you reflect on yourself as an adolescent (late primary and high school years), can you re

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

The adolescent years bring many holistic changes, not only physically, but also cognitively, psy
adolescence is a real experience that no one else can discredit or take away from you.

FeedFORWARD (Reflection/Improve):

Individuals’ experiences of adolescence vary from, culture, race, and social position, and each
different view of the world. In essence, you as a prospective teacher should be mindful of the d
not the same for everyone.

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4/16/24, 10:58 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 1: 1.3 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION?

1.3 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION?

According to Woolfolk, Hughes and Walkup (2013:4), Psychology of Education has been defined as “… the study of
how psychological theories and research inform and support the work of educational professionals working across
the whole range of teaching and learning settings, including child development”. O’Donnell and Levin (2001:73)
define Psychology of Education as “the development and application of psychological principles to education, as
well as the adoption of psychological perspectives on education”. From the above, it is evident that Psychology of
Education focuses on human development and more specifically how individuals learn.

The nature and scope of Psychology of Education are as follows:

the application of psychological findings to understand and improve education practices.

enabler to help teachers to perform their role effectively and to make the learning and teaching processes learners
experience more productive.
a rigorous scientific study of the individual’s life stages from birth to death.
the key component/foundation in the teaching and learning processes of humans.

(Source: Chauhan 2010; Woolfolk, Hughes, Walkup 2013)

Psychology of Education should not be seen as a subject field that continuously “borrows” content from Psychology.
We are a discipline in our own right. A large amount of evidence and content is generated within Psychology of
Education by researchers in an educational environment.

The South African National Qualifications Framework Act (67/2008): Revised policy on the Minimum
Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, also known as MRTEQ, (Government Gazette, 2015:10)
requires teachers to know their learners (in their holistic development) and knowledge of how they learn. The
development of learners and school learning falls clearly within the boundaries of Psychology of Education.
Education forms a large part of most humans’ lifespans. Specific requirements for teachers such as a sensitivity to
the needs of learners and an awareness of differences amongst learners emphasise the importance of psychological
knowledge of the learners whom they will teach.

It is not only the South African policy on teacher education that requires you as a student to know about human
development and learning but similar recommendations for psychological content knowledge in teacher education
can also be found in countries all over the world. The German Psychological Society, for example, proposes a core
curriculum for teacher education in four areas, namely: learning and instruction, child development in social
contexts, educational assessment, and intervention and counselling. In England teachers are trained to inspire,
motivate, and challenge learners; promote good progress and outcomes amongst learners; adapt teaching to respond
to the strengths and needs of all learners; make accurate and productive use of assessment and manage behaviour
effectively to ensure a good and safe learning environment. In the United States of America, the National Academy
of Education considers learning and development in social contexts and assessment as important aspects relevant to
teacher training programmes. These requirements of The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher
Education in America are very similar to South Africa’s MRTEQ. They expect prospective teachers to know about
human development, learning, school and family contexts, assessment, language acquisition, and cultural influences
on learning (Lohse-Bossenz, Kunina-Habenicht & Kunter; 2013:1545–1546).

Several scientific articles have appeared on the development and the content of Psychology of Education. Nolen
(2009: 279–289) selected Psychology of Education journals with a high impact factor. Selecting quality scientific
sources is crucial for you as a prospective teacher when selecting literature for your assignments. One way to
identify quality scientific information is to look at a journal’s impact factor score. This is a measure scholars use to
“judge” the relative importance of a journal within the science and social science literature. In other words, how
many times experts in this field read the journal’s publishing. The score consists of the number of citations received
in the current year to articles published in the two preceding years divided by the number of articles published in the
same two years. For example, if a journal has an impact score of 9 in 2008, it means that articles published in that
journal during 2006–2007 were cited on average 9 times during 2008. To assist you in your own search for scientific
and trustworthy readings, the following six journals have scored the highest impact within the field of discipline.
These journals were:

Educational Psychologist à impact score 26.31

Journal of Psychology of Education à impact score 18.32
The Journal of the Learning Sciences à impact score 17.77

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Psychology of Education Review à impact score 16.21
Contemporary Psychology of Education à impact score 11.55
Learning and Individual Differences à impact score 5.50

Looking at the articles published across these journals (in total 758 articles) helped us to determine what are the
most prominent content areas associated with Psychology of Education. They are:

Let us take the inquiry of Mitchell and McConnell (2012:136–147) as an example. They focused on only one
journal in their research, namely, Educational Psychology Review. All of the articles published in this journal from
1995 to 2010 were reviewed. In total there were 440 articles. For each article, the title, topic, abstract, keywords,
theoretical base, characteristics of participants and the central issue(s) were recorded. From this systematic review
they came to realise the following themes:

The most prevalent theoretical perspectives of the articles were cognitive and social-cognitive in nature.
Within the topic category, the trends studied by researchers are about:
Most frequently individual differences (e.g., academic achievement, creativity, gender differences, motivation,
self-efficacy and test anxiety) of which motivation was researched. According to the authors, this is not
surprising, as motivation has been a much-studied topic in Psychology of Education.
The second most frequently occurring topic category was academic subjects, especially Reading and
Mathematics. Also sometimes referred to as the 3 R’s, reading, writing and arithmetic.
The third most common topic category was cognitive processes such as attention, comprehension, memory,
reasoning, metacognition and transfer.

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Another source that can shed light on the content of Psychology of Education is textbooks. The reason for having
textbooks is because it contains a comprehensive compilation of the content of a specific field of discipline intending
to explain it. Lecturers often prescribe textbooks to serve the needs of students to learn about a topic via chapters and
opportunities to engage with the text. Different textbooks accentuate different aspects of human development and
learning, but a broad overview of the subject can be obtained by studying the content of prominent textbooks such as
those by Eggen and Kauchak (2013), Slavin (2018), Woolfolk and Hoy (2016) to name a few.

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

According to Slavin (2018), Psychology of Education refers to the accumulated knowledge, wisdom, and seat-
possess to intelligently solve the daily problems of teaching. Psychology of Education cannot tell you as a tea
to use in making a good decision and/or offer you a vocabulary or language to express your experience and th

Do your own research about what the goal and value of research are in the field of Psychology of Education a
Source: https://ucarecdn.com/8f1d8765-06e6-4dbf-9d91-5a3b2b7c5008/

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

Refer to the E-tutor site, and interact with your E-tutors on the goal and value of research in the field of Psych

FeedFORWARD (Reflection/Improve):

It is important for you to take part in the discussion forums and interactions with your E-tutor, as these activit
clarify your understanding of key ideas. Furthermore, you are able to actively engage with your E-tutor and p

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1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE SUBJECT FIELD PSYCHOLOGY OF

EDUCATION

Teachers cannot teach effectively without knowing the holistic domains and associated human characteristics of the
learners in their class and how they learn. Teachers will not be able to explain content effectively if they are not
knowledgeable of how learners think and reason when they are confronted with new learning material. Here is an
example of how Ball, Thames and Phelps (2008) visualise the types of knowledge teachers should have in order to
teach.

Without going into much detail, it means teachers should be experts on the subject they teach (e.g., mathematics,
history, economics etc.) and have the pedagogical knowledge of how they will best teach a subject to a specific
group of learners. They emphasise that teachers should be more knowledgeable than any layperson on the content;
but also have adept knowledge of their learners (e.g., childhood, early childhood, adolescents etc.), ways of teaching
the content to their learners that are appropriate (e.g., teacher-centred, learner-centred, content-focused etc.) and
know the curriculum (e.g., CAPS).

Can you remember what the term "Psychology of Education" refers to? Complete the activity below as a reminder:

1.4.1 Childhood and adolescent: developmental stages

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Figure 1.2: Dimensions of holistic development (Datnow et al., 2022)

The Lifespan of a human is divided into stages, for example, infancy, toddler, childhood, adolescence (teenager), and
adult. In every stage, different aspects of development can be identified using for example developmental
milestones, characteristic traits etc. These different domains can be distinguished but obviously, they cannot be
separated from one another. The human being is more/greater than the sum of its parts -- the “whole” or “entire”
person is better than their individual parts because the way these parts (domains) combine adds a different quality to
what it means to be human. Studying each of the domains separately is important as it will enhance our
understanding of the growth and development of the learner, specifically in our study of the adolescent. But in
reality, these domains are linked and interwoven and they function as a whole. Development in one domain
influences development in others, and the same applies to problems. For example, an unwanted pregnancy (physical)
can cause scholastic problems for a girl (cognitive), which may lead to serious social and emotional problems
(affective) and rejection from her family and community (religion, culture, morals). It is therefore pedagogically
unsound to, for example, treat the physical or cognitive development of the adolescent as an independent entity on
the assumption that it is unrelated to other domains. In studying one domain, one must never lose sight of its close
ties with other domains (Gouws, 2019). Figure 1.2 shows the different domains of holistic development.

Physical development

Not only do boys and girls experience their bodies differently, but each gender differs amongst themselves with
regard to their body image and how they experience their physical development. For example, think of the social and
emotional consequences learners experience with early and late physical development; or changes in their bodies
through the development of breasts, deepening of the voice and hair growth. Teachers need to be informed on how to
support learners through these changes which can also include sexual maturation, motor development and
psychomotor abilities.

Cognitive development

Cognitive development refers to the mental processes of learners and how they give meaning to their world.
Intelligence, aptitude, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving and memory are typical cognitive aspects which are
relevant to the teaching profession.

Social development

Parents, siblings, extended family, the community, teachers and their peers constitute the social life of the individuals
to a large extent. At first, the parents are very important but as they become more independent of the family unit and
search for new connections (during the adolescent years), relationships with the peer group become more important.
At this stage, peer influence becomes more evident.

Emotional, moral and spiritual development

Adolescents are faced with many complex emotions and might have a heightened emotionality that could be
presented with mood swings, outbursts, and meltdowns. But during this period they become more mature and
develop better recognise, regulate and manage their emotional experiences and expressions.

Moral development deals with their ability to distinguish between right and wrong and to behave appropriately (and
ethically) in a particular situation. For each individual “right and wrong” is measured against their own family,
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communal, societal and cultural values. Right and wrong can therefore not be prescribed (given) to adolescents.
Adolescents then develop their own belief system and their own set of values. This newly acquired set of norms and
values may or may not differ from that of the parents. Moral development also focuses on how individuals should be
educated to make responsible choices.

Spiritual development relates to fundamental questions that all humans ask about the meaning and purpose of life.
This affects everyone and becomes more evident during adolescence. Spiritual development is not dependent on
religious affiliation, nor is it about becoming more spiritual, rather it is about raising one’s awareness of one's
natural, innate spirituality. Some people even describe it as an ongoing, and dynamic interplay between one's
outward and inward journey to find purpose and meaning.

1.4.2 Learning
Learning is a lifelong process and does not only happen in a school’s classroom. It occurs throughout a human’s
lifespan. Therefore, learning does not only start in infancy and end or become completed by the end of adolescence.
Learning is about assigning new meaning to reality, and even “unlearning” where wrong assumptions have been
made. As you know, we all continue to learn new things throughout our life. To obtain an overview of learning, it
might be helpful to distinguish between the conditions of learning, the actual learning event and the outcomes of the
learning event. These aspects are shown in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: The learning event

The conditions of learning

There are mainly three conditions of learning, namely cognitive, affective and psychomotor conditions. Menix
(1996) describes these domains as follows. The above-named cognitive, affective and psychomotor functions are
also conditions of learning. These conditions of learning are directly related to the domains of learning as described
by Bloom’s taxonomy (1956; Peak Performance Center n.d). With regard to these domains, it is important to note
that learning is not only an intellectual or mental (cognitive) process, but it also involves affective processes that are
expressed and experienced through one’s body.

Cognitive conditions à refer to the learner’s ability to attain knowledge using mental/intellectual processes. These
mental/intellectual processes should be in place for learning to occur. Typical conditions discussed in textbooks are
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aspects such as: attention and observation; intelligence; aptitude; sensory integration, thinking and reasoning;
memory (working, short and- long-term) and previous knowledge for meaningful learning to take place.

Affective conditions à characterise the emotional arena (scene) reflected by learners' beliefs, values and interests.
Not all learners enter a learning situation with the same emotional preparedness, awareness, interest, or attention, nor
are they as able to listen and respond in interactions. For this reason, teachers need knowledge and skills to optimise
aspects such as involvement, motivation, interest, attitude and self-concept. Also, Bloom (1956:7) maintained that
the concealed feelings that teachers do not always know about are as important as those that are openly visible.

Psychomotor conditions à reflects learning behaviour achieved through neuromuscular motor activities. By
interpreting the sensory information received from the environment through your sensory organs (perception)
learners’ can perform motor activities. Understanding how the body responds to the immediate learning environment
enables teachers to apply strategies for example to minimise aspects such as stress and anxiety.

The interplay between these three domains leads to how an individual learns according to the theoretical viewpoint
of Bloom (Peak Performance Center n.d.). These levels of learning are:

Figure 1.4 Five levels of learning

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Brush up your knowledge about the adapted Bloom’s taxonomy. The taxonomy will help you a
variety of cognitive levels. Go to:

https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/planning
taxonomy.

How does this taxonomy deal with cognition, emotions and psychomotor?

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

Bloom’s taxonomy encourages teachers to make use of higher-order thinking in their learners

Bloom’s taxonomy allows you as a teacher to organise objectives which in turn helps you to:
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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

plan appropriate lessons,

design suitable assessment tasks and strategies, and
ensure that lessons and assessments are aligned with the objectives.

FeedFORWARD (Reflection/Improve):

What is foregrounded by Bloom?

What is not addressed?

Do others address feelings, coordination, and management?

The actual learning event

The actual learning event takes place in phases/stages/levels and involves the learner who is learning, the teacher
who teaches, the learning environment and the teaching-learning material. All four components are always present
during learning – there is someone who teaches, someone who learns, there is a place where this happens, and
information that is learnt. To understand the learning event, we will now look at the levels of learning and provide
examples.

Levels of learning

In referring to Bloom’s taxonomy earlier, we explained that learning takes place according to levels, also known as a
taxonomy/hierarchy. Although the learner moves from the lowest to the highest during the learning event, all the
levels of learning are of equal importance. In other words, the lowest level (memorisation) is not less important than
the highest level (evaluation). That is because we need to have memorised information so that it is ready for use
when we need to solve a problem (a higher level of learning). But merely memorising information is also not
enough.

Here are the three taxonomies Bloom and other scholars co-designed for each of the domains. All three works on the
same principle of hierarchy, moving from the lowest to the highest levels. In the following picture, you can see how
these taxonomies are compared.

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Figure 1.5: The Cognitive, Affective and Psycho-motor Domains

(Beagon, 2021)

Below we elaborate on the cognitive domain specifically, as cognitive skills play a vital role in a learner’s overall
development. Cognitive skills include some of the brain’s core functions such as thinking, reading, learning,
remembering information, and paying attention which are used to solve problems, remember tasks and make
decisions.

LEARNING PHASE 1

Knowledge (Memorisation): Example of

Knowledge:
Memorising involves recognising or remembering facts, terms, basic
concepts or answers without necessarily understanding what they mean. Name three common
Memorising facts is often incorrectly considered a low level of learning varieties of apples.
and one that we can do without. On the contrary, keeping the
information in our memory lets us have knowledge and skills readily
available when we need to solve a problem or make sense of a situation.
Memorisation belongs in the learning process and it forms the
foundation of all learning. At this level the student obtains (a)
knowledge of facts; (b) the knowledge to classify and categorise and
sequence, and (c) gains knowledge of a principle or rule or theory.

LEARNING PHASE 2

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Comprehension: Example of
Comprehension:
Comprehension involves demonstrating an understanding of facts and
ideas by organising, comparing, categorising, translating, interpreting, Compare the
giving descriptions and stating the main ideas. identifying
characteristics of a
Golden Delicious with
a Granny Smith apple.

LEARNING PHASE 3

Application: Example of
Application:
Application involves using acquired knowledge, and solving problems
in new situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and Would apples prevent
rules. Use prior knowledge to solve problems, identify connections and scurvy, a disease
relationships and how they apply in new situations. caused by a deficiency
in Vitamin C?

LEARNING PHASE 4

Analysis: Example of
Analysis:
In the analysis phase, information is broken up into component parts.
The student needs to examine how the parts relate to one another, List four ways of
identify motives or causes, making inferences, and finding evidence to serving foods made
support generalisations. Analysis, therefore, includes to understand the with apples and
different elements of a concept, to understand the relationships between explain which ones
the elements, to understand how the elements are organised. have the highest health
benefits. Provide
references to support
your statements.

LEARNING PHASE 5

Synthesis: Example of
Synthesis:
Synthesis entails to create a structure or pattern from diverse elements; it
may also refer to reorganise elements into a new whole or putting parts Convert an unhealthy
together to form a known whole (in other words, putting is back the way recipe for apple pie to
it was). You will notice here that synthesis is not possible without having a healthy recipe by
mastered all the previous levels of learning. It requires of one to separate replacing your choice
elements, understand what their functions are, and putting them together of ingredients. Explain
into a new, functional whole. the health benefits of
using the ingredients
you chose versus the
original ones.

LEARNING PHASE 6

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Evaluation: Example of
Evaluation:
Evaluation involves presenting and defending opinions by making
judgements about information, the validity of ideas, or quality of work Which kind of apples
based on a set of criteria. To be able to make a judgement, all the are best for baking a
previous levels of learning are required. pie, and why?

To support the different learning activities, teachers have to create a favourable learning environment and offer
quality instruction. For this reason, instruction is often discussed in Psychology of Education textbooks under the
following headings:

Teaching styles (e.g., lecturing, coaching, facilitator, delegator, hybrid/blended etc.)

Classroom organisation, classroom management and classroom atmosphere
Instructional objectives (e.g., knowledge, skills, attitudes)
Teaching approaches (e.g. learner-centred, teacher-centred, subject-centred, guided etc.)
Effective communication and interaction with learners
Regular monitoring (e.g., formative assessment, summative assessment etc.)
Quality comment (feedUP, feedBACK and feedFORWARD)

Outcomes of the learning event

If the learning event was successful, learners will remember what they have learnt, their behaviour would change,
and they will be able to apply it. Memory and transfer are thus important. Reasons why learners forget or make
mistakes can be because of difficulty to recall information according to several Psychology of Education textbooks.
If learners remember the content, can perform a learned skill, they will most probably be able to transfer their
knowledge – which is an indication of the ability to apply newly acquired knowledge in different situations.

The outcomes and success of any learning event cannot be determined without proper assessment and evaluation –
therefore you will find a chapter on assessment in many textbooks. Aspects such as the following are covered:

Types of assessment
Developing questions for classroom tests
Reliability, validity and transparency
Preparing learners for tests and helping them deal with test anxiety
Administering tests
Analysing test results

1.4.3 Individual differences

The teacher is supposed to mediate or facilitate learning in a manner which is sensitive to the diverse needs of
learners – including those with barriers to learning – and to construct learning environments that are appropriately
contextualised, physically accessible and safe, and inspirational.

It is of crucial importance that teachers must be aware of learners who have serious delays in their physical and
cognitive development. Suitable care should be taken for each individual learner who may need some special
assistance or therapy.

Not all children develop in the same way, nor do they learn in the same way. Learners’ behaviour varies from good
behaviour to behaviour which is a concern for parents and teachers. Also, learners’ academic abilities and
achievement also vary. Not only should teachers be aware of these differences; they should adequately plan for it in
their teaching, and also be prepared to deal with them or refer when necessary. According to Mitchell and

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McConnell (2012:136–147) research in educational psychology used to emphasise individual differences in learners,
with little attention to the influence of the social context. With the emergence of theoretical frameworks of
constructivist and social learning, researchers are beginning to place greater emphasis on contextual variables in the
learning process. Such an approach will certainly benefit the South African situation.

The rule of inclusion is to focus on similarities, and overlap and make learning accessible to all. It is therefore
crucial to emphasise similarities than only focusing on differences when you are teaching. But with this said, it is
important as a professional to understand differences so you can plan and prepare for it in your teaching. You will
need to know about the domains of differences which fall within the field of Psychology of Education are:
Gender differences
Sexual orientation/ preference
Learners with physical impairments such as seeing or hearing
Learning challenges
Language barriers
Psychological wellbeing
Behavioural challenges in class
Oppositional defiant disorder, Conduct disorder and delinquency
Cultural diversity
Giftedness
Creativity and divergent thinking

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Draw your own mind map to illustrate the structure of the field of Psychology of Education (see Unit 0, pages
of the field of Psychology of Education to learners who want to know what they will come across when studyin
FeedBACK (Action/Process):

Make your own, original drawing (use colours, circles, lines, arrows, and more) to help you to make your own
structure of the field and guide you when studying the content of the module Psychology of Education. Share
FeedFORWARD (Reflection/Improve):

How does your map differ? What insights did you get from this sharing?

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4/16/24, 10:59 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 1: 1.5 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY

1.5 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY

There are many theorists in the field of Psychology. Presently, it will be impossible to predict who the most
important psychologists of the 21st century are. However, Haggbloom, Warnick, Warnick et al (2002:139–152) did
research and provided a rank-order list of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the previous (20th) century. Can
you guess who? Let’s look at what this 20-year-old research indicated.

The research done in one study considered a theorist’s reputation. This reputation was measured using the frequency
of citations in professional journals as well as psychologists most frequently cited in introductory psychology
textbooks (see pages 4 & 5). They also surveyed, by e-mail, approximately 1,725 members of the American
Psychological Society. These members were asked who they considered the greatest psychologists of the 20th
century in general and in their specialisation field. Certain qualitative measures were also applied. A final rank-order
list of 100 psychologists worldwide was drawn up. These individuals were not only some of the best-known thinkers
in psychology, but they also played an important role in the history of psychology and made important contributions
to the understanding of human behaviour. But, the research focused on only psychologists and does not differentiate
between Psychology in general and Psychology of Education (which is our focus).

Without reading ahead, who do you think was included in the list?

If the rank order is left unchanged and prominent psychologists who are cited in Educational Psychology textbooks
are selected, the following list may provide the names of the top psychologists who contributed to the field of
learning and development during the 20th century:

believed that social interaction plays a critical role in children’s learning, and
L.S. Vygotsky that social interactions with adults and peers facilitate a child’s potential for
learning. He furthermore believed that culture has a major impact on a child’s
cognitive development. Imitation, guided learning, and collaborative learning
(1896-1934) feature prominently in his theory.

believed that operant conditioning can strengthen any behaviour. Operant

B.F. Skinner
conditioning is a learning process through which the strength of a behaviour
pattern is modified by reinforcement or punishment. If the behaviour is
punished there is a good chance that it will not be repeated. If it is rewarded
(1904–1990) (reinforced), the probability of the behaviour being repeated becomes
stronger. In this way, desired behaviour is gradually modified by continuous
reinforcement.

was known as a “genetic” epistemologist who was interested in the process of

J. Piaget
the development of knowledge and cognitive growth. He believed that
thinking and intellectual development could be regarded as an extension of
the biological process of adaptation to the environment. In this process, he has
(1896–1980) identified four well-known stages of intellectual growth.

is known as the originator of the social learning theory, later renamed the
A. Bandura
social cognitive theory. The social cognitive theory explains how people learn
through observing others who serve as a model. If the model is successful or
is rewarded for his/her behaviour, the observer will most probably behave in a
(1925-2021) similar manner.

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focused on the development of the self-concept where conditional positive

C.R. Rogers regard played an important role.

Those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard (unqualified

(1902–1987) acceptance) have the opportunity to fully actualise themselves whereas those
raised in an environment of conditional positive regard feel worthy only if
they match conditions laid down for them by others. This point of departure
formed the keystone for his person-centred therapy and learner-centred
teaching.

helped to lay the scientific foundation for Educational Psychology. His

E.L.
contributions in behavioural psychology had a major impact on education,
Thorndike
especially his law of effect. According to this law a reward is more effective if
it follows immediately after the successful behaviour, compared to a delayed
reward.
(1874–1949)

developed a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling human

A. H. Maslow
needs in priority, culminating in self-actualisation. Maslow described human
needs as ordered in a hierarchy. A pressing need would have to be mostly
satisfied before a person would pay attention to the next highest need. When a
(1908–1970) human being ascends the levels of the hierarchy, having fulfilled the lower-
order needs, such a person may eventually achieve self-actualisation.

was one of the originators of ego psychology. He believed that the social
E.H. Erikson
environment in which a child lives is crucial for providing growth,
adjustment, self-awareness and identity. He identified eight stages in the life
cycle of a person with a specific virtue that manifests during the successful
(1902–1994) completion of each stage. During adolescence, this virtue is a sense of
identity.

developed an Achievement Motivation Theory, commonly referred to as

D.C.
“need for achievement”. He focused on three particular motives: the need for
McClelland achievement, the need for affiliation and the need for power. The need for
achievement is the desire to excel in relation to a set of standards. It is the
drive to succeed. The need for affiliation is the desire for close personal
(1917–1998) relationships and the need for power is the desire to be influential.

made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and cognitive

J.S. Bruner
learning theory in the field of Educational Psychology. He proposed three
modes of representation. Modes of representation are the way in which
information or knowledge is stored and encoded in memory. These modes can
(1915–2016) be enactive representation (action-based), iconic representation (image-based)
or symbolic representation (language-based). Language is therefore important
for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts. In accordance with this
understanding of learning, Bruner proposed a spiral curriculum, a teaching
approach in which each subject or skill area is revisited at intervals, at a more
sophisticated level each time.

is well known for his theory on moral development. An entirely new field
L. Kohlberg within psychology was created as a direct result of Kohlberg’s theory. The
theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behaviour, has six
identifiable developmental stages. Each stage is associated with a higher level
(1927–1987) of moral reasoning compared to the preceding stage. The six stages of moral
development are grouped into three levels of morality: pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional morality.

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Study the section in Louw & Louw (2022: 14-45) on the different theories of development.

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4/16/24, 10:59 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 1: 1.6 RESEARCH METHODS

1.6 RESEARCH METHODS

New knowledge is generated daily within the psychology of the subject field, mainly as a result of dedicated
researchers who investigate different aspects of human development, learning and individual differences within an
educational environment. This does not exclude teachers. There is an increasing need for teachers to get involved in
classroom research. Such research will assist teachers to improve their instruction and offering better support for
learners in their class who might experience learning or behavioural challenges. Before moving on to scientific
methods, you as a teacher can use the following resource to help you improve your own teaching based on the
feedback you receive and observe in your classroom – it is called the formative assessment cycle.

This is a deliberate (intentional) process used by teachers during their teaching which provides feedback that they
can use to adjust/improve their lessons. Observing learners’ behaviour and their responses to the lesson offers
information to teachers on how well the lesson is going. Teachers can use different strategies for teaching, make
activities more active, change the assessment or reintroduce the content to improve the chances of students achieving
the outcome. The discussions (page 7, 13 to 15) is important to consider in terms of scientific research, all basic
research methods are practised in all sciences (for example, in the social and educational sciences) and these
methods have therefore also become an important component of Psychology of Education. Two main research
approaches can be distinguished namely quantitative (numbers) and qualitative (words) research.

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Quantitative research is done with large groups. Psychological constructs such as motivation or achievement are
measured with tests or questionnaires and the information is then statistically analysed.
Qualitative research is done with small groups or individuals with the aim of doing an in-depth investigation on a
particular topic. Interviews or observation are often used to collect data in qualitative research projects.

Refer to the short lesson about quantitative and qualitative research by following the link: https://youtu.be/a-
XtVF7Bofg

Study the section in Louw & Louw (2022: 46-64) for more information about research in

child development.

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Why do you think it is important to conduct research?

Refer to E-tutor site and interact with the E-tutor and fellow students on this topic.
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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

We conduct research because we want to increase our understanding, learn something new, test a theory, and c
specific field. Research is crucial to the overall development and improvement of different disciplines, such a
FeedFORWARD (Reflection/Improve):

Which area interests you? Why?

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4/16/24, 11:00 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 1: 1.7 THE TEACHER'S ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

1.7 THE TEACHER'S ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

The success of the teaching-learning activity depends entirely on the teacher’s ability (or lack of it) to create a
classroom climate that encourages active participative learning. The teacher’s overall aim is to involve the learner in
active participation in the learning process. To achieve this aim, the teacher needs to know the learner (his or her
level of development) and how the learner learns. This was quickly touched on in the oval (egg) visual on page 7.
The teacher further needs to be able to engage the learner in a critical thinking exercise about the subject content.
Subject content should not be presented as a given, or as an absolute. Instead, it should be presented and accepted
simply for what it really is, that is, information that may be applied to one’s own reality to act confidently in one’s
own life world. This presents a greater challenge to the teacher, who has the responsibility to create a classroom
situation that invites each and every learner to view new content critically, against the background of his or her own
existing knowledge. This way of presenting subject content encourages learners to construct a deeper and richer
form of knowledge that widens their experience of the life world. In this kind of teaching-learning situation, the
learner personally grapples with the content and tries to reconcile it with his or her own existing knowledge.

It is clear that teachers play a vital role in the lives of adolescents in their learning environments. The most important
role fulfilled by teachers is that of educating the learners who are placed in their care. In addition to teaching,
teachers have many other roles in the classroom. They set the atmosphere in classrooms, create a warm environment,
nurture and mentor learners, become role models, and listen and look for signs of trouble. For many years,
communities have looked up to teachers as respected role models. For teachers to be able to fulfil the role expected
from them they need to have a sound knowledge of adolescent development and learning.

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4/16/24, 11:00 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 1: 1.8 CONCLUSION

1.8 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you were introduced to what the whole module is about: the period of
adolescence, how adolescents develop and the challenges in the environment of
adolescents in South Africa. You were introduced to the subject field of Psychology of
Education. You have learnt that the two main concepts to define Psychology of
Education are development and learning. In addition, you now know that the
understanding of human development (and particularly, of learners’ specific level of
development) is essential for teachers. Teachers also need to know how learning takes
place. Furthermore, you were reminded of the important roles and responsibilities of
teachers in the schooling context. In learning unit 2 we shall discuss the physical
development of the adolescent. As a teacher, you should be familiar with the physical
changes that take place during adolescence in order to help the learners in your class to
cope with these changes.

1.9 REFERENCES

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1.9 REFERENCES

Ball, D.L., Thames, M. H., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content Knowledge for Teaching: What Makes It Special? Journal
of Teacher Education, 59(5): 389-407.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487108324554

Beagon, U. (2021) A Phenomenographic Study of Academics Teaching on Engineering Programmes in Ireland:

Conceptions of Professional Skills and Approaches to Teaching Professional Skills (Doctoral Thesis, TU
Dublin). https://doi.org/10.21427/K4MD-2571

Bloom, B.S. (Ed). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1:
Cognitive domain. London: Longmans.

Chauhan, S.S. (2010). Advanced Psychology of Education. Vikas Publishing House.

Datnow, A., Park, V., Peurach, D. J., & Spillane, J. P. (2022). Transforming education for holistic student
development. Learning from education system (re)building around the world. Accessed on 18 Jan. 23
at https://www.brookings.edu/research/transforming-education-for-holistic-student-development/

Eggen, P.D. & kauchak, D. (2013). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Pearson Education.

Gouws, E. (2019). The Adolescent. Unisa custom edition. Cape Town: Pearson.

Government Gazette. (2015). National Qualifications Framework Act (67/2008): Revised policy on the minimum
requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications, Vol. 596, No. 38487. Pretoria, Government Printing Works.

Haggbloom, S.J., Warnick, R. Warnick, J.E., Jones, V.K., Yarbrough, G.L., Russell, T.M., Borecky, C.M., Reagan
Mcgahhey, R. Powell, J.L., Beavers, J. & Monte, E. 2002. The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th
Century. Review of General Psychology, 6(2): 139–152.

Lohse-Bossenz, H., Kunina-Habenicht, O. & Kunter, M. (2013). The role of educational psychology in teacher
education: expert opinions on what teachers should know about learning, development, and assessment. European
Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(4): 1543–1565.

Menix, K.D. (1996). Domains of learning: interdependent components of achievable learning outcomes. Journal of
Continous Educational Nursing, 27(5): 200-208. https://doi.org/10.3928/0022-0124-19960901-04.

Michell, A.W. & Mcconnell J.R. (2012). A historical review of Contemporary Educational Psychology from 1995 to
2010. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37(2): 136–147.

Nolen, A.L. (2009). The Content of Educational Psychology: An Analysis of Top Ranked Journals from 2003
through 2007. Educational Psychology Review, 21(3): 279–289.

O’Donnell, A.M. & Levin, J.R. (2001). Educational psychology’s healthy growing pains. Educational Psychologist,
36(2): 73–82.

Peak Performance Center. (n.d.). Affective domain, viewed 28 May 2019

from http://thepeakperformancecenter.com/educational-learning/learning/process/domains-of-learning/affective-
domain/

Slavin, R.E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ. : Pearson Education.
South African National Qualifications Framework Act (67/2008)

Woolfolk, A.E. (2016). Educational psychology. Boston: Pearson.

Woolfolk, A.E., Hughes, M., Walkup V. (2013). Psychology in Education. London: Pearson.

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4/16/24, 11:02 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 2: 2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 2.1: Overview of Learning Unit 2

From the previous unit, we can conclude that a teacher works holistically with the adolescent. What this means is
that they must have appropriate knowledge and understanding of all the human domains of development of the
adolescent and apply it to their teaching practice.

In this learning unit, we will zoom in on one of the domains, namely the physical development of the adolescent. We
will look at the characteristics of normal physical development, with special attention to the effect of physical
changes on the daily functioning of the adolescent. We will also look at the importance of a healthy lifestyle and
what a healthy lifestyle entails.

This unit will enable you to:

describe the changes and the milestones that are reached during the healthy physical development of an
adolescent;
understand the effect of physical changes on the emotional and social well-being of the adolescent;
elaborate on the influence of culture and community on the way certain milestones are perceived and handled;
understand the side effects of unhealthy habits.

For you to be successful regarding the physical development of the adolescent you will actively participate in: all
online discussions; log into myUnisa to access your reading material; complete and submit activities; and summarize
the unit for yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you prepare for the exam. It is of utmost importance that you ask for
support if concepts are unclear to you via myUnisa.

It is important for you as a teacher to understand the physical development of the adolescent, as the physical growth
and motor development have an important effect on the behaviour of the adolescent learner.

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4/16/24, 11:03 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 2: 2.2 ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT

2.2 ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT

Early adolescence is characterised by rapid and extensive physical growth (also known as a growth spurt or
accelerated growth) and the development of sexual maturity (Louw & Louw, 2020). An important physical change is
the onset of puberty, the process that leads to sexual maturity, or fertility – the ability to reproduce (Papalia et al.,
2010). Puberty typically starts around 10-11 years for girls and 11-12 years for boys. This can also be earlier or later.
In puberty, boys and girls have distinct differences, but in general, they get taller, heavier and stronger. There are
also changes in their sexual organs, the shape of their bodies, brains, skin, hair (pubic, chest and armpits), teeth,
breasts, voice pitch and sweatiness. This process stems from the release of certain hormones (chemicals) in the brain.
These hormones released are the same in all adolescents, but differences in hormone levels lead to different results in
males and females.

Refer to the chapter by Louw and Louw (2022: 438-439) for more information about the

adolescent growth spurt.

As a teacher, you need to be aware of the changes that take place in your learners’ bodies. Always keep in mind that
these rapid changes also affect cognition, emotions, self-image and the behaviour of the learner.

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4/16/24, 11:03 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 2: 2.3 BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

2.3 BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

The brain undergoes important changes during adolescence, but higher cognitive functions are still being developed.
The advances in brain development lead to growth in certain areas of mental competencies, and immaturity in some
other areas can lead to behavioural problems.

Brain maturity is a physiological process in which the human brain grows and changes. Studies of neuro-imaging
show that the adolescent brain continues to mature well into the 20s (Johnson, Blum & Giedd, 2009:216) – as
opposed to earlier views that the human brain is fully developed between 10 and 12 years.

Many factors influence the development of the adolescent brain. These are factors such as:

Heredity
Environment
Prenatal and postnatal conditions
Nutrition
Sleep patterns
Medication
Surgical interventions
Stress (physical, economic, psychological)
Drug abuse
Hormones such as oestrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

Some of the above-named factors are beyond the adolescent’s control, for instance, heredity (genetics), intensity and
type of parental care, certain health conditions or even the environment they find themselves in. They can, however,
be aware of the dangers of drug abuse, unprotected sexual activities, undisciplined sleep patterns and eating
unhealthy foods, and they can decide to avoid dangerous or unhealthy habits, such as over-using social media. Some
studies indicate that the mere use of cell phones has effects on cognitive performance, as described in the following
article.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022: 439-443) for more information about the brain development of

the adolescent.

Understanding the changes and challenges that adolescents face, will enable you as a teacher to effectively help them
learn and grow. Adolescent thinks differently than a grown-up, as they are more likely to take risks, be sleepy,
misread emotions, give in to peer pressure and lack self-control.

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Listening to the following TED talk can help you to understand the effects of sleep deprivation on the holistic
sleep researcher. In this talk, she argues that early school start times deprive adolescents of much-needed sleep
start later for teens by clicking on the following link:

https://www.ted.com/talks/ wendy_troxel_why_school_should_start_later_for_teens#t-402606)

Hereafter log into your myUnisa and refer to the E-tutor site and answer the questions based on this TED Talk.

(i) Do you think that sleep patterns differ between cultures? Give reasons for your answer.

(ii) How does acculturation affect the sleep of adolescents from different cultures in South Africa?

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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

Add your contribution to Discussion Forum 2, on your E-tutor site.

When answering the questions, think about your own culture.

Do you know what acculturation means? If not, make sure to google it or look it up in the dictionary before a
FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

Sleep patterns differ in various cultures. Bedtimes in traditional non-Western cultures are flexible, and naps ar
However, owing to their fast-paced and work-orientated culture, people in Western cultures sleep less. Electri
hard to fall asleep. Devices such as television, cell phones and computers also interfere with the normal sleep
alarm clock rings.

Once again acculturation plays a significant role in sleep deprivation. School hours in South Africa are based
culture. Schools start early and many children who live far from their schools must get up very early to be on
will probably work with many tired and sleep-deprived learners. A study by McVeigh and Meiring (2014) also
than white and Indian children.

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4/16/24, 11:04 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 2: 2.4 SEXUAL MATURATION

2.4 SEXUAL MATURATION

The onset of menstruation (girls) and nocturnal/night-time semen emissions (boys) indicates that the adolescent is
now capable of reproduction. Still, although biologically capable to have children, these adolescents are not
necessarily emotionally, cognitively or financially fit to have a baby. The female adolescent is extremely vulnerable
during the adolescent period. Early pregnancy has major health consequences for the adolescent mother and her
baby. Teenage pregnancy is discussed later in this unit, but we can at this stage keep in mind that sexual maturation
comes with the obligation to make responsible life choices.

Different cultures have different ways of handling the transition from child to adult. “Rite of passage” is a term that
the ethnographer Arnold van Gennep (1908) coined. A rite of passage refers to a ceremony/ritual that marks an
important social transition. It rids a person of an old role and helps them to accept and adapt to a new role. It
involves rituals and teachings that groom the person for their new roles and responsibilities within the family unit or
community. Typical transition periods are birth, puberty, marriage and death. Rituals and ceremonies differ between
cultures and it also serves to reinforce the values and beliefs of the culture.

Early pregnancies among adolescents have major health consequences for adolescent mothers and their babies.
Pregnancy and childbirth complications are the leading cause of death among girls aged 15–19 years globally.

low- and middle-income countries account for 99% of global maternal deaths of women aged 15–49 years.3
Adolescent mothers aged 10–19 years face higher risks of eclampsia (seizures), puerperal endometritis (bacteria
infecting the uterus and surrounding areas) and systemic infections (contaminating the entire body) than women
aged 20–24 years.
4
Additionally, some 3.9 million unsafe abortions among girls aged 15–19 years occur each year, contributing to
maternal mortality, morbidity and lasting health problems.
Unsafe sex could potentially lead to being infected with HIV/Aids by the mother. This virus can be transferred to
the baby during childbirth, or when breastfeeding. Only blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk carries this
virus.

Early childbearing can increase risks for new-borns as well as young mothers. Babies born to mothers under 20
years of age face higher risks of low birth weight, preterm delivery and severe neonatal conditions.

Because it is not commonly discussed, sexual behaviour is often viewed as a problem rather than a normal part of
development. As previously stated, adolescence is associated with physical, emotional and psychological
development, and during this time decisions about relationship formation and sexual debut occur (Smith & Harrison,
2013). As a result, this is an important time in the learner’s life to address issues of sexuality and HIV prevention. It
is important to provide information that is non-judgemental, and accurate and provide strategies that will empower
the learners to make responsible decisions about their sexual and reproductive health. According to UNESCO
(2022), sex education is most effective and has the most impact when school-based programmes involve parents,
teachers, training institutes and youth-friendly services.

Furthermore, school-based programmes focused on sex education must address the different contexts and life
experiences of each adolescent or learner and should be seen as a normal part of life.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:443-451) for more information about sexual maturation.

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4/16/24, 11:04 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 2: 2.5 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL CHANGES

2.5 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL CHANGES

Adolescents are acutely aware of the physical changes they experience. The effects of early and late maturation vary
in boys and girls, and the timing of maturation tends to predict adolescent mental health and health-related
behaviours in adulthood (Papalia et al., 2010). For many boys, the lowering of their voice may cause embarrassment,
when in the midst of a serious conversation, their voices suddenly squeak and crackle. Girls are usually concerned
about their sudden weight increase, although an increase in weight during adolescence is considered differently by
different cultures (Gouws, 2019). One cannot generalise about the psychological effects of puberty timing because it
depends on how the adolescent and other people in his or her world interpret the accompanying changes (Papalia et
al., 2010).

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022: 451-452) for more information about the effects of early and late

maturation of girls and boys.

The changes in an adolescent’s physical development and hormone levels often result in risky behaviour and
decisions. However, this time is often also associated with creativity, intensive emotionality, and social engagement
(Oxford University Press, 2018). Complete the activity below that is focused on how you as a teacher can best use
this to your advantage when teaching the adolescent learner.

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Refer to the following website, and read the information shared.

https://oupeltglobalblog.com/2018/11/16/teaching-
adolescents/#:~:text=The%20major%20developmental%20tasks%20of,%2Dcontrol%2C%20and%20social%

From what you have read, summarise how you as a teacher can best use this specific developmental stage to t
FeedBACK (Action/Process):

While you are reading this article, think about yourself as an adolescent. Were there teachers you did not like?
have a supportive adult in your life? Was this supportive adult a teacher?

FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

Teachers often spend more time with a learner than their own parents do. Therefore, it cannot be overstated ju
an adolescent. Even though adolescents have to be able to manage and control their own behaviour, if you as
they might be facing, you are more able to guide and help them navigate to be as happy and successful as pos

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2.6 BODY IMAGE AND EATING DISORDERS

Getting used to the changes in the body and developing a positive feeling about
one’s body is a very important developmental task in adolescence. Attitude towards
one’s body is influenced by factors such as cultural preferences, the media and peer
opinions. Body image is a crucial part of adolescent development, and negative
body image can impact many aspects of adolescents' physical and psychological
health and well-being.

It has been found that parental attitudes and media images play a greater part than
peer influences in encouraging weight concerns (Hartman, Munick, Gordon & Guss,
2020). Eating disorders might be more common among girls, but boys should not be
overlooked. Excessive concerns with weight and body image may be early signs of
anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. While there are many similarities when it
comes to how body image concerns develop in girls and boys, it has been found that
there are a few differences including the appearance that adolescents pursue. Body
image concerns often develop later in adolescence for boys. Boys are more likely to
drive for muscularity, and this often contributes to body concerns in boys, and
negatively influences the exercise and eating behaviours they engage in (The
Educator, 2019).

As a teacher you can promote positive body image by doing the following:

Be a positive role model: Research has shown that having a role model who is
older can motivate, encourage and empower young people.
Introduce learners to diversity: introduce learners to different images that reflect
different physical abilities, body sizes and appearances.
Shift the focus from appearance to attributes: teaching learners to think positively
about themselves can help develop a positive self-image that doesn’t focus entirely on
appearance.
Encourage students to appreciate their bodies and take care of it (Bodywhys, 2022).

When it comes to eating disorders, it is important that you as a teacher take it

seriously. Eating disorders are illnesses that have biological and psychological
components. The symptoms can be life threatening, as every organ system of the
body can be damages (including the brain, heart, kidney, cardiovascular,
gastrointestinal, endocrine, skin and bones). It is your responsibility as a teacher to
create a safe environment where learners are able to discuss matters privately and
confidentially (Golisano Chilren’s Hospital, 2023).

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022: 452-456) for more information

about body image and eating disorders.

2.7 TEENAGE PREGNANCY

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LESSON 2.1
LESSON 1

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2.7 TEENAGE PREGNANCY

Even in the best of circumstances, adolescence can be a period charged with tension. Young people face the impact
of puberty; they have to develop a personal and career identity and establish and maintain social relationships. They
are moving out of the family circle into what is frequently a strange world of work and studies where they feel
unwelcome and often apprehensive. They must learn skills to equip them to cope in the adult world. Under normal
circumstances, pregnancy has implications for an adult person. For a teenager who is still trying to form her identity,
an unplanned pregnancy could assume the proportions of a crisis.

Physical implications of teenage pregnancy

Although the teenage mother is biologically able to have a baby, her body is not yet mature enough to cope with the
physical changes brought about by pregnancy. As discussed previously (see pages 5 & 6) pregnancy and childbirth
complications are the leading cause of death among girls aged 15-19 years globally (Neal, Matthews & Frost, 2012;
Darroch, Woog, Bankole, & Ashford, 2016). In addition to teenagers finding medical examinations associated with
pregnancy traumatic, adolescent mothers aged 10–19 years face higher risks of eclampsia, puerperal endometritis
and systemic infections than women aged 20–24 years (WHO 2016).

Career possibilities

If a teenager unexpectedly falls pregnant, it changes her career possibilities. Some teenagers are not even able to
return and complete their schooling. Because it is necessary to make financial provisions for the baby, these
teenagers may revert to short-term plans such as working as a part-time employee for a very low salary, while their
long-term career plans are, of necessity, moved into the background.

Opting for an abortion

Some 3.9 million unsafe abortions among girls aged 15–19 years occur each year, contributing to maternal mortality,
morbidity and lasting health problems (Darroch, Woog, Bankole & Ashford 2016). Generally speaking, abortion is
not sufficiently understood and could be traumatic for a young expectant mother. There might well be post-abortion
psychological consequences. These might include clinical depression, suicide attempts and psychosis. Because of
their ignorance, teenagers who wish to undergo abortions, tend to do so later than they should, instead of in the
earlier, relatively safer weeks of pregnancy.

Relationship between the teenager and her parents

A teenage girl would normally like to become independent of her parents without undue negativity or feelings of
rebellion. This transition from a symbiosis between child and parents to a relationship where the child is able to
assume the position of an adult in a mutual relationship with her parents could take years. Along the way, the
teenager achieves her developmental milestones, acquiring greater independence, and her parents gradually begin to
leave more and more decisions to her as they relinquish their control. Although normally, a teenager's process of
becoming independent has its problems, this period forms a continuous phase of growth and change in both the
teenager and her parents. An early pregnancy could thwart this process. The teenager may withdraw from her parents
because she feels ashamed and guilty and her parents may reject her because they feel frustrated, angry and
disappointed. If at this stage, when the parents are still helping to make some of the decisions for the teenager, a
decision regarding adoption or abortion has to be made, the teenager is usually overwhelmed by feelings of anxiety
and is incapable of thinking clearly. Some of these girls are in such a state of denial that they are quite incapable of
thinking about the future. This is usually when the mother or both parents take over the decision-making process. If
parents do this, it is not necessarily parental overcontrol but a vital intervention precisely because an early pregnancy
places such an unreasonable burden on a young person. Although it is viewed as necessary for the parents to
intervene, it nevertheless has huge implications if, for example, they take the lead in the matter of abortion or
adoption and it could compromise the girl's eventual autonomy.

Educational implications of teenage pregnancy.

The prevalence of teenage pregnancies in South Africa is a cause for concern. The causes range from circumstances
in the home to peer pressure and cultural expectations. The consequences are problematic for the girl and her whole
family and her education.

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The researchers Pettifor, Stoner, Pike and Bekker (2018) suggest that the health of a community will lead to young
women’s sexual health. Where there is poverty and dysfunctional family norms, girls are exposed to sex inequity and
violence – with a greater risk of unprotected and forced sex. However, these researchers are of the opinion that
schools can protect adolescents from risky sexual behaviour, preventing pregnancies and HIV infection. They say
that if adolescent girls stay in school, they can be protected by a “safe space” (Pettifor et al., 2018:269) where girls
can support each other and have a strong social network. They found that girls attending school also have fewer
older partners and exhibit overall safer sexual behaviour. They also suggest that in HIV prevention programmes, the
interventions must be adapted to the specific adolescent population.

Adolescents should be made aware that irresponsible sexual behaviour may have serious consequences with regard
to infections and HIV/AIDS. Teachers can inform learners of the facts about HIV and motivate them to have a
cautious lifestyle.

Study the section in Louw and Louw (2022:456-472) for more information about adolescent

sexuality.

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Think about the community of the school where you are a teacher, and think of the sex education that is provi
environment that can contribute to HIV infection in adolescent learners? What role can you as a teacher play i
do?
FeedBACK (Action/Process):

Teachers can play a significant role in preventing HIV/AIDS. It is important for teachers to understand the de
problems HIV/AIDS-infected adolescents encounter. Adolescents often gather information about sexuality fro
however, this information might not always be correct.

Sex education should focus on the following:

Information: Provide correct information to the learners about human sexuality, including growth and deve
physiology of genital organs, pregnancy, childbirth, parenthood, contraception, abortion, sexual abuse, HIV
Attitude, values and insight: Provide the learners with opportunities to question, explore and assess their se
their own values, increase self-esteem, develop insights concerning relationships with members of both gen
responsibilities to others.
Relationships and interpersonal skills: help learners to develop skills like communication, decision making
create satisfactory relationships. Develop capacity for caring, supportive, non-coercive and mutually pleasu
Responsibility: Help learners to exercise responsibility regarding sexual relationships, including abstinence
intercourse and encourage the use of contraception and other health measures.

FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

It is more likely that teachers and learners will more at ease if the teachers and learners are of the same gender
education by female teachers and boys by male teachers. Teachers providing sex education to learners should
and psychologists.

Prabhu (2023) provides the following recommendations:

Sex education should start before the onset of puberty.

It should be categorised and spread over a period of time (8-10 years).
It should be optional.
Permission should be obtained by parents, and their cooperation should be sought.
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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

There should be a social perspective when teaching.

Answers should be given truthfully.
Use the correct names for various organs.
Teaching should be scientifically correct.
It should be a two way dialogue

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4/16/24, 11:05 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 2: 2.8 CONCLUSION

2.8 CONCLUSION

We have come to the end of this learning unit. Apart from recognising the difficulties of
the physical development of the adolescent, the teacher must also understand and accept
cultural differences between learners. Feelings and behaviour of learners may vary due to
diverse cultural views and expectations and the teacher must be sensitive to these
differences.

In learning unit 3 we shall discuss the cognitive development of the adolescent. Bear in
mind that all the domains are interlinked and that development in one domain influences
development in another domain. When learning about adolescents’ abstract and
hypothetical thoughts, their idealistic rebellion, egocentrism and personal fable, try to
link these with what you have just learnt about things such as their self-image, their
experience of the physical changes of puberty and their feelings about sexual maturation.

2.9 REFERENCES

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4/16/24, 11:06 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 3: 3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 3.1: Overview of Learning Unit 3

In learning unit 2, we studied the physical development of the adolescent. We realized

that rapid physical growth has a considerable impact on the general well-being of the
adolescent. It also became clear that a healthy lifestyle is crucial for the development of
the adolescent.

In this learning unit, we will explore the cognitive or intellectual development of the
adolescent. Apart from numerous physical changes, several (mostly unseen) cognitive
changes also take place during adolescence. To understand these changes, we will have
to consider different theories on cognitive development. These theories will show us how
various experts think about the development of cognition. Together we will also explore
the brain and the development of the brain during adolescence.

Intelligence is a concept that is usually used within the context or discussions about
cognition. Thus, we will also explore how intelligence has always been highly valued
and we know that it is an important factor in the functioning and development of all
children. We will therefore look at different views regarding intelligence and how it can
be enhanced. In conclusion, we will learn more about creativity and how it can be
stimulated.

Cognition is concerned with the process of “getting to know”. It has to do with thinking
and learning. Intelligence is one’s “ability to learn or understand” or to deal with new or
trying situations. This ability to is often measured by objective criteria (as tests).
Cognitive development, therefore, involves “thinking” functions such as attention,
comprehension, memory, problem-solving and decision-making.

Cognitive development is a product of both nature and nurture:

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Nature refers to the impact of factors such as genetics and heredity on cognitive
development.
Nurture refers to the influence of the (learning) environment of the adolescent.

It is therefore necessary to always keep the environment and cultural differences in mind
when you study cognitive development. Also, note that healthy cognitive development
means that a child grows mentally to the best of their ability in their unique situation.

This unit will enable you to

evaluate different theories and viewpoints regarding cognitive development

apply different theories and viewpoints regarding cognitive development
demonstrate the ability to apply your knowledge to your practical environment

3.2 THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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3.2 THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive theories focus on how our mental processes change over time. Cognitive
theories describe an interaction between humans and their environment, in which
development occurs through a constant process of going back and forth between the
person and the environment (Piaget, 1971). Most theorist specifically focused on the
young child in their studies.

We will study a few theories on cognitive development. Firstly, you will study the theory
of Piaget, as his is the most widely recognized cognitive theory. Furthermore, the
theories of Vygotsky, Sternberg, and Gardner will give you a wider perspective on
adolescent cognitive development.

3.2.1 A constructive perspective: Jean Piaget

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3.2.1 A constructive perspective: Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist, and to date, made the greatest single contribution
to the existing knowledge of the child’s cognitive development (Gouws, 2019).

Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology” because he was primarily interested in h

Even though some have questioned aspects of his theory, it is still extremely influential. His thinking has presented a
number of useful insights about the processes of thinking and learning (Brown, 2018).

Piaget believed that the mind of a child develops through a series of set stages until they reach adulthood. He studied
the thinking and learning of children, carefully observing the different ages as they performed different tasks
(Brown, 2018). He saw the child as continuously creating and constructing their own reality, reaching a
developmental stage by integrating easier concepts into higher-level concepts at each stage. He identified four
different stages of cognitive development, namely – the sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and
formal operational stage. When humans reach adolescents, according to Piaget, they should be able to function at the
highest level of cognitive development where they develop the capacity for abstract thought. This referred to as the
formal operational stage. However, more recent research proposes that intellectual development takes place
throughout adolescence and well into early adulthood (Kaufman, 2019).

Study the section in Louw and Louw (2022: 473-477) for more important information about

Jean Piaget.

According to Nsamenang (2006), cognitive development in African culture refers to the knowledge and skills
needed to be competent and responsible in one’s social environment. One should be able to cope with social
interaction, cultural life, values, economic activities and demonstrative productive/efficient skills (such as in daily
routines). It is important for a child to take care of others and to receive support, which is regarded as signs of
cognitive and general development.

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4/16/24, 11:07 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 3: 3.2.2 The information-processing view

3.2.2 The information-processing view

The information processing theory is a view of how data received from one’s senses from the environment is
processed and interpreted in the brain. This theory likens learning with a computer that is capable of analysing
information from the environment.

By using a computer as analogy, the theory explains how individuals record, store, and retrieve information in their
brains. The theory lists three stages of our memory that work together in this order: sensory memory, short-term or
working memory and long-term memory.

While we are for the purposes of this module simplifying the process by just referring to recording, storing and
retrieval, the magnitude and scope of neural networks in the brain are quite powerful.

How is information-processing theory applicable to the developing cognition of the adolescent and their learning
process? If we know how the adolescent encodes information into their working memory, we can know how to
prepare and present the information during the teaching process. Refer again to BF Skinner in Unit 1, whose theory
posits that we react to stimuli more or less in the same way. According to the information-processing view,
information processing is more complicated than merely reacting to a stimulus. Past experiences, cultural values,
advancement/progress in development and differences in personality mean that human beings will process the same
information in a different way. In other words, they will attribute different meanings to the same construct because
they think differently. For example, a cow is seen as a source of food (e.g., milk, meat), but in the Hindu religion the
cow has a sacred status because they are sacrificed/offered to the gods.

According to the African view of personhood, information may be encoded (interpreted) according to the
environmental and communal context of the child. This theory teaches us that to enhance academic performance, we
as teachers need to link new information to what the learner already knows. This is what we call “activating learners’
prior knowledge”. Sometimes curricula also uses themes or topics to teach information, skills and values (e.g., my
body; seasons of the year; fauna and flora). New information will then be more easily encoded because it is related
to existing knowledge. This will also help learners to store information more easily because they associate the
information with an already known concept, and consequently, retrieve it easily. Piaget would refer to this process as
“assimilation” and in psychology they would call it “consolidation” because a long-lasting memory is created during
an educational event.

Study the section in Louw and Louw (2022: 477-479) for more information about the

information-processing view.

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3.2.3 Early conceptualisations of intelligence, and measuring intelligence

In the early 20th century people started thinking about how to measure intelligence. Initially, it was thought
that a person’s physical appearance and senses such as sight, hearing and reaction time, were related to how
intelligent you were. Based on this, Galton (1822 – 1911), developed the concept of a fixed intelligence. He
also created the first intelligence test, but he did not distinguish between age groups. In other words, one may
have presumed that if a child’s reaction time was shorter than that of an adult, the child may be considered
less intelligent (Clark 2008).

3.2.3.1 The first conceptualisation of intelligence as more than one construct[1]

We will now take a look at how Binet, Spearman, Sternberg and others started to describe intelligence as
more than one construct.

Binet (1857 - 1911) argued that intelligence should not be measured as a fixed ability. As a result, he
developed the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ). In other words, intelligence could now be ranked in
levels, for example as low, average, high or superior. Each level was linked to a number. An IQ score of 130
– 145, for example, was described as gifted (Mwamwenda, 2004: 245). Binet also developed the concept of
mental age. Mental age is the age at which an average person reaches the same or a certain ability. Binet's test
measured the ability to pay attention, as well as memory, judgment, reasoning and understanding.

Spearman (1927) defined intelligence in two parts, which he called factors. He named the first factor a general
intelligence (g-factor), which plays a role in the performance of all types of tasks. The ability to reason and solve
problems is represented by the g-factor. However, Spearman believed that even the most capable people do
relatively better in certain fields than others. We also see this in the classroom where some learners are better in, for
example, writing and making music rather than doing mathematics. He calls it a specific intelligence (s-factor)
(Willis, Dumont & Kaufman, 2011:41). This would later extend to the concepts of liquid and crystallised
intelligence.

Meanwhile, during the 1930s, intelligence tests gained in popularity and were specifically used by the US military,
career counsellors and schools (Clark, 2008: 30). This is still, to a great extent, the case today. According to this,
high intelligence became a fashion and is seen as an asset in someone's character. Although Spearman’s two factors
were accepted, psychology, education and industry still place great value on the general concept of intelligence, as
represented by the IQ score. According to this, intelligence is regarded as a single, particular, inherited characteristic,
a fixed standard measure, much like a thermometer or scale and is based mainly on linguistic, logical and/or
mathematical abilities.

Ideas about intelligence continued to change. Researchers, such as Thurstone, Cattell and Guilford, identified
multiple factors of intelligence. Instead of Spearman’s g- and s-factors, Thurstone identified seven different factors
that include visual and spatial relations, perceptual speed, number proficiency, verbal meanings, memory, fluency,
and deductive and inductive reasoning. These factors were later expanded to include creativity.

During the 1960s, there was a shift from the view of intelligence as a construct focusing mainly on mathematics and
language, to more general skills and talent. In 1960, Taylor developed the talent model of multiple talents. The main
categories of talents identified and nurtured within his model are the following: exceptional ability in decision-
making, forecasting, planning, creative thinking and academia (Feldhusen, 2003:38).

3.2.3.2 The role of environmental influence on intelligence

Up to this point the traditional IQ test did not clearly allow for cultural variation in intelligence. In other words, most
IQ tests were not culture friendly[2] and not suitable for use, especially with disadvantaged learners. Cultural biases
can influence IQ test results, as certain cultural experiences and knowledge are often required to answer certain
questions correctly. This means that individuals from certain cultures or socio-economic backgrounds may perform
better or worse on IQ tests based on their exposure to specific information or ways of thinking.

Benjamin Bloom (1985), an educational psychologist, created the well-known Bloom’s taxonomy. His work built on
the idea of environmental influence in intelligence. In his research that advocates talent development in schools,
Bloom focused on talent developed with the support of family members and teachers. Bloom’s taxonomy seeks to
promote a more inclusive and culturally sensitive approach to education. It acknowledges that knowledge and skills
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can be acquired through different means and that different cultures may prioritise certain types of knowledge over
others.

Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-born American psychologist who is well known for his ecological systems
theory. Although we will discuss his theory later in more detail, it is important to know that he distinguished between
a child’s immediate environment (family) and the wider environment of the child. He also argued that talent is
developed and lived out in social contexts. “We don't use our intelligence just in taking tests and in doing homework,
but also in relation to people, in performing jobs effectively, and in managing our lives in general” (Wechsler
in Sternberg et al., 2011:58).

3.2.3.3 What does this mean to South African teachers today?

From this discussion, it is clear that the view of intelligence as one or a few constructs has broadened to include a
variety of talents that have developed socially and which are lived out within society. This fact is emphasised by the
complexity of humanity's culture and achievements. But what does this mean for teachers?

Intellectual ability was previously considered a gift to the elect few. If an IQ score is over a certain number, the
learner is seen as gifted. If the IQ score is lower than the “magic score”, it is seen as high or average intellectual
ability. We do acknowledge that IQ tests have a function, for example in the diagnosis of challenges in certain
learning areas, for example verbal intelligence[3]. Still, the result of many IQ tests is often interpreted by parents,
teachers and learners as value statements and may have a negative effect on a learner’s self-concept. For example,
the results of an IQ test are often used to label someone as slow/challenged. An IQ tests do not measure motivation,
emotion, attitudes. The danger of someone knowing they have a “low IQ” might lead to them not engaging to their
full potential because they already believe they will not be successful in school and in life.

Teachers are usually aware of “underachievers” in their classroom. Those are most probably learners that, because of
language, socio-economic, emotional or learning barriers, are not performing academically as they could. An IQ test
would probably not detect some underachievers, as IQ tests have a strong visual (reading a problem and
understanding it) and auditory (listening to a question and understanding it) component. The learner who is not
motivated and involved due to psychological, socio-economic or language challenges, may feel that they will not be
able to do well in the IQ test as well. The idea of viewing intellectual ability as a series of talents rather than one or a
few intellectual constructs, therefore offers the possibility that talent could be identified over a broader spectrum and
since there is no cut-off score which may eliminate some, it may include and enrich more learners.

Study the section in Louw and Louw (2022: 479-482) for more information about measuring

intelligence with psychometric tests.

[1] tool used to facilitate understanding of human behavior; ways to describe patterns of behavior or experiences so
that they can be explored, investigated, and discussed

[2] strong bias that is in favor of a specific group of people; for example: the tests measure knowledge and content
and use of language that are more familiar to White, middle class, Euro-western societies.

[3] verbal scale intelligence (knowledge of the language; the formation of verbal concepts and information flow);
non-verbal intelligence (capacity of reasoning and problem-solving).

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3.2.4 Multiple intelligences: Howard Gardner's theory

Gardner is another influential scholar on intellect. He stated that a variety of talents could work together with
morality to create a world in which a large variety of individuals would like to live together. To support his
argument, he quoted Emmerson (in Gardner, 1999: 4) in saying: “Character is more important than intellect”.

In 1983, Howard Gardner introduced the theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner defines intelligence as “a bio-
psychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create
products that are of value in a culture” (Gardner 1999). Gardner’s theory differs from the original multiple factors of
intelligence according to researchers such as Thurstone, Cattell, Guilford and others. Gardner (1999:3) did research
with patients with organic brain disorders and through this work, discovered and provided evidence that a certain
intelligence is located at a certain place in the brain. Although not the focus of this module, it is indeed so that
mathematical intelligence is located at a specific place in the brain, as is musical intelligence, et cetera. This does not
mean that if a child is busy with his mathematics, that only one area of the brain is active. All thinking activities
require that different areas of the brain to work together.

According to Gardner, there are nine kinds of intelligence (see table 3.1). As a teacher, you should make use of
different teaching strategies to help activate the different types of intelligences. However, in order to address the
need of different teaching strategies, one should consider the different learning styles. Gardner was aware of this
when he developed his theory of multiple intelligence, as his theory requires teachers to accommodate their teaching
strategies, in order to meet learners’ individual needs.

In table 3.1 you will find descriptions and examples of people who possess each type of intelligence as described by
Gardner. We also include examples of how learners with these types of intelligences react differently to
the traditional type (e.g. teacher-orientated/centred, knowledge transmission) of teaching, which is still prevalent in
many schools.

Examples of
famous people
Multiple How
Description who possess this
Intelligences teach
type of
intelligence

Dalene Matthee
Verbal- Word smart – the ability to use words effectively, abstract Nataniel These l
linguistic reasoning, symbolic thinking, conceptual patterning, and wil
intelligence reading and writing. They learn best through language. Steve Biko concen
Sol Plaatje

Anton Rupert
Number smart – the capacity to use numbers effectively These l
Logical- and to reason well. Includes sensitivity to logical patterns Loyiso Nongxa Mathem
mathematical and relationships, statements and propositions, functions, Science
intelligence and other related abstractions. They learn best through Thamsanqa Kambule explain
numbers, reasoning and problem solving. restless
Raymond Ackerman
Music smart – capacities such as the recognition and use
These l
Musical of rhythmic and tonal patterns and sensitivity to sounds Miriam Makeba
intelligence to sit st
from the environment, the human voice, and musical
Hugh Masekela realisin
instruments. They learn best through music.
Picture smart – the ability to perceive the visual-spatial Errol Arendz These l
Spatial world accurately and to perform transformations upon picture
intelligence those perceptions. Sol Kerzner in a pur

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Examples of
famous people
Multiple How
Description who possess this
Intelligences teach
type of
intelligence

Includes sensitivity to colour, line, shape, form, space, their bo

and the relationships that exist between these elements. that the
Also includes the capacity to visualise, to graphically
represent visual and spatial concepts and to orient oneself
properly in a special matrix. They learn best visually and
tend to organise their thinking spatially.
These l
Bodily- and if t
Body smart – the ability to use the body to express Brian Habana
kinaesthetic other le
emotion, to play a game, and to create a new product.
intelligence Ryk Neethling swinge
They learn best through physical activity.
anythin
to the b
Self-smart – self-knowledge and the ability to act
adaptively on the basis of this knowledge.
Charlize Theron
Intrapersonal Includes possessing an accurate self-image, awareness of These l
intelligence They a
inner moods, intentions, motivations, temperaments and Shaleen Surtie-
desires. Also includes the capacity for self-discipline, Richards their ow
self-understanding and self-esteem. They learn best
through meta-cognitive practices.
These l
People smart – the ability to work cooperatively with
Interpersonal Nelson Mandela ones w
others in a small group, as well as the ability to
intelligence happen
communicate verbally and nonverbally with other people. Tokyo Sexwale
nothing
They learn best through interaction with other people.
in class
Dorah Marema
Nature smart – the ability to recognise patterns in nature
Naturalistic and classify objects; the mastery of taxonomy, sensitivity Happy Khambule These l
intelligence to other features of the natural world, and an classro
understanding of different species. They learn best Mike Horn now.
through the environment.
Margaret Roberts
Thinking smart – the ability to pose (and ponder) Desmond Tutu
Existential questions about life, death, and ultimate realities like These l
intelligence Emily Hobhouse
‘Who are we?’ and ‘What is the meaning of life?’ They daydre
learn best through seeing the big picture. John McDowell

Sources: Gardner (1999:53–77); Leaf (2001); Stanford (2003:81); Gouws (2007); Gouws (2019); Gouws & Dicker
(2011)

Study Louw and Louw (2022:482-484) for more information about Gardner’s theory of

multiple intelligences.

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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

According to Gardner, intelligence is “a bio-psychological potential to process information that can be activat
create products that are of value in a culture” (Gardner 1999:22).

(i) What do you think this quote means?

(ii) Which of Gardner’s intelligences do you possess? Substantiate your answer with examples from your life.

Do you think that your culture played a role in activating your type of intelligence? Explain your answer.
FeedBACK (Action/Process):

Multiple intelligence is valid across various cultures. The Zulu girl who weaves baskets with beautiful design
baskets and designs as a language to communicate information about her history and her future may indicate e
FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

Also think about the things that your culture value and encourage.

African communities view social competence and responsibility as part of intelligence. They place more em
The conception of intelligence in Asian cultures is linked with religious and philosophical beliefs. For example, B
intelligence. It is also associated with morality.
In Western society individuals must have knowledge and skills that are relevant to everyday life. These are skills s
decision-making. Individuals must also excel academically (Cocodia, 2014).

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4/16/24, 11:09 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 3: 3.2.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Robert J. Sternberg

3.2.5 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Robert J. Sternberg

Robert J. Sternberg is a psychologist whose research focuses on human intelligence and creativity. He was among
the early theorists who argued that intelligence is not just one construct. He proposed that intelligences consists of
three aspects: analytical (the ability to evaluate information and solve problems), creative (the ability to come up
with new ideas) and practical (the ability to get along in different contexts) intelligence – referred to as the triarchic
theory of human intelligence (see figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2: Triarchic theory of human intelligence and the interrelationship of the three parts (Source: Sternberg &
Sternberg, 2012:21)

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022: 484-486) for more information about Sternberg’s triarchic

theory of intelligence.

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4/16/24, 11:09 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 3: 3.2.6 Sociocultural theory: Lev Vygotsky

3.2.6 Sociocultural theory: Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who believed that all higher cognitive processes start with social
interaction (Gouws, 2019). Although Vygotsky was influenced by Piaget’s work, he did not agree with the stages of
learning as discussed by Piaget. His socio-cultural theory emphasizes that learning is an important social process in
which the support of parents, caregivers, peers, more knowledgeable others (MKO), and the wider community and
culture plays a vital role in the development of higher psychological functions. Vygotsky's approach to child
development is a form of social constructivism, based on the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social
interactions, thus emphasizing the role of the environment and historical context in development. Vygotsky
emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by the construction of knowledge through social negotiation. To
him, learning is a social construct. This view is closely related to the African view of personhood according to which
learning is a social-collective activity.

Language is important in the process of cognitive development. Children talk to themselves to guide their actions
when they are playing. Vygotsky called this private speech. The child tries to control his or her own behaviour and
thoughts by speaking out loud. As the child becomes more skilful, private speech becomes internal speech and it is
then seen as thought. While Piaget may view private speech as egocentric or immature, Vygotsky understood the
importance of self-directed speech. Vygotsky saw language as the development of thought. Piaget, however,
believed that cognitive development leads to the development of language.

Another important component of Vygotsky’s theory refers to psychological tools. He bridged the gap between the
use of psychological/symbolic/cultural tools and cognitive development. Examples of such tools are language,
numerical systems, mathematical symbols, maps, diagrams, social artifacts, books, technology, cultural traditions
etc. But in Africa “language” is more than just a cognitive tool. Ngúgí wa Thiong’o, a Kenyan writer who was
considered East Africa's leading novelist, said about language: “[A]ny language has a dual character: it is both a
means of communication and a carrier of culture. It is inseparable from ourselves as a community of human beings
with a specific form and character, a specific history, a specific relationship to the world. The very words we use are
a product of a collective history Ngúgí” (1992:113). This supports Vygotsky’s notion that human activities (e.g.,
learning, day-to-day doings) take place in cultural settings and cannot be understood apart from the settings. Our
specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others.

Piaget was a constructivist and was more interested in the level of development of the individual. Vygotsky focussed
more on the processes of learning, rather than on the expected levels of development. For constructivist’s the child’s
interaction with the environment is more important, whereas socio-constructivist’s believe that learning is taught
through socially and culturally interaction within an environment. Vygotsky would thus belief that children from
disadvantaged communities would still be able to flourish as their success does not only lie in nature (genetics),
nurture (relationships), nor environment (context), but a mixture thereof.

Let us again take the development of language as a medium for thinking. Due to brain development as well as social
influences and formal schooling, the adolescent’s competency in language increases. Aspects of language structure
and vocabulary grow. The development of language and the improvement of literacy are more and more dependent
on social relations and institutions. In school, the adolescent gains the knowledge and the vocabulary that is used in
different subjects. Through relations with peers, they also learn the language of the streets, of courtship, and of cell
phones. They learn language from the media, other ethnic groups, and co-workers (when they enter the workplace).
There is an emphasis on technical vocabulary that also includes programming languages. The adolescent does not
only learn a better understanding of language structure and vocabulary but also gains the ability to use language
appropriately in various social situations. The complexity of their thinking and their understanding and interpretation
of the environment adapts as their language and register expands.

Another important concept of Vygosky is that of “zone of proximal development (ZPD)” and more knowledgeable
others (MKO)”. When teaching Mathematics to a grade 7 class the teacher should use Vygotsky’s ZDPand MKO to
help all learners acquire knowledge. All learning occurs in the ZPD. This is the distance (zone) between a learner’s
ability to demonstrate their learning by themselves (independent) or with guidance (dependent). As for MKO it can
be anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a
specific task, concept or process. Traditionally the MKO is thought of as a teacher or an older adult. However, this is
not always the case. Herewith a visual to visually depict the concepts:

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Figure 3.3 Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development

From this illustration one can clearly see the important role teachers play in offering support and guidance in
learning. This is where the teacher uses scaffolding to guide the learners from where they are currently functioning
to their full potential. Some learners may need more assistance than others, therefore teachers should identify where
learners are in their understanding of the learning material.

There is an emphasis on technical[1] vocabulary that also includes programming languages. The adolescent does not
only learn a better understanding of language structure and vocabulary but also gains the ability to use language
appropriately in various social situations.

Most classrooms in the world, and especially in South Africa, consist of learners who can speak more than one
language. For some, the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) is their first additional language and not
necessarily their home language. Furthermore, the presence of more than one language makes many classrooms
bilingual or multilingual (and of course culturally diverse). According to Makelela (2014:187) learning a second
language (first additional language) is one of the major learning barriers for learners who are not schooled in their
mother tongue. By accepting, respecting and embracing students’ diverse linguistic resources, it enhances their
learning, and also restores their identity and dignity.

Study the section in Louw and Louw (2022:486-496) for more important information about

language development during adolescence.

[1] words and phrases that are used and known mainly in a specific profession, trade, or, a subject area

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4/16/24, 11:11 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 3: 3.3 CONCLUSION

3.3 CONCLUSION

Teachers should take note of the implications of adolescents’ cognitive development, so that they can guide
adolescents in a way that will promote optimal cognitive development. They should be aware of the existence of
individual differences between adolescents. We cannot assume that all 15-year-olds are on the same cognitive level.
We should remember at all times that the adolescent may be capable of formal-operational thought on one day, only
to lapse into the concrete-operational phase the very next day. This means that, as teachers, we cannot simply sit
back and wait for all the adolescents in our class to reach the formal-operational phase before we continue with our
teaching. Teaching should start from concrete considerations, building up where it is applicable to more abstract
reasoning. This is reflected in many teaching programmes, including some programmes devised for mathematics and
science, which begin with experimental, practical aspects before deductive work is attempted (Gouws 2019:47).

If you know the characteristics of children’s cognitive development, you will find it easier to determine a child’s
level of cognitive development. In other words, you will know how the child thinks and what you can expect of him
or her. Learning should continually be adapted to children’s level of cognitive development and knowledge.
Remember, however, that there are major individual differences and that children’s development cannot simply be
divided into watertight compartments or phases.

In the next learning unit, we will look at the social development of the adolescent. Once again, remember that all the
domains are interlinked and that development in one domain influences development in other domains.

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4/16/24, 11:11 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 3: 3.4 REFERENCES

3.4 REFERENCES

Bloom, B.S. (1985). Developing talent in young people. Toronto: Random House.

Bronfenbrenner, U. & Morris, P.A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In W. Damon & R.M. Lerner,
(Eds.). Handbook of child psychology Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 993–1028). New York
(NY): John-Wiley & Sons.

Brown, K.A. (2018). The examination of parental demographics as moderators of the effects of a positive discipline
parenting training model. A dissertation submitted to the faculty of Adler University for the degree of Doctor of
Psychology. Adler University.

Clark, B. (2008). Growing up gifted. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall.

Dasen, P.R. (2011). Culture, cognition and learning. In B. Nsamenang & T.M.S. Tchombe, Handbook of African
educational theories and practices. Human Development Resource Centre (HDRC), Bameda. Cameroon.

Feldhusen, J.F. (2003). Beyond general giftedness: New ways to identify and educate gifted, talented and precocious
youth. In J.H. Borland (Ed.). Rethinking gifted education, (pp. 34–45). New York (NY): Teachers College Press.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligences reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligences. New horizons. New York (NY): Basic Books.

Gouws, E. (2019). The Adolescent: Unisa custom edition. Cape Town: Pearson.

Gouws, F.E. (2007). Teaching and learning through multiple intelligences in the outcomes-based education
classroom. Africa Education Review, 4(2):60–74.

Gouws, E. & Dicker, A.M. (2011). Teaching mathematics that addresses learners’ multiple intelligences. Africa
Education Review, 8(3): 568–587.

Johnson, S.B., Blum, R.W. & Giedd, J.N. (2009). Adolescent maturity and the brain: The promise and pitfalls of
neuroscience research in adolescent health policy. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3):216–221. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.05.016.

KaufmaN, S.B. (2019). When does intelligence peak? Access on 14 November

2022. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/when-does-intelligence-peak/

Krüger, D. & Botha, P. (2016). Orientation: Neurology in an educational perspective. in E. Landsberg, D. Krüger, &
E. Swart, (Eds.). Addressing barriers to learning – A South African Perspective (3rd ed.), (pp. 305–324). Pretoria:
Van Schaik.

Mwamwenda, T.S. (2004). Educational psychology: An African perspective. 3rd ed. Sandton: Heinemann.

Ngúgí Wa Thiong’o. (1992). Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature. London: James
Currey.

Nolen, J.L. (2003). Multiple intelligences in the classroom. Education, 124(1): 115-119.

Nsamenang, A.B. (2006). Human ontogenesis: An indigenous African view on development and
intelligence. International Journal of Psychology, 41(4): 293–297.

Piaget, J. (1971). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Stanford, P. (2003). Multiple intelligences for every classroom. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39:80–85.

Sternberg, R. & Sternberg, S. (2012). Cognition. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

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4/16/24, 11:11 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 3: 3.4 REFERENCES
Sternberg, R.J., Jarvin, L. & Grigorenko, E.L. (2011). Explorations in giftedness. New York (NY): Cambridge
University Press.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge (MA):
Harvard University Press.

Willis, J.O., Dumont, R. & Kaufman, S. (2011). Factor-analytic models of intelligence. In Sternberg, R.J. &
Kaufman, S.B. (Eds.). The Cambridge handbook of intelligence. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press. 39–
57.

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4/16/24, 11:12 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 4: 4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 4.1: Overview of Learning Unit 4

From the previous unit, it is evident that adolescents’ cognitive abilities increase and
consolidate rapidly during the adolescent years, with the result that they can perform
tasks more easily, quickly and efficiently. Moreover, their heightened cognitive abilities
enable adolescents to answer the question “Who am I?” and to form meaningful
relationships with society.

In this learning unit, we discuss the social development of the adolescent. Social
development may very well be the most important area of adolescent development.
Adolescents not only need to manage meaningful relationships within the society, but
they must also develop self-confidence, develop interpersonal skills and find their place
in society.

This unit will enable you to:

consider recent theories on the social development of adolescents and realise the main
pursuit (purpose) of this phase, namely a search for identity, and the importance of the
adolescent’s context
understand the social relationships of adolescents and how you as a teacher can create
positive relationships with your learners
realise the importance of self-concept and self-esteem and how to enhance learners’
self-esteem
know about the factors that influence personality development and the role a teacher
can play in this development
recognise the importance of finding an identity during this stage and how teachers can
add to this process

For you to be successful regarding the cognitive development of the adolescent you will
have to actively participate in: all online discussions; logging into myUnisa to access
your reading material; complete and submit activities; and summarise the unit for
yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you prepare for the exam. It is of utmost importance
that you ask for support if concepts are unclear to you via myUnisa.

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4.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADOLESCENT SOCIAL

DEVELOPMENT

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4.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADOLESCENT SOCIAL

DEVELOPMENT

There are various theories that explain social development in young humans. For this module, we will focus on the
African perspective of human development and theories such as the psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson and the bio-
ecological theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner. Erikson’s theory on adolescence is known for his view on the adolescent’s
search for identity; and Bronfenbrenner’s theory for taking all contexts of the adolescent into account. In the section
on identity development, we will also briefly refer to and compare Mead’s social behaviourism with the African
perspective of human development.

When we think about human development, we often only focus on the development of infants, the young child, and
adolescents. However, development is a continuous process, in which each stage builds on the stage(s) before it,
from conception to death.

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4.2.1 The bio-ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner

As human beings, we do not function and survive on our own, but are in constant
interaction with our environment. Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory is of particular
significance for identifying the complex influences, interactions and interrelationships
that can either inhibit (prevent) or promote an individual’s psychosocial well-being.
Bronfenbrenner (1986) argued that to understand the child or a learner, the environment
in which the they live must be fully examined, including the home, school, community,
culture, and so on. He believed that a person’s development is affected by everything in
they surrounding environment. The way a person perceives and deals with their
environment is therefore important for identity development.

A developing human should be viewed holistically (e.g. emotional, physical, social,

spiritual, cognitive). The “bio” in bio-ecological means that the individual as growing,
developing, thinking person, also has an influence on their environment. A dynamic
individual that progressively moves into and restructures an environment. The
environment not only shapes the person, but the person in turn also shapes the
environment.

Educational implications of Bronfenbrenner’s theory

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory suggests that a young human’s development

is influenced by multiple environmental systems that interact with each other. These
systems include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem. The implications of this theory for education are as follows:

Importance of the family: Bronfenbrenner emphasizes the role of the family as the
primary microsystem in a young person’s development. Therefore, teachers should
recognize the importance of involving families in the educational process to support
the young person’s development.
Importance of the school environment: The school is an important mesosystem that
can significantly impact a young person’s development. Teachers should create a
positive, and supportive enironemnt that fosters the young persons’ growth and
development.
Importancce of community resources: The exosystem refers to the broader
community resources that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers
should work to develop partnerships with community organisations and resources to
enhance the young person’s educational experience.
Importance of cultural values and beliefs: The macrosystem refers to the broader
cultural context that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers should be
aware of cultural diversity and respect the values and beliefs of all learners to create
an inclusive educational environment.
Importance of considering the timing of events: The chronosystem refers to the time-
related factors that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers should
recognize that the timing of events, such as chantes in family structure or community
resources, can impact a young person’s educational experience.

Overall, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of

considering multiple environmental factors that can influence a young person’s
development. Teachers can use this theory to create a holistic approach to education that
recognizes the complex interactions between the child, family, school, community,
culture, and time-related factors.

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Refer to Louw and Louw (2022: 35 – 43) for more information about

Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory.

4.2.2 The psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson

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4.2.2 The psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson

Before we discuss this theory, please watch the following YouTube video on Erikson’s
theory of psychosocial development.

(5:19)

Erik Erikson’s (1963) psychosocial theory presents a broad, multifaceted view of the
typical human life span and nature/characteristics of each phase. How this euocentric
theory also links to the Africanisation discourse/dialogue, will also be explored. Erikson
pays little or no heed to emotional and intellectual development and is more concerned
with a person’s basic attitude towards others and towards life. Even so, his theory is one
of the more successful attempts to achieve a coherent and fairly complete picture of
human development. His theory is an important aid which can help parents, teachers and
counsellors to be aware of the central conflict areas for individuals throughout the
various stages of development. This theory made an important contribution to
understanding human psychosocial development as it highlights the development of a
specific ego[1]strength after each psychosocial crisis or critical developmental phase is
experienced successfully. This earned Erikson the description of ego psychologist, and
his theory a classification among the depth theories[2], such as that of Freud and
Horney.Erikson’s (1963) first five stages of psychosocial development are now briefly
explained. The psychosocial stage of identity formation is emphasized as it is the stage
that is experienced during adolescence. The stages of early and later adulthood is not
discussed as it falls outside the scope of this module.

Phase 1 - Infant/baby: Basic trust versus basic mistrust

During this stage babies (from birth to one year) need to develop trust in their caregivers
and their environment. This is done by providing a predictable, loving, caring
environment. Experiencing this psychosocial crisis in a positive way is of utmost
importance, as it forms the basis for future relationships. In other words, if the baby
learns to trust their environment and caregivers, it will be easier to form and maintain
relationships later in life. The ego strength that the individual takes away from this stage
is hope.

Phase 2 - Toddler: Autonomy versus doubt and shame

In this stage (around the second and third years of life) children learn an extremely
important skill which they will need for the rest of their lives. The skill is the ability to
say yes or no, in other words, to set healthy boundaries. Two-year-old children are
known for their temper tantrums and tendency to decide whether they want to follow
rules or not. This behaviour is a sign of the child exploring their boundaries. If caregivers
are overprotective and restrict the child’s movement and choices too much, the child will
not learn to make autonomous decisions. If the child is confronted with no rules at all, as

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in a neglectful, low-demanding parental approach, the child will also not learn personal
boundaries, nor that there are rules in society. Therefore, a healthy and safe space is
necessary within which a child can have the autonomy to exercise age-appropriate
choices. The importance of this stage cannot be overemphasized. Many a psychologist
will attest that the biggest part of a balanced personality in adulthood depends on
learning how to set boundaries, in other words, to know when to say no. If this stage is
experienced successfully, the ego strength that is gained is willpower.

Phase 3 - Pre-schooler: Initiative versus guilt

The objective in this phase is for the child (around the fourth and fifth year) to acquire a
sense of initiative. In the Grade R curriculum, gross motor development is very
important. This is the stage where children can engage in physical activities and assume a
certain amount of responsibility, for example, washing and dressing themselves, picking
up their toys and feeding their pet. Managing these small responsibilities gives them a
sense of initiative and purpose. During play they can use language to adopt a standpoint;
they can also transcend the bounds of here and now and engage in fantasy play. The ego
strength gained from this phase is purpose.

Phase 4 - Grade-schooler: Industry versus inferiority

During this phase (from about six to 11) the primary school learner acquires a sense of
industriousness (working hard). Being able to trust, set (and follow) rules, and take
initiative, they have a sense of purpose and accomplishment, and they are ready to learn
to use psychological and physical tools (pen to write) and skills (writing). They learn a
general sense of enjoying approaching a task and completing it successfully. The ego
strength gained in this phase is competence.

Phase 5 - Teenager/adolescent: Identity versus identity diffusion

In this phase (around the 12th to the 22nd year), the high-school and further educational
adolescent acquires a sense of self-identity while overcoming a sense of identity
diffusion/instability. The young adolescent needs freedom to choose, but not so much
freedom that they cannot make a choice. Guidance and mentoring is thus of importance.
The ego strength gained in this phase is fidelity (faithfulness).

Phase 5 is the culmination of the preceding four phases. In other words, every ego
strength gained in the earlier years of childhood is necessary to address the challenges of
adolescence.

For instance:

The quest for basic trust becomes a search for people and ideals in which to believe.
In terms of identity, this amounts to: “Because I am able to trust I feel hopeful about
new relationships, situations and ventures.”
The sense of autonomy and independence becomes a sense of being entitled to choose
freely between the tasks and duties a person can perform. Adolescents like to do
things that they can do well - but they want a free choice in the matter. In terms of
identity, this means: "I have learnt to set my boundaries in such a way that I don’t
have to hurt or reject people.” Thus, it is the confidence to live out their personal rules
and boundaries.
The sense of initiative becomes an evaluation of his or her own potential for the
future - ambition and a striving for full self-actualisation. During this period the
adolescent is also looking for identification figures or "heroes" for inspiration. In
terms of identity, this means: "I can reach the goals towards which I aspire."
The sense of industry forms the basis for a search for and selection of the right career.
In terms of identity, this means: "I am willing to, and I am able to work towards my
future occupation."

Erikson (1963) states quite clearly that people do not all need the same length of time to
establish their identity. Here the young person's cultural group has a tremendous
influence. In some cultures, the period of adolescence is shorter than in others but the
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success with which the child has experienced the first four phases will determine how
rapidly they acquire a personal identity. Thus, people who had predominantly negative
experiences in their earlier phases of psychosocial development (for example adverse
experiences of mistrust, doubt, guilt or inferiority) will obviously take longer to establish
an identity of their own.

Educational implications of Erikson’s theory

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development has several educational implications that

can help teachers understand and support the development of their learners.

Understanding developmental stages: Erikson’s theory outlines eight stages of

psychosocial development, each with its unique challenges and opportunities.
Teachers can use this framework to understand where their learners are in their
developmental journey and tailor their instruction to meet their needs.
Fostering a sense of identity: According to Erikson, the primary task of adolescence is
to establish a sens of identity. Teachers can create an environment that encourages
learners to explore different roles, values and beliefs, allowing them to develop a
strong sense of self.
Building social skills: Erikson emphasised the importance of social interactions in the
development of individuals. Teachers can create opportunities for learners to interact
with peers, work collaborately, and develop social skills that will be essential
throughout their lives.
Recognising and addressing emotional needs: Erikson believed that individuals go
through emotional crises at each stage of development. Teachers can identify learners
who may be struggling with emotional issues and provide appropriate support and
resources.
Encouraging autonomy: Erikson’s theory emphasises the importance of fostering
autonomy in learners. Teachers can provide opportunities for learners to make choices
and take responsibility for their actions, helping them develop a sense of control over
their lives.

Erikson’s theory provides a valuable framework for teachers to understand the

developmental needs of their learners and tailor their instruction and support to promote
healthy growth and development.

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Why is the Identity Formation stage important?

How can you as teacher assist adolescents in their search for identity?
FeedBACK (Action/Process):

According to Erik Erikson (1968), the main task of adolescents is to solve the crisis
misinterpreted for gender; it means being unsure of who you are and where you fit.
role in the mental health of adolescents. Furthermore, healthy relationships with pee
well-being of adolescents (Rageliene, 2016).

You can assist adolescents in their search for identity by:

Allowing them freedom to experiment with roles, choose independently and part
Helping them to strive for realistic self-images. Remember if the image that adolescen
diffusion and identity confusion. So help them to accept themselves as they are, with a

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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Help them to acquire an appropriate gender role identity, occupational identity and e
information about a large variety of careers and help them to arrive, through self-kn
them not only to experience their own identity positively but also to respect the valu
FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

During the identity formation stage, individual strive to develop a sense of who they
is important because the formation of identity influences how individual’s behaviou

[1] their sense of their own worth. Synonyms: self-esteem, self-confidence, self-respect,
self-image

[2] exploration of the subtle, unconscious, and transpersonal aspects of human

experiences.

4.2.3 The African worldview

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4.2.3 The African worldview

The African scholar, Bame Nsamenang (1992), confirms Erikson’s emphasis on

socialisation as an important aspect of human development. He described socialisation as
a process “based on obedience and social responsibility where an individual becomes a
fully-fledged social being within the co-cultural[1] context” (Ntshangase, in Gumbo &
Msila, 2017, p. 233). Individuality is not over-emphasised in the African context, hence
the concept of botho and the expression ‘Motho ke motho ka batho’ – that simply means
‘I am because you are’. The moral principle of botho, as Magano and Ramnarain (2015)
explain it, is based on the belief that an individual’s humanity is expressed through
personal relationships with others in a community. Ubuntu on the other hand
means ‘humanity to others’ which reminds us that 'I am what I am because of who we all
are'.

In an interview Wole Soyinka, the Nigerian-born poet, philosopher, playwright, political

activist and Nobel Prize winner for literature in 1986, had the following to say about
individualism and identity formation: “I think there is one principle, one essential
morality of African society which we must bear in mind, and that is, the greatest morality
is what makes the entire society survive ... I think the obsession with individual salvation
is a very European thing. I am not aware that it occupies the minds of our people”
(Soyinka, 1999, p. 110).

From the discussions so far we have established that there is an agreement between
Erikson’s psychosocial theory and the African perspective that human development is a
social construct. Still, where Erikson’s theory mostly focuses on the social aspect, the
African perspective also emphasises physical (biological) development, cognition and
spirituality. Nsamenang (2006) argues that social ontogenetic[2] thinking does not
exclude nature; it assumes that all development is underpinned by biology. “The
biological commonality that the human species shares in the genetic code plays out into a
bewildering diversity of specific individuality across ecocultures[3]. Thus, different
ontogenetic pathways and intelligence are situated in the socio-ecological contexts and
cultural systems in which children are nurtured” (Nsamenang 2006). Nsamenang further
emphasises the importance of cognition in social learning – children engage as
participants in cultural communities while they learn their social roles.

According to the African view of personhood, the world is made up of two

interdependent, interpenetrating and complementary planes: the visible and the invisible;
or the material and the spiritual planes (Nwoye, 2017). The actions of those in the
spiritual world, therefore, influence the day-to-day lives of living people (Nwoye, 2017).
The invisible, spiritual world, is the abode of the spirits, including the divinities,
ancestral and ghost spirits, clan deities and other unknown invisible spiritual forces. In
line with this assumption, many people in Africa are motivated to behave themselves in
accordance with the mores/traditions/habits of the family or the community to avoid
infuriating/angering their ancestors. This belief is important for developing individuals,
where it is believed that successes or failures may be attributable to the actions of those
in the spiritual world. For Nsamenang (1992) the spiritual selfhood begins at conception,
ends with the ceremony to confer a name on a newborn, and commences again at the
time of death. There is therefore a great emphasis on community and a spirit
of interdependence. Adults teach directly and mentor young ones. Socialisation and
education are organised by elders in such a way that a child assumes “roles of
responsibility through guided participation in valued cultural and economic activities at
different stages of development” (Ntshangase, in Gumbo and Msila, 2017, p. 233).

Nsamenang (2006) explains as follows: “As children are initiated into and actively
engage in cultural life, they gradually and systematically individuate into and assume
particular levels of personhood, identity, and being. Individuation is the process by which
the human being comes to a sense of self and personal identity in search of individuality
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—an imprint on the human person by the ecoculture. Within the African worldview,
human beings not only need other humans but also social responsibility to individuate
adequately and attain full personhood. Thus, a sense of self cannot be achieved without
reference to the community of other humans in terms of being interconnected and
enacting one’s social roles.”

According to Nsamenang (1992) the time prior to adolescence is a time of “social

priming[4]” and “social apprenticeship[5]”, where children learn social rules and family
and cultural roles. The child’s main developmental task during this period (which spans
more or less the first four stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory) is to recognise roles
and to practice and internalize them according to their developmental status and their
ability. During this time siblings and peers play an important role. This stage is followed
by two changes in social status. The first is the social entrée where biological changes
related to puberty take place. During this time initiation rites and rituals take place, while
the child is still socially regarded as a naïve novice. The second phase in adolescence is
the social internship where developmental rites end and the naïve novice enters the status
of a socialized neophyte/novice or recruit. The young person is now ready to strive and
plan for adult roles such as marriage and parenthood, while the ideals and standards of
the family and community must be maintained, and responsibilities must be met.

Refer to the following chapter on an African perspective of the ecological model of

human development. TABANE 2014: The ecological model of human development:
An African perspective.

This perspective is best understood in the philosophy of Ubuntu, which means that a
person lives in “harmony with other people, nature, the gods and the ancestors. Ubuntu
grants freedom to a person, not as an isolated individual but as a member of society and
has been translated as meaning the spirit of humaneness, social justice and fairness”
(Jordaan 2018:5).

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Refer to Tabane (2016) (The ecological model of human development: An African p

following questions:

Reflect on your personal situation and life journey, similar to how Khaya’s case w
your own life.
Now that you have learner about the ecological or bio-ecological model, what fa
difficulties in school?
How would you apply your understanding of African ecological development to
due to their family’s belief system?

Go to the E-tutor site and discuss this with your peers.

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

When supporting a learner who is facing difficulties in school, there are several fact
emphasizes the complex interplay between a learner and their environment, includin
a holistic and multidimentional approach that considers all of these factors and how

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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

Carefully study Tabane (2016) in order to understand a learner’s development from

chronosystems.

[1] group whose values, beliefs or behaviors set it apart from the larger culture, which it
is a part of and with which it shares many similarities. Cultures may comprise many
subsets, and these co-cultures may thrive within them.

[2] origination and development of an organism (both physical and psychological, e.g.,
moral development), usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to adult.

[3] the conservation of our natural heritage (which could be called ecoculture or natural
culture) thereby involving culture and environment

[4] the idea that subtle cues can exert large, unconscious influences on human behaviour.

[5] learning in informal settings rather than formal contexts like classrooms

4.3 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE ADOLESCENT

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4.3 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE ADOLESCENT

Adolescence is a time of change in all relationships – with parents, siblings, teachers,

other adults, the peer group and friends. The adolescent becomes gradually less
dependent on parents and other adults, and closer to the peer group and friends. Through
all this change, (and sometimes, even conflict) the adolescent experiments with new
roles, while steadily becoming more and more their own person.

4.3.1 Parent-adolescent relationship

While adolescence is a transitional period linking childhood and adulthood, it is indeed a

turbulent period where the adolescent is struggling to find an identity. At the same time,
it is also a time of decision making, self-evaluation, commitment, and carving out a place
in the world (Santrock, 2009:20). There is a positive and negative side to this period of
change. The positive side is that adolescents may learn from mistakes and mould desired
elements of success as they form their identity. However, this phase of development can
also be characterised by negative events like rebellion, crisis, deviance, and adopting
destructive paths in life. The rebellion and conflict may take place between parent and
adolescent child. However, the nature and extent of the conflict will depend on factors in
the society, as well as characteristics of parents and their adolescent child.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:520-531) for more information about the parent-
adolescent relationship, different parenting styles and addressing conflict.

Educational implications of parent-adolescent relationships

As a teacher, there are several ways you can promote parent-adolescent relationships:

Communication: Encourage open and regular communication between parents and

adolescents. Provide regular updates to parents about their child’s progress and
encourage parents to share any concerns they may have.
Parent-teacher conferences: Schedule regular parent-teacher meetings to discuss the
adolescent’s academic progress and any concerns. This provides an opportunity for
parents to ask questions and learn more about their child’s academic and social
development.

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Positive reinforcement: Provide positive feedback to both parents and adolescents.
Recognise and celebrate the achievements of both parents and adolescents. This helps
to build a positive relationship between parents and adolescents.
Classroom culture: Foster a classroom culture that values and promotes positive
relationships. Encourage learners to work collaboratively and respectfully with each
other and provide opportunities for learners to support each other academically and
socially

By promoting parent-adolescent relationships, you can help support the academic and
social development of your learners.

4.3.2 Peer group relationships

Ronzetti and Curran (1998) define peers as individuals who are about the same age and
who share the same social position and interests. The peer group often consists of
cliques, usually of the same sex, and who intimately and intensely share their
experiences. While developing independence from their parents, adolescents spend more
time with peers. This implies that needs such as the need to belong, to be accepted and
become attached to friends in a peer group usually intensify during adolescence.
Therefore, affiliation to a peer group is of importance to the adolescent. Peers are a
source of influence as well as support, as they facilitate the much-needed independence
from parents and provide feelings of being valued and accepted. This is articulated by
Dacey and Travers (in Kiran-Esen, 2012) who state that being part of a peer group allows
adolescents to be recognized and accepted by people of a similar age and stage. At this
stage, adolescents tend to bond with peers, adjusting their earlier bond with family.

Peer influence, therefore, becomes instrumental in shaping the adolescent’s behaviour as

time spent with peers increases. Furthermore, many adolescents value the way they are
viewed by their peers. Healthy peer relationships play an important role in assisting
individuals with the development of social skills, social-cognitive abilities, and moral
reasoning skills. Therefore, the peer group acts as a source of information about the
world outside the family, and the adolescents also receive feedback about their abilities
from peers. In this way, the peer gives adolescents the opportunity to evaluate
themselves.

Although such relationships mean a lot to adolescents, it may leave them vulnerable to
peer pressure from the group on which they depend for acceptance. Peer relationships
can have both positive and negative effects. It is positive when the adolescent joins peers
in youth organisations, and negative when they join an a-social group like gangsters or
mobs. Some teenage groups encourage engagement in all sorts of negative conformity
behaviour, such as vandalism, substance use/abuse/distribution and presenting unruly
behaviour to parents and teachers. Peers may negatively influence each other, and it is
only when good parenting skills are implemented that adolescents are guided towards
peers who promote desired behaviour outcomes (Bvirakare 2018). Santrock (2009:230)
suggests that a great deal of peer conformity is not negative but just consists of the desire
to be involved in the peer world. High achievers can act as role models to the other peers,
motivating them to strive for success as well.

Educational implications of peer group relationships

Below are some ways in which peer group relationships can impact education:

Socialisation: Peer groups can provide a socialisation process for learners, teaching
them about social norms, values, and behaviours that are important in their particular
cultural context. Through interactions with peers, learners learn how to communicate
effectively, resolve conflicts, and negotiate relationships, skills that are essential for
success in school and beyond.
Motivation: Peers can influence learners’ motivation to learn. If learners perceive that
their peers value academic achievement, they are more likely to be motivated to
achieve themselves. Conversely, if learners perceive that their peers do not value
academic achievement, they may be less motivated to succeed academically.

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Academic achievement: Peer group relationships can have both positive and negative
effects on academic achievement. Positive peer relationships can provide social
support, encouragement, and opportunities for collaborative learning, which can
enhance academic achievement. Negative peer relationships, on the other hand, can
be a source of distraction, disengagement, and social pressure to engage in behaviours
that are detrimental to academic success.
Self-esteem: Peer group relationships can impact learners’ self-esteem, which in turn
can affect their academic performance. Positive peer relationships can provide social
validation and support, which can enhance self-esteem. Negative peer relationships
can lead to feelings of social exclusion, rejection, and low self-esteem.
Bullying: Peer group relationships can also contribute to bullying and victimisation in
schools. Learners who are bullied by their peers may experience negative impacts on
their mental health, academic achievement, and overall well-being.

Overall, peer group relationships can have significant educational implications for
learners, and it is important for teachers to understand the dynamics of peer relationships
and to provide learners with opportunities for positive social interactions and supportive
relationships.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:531-550) for more information about the structure of
the peer group, conformity, friendships, romantic relationships, and adolescents and
cyberspace..

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Jade’s parents are very anxious about the effects of social media, and therefore decid
Do you think this is a good idea? Argue your position.

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

During adolescence, the access and use of technologies become very important tool
(2022:545-547) as they discuss the positive and negative aspects when it comes to c

While completely withholding access to social media and the internet may not be th
associated with these technologies and to take appropriate steps to ensure their child
FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

While it is understandable for parents to be concerned about the negative effects of

set of drawbacks. The internet and social media have become an integral part of our
develop essential digital literacy skills.

Moreover, not having access to sical media and the internet can also lead to social is
have become a primary way for young people to connect and communicate with the
miss out on opportunities for learning and personal growth, such as accessing educa
cultures.

That being said, it is also important for parents to establish guidelines and rules arou
setting limits on screen time, and monitoring online activity can all be effective stra

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4.4 SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM

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4.4 SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM

Getting to know who they are, how they feel about themselves and how they evaluate themselves are very important
tasks of adolescence. Cognitive development and interaction with others will influence the way the self-concept and
self-esteem of the adolescent will develop.

Self-concept refers to the individual's belief about himself or herself, including the person's attributes and who and
what the self is.

Self-esteem refers to feelings of self-worth. The self-concept and self-esteem influence adolescents’ mental health.

According to the African view of personhood, the self-concept and self-esteem develop while children and
adolescents, who are considered co-participants in social and cultural life, engage socially and while they learn
social rules and roles (Nsamenang 2006).

Educational implications of self-concept and self-esteem

Below are some ways in which teachers can contribute to the development of self-concept and self-esteem in
adolescents:

Providing a positive and supportive classroom environment: Teachers can create a safe and positive classroom
environment where learners feel valued, respected, and supported. This can be achieved by promoting positive
interactions, encouraging participation, and showing genuine interest in their learners’ lives.
Encouraging learners to set and achieve realistic goals: Teachers can help learners set achievable goals and work
towards them. When learners achieve their goals, it helps boost their self-confidence and self-esteem.
Acknowledging and celebrating learner achievements: Teachers can acknowledge and celebrate the
accomplishments of their learners. This helps learners feel recognised and appreciated, which can enhance their
self-esteem.
Providing constructive feedback: Teachers can provide constructive feedback that helps learners improve their
skills and abilities. Feedback should be specific and focused on the task, rather than the learners’ personality or
character.
Being a positive role model: Teachers can serve as positive role models of their learners. Modelling positive
behaviours, attitudes, and values can help learners develop a positive self-concept and self-esteem.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:512-516) for more information about self-concept and the adolescents’
understanding of self.

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4.5 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality is often used to describe an individual’s social dimension, in other words, to

describe the person’s disposition towards others. For example, one may refer to
an outgoing personality or a strong personality. Both these descriptions refer to the kind
of person the individual is when they are with other people. It may also refer to
someone’s behaviour patterns or their characteristics as a human being. This means that
the word personality refers to whatever makes the person who they are.

We can thus say that personality is the totality of all the physical, emotional, social,
environmental and spiritual characteristics that determine the behaviour of an individual.
Although some personality traits can change over time, personality is normally relatively
stable.

While personality traits can be seen in young children already, it is usually during
adolescence that a relatively stable, lasting personality starts to form. This is then the
question that many adolescents grapple with or ponder on during their adolescent years
namely, “Who am I?” According to Erikson (1963) this is the period where personality
integration can take place, on the condition that the first four psychosocial stages were
experienced with relative success. If an individual has during their childhood years
developed the ability to trust and to build relationships of trust; if they have developed
the skills to set personal boundaries and to take initiative and if they learnt competence
and developed self-confidence, the task of answering the question – Who am I? –
becomes easier.

For the purposes of this module, we want to emphasise the importance of culture and
context in personality development. People always function in an environment with
particular physical, social and cultural features, and this context co-determines their
personality development. During colonisation and Apartheid in South Africa, as in other
colonised countries, Western views of personality, of who and what one should be, have
been imposed on indigenous people, negating their language, philosophies and
worldviews. To build a stable, balanced personality, an individual needs to take pride in
who they are and in where they comes from. This is important as it is through their own
worldviews and philosophies that people make sense of the world.

As with other sciences, Western psychology was brought to South Africa as part of the
general transfer of knowledge and technology (Mkhize 2004), presenting Western ways
to understand personality development. While these theories may all add value to the
different perspectives on personality development, it is necessary to look at personality
development from an African perspective.

Where the self in most Western psychological theories centres around the individual and
individual development, the development of the self, according to the African
perspective, takes place while a child is surrounded by the stories, experiences and
history of Africa that are told by parents, family members and elders (Okeke 2014). This
togetherness will be explained by using the concepts communalism,
complementarity and cultural self-expression.

4.5.1 Collectivism and personality development

Another word for togetherness is collectivism. It is seen clearly in the

wellknown expression, “motho ke motho ka batho” (Sotho/Setswana) or “umuntu
ngumuntu ngabantu” (Zulu), which means a person is a person through others (Nwoye,
2017). It implies humanness, respect, care and interconnectedness, a spirit of
compassion, hospitality and sharing as well as dignity in one’s relations with others. In
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essence, it means that in traditional African societies, personality development takes
place in the community, where the child belongs. The identity is defined by being a part
of the community and the group is seen as the primary unit. Mbiti (1970, cited in Higgs
& Smith, 2017) describes a close-knit environment that is bound to influence the
individual’s developing personality: “Whatever happens to the individual happens to the
whole group, and whatever happens to the group happens to the individual. The
individual can only say: “I am, because we are and since we are; therefore I am.”
Similarly, Anozie (2018:19) observes: “mmetuko ahu bu uto ndu”, which means, “the
beauty of life is in mixing up with others”.

4.5.2 Complementarity and personality development

Bame Nsamenang (2007) posits that “human development always occurs in a specific
eco-culture defined by geography, history, climate and the socio-cultural system”.
Society is organised in such a way that it includes the teaching of social rules within the
family and community systems. This view is supported by Africa’s philosophy
of complementarity, as the underlying principle of Africa’s portrayal of the image of life
(Ngwaba, cited in Nwoye 2017). Onwaunibe (1983) refers to the Western explanation of
reciprocity rather as a “mutuality” or a balance between person, culturality and
community. This translates into an underlying goal of well-being of the environment.
Furthermore, the goal of environmental well-being is not only reached through the
application of science, but also through applying communal values, spirituality, customs
and genuine self-expression.

4.5.3 Cultural self-expression and personality development

Although valued, scientific progress needs a humanitarian element, namely that the
community should be free to exercise cultural self-expression, and belief in their self-
reliance and self-esteem. Cultural self-expression, which underlies a cultural self-
comprehension of Africanness, is at the root of personality development. Authentic self-
expression implies the development of the continent through its own cultural identities
and its own customs, languages, values and image of life (Oguejiofor & Ezenwa-Ohaeto
2015).

Educational implications of personality development

Personality development can have several educational implications, including:

Tailoring instructional methods: Different personalities respond differently to

different teaching methods. By understanding learners’ personalities, teachers can
tailor their instructional methods to better engage and motivate them.
Identifying learning styles: Personality development can help teachers identify
learners’ learning styles. Some learners may be visual learners, while others may be
auditory or kinesthetic learners. By understanding learners’ learning styles, teachers
can create lessons that are more effective and engaging.
Facilitating social and emotional learning: Personality development can help teachers
support social and emotional learning. Social and emotional learning is the process
through which children and adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge,
attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve
positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive
relationships, and make responsible decisions. By understanding learners’
personalities, teachers can better support social and emotional learning and help
learners develop critical social and emotional skills.
Promoting self-awareness and self-efficacy: Personality development can help
learners develop self-awareness and self-efficacy. Self-awareness involves
understanding one’s own personality, strengths, weaknesses, and emotions. Self-
efficacy involves believing in one’s own ability to succeed. By promoting self-
awareness and self-efficacy, teachers can help learners become more confident and
successful learners.

By understanding learners’ personalities, teachers can create more effective and engaging
learning environments that support the social, emotional, and academic development of
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all learners.

4.6 IDENTITY FORMATION

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4.6 IDENTITY FORMATION

Santrock (2009:23) noted that adolescence is a time when the adolescent’s unique
identity emerges. During this process, the adolescent attempts to sort through and
synthesise childhood identities as well as other identifications to construct a pathway
towards adult maturity. At this time adolescents ask: What am I in the eyes of other
people? and “Do other people see me the same way as I see myself?” While considering
cultural, social and familial expectations, they will be trying to find an own ideology,
vocational direction, and other identifications such as a sexual orientation.

As explained earlier, identity formation is a social process. The first conception of a

social identity stemmed from a theory propounded by Henri Tajfel (1979, in Postmes and
Branscombe, 2010). He stated that social identity is a person’s sense of who they, based
on their perception of their place in the group of which they a member. Erikson (1963)
calls this quest for self-image, continuity in life and congruence between the self-image
and the role expectations of society, the search for identity. “Identity is a complex
concept which can be defined as people’s images of themselves, including the feeling
that a thread of continuity runs through their lives, and that their self-images and the
views others have of them are essentially in agreement” (Erikson 1963:261).

One of the most important constructs in identity development is self-differentiation,

which is an element of emotional maturity. It is the ability to separate your own
intellectual and emotional functioning from that of the family or group of which you
form part. It is a progressive, internal interplay between autonomy (separation) and
connection (togetherness) while progressing toward established and evolving goals
(Ritzer and Smart, 2001). Self-differentiated individuals are team players. They
cooperate, look out for one another’s welfare, and stay in adequate contact during
stressful as well as calm periods. They do not isolate themselves from their group but
connect with its members and focus on togetherness. The self-differentiated individual
takes responsibility for any predicaments, hurdles or problems in their life, and plans and
makes decisions which always show some responsibility towards others. They do not
resist authority or disrespect cultural norms but has the internal status of knowing who
they and of taking care of others in their own and other groups.

During this process, adolescents experience many conflicting demands on their

behaviour, because they are pushing for autonomy from parents, and at the same time
attempting to conform to peers as well. This is usually a time when adolescents are
stereotypically described as generally difficult to live with, and with problematic
behaviour. The quest for identity often causes adolescents to clash with the rules of
society and with persons who are close to them. The danger of the quest for identity and
the possible consequences of conflict with societal rules, cultural values or familial
expectations is that adolescents may become confused in their search for identity and a
suitable social role.

George Herbert Mead’s (1929) major contribution to the field of social psychology was
his attempt to show how the human self arises in the process of social interaction,
especially by way of linguistic communication (“symbolic interaction”). Instead of
approaching human experience in terms of individual psychology, Mead analyses
experience from the “standpoint of communication as essential to the social order”.
Individual psychology, for Mead, is intelligible only in terms of social processes. For
Mead, the self, like the mind, is a social emergent. This social conception of the self,
Mead argues, entails that individual selves are the products of social interaction and not
the (logical or biological) preconditions of that interaction. Mead contrasts his social
theory of the self with individualistic theories of the self (that is, theories that presuppose
the priority of selves to social process). “The self is something which has a development;
it is not initially there, at birth, but arises in the process of social experience and activity,
that is, it develops in the given individual as a result of his/her relations to that process as
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a whole and to other individuals within that process” (Mead, 1934: 225). Self-
consciousness, then, involves that the human being as subject (the thinking “I”) can
make theirselves the object of their thoughts. In other words, we can think about our own
thoughts, behaviour and feelings. The individual, according to Mead, “can enter as an
object [to him/herself] only on the basis of social relations and interactions, only by
means of their experiential transactions with other individuals in an organized social
environment” (Mead, 1934: 225).

While Mead’s outline of the development of self, or identity, seemingly fully supports
the African view of the development of self, the African view of self does not encourage
reference to a human being as an object. According to the African perspective of identity
development, it is of great importance that a person must be thought of as a subject,
rather than an object. This distinction is made by Unwuanibe (cited in Masaeli, Yaya &
Sneller, 2018). Onwuanibe likens object-orientated thinking to control and exploitation.
He argues for subject-orientated thinking as a way to recognise the freedom of the other
person. Being a subject, rather than an object, denotes that the person is not to be used,
abused and exploited. As a subject, the human being is an end in themselves, with dignity
and freedom to actualise their actual agency. This is possibly a reply to the African child
as the historical “other”, as described by external dominant cultures (Roby, Lambert &
Lambert 2009).

In conclusion, we present a poem written by a 16-year-old boy in which the

developmental task of forming an identity is very clear (Broughton 1981:23):

No one can describe

Me the way I am

No one can enter my brain

At least no mortal man

So if you say you know me,

Please sir, look again,

for no one knows who I am but me,

And then, do I really?

Educational implications of identity formation

Teachers can play a significant role in supporting the identity formation process of
adolescents. Here are some ways in which teachers can support adolescent identity
formation:

Provide a safe and inclusive learning environment: Teachers can create a safe and
inclusive learning environment where learners feel comfortable expressing
themselves and exploring their identities. This can include promoting respectful
communication, celebrating diversity, and addressive any incidents of discrimination
or prejudice.
Encourage self-reflection: Teachers can encourage learners to reflect on their beliefs,
values, and goals, and provide opportunities for self-expression. This can include
activities such as journaling, class discussions, and creative projects.
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Foster positive relationships: Teachers can build positive relationships with their
learners by showing interest in their lives, listening to their concerns, and providing
emotional support. This can help learners feel more secure in their identity and
develop a sense of belonging.
Challenge stereotypes and biases: Teachers can challenge stereotypes and biases that
may impact learners’ sense of identity, such as those based on race, gender, or sexual
orientation. This can include promoting critical thinking, encouraging diverse
perspectives, and addressing any misconceptions or stereotypes.
Provide mentorship and guidance. Teachers can serve as mentors and guides to their
learners, providing advice and guidance on academic and personal matters. This can
help learners develop a sense of direction and purpose in their lives.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:498-511) for more information about identity
formation.

4.7 CONCLUSION

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4.7 CONCLUSION

At the end of this unit, you may realise the significance of adolescents’ social
development, and specifically the importance for adolescents to establish who they are,
what they want to become, what sexual orientation they are comfortable with and what
identity they have. An accepting teacher can enhance these developments. Once
adolescents become sure of who they are, they can accept others who are different from
them and become mature, well-adjusted adults in their society.

In the next learning unit, the emotional, moral and religious development of the
adolescent is discussed.

REFERENCES

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4.8 REFERENCES

Anozie, S.U. (2018). Contemporary African Philosophical notion of the person and community: An essential
perspective to integrative ethics of globality. In Masaeli, S.Y. & Sneller, R. (Eds.), African perspectives on global
development. Newcastle upon Tyne (UK): Cambridge Scholars.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research
Perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22:723–742.

Broughton, J.M. (1981). The divided self in adolescence. Human Development, 24(1), 32.

Bvirakare, E.N. (2018). The experience of peer group influence by adolescents who live in a rural, low socio-
economic environment in Ganyesa, Northwest Province. MEd dissertation. University of South Africa: Pretoria.

Erikson, E. (1963). Childhood and society. 2nd ed. New York: Norton.

Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc; 1968. [Google
Scholar]

Higgs, P. & Smith, J. (2017). Philosophy of Education today – an introduction. 2nd edition. Juta: Cape Town, South
Africa.

Jordaan, C. & Naudé, M. (eds). (2018). Teaching life skills in the intermediate phase. Van Schaik Publishers:
Pretoria, South Africa.

Kiran-Esen, B. (2012). Analyzing peer pressure and self-efficacy expectations among adolescents. Social Behaviour
and Personality, 40(8): 1301–1310.

Magano M.D. & Ramnarain U. (2015). Including the excluded: Educating the vulnerable in the 21st century. Cape
Town: Pearson

Masaeli, M., Yaya, S., Sneller, R. (Eds.). (2018). African perspectives on global development. Newcastle upon Tyne:
Cambridge.

Mead, G.H. (1934). Mind, Self, and Society: From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist, edited, with an
Introduction, by Charles W. Morris, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Mkhize, N. (2004). Psychology: An African perspective. In: Hook, D, Mkhize, N, Kiguwa, P & Collins A. Critical
Psychology, Claremont: Juta, pp.24-52.

Nsamenang, A.B. (1992). Eurocentric image of childhood in the context of the world’s cultures. Human
Development, 42:159-168.

Nsamenang, A.B. (2006). Human ontogenesis: An indigenous African view on development and
intelligence. International Journal of Psychology, 41, 293–297.

Nsamenang, A.B. (2007). Human ontogenesis: an indigenous African view on development and
intelligence. International Journal of Psychology, 41(4): 293-297. DOI: 10.1080/00207590544000077.

Ntshangase, S. (2017). Indigenous African knowledge systems and childhood development: implications for an
Afrocentric curriculum. In Gumbo, M.T. and Msila, V. (eds), African voices on indigenization of the curriculum:
insights from practice. Wandsburg: Reach, pp. 224-245.

Nwoye, A. (2017). An Africentric theory of human personhood. Psychology in Society,

54. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2309-8708/2017/n54a4 ;

Okeke, C. (2014). The meaning and practice of educational theory. In Okeke, C, Van Wyk, M & Phasha,
N. Schooling, society and inclusive education – an Afrocentric perspective. Oxford University Press: Cape Town,

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South Africa.

Oguejiofor, J.O. & Ezenwa-Ohaeto, N. (2015). Contemporary African philosophy, identity and the question of
African languages. Ogirisi: a new journal of African Studies. vol 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/og.v11i 1.1.

Onwuanibe, R.C. (1983). A critique of revolutionary humanism: Frantz Fanon. University of Michigan: WH Green.

Postmes, T. & Branscombe, N.R. (2010). Rediscovering social identity: key readings. New York: Psychology Press.

Rageliene, T. (2016). Links of adolescents identity development and relationship with peers: a systematic literature
review. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry: 25(2): 97-105.

Ritzer, G. & Smart, B. (2001). Handbook of social theory. London: Sage.Lock, A. 2010. Social constructionism:
Sources and stirrings in theory and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Roby, J.L., Lambert, M.J. & Lambert, J. (2009). Barriers to girls’ education in Mozambique at household and
community levels: An exploratory study. International Journal of Social Welfare, 18: 342–353.

Ronzetti, M.C. & Curran, D.J. (1998). Living Sociology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Santrock, J.W. (2009). Adolescence. 10th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Soyinka, W. (1999). The burden of memory, the muse of forgiveness. New York: Oxford University Press.

Tabane, R. (2014). The ecological model of human development: An African perspective. In Okeke, C., Van Wyk,
M. & N. Pasha. Schooling, society and inclusive education. Oxford University Press: Cape Town, South Africa, pp
81–98.

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5.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 5.1: Overview of Learning Unit 5

During adolescence some of the main tasks include learning to recognise and regulate
emotions, developing one’s own value system and deciding about spiritual values and
religion.

This unit will enable you to:

understand the importance of adolescents’ emotions and the developments that take
place during the stage of adolescence as well as the role of teachers in this regard.
recognise the role that teachers can play in the moral development of adolescents and
how this development takes place.
recognise the role that teachers can play in the spiritual development of adolescents
and how this development takes place.
identify different theories of emotional intelligence.

For you to be successful regarding the cognitive development of the adolescent you will
have to actively participate in: all online discussions; logging into myUnisa to access
your reading material; complete and submit activities; and summarise the unit for
yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you prepare for the exam. It is of utmost importance
that you ask for support if concepts are unclear to you via myUnisa.

5.2 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

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5.2 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Adolescents may have emotional swings because of hormonal changes and environmental pressures, but they are
also able to have insight into their own and others’ feelings. They usually mature emotionally during this stage. In
this unit you will learn more about adolescents’ heightened emotionality, how they experience emotions, and that
they, at the same time, become more competent in their emotional expressions. It is important to understand what
emotional development involves, and why emotions are so important.

5.2.1 Mood swings, emotional outbursts, and adult tantrums

Mood swings, or mood changes, in adolescence are abrupt shifts in mood or emotional state, and may be a normal
response to stress, negative events in adolescents’ lives than to hormonal changes (Zimba, 2011). According to this
author, adolescents’ moods, like being withdrawn, depressed and anxious, may be caused by difficulties at school, at
home and in relationships. Zimba (2011) says teachers must understand that there are many problems especially
when growing up in South Africa – some adolescents in certain circumstances may be affected by the social-political
instability, various hardships, and poverty. It is, however, the responsibility of a teacher to keep a close eye on the
nature, severity and period of these mood changes as it can signal an underlying mental health disorder which are
characterized by extremely high and low moods.

Emotional outbursts in adults can be one-time expressions of piled-up stress, lack of sleep, or low blood sugar. Thus,
a sudden passionate display of emotion resulting from strong or intense feelings. These could also be a symptom of
emotional dysregulation or an underlying medical condition. Emotional outbursts appear as a rapid shift from a state
of calm to one of uncontrollable, intense emotion which could be the result of long-present feelings that the person
have kept to themselves. Teachers are advised to be cognisant to these outbursts as it represents an overflow of
negative emotions, like anger, hurt, or sadness. The teacher could refer the learner to the school counsellor or
psychologist as such an outburst often occurs when a need or expectation has gone unmet for too long.

Temper tantrums are a normal part of childhood development. Children, especially toddlers, sometimes struggle to
control and express their emotions. As we learn to regulate emotions and verbalize our needs better, we typically
grow out of having these outbursts. However, adults can have tantrums, too. This can involve an upheaval due to
frustration or anger. Sometimes, adult temper tantrums are used as a means to manipulate others; but sometimes a
temper tantrum does not stem from emotions. Someone might struggle to regulate their emotions if they feel
overwhelmed, which could make it difficult to express their feelings in a constructive way. Some examples are, the
silent fit, the tirade, when-n-moan and so forth.

5.2.2 Emotional maturity and regulation

The emotionally mature adolescent will avoid emotional outbursts in front of others and will handle the emotion in
an appropriate manner and at a suitable place. They will distinguish important from unimportant stimuli in situations
before they react emotionally. They can show compassion for others and understand their feelings. They are open
and sensitive to their own experiences and feelings, and they can express their feelings suitably according to
different situations. Some theorists refer to emotional intelligence, because emotional skills have an impact on all
areas of the adolescent such as cognitive, social, and moral achievement. Herewith is one of the many theories on
emotional intelligence which teachers should take note of (https://www.reuvenbaron.com/):

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Source: https://www.reuvenbaron.com/

5.2.3 Emotional Climate and Culture

Also important in our diverse South African society is to take note of what Tchombe (2011:277) wrote about the
emotional climate in the classroom: It must have an “inclusive nature” (including learners of various cultures, mixed
abilities and even disabilities) – this will depend on the teacher’s empathy, warmth, patience, zeal, and
resourcefulness which create a positive psychological climate and emotional security for the learners.

According to the African culture, individual identity is formed in the community, where the child belongs. The
identity is defined by being a part of the community and the group is seen as the primary unit. Mbiti (1970:109, cited
in Higgs & Smith, 2017) encompasses the idea of communalism in the following words: “Whatever happens to the
individual happens to the whole group, and whatever happens to the group happens to the individual. The individual
can only say: I am, because we are; and since we are; therefore I am.” Similarly, Anozie (2018:19)
observes: “mmetuko ahu bu uto ndu”, which means, “the beauty of life is in mixing up with others”.

Bame Nsamenang (2007) posits that “human development always occurs in a specific eco-culture defined by
geography, history, climate and the socio-cultural system”. Society is organised in such a way that it includes the
teaching of social rules within the family and community systems. This view is supported by Africa’s philosophy
of complementarity[1], as the underlying principle of Africa’s portrayal of the image of life (Ngwaba, cited in
Nwoye 2017). Onwaunibe (1983) refers to our explanation of reciprocity rather as “mutuality” or a balance between
person, culturality[2] and community. This translates into an underlying goal of well-being of the environment.

Furthermore, the goal of environmental well-being is not only reached through the application of science, but also
through applying communal values, spirituality, customs and genuine self-expression. Although valued, scientific
progress needs a humanitarian element, namely: that the community should be free to exercise cultural self-
expression, and belief in their self-reliance and self-esteem. Cultural self-expression indicates a cultural self-
comprehension of Africanness[3]. Authentic self-expression implies the development of the continent through its
own cultural identities and its own customs, languages, values, and image of life (Oguejiofor & Ezenwa-Ohaeto
2015).

Educational implications on emotional development:

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In adolescence, the teacher's role in emotional development becomes increasingly important due to the significant
changes and challenges that young people experience during this stage of life. Here are some key aspects of the
teacher's role in supporting emotional development in adolescence

Creating a Safe and Supportive Classroom Environment: Teachers can establish a classroom environment that
promotes emotional safety and trust. Adolescents need a space where they feel comfortable expressing their
emotions without fear of judgment or ridicule. By fostering a supportive atmosphere, teachers can encourage
open communication and empathy among students.
Providing Emotional Guidance and Support: Adolescence is a period marked by heightened emotional intensity
and self-discovery. Teachers can serve as mentors and role models, offering guidance and support to help students
navigate their emotions. By being approachable and attentive, teachers can provide a listening ear, offer advice, and
validate adolescents' feelings and experiences.
Facilitating Emotional Regulation Skills: Adolescents often struggle with managing their emotions effectively.
Teachers can teach strategies for emotional regulation, such as deep breathing exercises, mindfulness techniques,
and self-reflection practices. By providing tools and coping mechanisms, teachers can empower adolescents to
regulate their emotions and make informed decisions.
Promoting Emotional Intelligence and Self-awareness: Teachers can integrate lessons and activities that promote
emotional intelligence and self-awareness. This includes helping students understand and label their emotions,
identify triggers, and develop a deeper understanding of their own thoughts and feelings. By fostering self-
reflection and self-awareness, teachers can support adolescents in developing a strong emotional foundation.
Encouraging Positive Relationships and Social Skills: Adolescents are navigating complex social dynamics and
developing their interpersonal skills. Teachers can facilitate opportunities for positive peer interactions, group
work, and collaborative projects. By promoting empathy, active listening, conflict resolution, and effective
communication, teachers can help adolescents build healthy relationships and navigate social challenges.
Addressing Mental Health and Well-being: Teachers play a crucial role in recognizing signs of emotional distress
and supporting the mental health of their adolescent students. They can create a safe space for discussions around
mental health, provide information about available resources, and encourage help-seeking behaviors. Teachers
should also collaborate with school counselors, administrators, and parents to ensure appropriate support is
provided when needed.
Cultivating Resilience and Coping Skills: Adolescence can be a time of increased stress and adversity. Teachers
can foster resilience by teaching coping skills, problem-solving strategies, and stress management techniques. By
providing opportunities for adolescents to learn and practice resilience, teachers help them develop the emotional
strength to overcome challenges and bounce back from setbacks.
Collaborating with Families and Support Networks: Teachers should maintain open lines of communication with
parents and guardians to exchange information about students' emotional well-being. Collaboration with mental
health professionals and other support networks can ensure a holistic approach to addressing adolescents'
emotional needs

By actively engaging in these roles, teachers can have a significant positive impact on the emotional development of
adolescents. They can empower students to understand and manage their emotions, build healthy relationships,
develop resilience, and foster overall well-being during this critical stage of life.

5.2.4 Embedding identity through cultural celebrations

Bame Nsamenang (2008) highlights the need to embed identity development socially, by celebrating the
development and the milestones of adolescents through traditional ways and customs such as initiation rituals.
Nsamenang’s theory emphasises the developing the child in a specific context - where the community plays an
important role in the development of the child, as a part of the social ontogeny (social maturation or development) of
the child. Nsamenang (2008), furthermore, highlights important social stages, such as the naming of the child, which
is defined within the historical and social framework of the society where the child belongs, the initiation and
priming of the child into social roles, and the attending of initiation ceremonies. The beliefs, ceremonies and rituals
of African traditional religion permeate/penetrate every aspect of the life of traditional African people (Blokland
2016:39). African children would therefore be aware that they become what they are through the assistance of
others. What they know and can do, they have learnt from others. According to Kwame Gyekye (in Nwoye 2017),
although the African child is inextricably/intimately bound to and finds their identity in the family and community,
“they nevertheless possess a clear concept of themselves as a distinct person”. The identity of the African child
therefore manifests in communality and individuality.

Educational implications on helping shape identity

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Providing a Variety of Learning Opportunities: Teachers should offer a diverse range of learning experiences that
allow adolescents to explore different subjects, interests, and talents. By providing exposure to various disciplines,
activities, and perspectives, teachers help students discover their strengths, passions, and areas of interest, which
contribute to their sense of identity.
Fostering a Positive Classroom Culture: Teachers can create a classroom environment that embraces diversity,
promotes inclusivity, and encourages individuality. By celebrating students' unique qualities, perspectives, and
backgrounds, teachers foster a sense of belonging and acceptance, which supports the development of a positive
identity.
Encouraging Self-Reflection and Self-Expression: Teachers should provide opportunities for students to engage
in self-reflection, introspection, and self-expression. Through activities such as journaling, creative projects,
presentations, or class discussions, teachers can help adolescents explore their thoughts, values, beliefs, and
aspirations, allowing them to develop a clearer sense of self.
Promoting Critical Thinking and Personal Agency: Teachers should encourage critical thinking, independent
thought, and decision-making skills. By empowering students to question, analyze, and evaluate information,
teachers enable them to form their own opinions, make choices aligned with their values, and take ownership of
their learning and identity development.
Facilitating Identity Exploration and Cultural Awareness: Teachers can integrate curriculum and discussions that
promote exploration of personal and cultural identities. By incorporating literature, history, and social studies that
represent diverse perspectives, teachers help students develop an understanding and appreciation for different
cultures, fostering a more inclusive and empathetic identity formation process.
Providing Positive Role Models and Mentoring: Teachers serve as role models and mentors, guiding and
supporting adolescents in their identity development. By displaying positive traits such as empathy, integrity, and
resilience, teachers inspire students to develop their own sense of identity and personal values. Establishing
trusting relationships and being available for guidance and support are essential components of this role.
Collaborating with Parents and Guardians: Teachers should maintain open communication with parents and
guardians to gain insights into students' personal backgrounds, values, and aspirations. By working together,
teachers and families can support the holistic development of adolescents' identity, ensuring consistency and
reinforcement between home and school environments.
Addressing Identity-related Challenges: Adolescents may encounter identity-related challenges and conflicts.
Teachers should be sensitive to these issues and provide a supportive space for students to explore and discuss their
experiences. By acknowledging and addressing identity-related challenges, teachers can help students navigate
these complexities and develop a more cohesive sense of self.

By embracing these educational implications, teachers can contribute significantly to shaping adolescent identity.
Through supportive and inclusive learning environments, opportunities for self-reflection and expression, and
fostering critical thinking skills, teachers empower students to develop a positive and authentic sense of self as they
navigate the complex journey of adolescence.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:516-517-355) for more information about emotions in adolescence.

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Adolescent learners are sometimes hostile towards their teachers and even openly aggressive. For example, an
to put her phone away, bumping the teacher with her table.

What should a teacher do in this situation? What behaviour of a teacher will suppress the aggression and what
this behaviour is not acceptable?

Discuss the problem and how to handle it with fellow students. Be aware of your own feelings and think if yo
and composing yourself. If not, what can you do to develop these skills?

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

It is important to recognise the challenging nature of such situations and the need for effective strategies to ad
learner displays hostility and aggression towards their teacher, it is important for the teacher to respond approp
communicate that such behaviour is not acceptable.
FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

Consider strategies that can be employed by teachers to address aggression and communicate the unacceptabi
approaches such as positive reinforcement, restorative practices, or conflict resolution techniques that promot
and the learner. Additionally, highlighting the importance of establishing a supportive classroom climate and b
contribute to preventing hostile behaviour.

[1] a relationship or situation in which two or more different things improve or emphasize each other's qualities

[2] the quality of being cultural

[3] the state or quality of being African.

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4/16/24, 11:25 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 5: 5.3 MORAL AND SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

5.3 MORAL AND SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

Adolescents have the cognitive ability to think about right and wrong and to judge behaviour and behave according
to their values – they therefore begin to establish their own set of values. Morals are learnt and society expects
adolescents to become morally independent and responsible. Adolescents’ abstract thinking leads to more critical
and rational views of morality. They may therefore come into conflict with adults about moral issues.

Onwuanibe (1983) underscores the metaphysical[1], transcendent [2]dimension of the person. African philosophical
thought imagines a person as a totality of spirit (soul) and body. “Person” has a physical (material or bodily) and a
spiritual (transcendent) aspect. According to Nwoye (2017), the African person’s view on the world includes a
religious view of the world. This means that the world is made up of the visible and invisible (material and spiritual).
In addition to the “visible models” in human personality formation/development, as proposed by Bandura (1989),
the African child is conscious of people, such as ancestors, who are not visible, but who have a presence in their
lives (Nwoye 2017). Traditionally, in the African culture, knowledge includes lived experience, as well as religious
and spiritual worlds, because of a holistic worldview. The culture places a moral vision at the disposal of each
member of the community. The basic moral virtues that are valued include the following: patience, perseverance,
discretion, obedience, respect, modesty, and ability to live for others (Nwoye 2017). This internalisation of moral
and human values is at the basis of personal development. “It is essentially through dialogue that the moral visions
of a culture, transmitted by its social teachers; through stories, proverbs, and myths, that go into the making of the
person, becomes realizable” (Nwoye 2017). The African child, therefore, creates a deep relationship with his or her
people’s indigenous social systems and values, philosophies and worldview.

Study the sections in Louw and Louw (2022: 551-564) which focuses on moral development.

Although the most acknowledged theory of moral development is that of Lawrence Kohlberg, it is mostly based on
Western cultural values and perspectives, which may limit its applicability in the South African and other non-
Western contexts, for example:

South Africa is a diverse country with a rich blend of cultures, languages, and traditions. Kohlberg’s theory,
developed within a Western cultural framework, may not fully capture the moral values and beliefs that are
unique to South African cultures. Moral development in south Africa is influenced by factors such as Ubuntu
philosophy, communal values, and traditional customs, which may differ significantly from individualistic moral
reasoning emphasised in Kohlberg’s theory.
Factors such as poverty and inequality have profound effects on moral decision-making and values. These
contextual factors may not be adequately addressed or accounted for in Kohlberg’s theory.
South Africa’s multicultural society necessitates an understanding of moral development that encompasses
diverse worldviews and ethical frameworks. Kohlberg’s theory primarily focuses on cognitive development and
individual moral reasoning, which may not fully capture the complexities of moral decision-making within a
multicultural context.

Even though Kohlberg’s theory may maybe limitations, it does not mean that it is entirely irrelevant. Elements of the
theory can still be useful in understanding certain aspects of moral development. However, it is necessary to consider
and integrate alternative theories, culturally relevant perspectives, and local research to ensure a comprehensive
understanding of moral development in the South African context.

[1] Ideas or reality outside of human sense perception (synonyms: abstract, mystical, philosophical, spiritual).

[2] extending or lying beyond the limits of ordinary experience; being beyond the limits of all possible experience
and knowledge

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4/16/24, 11:26 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 5: 5.4 THEORIES ON EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

5.4 THEORIES ON EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence has been argued to be a crucial factor for achieving success in life, some arguing that it is
even more important than IQ. Studying emotional intelligence is important as it allows us to understand and navigate
our own emotions effectively. Without emotional intelligence we would be missing a crucial component of the
human experience (Millacci, 2019).

Emotional intelligence revolves around the interconnectedness of cognition and emotion. It refers to a collection of
mental and social abilities, skills and talents that are closely linked to the behaviours and actions of individuals in
various areas. In other words, plays a significant role in decision-making, building relationships, and shaping our
everyday actions. Emotions are dynamic mental processes that can be effectively regulated as long as individuals
acquire the necessary knowledge and skills. But how exactly do we reason with our emotions? To what extent does
our emotional system demonstrate intelligence?

According to Faltas (2017), there are three primary models of emotional intelligence:

Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence performance model

Bar-On’s El competencies model
Salovey and Mayer Emotional Intelligence theory

Below we will shortly discuss these models.

5.4.1 Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Performance Model

Goleman explains that emotional intelligence encompasses a range of skills and abilities that play a crucial role in
the effectiveness of managers and leaders at work. These skills and competencies revolve around four key
capabilities: self-awareness, relationship management, self-management, and social awareness.

Refer to the following video by Daniel Goleman, as he introduces Emotional Intelligence. goleman emotional
intelligence model - Google Search (5:31)

5.4.2 Bar-On’s El competencies model

Based on the Bar-On model, emotional-social intelligence encompasses a range of interconnected emotional and
social competencies, skills, and behaviours. These factors play a significant role in our ability to comprehend and
communicate our own emotions, understand and connect with others, and effectively handle the demands,
challenges, and pressures of everyday life. The 15 specific factors, confirmed through a series of factor analyses
during the creation of Bar-On psychometric measures, encompass the emotional and social competencies, skills, and
behaviours mentioned in this definition of the concept. The15 specific factors are as follows:

1. Self-regard
2. Emotional self-awareness
3. Assertiveness/emotional self-expression
4. Independence
5. Empathy
6. Social responsibility
7. Interpersonal relationship
8. Stress tolerance
9. Impulse control
10. Reality testing
11. Flexibility
12. Problem solving
13. Self-actualisation
14. Optimism
15. Happiness/wellbeing

As a self-directed life-long learner please read up on Bar-On’s EI competencies module by following the link: The
15 factors of the Bar-On model - (reuvenbaron.com)

5.4.3 Salovey and Mayer’s Emotional Intelligence theory

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According to Salovey and Mayer (1997) emotional intelligence refers to the capacity to process information about
your own emotions and other people’s emotions. It involves the skill of utilising this information to guide your own
thoughts and behaviours. An emotionally intelligent individual is able to pay attention to, use, understand and
manage his or her own emotions. According to Salovey and Mayor (1997), in order to be emotionally intelligent, one
have to have four basic abilities, namely:

1. The ability to perceive and accurately express one’s own emotions and the emotions of others.
2. The skill to employ emotions in a manner that facilitates cognitive processes.
3. The capacity to understand emotions, emotional language, and emotional cues.
4. The ability to effectively manage one’s emotions to accomplish goals.

It is important to note that this process does not typically occur spontaneously, but often requires a deliberate and
conscious effort.

You can read more about Salovey and Mayer’s emotional intelligence theory by accessing Additional Resources (see
Mayor, J.D., Salovey, P. & Caruso, D.R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: theory, findings and
implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3): 197-215.

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4/16/24, 11:26 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 5: 5.5 CONCLUSION

5.5 CONCLUSION

At the end of this learning unit, you may realise the significance of adolescents’ emotions, morality and spirituality,
because these aspects involve their self-concept (their perception of who they are) and their whole being.
Adolescents usually develop control over their emotional expressions and decide on a set of values and the religion
they want to follow. The ideal is emotional, moral and spiritual maturity that will enable adolescents to adopt values
that will empower them to accept the equality of all humans and to have respect for every other individual in our
diverse society. Teachers can play a significant role in these developments, especially by their example.

In the next learning unit, we shall investigate the developmental challenges experienced during adolescence.

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4/16/24, 11:26 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 5: 5.6 REFERENCES

5.6 REFERENCES

Anozie, S.U. (2018). Contemporary African Philosophical notion of the person and community: An essential
perspective to integrative ethics of globality. In S.Y. Masaeli & R. Sneller, (Eds.). African perspectives on global
development. Newcastle upon Tyne (UK): Cambridge Scholars.

Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development. Vol. 6. Six theories of
child development (pp. 1-60). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Blokland, L.M.E. (2016). Non-western (African) views of psychological con- structs: current context of
psychological assessment in South Africa. In R. Ferreira, (ed.). Psychological assessment – thinking innovatively in
contexts of diversity. Juta: Cape Town, South Africa.

Faltas, I. (2017). Three models of emotional intelligence. Retrieved

from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314213508_Three_Models_of_Emotional_Intelligence/download

Higgs, P. & Smith, J. (2017). Philosophy of Education today – an introduction. 2nd edition. Juta: Cape Town, South
Africa.

Millacci, T.S. 2019. The theories of emotional intelligence explained. The Theories of Emotional Intelligence
Explained (positivepsychology.com)

Nsamenang, A.B. (2007). Human ontogenesis: an indigenous African view on development and
intelligence. International Journal of Psychology, 41(4):293-297. DOI: 10.1080/00207590544000077.

Nsamenang, A.B. (2008). Culture and human development. International Journal of Psychology, 43(2):73-77. DOI:
10.1080/00207590701859093.

Nwoye, A. (2017). An Africentric theory of human personhood. Psychology in Society,

54. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2309-8708/2017/n54a4 ;

Oguejiofor, J.O. & Ezenwa-Ohaeto, N. (2015). Contemporary African philosophy, identity and the question of
African languages. Ogirisi: A New Journal of African Studies, 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/og.v11i 1.1.

Onwuanibe, R.C. (1983). A critique of revolutionary humanism: Frantz Fanon. University of Michigan: WH Green.

Tchombe, M.S. (2011). Psychosocial parameters of classroom processes. In A.B. Nsamenang & M.S. Tchombe
(eds.), Handbook of African educational theories and practices: A generative teacher education curriculum, (pp.
271–286). Human Development Resource Centre, Cameroon.

Tchombe, T.M. (2011). Theories of learning. In A.B. Nsamenang & Tchombe, T.M. Handbook of African
Educational Theories & Practices: A Generative Teacher Education Curriculum.

Zhang, Q. & Zhao, H. (2017). An analytical overview of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development in college moral
education in Mainland China. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 5: 151-160. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2017.58012

Zimba, P.R. (2011). Promoting children’s development and rights: Lessons for childcare givers and teachers in
Africa. In A.B. Nsamenang & M.S. Tchombe (eds.), Handbook of African educational theories and practices: A
generative teacher education curriculum, (pp. 139–154). Human Development Resource Centre, Cameroon.

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6.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 6.1: Overview of Learning Unit 6

From the previous units it is evident that adolescents go through many changes, such as physical, cognitive, social,
emotional, moral and spiritual changes. Some of these are positive developments but some may bring challenges
such as the demanding task to establish an identity (regarding personal[1], social[2], national[3], family[4],
career/professional[5] and cultural[6] identity). They must also make decisions about religion, moral values and
whether to conform to peer pressure. They may also have conflict with their parents and experience problems at
school. The difficulty to cope with the challenges of this stage may manifest in eating disorders, dropping out of
school and emotional disturbances such as stress and even suicide.

In this learning unit, we will discuss some of the challenges many adolescents may encounter, namely eating
disorders; underachievement at school and school dropout; teenage pregnancies and abortions, technology and
media, and psychological and emotional disturbances and how to help adolescents deal with these risk factors. We
will also look at resilience.

This unit will enable you to:

understand that adolescents have eating challenges and that some may have eating disorders
discuss the high rates of underachievement and school dropout among adolescents in South Africa and that
various factors are causing these problems.
explain the psychological disturbances that adolescents may experience.
recognise that teenage pregnancy may have problematic consequences.
know that adolescents’ use of alcohol and substances may begin as experimentation, but some may become
addicted. You will explain the reasons why they use drugs and where they may get help.
understand the influence of technology and the media that may be a concern, depending on how it is used.
interpret resilience and how the school can promote resilience.

For you to be successful regarding the physical development of the adolescent you will have to actively participate
in: all online discussions; log into myUnisa to access your reading material; complete and submit activities; and
summarise the unit for yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you prepare for the exam. It is of utmost importance that
you ask for support if concepts are unclear to you via myUnisa.

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[1] Personal identity: The individual's unique characteristics, traits, and experiences that define who they are as a
person.

[2] Social identity: The individual's identification with a particular social group, such as race, ethnicity, gender,
sexual orientation, religion, or nationality.

[3] National identity: The individual's sense of belonging to a particular country, including shared history, culture,
and values.

[4] Family identity: The individual's sense of belonging to their family and the roles and responsibilities associated
with that family unit.

[5] Professional identity: The individual's sense of self as a member of a particular profession, including the values,
norms, and behaviors associated with that profession.

[6] Cultural identity: The individual's sense of belonging to a particular cultural group, including shared beliefs,
values, traditions, and practices.

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6.2 RISKS

Risks can be defined as characteristics, traits and experiences that may increase the likelihood that individuals will
experience negative outcomes (Chainey, Burke & Haynes, 2022; Theron, 2021). Risks can be present in individuals,
but also in families and their environments (Van Breda, 2018). In other words, some risks are internal and some
external. Risks factors can also stem from one single traumatic event, multiple stressful life events, or the
accumulation of stress from various sources.

Risks that adolescents might face may be the following:

Individual Family School Community

Antisocial behaviour Discipline issues Poor academic Violent/criminal

Aggression/violence Poor attachment or low achievement neighbourhood
Intellectual bonding Low motivation Unstable community
disabilities Child victimization Negative attitude Low sense of
Developmental Neglect and abuse Bunking belonging
disabilities Regular family conflict Regular Poor community
Stressful life events Family violence absences Unsafe neighbourhood
Poor mental health Divorce Unsatisfactory Social and physical
Low self-esteem Disrupted family life school climate disorder/disorganised
Hyperactivity Inadequately neighbourhood
functioning
school
Labelled as
learning disabled
Regular school
transitions
Peer rejection
Bullying

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Thinking about your own life, what adversities or risks have you experienced? What has helped you to deal or
FeedBACK (Action/Process):

Risks can be present not only in individuals, but also in families and their environments. In other words, some
risks can refer to unique combinations of characteristics that make up an individual, whereas external risks ca
and in societal structures.

There are various factors that can contribute to your resilience, such as internal resources (such as problem so
on life) as well as external resources (such as your family, your community, your school, your culture, and you
FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

A risk factor does not result in a single stressful event, but a sequence of stressful experiences. In other words
typically occur with other risk factors that often pile up in the lives of individuals over time. Such an accumul
more harmful effects on the individual’s functioning.

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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

All human beings experience difficulties, no-one is exempt. Every life has its drama, crisis or tragedy. Howev
and harsh conditions can overcome adversity and have healthy outcomes.

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6.2.1 Eating challenges and disorders

Excessive overweight or underweight may have the risk of serious health problems and the causes of these
conditions are complex. According to UNICEF (2011) both intrinsic and extrinsic factors can be the cause of the
challenges and disorders in adolescence. It is extremely important to note that these types of disorders are
diagnosed by a psychiatrist, registered psychologists or physician who are licensed with HPCSA. Thus, such
diagnosis cannot be made by you as teacher, nor by peers or parents and neither general practitioner. Upon referral,
these licensed healthcare professionals can then determine if the eating disorder is classified as obesity, anorexia
nervosa, and bulimia nervosa.

Obesity

Obesity is a complex condition that can be caused by a range of factors, including genetics, lifestyle, environment,
and underlying medical conditions. Here are some of the most common reasons for obesity: genetics, unhealthy diet,
sedentary lifestyle, environmental factors, medical conditions, and the side-effects of certain medications.

It is therefore extremely important for you as teacher to not shame an adolescent on his/her weight by assuming
they lack physical activity and consume more calories than needed for their activity level. This is one of many
reasons why adolescents may be obese.

With that said, the clinical description for obesity is when the body mass index (BMI) is 30 or higher. BMI is weight
(in kilograms) divided by height (in meters) squared. Adolescents whose BMI is in the top 5% for their age and
gender are considered obese. Being in the top 5% means their BMI is higher than 95% of their peers (at or over the
95th percentile) (Shisana, Labadarios & Rehle 2013). Here are some BMI values that are used as guideline to
indicate the individual’s weight status: Underweight (BMI less than 18.5), Normal weight (BMI between 18.5 and
24.9), Overweight (BMI between 25 and 29.9) and Obese (BMI of 30 or higher).

Obesity is twice as common among adolescents as it was 30 years ago. Although most of the complications of
obesity occur in adulthood, obese adolescents are more likely than their peers to have high blood pressure and type 2
diabetes. Although less than one third of obese adults were obese as adolescents, most obese adolescents remain
obese in adulthood (Mukwevho 2021). The South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES-1) reported a combined overweight and obesity prevalence of 13.5% in children aged 6–14 years, which
is higher than the 10% global prevalence in schoolchildren (Otitoola, Oldewage-Theron & Egal 2020).

The factors that influence obesity among adolescents are the same as those among adults. Hormonal disorders, such
as an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism) or overactive adrenal glands, may result in obesity but are rarely
the cause. Genetics play a role, which means that some people are at greater risk of obesity than others. According to
The Heart and Stroke Foundation South Africa (in Mukwevho 2021), being overweight or obese increases your risk
for having a heart attack or stroke. It is also linked to numerous other health problems including high blood pressure,
certain cancers, diabetes, gallstones, sleep apnoea and degenerative joint disease.

Swart (in Mukwevho 2021) states: “Although under-nutrition is because of lack of food and often people think that
obesity is excessive food, some of the root causes in terms of the context of poverty and unemployment results in
choices being made that actually feed both”.

Obesity is often aggravated by emotional eating, or not eating in a disciplined way. Because of society’s stigma
against obesity, many obese adolescents have a poor self-image and may become socially isolated.

The treatment of adolescent obesity is focused on developing healthy eating and exercise habits rather than on losing
a specific amount of weight. Reducing calorie intake and burning calories are some ways to meet these goals. This
can be done by establishing a well-balanced diet of ordinary foods, by making permanent changes in eating habits,
and increasing physical activity. Behaviour modification is also possible where individual’s develop new habits and
coping mechanisms to address unhealthy behaviours such as over- and emotional reading Drugs that help reduce
weight are generally not used during adolescence because of concerns about safety. In extreme cases, bariatric
surgery is considered as last resort. It is important to note that successful treatment of obesity requires a multifaceted
approach, and a healthcare professional should be consulted to develop a personalized treatment plan.

Anorexia nervosa

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The term anorexia nervosa means nervous loss of appetite. It is distinguished by three core criteria namely (1)
persistent restriction of energy intake; (2) a great fear of becoming fat; and (3) disturbance of self-perception of body
shape and size (Burke 2019). There is a greater prevalence of anorexia nervosa among females, but it does occur
within males too. The adolescent with anorexia nervosa’s appearance may be dull, thinning hair, always seem to be
cold, skin dull and breaking out into a rash. Even if they manage to lose weight, the adolescent with anorexia
nervosa may continue to have an intense fear of gaining weight. His/her self-esteem may depend greatly upon their
weight and body shape. Their experience of their own body shape is typically unrealistic in that they invariably see
themselves as ‘fat’, even when they appear very thin to an objective observer. They also tend to have unrealistic
views about the dangers of weight fluctuations. For them, weight loss is regarded as a great achievement, while
weight gain is seen as unacceptable and a loss of self-control.

Serious medical conditions that may be life threatening can arise as a result of starvation. The person with anorexia
nervosa may suffer from organ failure, compromised vital signs and cessation of menstruation.

The adolescent with anorexic tendencies further has a strong need for control and perfectionism, a rigid thinking
style, feelings of being ineffective as well as limited social and emotional expressiveness (Burke 2019).

In addition to the physical implications and dangers of continuous weight loss, the adolescent with anorexia may
present with depression and obsessive-compulsive behaviour (Moore & Bokor, 2022). Symptoms such as low mood,
social withdrawal, increased irritability and sleep difficulties.

Bulimia nervosa

The literal translation of ‘bulimia’ is ‘ox hunger’, which means any great, ravenous hunger. The term refers to the
binging or overindulging behaviour associated with this disorder. As with anorexia nervosa, the prevalence is higher
in females.

The person with bulimia nervosa presents with (i) recurrent episodes of overeating; (ii) evading weight gain by
means of compensatory behaviours such as self-induced vomiting and/or purgative or laxative use; and (iii) self-
evaluation that overemphasises body weight and shape. In the early stages of this disorder, the lack of control may
manifest in ravenous eating. As the disorder progresses, a lack of control of behaviour, such as irresistible impulses
to binge or inability to stop the course of the binge, appear to become evident.

The adolescent with bulimia nervosa will do his/her best to conceal the behaviour, as they may feel shame about
their behaviour.

As with anorexia nervosa, this disorder may have serious medical consequences. The person with bulimia nervosa
may present with fluid and electrolyte imbalances. Gastrointestinal symptoms are common, and frequent laxative
abuse can lead to intestinal problems such as permanent colon damage or severe constipation. Tearing of the
oesophagus or the stomach and heart arrhythmias may result. Menstrual irregularity may present. With vomiting, the
dental enamel of the teeth may be eroded.

Educational implications for eating disorders

A teacher can play an important role in recognizing and supporting learners who may be struggling with eating
disorders. Here are some ways that teachers can help:

Recognize the signs: Teachers should be aware of the signs and symptoms of eating disorders, such as changes in
eating habits, weight loss or gain, and physical symptoms such as fatigue or dizziness.
Create a safe and supportive environment: Teachers can create a classroom environment that is accepting and
non-judgmental, which can encourage learners to seek help if they are struggling with an eating disorder.
Refer learners to resources: Teachers can refer learners to resources such as school counsellors, school nurses, or
outside mental health professionals who can provide support and treatment for eating disorders.
Educate learners: Teachers can educate learners about healthy eating habits and the dangers of disordered eating
behaviours. They can also discuss the importance of seeking help if they or someone they know is struggling with
an eating disorder.
Be aware of triggers: Teachers should be aware of situations or events that may trigger disordered eating
behaviours in their learners, such as sports or physical education classes, and take steps to address these triggers.

It's important to note that teachers are not trained medical professionals and should not attempt to diagnose or treat
eating disorders on their own. However, they can play an important role in supporting learners and connecting them
with the resources they need to get help.
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4/16/24, 11:29 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 6: 6.2.2 Underachievement and dropping out of school

6.2.2 Underachievement and dropping out of school

In South Africa there are high frequencies of underachievement and school dropout due
to various reasons (both intrinsic and extrinsic). “In South Africa, dropout has reached a
national crisis. Approximately 60% of first graders will ultimately drop out rather than
complete 12th Grade” (Weybright, Caldwell, Xie, Wegner & Smith 2017:1353). These
researchers’ sample came from learners in Mitchells Plain. They found that most
withdrawals from school took place at the end of Grade 9. In South Africa, children are
required by law to attend school from the age of seven until the age of 15 or the
completion of grade 9, whichever comes first. Grade 10-12 is seen as Further
Educational Training (FET). However, the South African government has recently
implemented changes to extend the compulsory education period to include grade 10.
This means that children will now be required to attend school until the age of 16 or the
completion of grade 10, whichever comes first. This change is part of the government’s
efforts to improve education outcomes and increase access to higher education and
employment opportunities.

Further, most of these learners in the study of the researcher were male and did not live
with a biological parent, had continuous academic difficulties, used tobacco, were
involved with gangs and had low levels of intrinsic motivation. The authors suggest that
dropout is a process, rather than one event, taking place over time when the learners
disengage from the school system. From their findings they suggest that there should be
prevention programmes and that Life Orientation in the present curriculum should be
improved, focusing on intrinsic motivation as a protective factor against possible dropout
of school.

There are several factors that contribute to the underachievement and dropping out of
learners from school (Inglis, 2009, Inglis & Lewis, 2013; Masitsa, 2004; adapted from
Gouws, 2019):

Socioeconomic and environmental factors

Individual learner characteristics
Challenges with language
Giftedness and talent that are not identified
Family systems that are not supportive of academic activities
Peer group systems that contribute to underachievement
Regular gang violence on school premises
Inadequate school systems
Psychological challenges and disorders
Adolescent pregnancy and early marriage
Cultural expectations regarding male initiation
Substance abuse

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Do you know learners who withdrew from school? What were their circumstances?
6.2) or as reported in the above research?

If you as a teacher were asked to develop a document with guidelines to help preven

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FeedUP (Activity/Task):

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

Some of the learners’ circumstances are not in your power to change, but where can
for example quitting habits like smoking or using other substances and being motiva
learning difficulties? Think of what you as their teacher can do to motivate learners

According to UNICEF (2018), an Early Warning System is one of the many approac
here: Improving Education Participation (unicef.org)

FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

It is important that teachers and all other school staff know and understand effective
equipped with the skills to support learning, engagement and well-being of your lea
your classroom. You need to monitor learners who are at risk of dropping out, and w
opportunities, extracurricular activities, and ensure effective and continuous commu
community need to work together to build effective partnerships and build networks

Educational implications underachievement and dropping out of

school
A teacher can play a critical role in preventing underachievement and school dropout by
identifying and addressing the underlying causes of these issues. Here are some ways
that teachers can help:

Build positive relationships: Teachers can build positive relationships with their
learners, which can help to reduce feelings of isolation and disengagement. Positive
relationships can also help learners feel more connected to school and motivated to
learn.
Identify and address learning difficulties: Teachers can identify learners who are
struggling academically and provide additional support, such as extra tutoring or
modified assignments. They can also work with the school's learning support team to
develop personalized education plans for learners with learning difficulties.
Create a positive and inclusive classroom environment: Teachers can create a
classroom environment that is inclusive and welcoming to all learners, regardless of
their backgrounds or abilities. This can help to foster a sense of belonging and reduce
the likelihood of learners feeling isolated or marginalized.
Provide academic and career guidance: Teachers can provide learners with guidance
on their academic and career paths, helping them to understand the importance of
education and how it can help them achieve their goals.
Identify and address social and emotional issues: Teachers can identify learners who
are experiencing social or emotional difficulties and provide support or refer them to
school counselors or mental health professionals.
Work with families and community partners: Teachers can work with families and
community partners to address the underlying causes of underachievement and school
dropout, such as poverty or lack of access to educational resources.

It's important to note that preventing underachievement and school dropout requires a
collaborative effort from all stakeholders, including teachers, school administrators,
families, and community partners.

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6.2.3 Psychological disturbances

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6.2.3 Psychological disturbances

Adolescents cope with life challenges with varying degrees of mastery, depending on
their resilience and the gravity of the challenges they face. Developing coping skills may
be a protective factor, but even the resilient may succumb to the challenges in an
environment with severe psycho-social stressors and adversities such as childhood
trauma, poverty, neglect, discrimination, violence, abuse (physical, emotional, sexual),
and chronic illnesses (e.g., HIV/AIDS, long COVID 19), relationship difficulties (e.g.,
divorce, death, conflict), and disability. As a result even the resilient adolescent may
develop psychological challenges. Their pain, anxiety and stress are then often expressed
through depression, suicidal ideation, substance abuse and violence.

Fear, anxiety and stress

Fear is an emotional response to real or perceived threat which plays an important role
in human survival. It may be warranted because there may be an actual threat in the
environment. Fear helps the individual to survive by assisting him/her to respond by
fight, flight or freeze. The body’s physiological response to fear is called the ‘fight-or-
flight’ reaction. While fear can be a helpful response in dangerous situations, excessive
or persistent fear can become problematic and interfere with daily life. Common fears
include fears of specific objects or situations (such as heights or spiders), social fears
(such as public speaking), and existential fears (such as death). Treatment for
problematic fears may involve cognitive-behavioural therapy, exposure therapy, or
medication, depending on the individual's needs and the severity of the fear. It is an
unfortunate fact that adolescents in South Africa are often faced with the gravest of
dangers.

Anxiety is a complex feeling that includes fear, uncertainty, excessive worrying, being
unable to cope, bodily arousal (such as nausea and dizziness) and panic. It can be normal
in stressful situations such as public speaking or taking a test. Anxiety is only an
indicator of underlying disease when feelings become excessive, all-consuming and
interfere with daily living (NHS Choices 2015). Although normal in stressful
situations, anxiety may be experienced in the absence of an immediate danger. In other
words, a person may have a panic attack, brought on by severe anxiety, and afterwards
ask: Why did I feel so anxious? If one look closely, there may have been a trigger that set
the anxiety alarm off. This means that the person was, without being aware for days or
weeks or even months, in a heightened state of worry and panic. A telephone call with
bad news or a relatively small incident may act as a trigger and result in a full-blown
panic attack.

Stress is a common occurrence and is experienced by people daily. Stress can be positive
or negative. Some people develop coping skills to manage their stress and can work in
stressful situations throughout their lives. If stress is not managed properly by time
management, self-regulation and regular exercise, it can lead to a negative effect on
quality of life, weight changes, insomnia, changes in mood and mental fatigue.
Prolonged stress can lead to physical illness and psychological disorders. According to
Burke (2019) the body goes through different stages when it experiences stress. The first
phase of stress, the fight-or-flight stage, is a fear response. “During this phase the body
releases adrenalin, the heart rate increases, and the adrenal glands release cortisol”
(Burke 2019). The second phase is the resistance phase. During this phase certain coping
actions occur, and these are aimed at returning the body to its pre-stress state. In other
words, the body wants the heart rate to lower to a normal level and wants to get rid of the
other signs of fear and anxiety such as panic and worry. If a solution is found for the
stressful situation, life proceeds as normal. If no solution is found, the third phase,
referred to as the exhaustion phase, occurs. During prolonged stress, the body succumbs
to the continuous psychological-physiological stress and an illness, such as heart failure,

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ulcers, eczema, asthma or cancer may develop. It can also lead to psychological distress,
for example chronic depression.

Educational implications on fear, anxiety and stress

Teachers can play an important role in helping learners manage and cope with fear,
anxiety, and stress. Here are some ways that teachers can support their learners:

Create a safe and supportive classroom environment: Teachers can create a classroom
environment that is safe and supportive, where learners feel comfortable expressing
their feelings and asking for help.
Teach stress-management techniques: Teachers can teach learners stress-management
techniques, such as deep breathing, mindfulness, and progressive muscle relaxation.
Encourage physical activity: Physical activity can help to reduce stress and anxiety, so
teachers can encourage learners to engage in physical activity during breaks or recess.
Offer academic and emotional support: Teachers can offer academic support to
learners who may be struggling academically and emotional support to learners who
may be dealing with personal issues or stress.
Use positive reinforcement: Teachers can use positive reinforcement to encourage
positive behaviour and academic progress, which can help to reduce anxiety and
stress.
Provide resources for support: Teachers can provide learners with resources for
additional support, such as school counsellors, mental health professionals, or
community resources.

It is important to note that managing fear, anxiety, and stress may require a collaborative
effort from all stakeholders, including teachers, school administrators, families, and
mental health professionals.

6.4.2 Teenage pregnancy and abortion

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4/16/24, 11:32 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 6: 6.2.4 Teenage pregnancy and abortion

6.2.4 Teenage pregnancy and abortion

Teenage pregnancy refers to pregnancies that occur in adolescent females, typically between the ages of 13 and 19.
Teenage pregnancies can have a significant impact on the physical, emotional, and social well-being of both the
mother and the child. The prevalence of teenage pregnancies in South Africa is a cause for concern. The causes
range from circumstances in the home to peer pressure and cultural expectations. Other factors that contribute to
teenage pregnancies include lack of access to contraception, poverty, low educational attainment, and cultural and
social norms that may stigmatize or limit discussions about sex and contraception. The consequences are
problematic for the girl and her whole family and for her education.

Pettifor, Stoner, Pike and Bekker (2018) suggest that the health of a community will lead to young women’s sexual
health. Where there is poverty and dysfunctional family norms, girls are exposed to sex inequity and violence – with
greater risk of unprotected and forced sex. However, these researchers are of the opinion that schools can protect
adolescents from risky sexual behaviour, preventing pregnancies and HIV infection. They argue that if adolescent
girls stay in school, they can be protected by a “safe space” (Pettifor et al 2018:269) where girls can support each
other and have a strong social network. They found that girls attending school also have fewer older partners and
exhibit overall safer sexual behaviour. They also suggest that in HIV prevention programmes, the interventions must
be adapted to the specific adolescent population.

Abortion refers to the termination of a pregnancy before the fetus can survive outside the womb. Abortions can be
either induced or spontaneous. Induced abortions are typically performed by a healthcare provider and can be done
through medication or surgery. Spontaneous abortions, commonly known as miscarriages, occur naturally and are
not intentional. The decision to terminate a pregnancy is a deeply personal one and can be influenced by a range of
factors including personal beliefs, values, and circumstances. Access to safe and legal abortion is an important
reproductive right for women and can play a critical role in reducing maternal morbidity and mortality.

Teenage pregnancy and abortion are complex issues that require a comprehensive approach from different
stakeholders, including healthcare providers, educators, parents, and policymakers. Effective prevention strategies
may include comprehensive sex education, access to affordable contraception, and addressing social and economic
factors that contribute to unintended pregnancies. Additionally, access to safe and legal abortion services, along with
emotional and social support, can help to ensure that women have the resources they need to make informed
decisions about their reproductive health.

ACTIVITY

What role can you as a teacher play in preventing some of these causes of teenage pregnancy an

FEEDBACK:

Teachers can play a significant role in preventing the HIV/AIDS pandemic. When thinking of w
conveying knowledge about HIV and involving peers and parents in your interventions. Educat

FEEDFORWARD

Based on existing global evidence as discussed in UNICEF (2018), the following measures
health:

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ACTIVITY

access to contraception;
comprehensive sexuality education;
interventions to modify sexual risk behaviors;
treatment and management of sexually transmitted infections;
ending female genital mutilation/cutting;
identification, health education and care for survivors of intimate partner violence and sexua
prevention of HIV transmissions
comprehensive care of HIV.

Educational implications on teenage pregnancies and abortions

Teenage pregnancies and abortions are complex and sensitive issues that require a multifaceted approach from
different stakeholders, including teachers. Here are some ways that teachers can play a role in supporting learners
around these issues:

Provide accurate and age-appropriate sex education: Teachers can provide learners with accurate and age-
appropriate sex education that includes information about contraception, sexually transmitted infections (STIs),
and pregnancy prevention. This can help to reduce the incidence of unintended pregnancies and abortions.
Create a safe and supportive environment: Teachers can create a safe and supportive environment where learners
feel comfortable discussing sensitive topics, such as teenage pregnancies and abortions. They can also ensure that
learners are not subjected to bullying or stigma based on their sexual activity or reproductive choices.
Connect learners with resources: Teachers can connect learners with resources such as school counselors,
healthcare providers, and community organizations that can provide support and information on pregnancy and
abortion.
Offer emotional support: Teachers can offer emotional support to learners who are dealing with the stress and
emotional challenges of teenage pregnancy or abortion. They can also provide a non-judgmental listening ear and
help learners connect with appropriate resources for additional support.
Respect learners' privacy and autonomy: Teachers should respect learners' privacy and autonomy regarding their
reproductive choices and not disclose any personal information without the learner's consent.

It is important to note that teachers should not provide medical advice or counseling beyond their professional scope.
If a learner needs medical advice or counseling related to teenage pregnancy or abortion, they should be referred to a
qualified healthcare provider or mental health professional.

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4/16/24, 11:32 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 6: 6.2.5 Adolescent alcohol and substance abuse

6.2.5 Adolescent alcohol and substance abuse

Some, but not all adolescents, become dependent on alcohol and/or substances after experimenting because they
were possibly searching for who they are; or because of peer pressure or several other reasons. Such addictions are
health hazards. In this section of the prescribed book, you can read more about the dangers of substance abuse,
where to get help, the physical symptoms of substance abuse and legal aspects of drug taking. It explains possible
effects of substance abuse and implications for the classroom.

Addiction is an alarming social phenomenon and a contributor to many social, health and economic problems in
South Africa. The South African Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (SACENDU) Project is an
alcohol and other drug (AOD) sentinel surveillance system operational in 9 provinces in South Africa. It monitors
trends in AOD use and associated consequences on a six-monthly basis from specialist AOD treatment
programmes. According to the 2018 SACENDU report, the following findings (summarised) about substance use in
the different provinces were made:

There was an increase in students, persons over 50s and females under 20 years coming to treatment in the
Western Cape. Those with drug related fatalities in the Western Cape had Methamphetamine and Mandrax in the
blood stream. There was an increase in the use of mephedrone, methcathinone and synthetic cannabinoids in
Western Cape while methamphetamine also remains the most common primary drug reported by patients in the
Western Cape. There is an increase in school referrals in the WC and reporting of use of use of codeine by men in
the Western Cape
There was an increase in women, over 50 years, coming to treatment in KwaZulu Natal.
A total of 12% of patients in KZN, and 4% in Gauteng reported nyaope/whoonga as either their primary or
secondary drug of use. In Gauteng, the number of patients reporting nyaope/whoonga (a mixture of cannabis and
heroin) as their primary substance of use continues to rise relative to other sites.
There was an increase in the use of mephedrone, methcathinone and synthetic cannabinoids in and
methamphetamine use in Gauteng.
Heroin use remains a problem across most sites. Mostly heroin is smoked, with a small proportion of patients
reporting injecting heroin. Use of heroin as primary and secondary drug of use in Gauteng was reported.
Cannabis is still the most common illicit drug used, especially among youth attending specialist treatment centres
throughout most regions. While there was a drop in heroin as a primary drug of use in the northern regions of
South Africa, there was an increase in persons under 20 years coming to treatment and an increase in
methcathinone (CAT) use among persons in the northern regions.
While injection drug use is normally associated with heroin, this review period saw patients from treatment
centres also reporting injection of other drugs, such as cocaine, methcathinone (CAT), methamphetamine and
over-the-counter or prescription (OTC/PRE) medicines. This remains a major concern since injection use and
sharing of needles are associated with health and social harms such as Hepatitis A and other infectious diseases,
more specifically HIV/AIDS.
The use of OTC/PRE (over-the-counter/prescription medications) such as slimming tablets, analgesics, and
benzodiazepines (e.g. diazepam and flunitrazepam) continued to be an issue across all regions of South Africa.
During this reporting period, patients across all sites reported the non-medical use of codeine, with the majority
of patients presenting at treatment centres in the Gauteng region. Methcathinone (CAT), a synthetic stimulant,
continues to show an increase in most provinces, particularly in Gauteng.

These findings confirm a wide range of substance use in South Africa. In its 2016/7 Annual Report to the Select
Committee on Social Services, the Central Drug Authority (CDA) emphasised that intense substance use occurs
from an early age, more or less eight years. The report made special mention of the adverse effect that the challenge
has on parents and educators.

Addiction comes in forms other than substance use. In addition to excessive and compulsive use of drinks (alcohol),
and substances (drugs, powders, pills), behaviours (gambling, gaming, social media or over-eating) and other
compulsive and self-destructive behaviour are also forms of addiction. Eating disorders are discussed under 5.2.1.
Compulsive Internet gaming and social media usage is discussed under section 5.2.7.

Substance use and addiction have complex effects on the user and the people around him or her. For the purposes of
this chapter, we will focus on substance addiction by the learner and/or parents and family members. Even if the
learner is not using, there are profound effects on him or her of substance abuse, for example alcohol abuse, by
family members. Children who grow up in a family where one or both parents are alcoholics or drug users, are
exposed to verbal conflict, physical assault, rage, and extreme and compulsive lifestyles of parents. They experience

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material and emotional neglect while the parent is too intoxicated to take care of them. Living in the households of
chronic addicts affects schoolwork, as well as relations with all and with self (Morrell, Bhana & Hamlall, 2012).
They may feel depressed, anxious or angry because of their addicted parents’ erratic behaviour. They feel distracted,
bored, helpless and frustrated. Not having a voice in the hostile and neglectful environment that their parents
created, the classroom may be an attractive target. Living with unpredictable behaviour at home may result in
unpredictable reactions in class, for example displaying sudden mood swings such as rage, anger, anxiety, interest,
and boredom in one day (Leaman, 2005).

Educational implications on alcohol and substance abuse

Teachers can play an important role in preventing alcohol and substance abuse among learners. Here are some ways
that teachers can help:

Educate learners about the dangers of substance abuse: Teachers can provide information to learners about the
harmful effects of alcohol and drug abuse, including physical, emotional, and social consequences.
Create a supportive and safe environment: Teachers can create a classroom environment that is supportive and
safe, where learners feel comfortable discussing their concerns or issues related to substance abuse.
Identify learners who may be at risk: Teachers can identify learners who may be at risk of substance abuse and
provide support and resources to help them avoid or address the issue.
Encourage healthy behaviours: Teachers can encourage learners to engage in healthy behaviours, such as exercise
and stress-management techniques, as an alternative to using drugs or alcohol.
Provide resources for support: Teachers can provide learners with resources for additional support, such as school
counsellors, mental health professionals, or community resources.
Use positive reinforcement: Teachers can use positive reinforcement to encourage positive behaviour and
academic progress, which can help to reduce the risk of substance abuse.

It is important to note that teachers should not diagnose or treat substance abuse themselves. If a student needs
medical or professional support related to substance abuse, they should be referred to a qualified healthcare provider
or mental health professional. Teachers can play an important role in prevention, early intervention, and providing
support and resources for learners who may be struggling with alcohol and substance abuse issues.

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4/16/24, 11:33 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 6: 6.2.6 Technology and media

6.2.6 Technology and media

Technology and the media take up a considerable part of adolescents’ time every day. In
this unit the adolescents’ use of technology, the influences and related problems are
discussed, as well as the role that parents and teachers play in adolescents’ use of
technology and the media.

Compulsive Internet gaming and social media usage: There is a high incidence of
Internet and social media usage by adolescents worldwide and in South Africa in
particular (Griffiths & Pontes, 2014). Internet involvement includes, among other things,
social networking and playing games on the Internet. Internet gaming involves
competition between groups of players (often in different global regions, so that duration
of play necessitates time-zone independence). Players participate in complex structured
activities that include a significant aspect of social interactions during play. The biggest
part of this behaviour will be taking place at home and the teacher will only see the
effects in class (Landsberg, Kruger & Swart 2018). The American Psychological
Association (DSM-5) explains as follows (APA, 2013:796) states:

Internet gaming disorder is a pattern of excessive and prolonged Internet gaming that
results in a cluster of cognitive and behavioural symptoms, including progressive loss of
control over gaming, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms, analogous to the symptoms of
substance use disorders. As with substance-related disorders, individuals with Internet
gaming disorder will continue to sit at a computer and engage in gaming activities while
neglecting other activities. Players typically devote 8-10 hours or more per day to this
activity and at least 30 hours per week. If they are prevented from using a computer and
from returning to the game, they become agitated and angry. They often go for long
periods without food or sleep. Normal obligations, such as school or work, or family
obligations are neglected.

Compulsive gaming or social media use may be mild, moderate, or severe depending on
the degree of disruption of normal activities. The learner who spends a large amount of
time on the Internet will present with loss of interest in schoolwork, and extreme fatigue.
The learner may present with declining grades, academic performance that is lower than
usual, and even general academic failure. Health, personal, family, or vocational pursuits
may be neglected due to the compulsive gaming.

Excessive Internet gaming or social media use may be associated with an initial need to
withdraw from reality and emotional problems (Landsberg et al, 2018). The behaviour
may also commence purely because all peers do it and it creates interest. When
individuals are asked, the major reasons given for using the computer are more likely to
be avoiding boredom rather than communicating or searching for information.

The use of technology can trigger the release of dopamine in the brain due to the way it
stimulates the reward pathways. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is associated with
pleasure and reward. When we engage in activities that are pleasurable or rewarding,
such as eating, exercising, or socializing, dopamine is released in the brain. Technology,
particularly social media and gaming, can also stimulate the reward pathways in the
brain, leading to the release of dopamine. For example, when we receive likes,
comments, or shares on social media, it can create a feeling of validation and
satisfaction, which triggers the release of dopamine. Similarly, in gaming, the
achievement of goals or the completion of levels can also trigger the release of
dopamine. Over time, repeated use of technology that triggers dopamine release can lead
to addiction, as the brain becomes conditioned to seek out and crave that pleasurable
feeling. This can lead to problematic technology use and interfere with other areas of life,
such as school, work, or relationships.One of the results of pervasive gaming is online
violence, which cuts across physical environments such as school, home and community
and is made possible by social media and messaging platforms such as Facebook,
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YouTube, Instagram and Whatsapp (Landsberg et al., 2018). Online or cyber violence
depends on access to devices such as smartphones, laptops or tablet computers through
which the Internet or social media is accessed. Acts such as sexual harassment, verbal
cruelty, intimidation, threats, and bullying, as well as linguistic violence such as name
calling take place both on online platforms and in physical spaces such as the classroom
and school premises, or school buses (Burton & Leoschut, 2013). The perpetrator of this
kind of behaviour is involved in othering the abused through the use of hate speech, in a
concerted effort to make the recipient of this abuse recognisable as a marginalised
person. Othering refers to defining and securing one’s own positive identity through the
stigmatisation of an ‘other’ through social markers of social differentiation, such as
sexuality, gender, ethnicity, location, ability and socio-economic class. The perpetrator of
this kind of violence attempts to shore up his or her own identity as normative while
casting the abused as less valued.

There is a strong relationship between experiences of cyber-bullying and school

behaviour problems, such as skipping school and carrying a weapon to school. The
learner’s marks may drop to a lower level than his or her usual standard. The learner may
present with a sudden decline in resilience and psycho-social wellbeing which may
present as an inability to handle stress, depression, low self-esteem and anxiety. In
addition to low educational performance and psychological decline, the learner who is
the victim of cyber-bullying may present with poor and/or negative peer and adult
relationships, and social withdrawal (Burton & Leoschut, 2013).

In cyber violence, such as other violence, it is often difficult to discern the perpetrator
from the victim. The online environment may provide young people who feel
disempowered, or who lack control over their offline life, with a sense of power and
control that they would otherwise not have. This power may enable them to seek revenge
or ‘get even’ with offline bullies or perpetrators of violence in a way they would
otherwise not be able to (Burton & Leoschut, 2013). Parents often model inappropriate
use of electronic media by cyber-chatting at restaurants, in churches or during family
time.

Educational implications on technology and media

A teacher's role with reference to technology and media is to help learners develop
responsible and ethical habits around technology use, and to promote digital literacy and
media literacy. Here are some specific ways in which a teacher can fulfil this role:

Teach digital citizenship: A teacher can help learners understand the importance of
responsible technology use and online behaviour. This can include topics such as
cyberbullying, online privacy, and responsible social media use.
Promote media literacy: A teacher can help learners develop critical thinking skills
around media messages, and to understand the ways in which media can influence our
attitudes and behaviours.
Model responsible technology use: A teacher can model healthy and responsible
technology use themselves and demonstrate how technology can be used as a tool for
learning and productivity.
Educate learners on the risks and consequences of technology and media abuse: A
teacher can help learners understand the potential negative consequences of excessive
or inappropriate use of technology and media, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and
compromised online safety and security.
Monitor learners' technology and media use: A teacher can monitor learners'
technology and media use in the classroom, and set appropriate limits and boundaries
as needed.
Encourage healthy habits around technology use: A teacher can encourage learners to
take breaks from technology, engage in physical activity, and interact with others in
person, rather than relying solely on online interactions.
Provide resources and support for learners who may be struggling with technology
and media addiction: A teacher can connect learners with resources such as
counselling services or support groups, and provide support and guidance as needed.

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Model healthy and responsible technology use: A teacher can model responsible and
healthy technology use themselves and demonstrate how technology can be used in
productive and positive ways.

By fulfilling this role, a teacher can help learners become responsible and ethical users of
technology and media and equip them with the skills they need to thrive in the digital
age. A teacher can help learners avoid the negative consequences of technology and
media abuse, and promote healthy and responsible habits around technology use.

6.3 RESILIENCE

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6.3 RESILIENCE

When adolescents are exposed to adversity and achieve healthy outcomes, they are
considered to be resilient (Ungar, 2019). Those who are able to overcome adversity or
distress and move on and establish fruitful and productive lives are seen as resilient
(Masten, 2018). Resilience refers to positive development in children and youth (and
even adults) when faced with adversity. Resilience can only occur in the presence of
difficult life circumstances and is manifested when a young person ‘does well’ (Ungar et
al., 2021) despite these difficulties. The focus is more on strengths than deficits.
Resilience refers to an individual’s ability to not just deal with but to conquer unfortunate
drawbacks, or significant threats and maintain healthy adjustments.

Resilience is not a fixed concept or a single outcome, but a dynamic process (Van Breda,
2018). It is a dynamic, positive developmental process between individuals, their
environment, culture, and psychological and physiological processes (Masten, 2018).
Resilience is therefore considered as changeable in nature, which means that individuals
might be resilient in certain situations, but not resilient in others, depending on the
situation. For example, a child might have strong academic skills but have trouble with
interpersonal skills.

In line with the understanding of resilience as a process, it has come to be defined as a

“process of navigation and negotiation” (Ungar et al., 2008a). Resilience involves the
individual as well as the individual’s environment. It does not involve the one or the
other, but both simultaneously. The involvement of the individual’s environment is
nowhere explained in a more pronounced way than the thought that personal resilience is
enhanced by the experience that one’s pain and challenges are carried by the community
(Ngozi & Odigwe 2018).

As a lifelong learner, refer to the following article by Professor L. Theron for more infor

Theron, L.C. (2016). The everyday ways that school ecologies facilitate resilience: imp

6.4 CONCLUSION

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6.4 CONCLUSION

Adolescents face many challenges in our modern society. However, some do rise above these challenges. It is
important to remember that teachers play a significant role in guiding learners to strive to become adults who can
contribute to their community. The next unit is important to teachers, as it covers the topic of motivation and
teaching and learning.

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6.5 REFERENCES

Burke A. (2019). Understanding psychopathology: South African perspectives.

Goodwood: Oxford University Press.

Burton, P. & Leoschut, L. (2013). “School Violence in South Africa.” Centre for Justice
and Crime Prevention, 1(12): 1–129.

Chainey, C., Burke, K. & Haynes, M. (2022). Positive development and parenting in the
face of adversity: a survey of emerging adults. Adversity and Resilience
Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-022-00082-w

Griffiths, M.D. & Pontes, H.M. (2014). Internet addiction disorder and internet gaming
disorder are not the same. Addiction Research and Therapy,
5(4). http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2155-6105.1000e124

Inglis, D. (2009). Exploring the dropout phenomenon in a secondary school situated in a

high-risk community. Thesis. University of Stellenbosch.

Inglis, D. & Lewis, A. (2013). Adolescents at risk of dropping out in a high-risk

community secondary school. Child Abuse Research in South Africa, 14(1).

Leaman, L. (2005). Managing very challenging behaviour. Continuum

Landsberg, E., Kruger, D. & Swart, E. (2018). Addressing barriers to learning: A South
African perspective (4th ed). Hatfield: Van Schaik.

Masten, A.S. (2018). Resilience theory and research on children and families. Past,
present, and promise. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 10(1): 12-31.

Moore, C.A. & Bokor, B.R. (2022). Anorexia Nervosa. Anorexia Nervosa - StatPearls -
NCBI Bookshelf (nih.gov)

Morrell, R., Bhana, D., Hamlall, V. (2012). ‘I’m not scared of the teacher — I can hold
him — I can hold him with my bare hands’: Schoolboys, Male Teachers and Physical
Violence at a Durban Secondary School in South Africa. In S. Saltmarsh, K.H. Robinson,
& C. Davies. (eds). Rethinking School Violence. Palgrave Macmillan,
London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137015211_7

Mukwevho, N. (2021). Childhood obesity to rise rapidly in the coming years. Health-e
News. 19 March 2021. Retrieved from: https://health-e.org.za/2021/03/19/understanding-
the-link-between-poverty-inequality-and-rising-childhood-obesity/

Ngozi, E.O. & Odigwe, G.K. (2018). Healing Technique and Rituals as an Approach to
Counseling in the African Cultural Contexts. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies,
2(8): 15-26.

NHS Choices. 2015. “What is a Panic Attack?” Available

at: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/stress-anxiety-depression/pages/understanding-panic-
attacks.aspx. Accessed on 12 June 2022.

Otitoola, O., Oldewage-Theron, W. & Egal, A. (2020). Prevalence of overweight and

obesity among selected schoolchildren and adolescents in Cofimvaba, South Africa. 97–
102. https://doi.org/10.1080/16070658.2020.1733305

Shisana, O., Labadarios, D., Rehle, T., et al. (2013). South African national health and
examination survey (NHANES-1). Cape Town: HSRC Press. Accessed 12 June

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4/16/24, 11:35 PM PED3701-24-Y: LEARNING UNIT 6: 6.5 REFERENCES
2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/16070658.2020.1733305

Pettifor, A., Stoner, M., Pike, C. & Bekker, L. (2018). Adolescent lives matter:
preventing HIV in adolescents. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, 13(3):1.

South African Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (SACENDU) – Phase

42. 2018. Monitoring alcohol, tobacco and other drug use: Treatment admissions in
South Africa. March 2018. https://www.samrc.ac.za/sites/default/files/attachments/2018-
05-09/SACENDUFullReportPhase42.pdf Accessed on 12 June 2022.

Theron, L.C. (2016). The everyday ways that school ecologies facilitate resilience:
implications for school psychologists. School Psychology International, 37(2): 87-103.

Theron, L. (2021). Learning about systemic resilience from studies of student resilience.
(2021). In M. Ungar (ed.), Multisystemic Resilience. (pp. 233 – 252). Oxford University
Press. DOI: 10.1093/ oso/ 9780190095888.003.0014

Theron, L. (2020). Adolescent versus adult explanations of resilience enablers: A South

African study. Youth & Society, 52(1): 78-98.

Ungar, M., Liebenberg, L., Boothroyd, R. & Kwong, W. (2008). The study of youth
resilience across cultures:lessons from a pilot study of measurement
development. Research in Human Development, 5(3): 166-180.

Ungar, M. (2019). Designing resilience research: using multiple methods to investigate

risk exposure, promotive and protective processes, and contextually relevant outcomes
for children and youth. Child Abuse Negl, 96:104098. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104098

Ungar, M., Theron, L., Murphy, K. & Jerreries,P. (2021). Researching multisystemic
resilience: a sample methodology. Front. Psychol. 11:607994. doi:
10.3389/fpsyg.2020.607994

UNICEF. (2011). Early and late adolescence. Retrieved from https://uni.cf/3rErj5j

UNICEF. (2018). Adolescent Health: The missing population in universal health

coverage. file (unicef.org)

UNICEF. (2018). Early Warning Systems for students at risk of dropping out: Policy and
practice pointers for enrolling all children and adolescents in school and preventing
dropout. Improving Education Participation (unicef.org)

Van Breda, A.D. (2018). A critical review of resilience theory and its relevance for social
work. Social Work, 54(1): 1 – 18.

Weybright, E.H., Caldwell, L.L., Xie, H.J., Wegner, L. & Smith, E.A. (2017). Predicting
secondary school dropout among South African adolescents: a survival analysis. South
African Journal of Education, 37(2): 1-11.

END OF LEARNING UNIT 6

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MOTIVATION, TEACHING AND LEARNING

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 7.1: Overview of Learning Unit 7

In the previous learning units, you have learnt about the physical, cognitive, social, emotional, moral and
spiritual development of the adolescent. You have also come across the developmental challenges they face
during adolescence. In this unit we will discuss aspects such as motivation and we will find out why some
adolescents want to make a success of their lives; why they want to learn in school, be responsible and do their
best to be able to provide for themselves and their families one day; and what teachers can do to motivate
learners to achieve academically and to be conscientious.

We will also focus on learning – how people learn and theories explaining how learning takes place.
Furthermore, there are individual differences with regard to how people learn and we will make you aware of
different learning styles.

This unit will enable you to

understand that motivation is a complex concept and that one can be motivated by internal or external
influences.
know how to promote a culture of teaching and learning that cultivates motivation.
understand how to help teachers to realise that education cannot only rely or remain using traditional
teaching methods.
have an overview of different learning theories and to realise that learners have different ways of learning.

You will have to actively participate in: all online discussions; logging into myUnisa to access your reading
material; complete and submit activities; and summarise the unit for yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you
prepare for the exam. It is of utmost importance that you ask for support if concepts are unclear to you via
myUnisa.

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7.2 MOTIVATION

According to Graham (2020) ‘motivation’ is the study of why individuals behave as they do: what gets their
behaviour started and what directs, energises, sustains, and eventually terminates action. Looking at this definition, it
is easy to recognise the vital role teachers and education plays in fostering and sustaining motivation in learners.
They can create a supportive learning environment, provide meaningful and challenging tasks, offer opportunities
for autonomy and self-direction, establish clear expectations and goals, offer feedback and recognition, and promote
a sense of relevance and value in learning.

Teachers are confronted with finding the most effective ways of supporting learners to develop their learning
potential, and to find ways of fostering their motivation to want to learn and achieve. Not all learners are equally
motivated to expend or apply their time, abilities and efforts to engage with schoolwork. Therefor it is imperative for
teachers to understand how they can play a role in influencing learners’ motivation positively. This is an important
skill that teachers need to develop.

7.2.1 Maslow’s self-actualisation theory

One of the most influential theorists regarding motivation is the American psychologist Abraham Harold Maslow.
Maslow developed a theory of psychological health based on fulfilling human needs in priority (hierarchy) which is
concluded in self-actualisation. Maslow proposed that individuals have a set of hierarchical needs that must be
satisfied in a specific order, starting with basic physiological needs (such as food, water, and shelter) and progressing
to higher-level needs such as safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. When a human being
ascends or climbs the levels of the hierarchy, having fulfilled the lower-order needs, such a person may eventually
achieve personal growth, self-actualisation, or self-fulfilment.

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Figure 7.2: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

"Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs". Archived from the original on September 7, 2011. Retrieved September 18, 2011.

Maslow (1968, 1970) proposed that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take priority
or preference over others. He emphasized that some needs are more basic and more powerful than others and that
one needs to fulfil the basic needs first before fulfilling others. The following numbers represents the level on how
needs are ranked.

1. Physiological needs: air, food, water shelter, clothing, sleep

2. Safety and security needs: health, employment, property, family, stability

3. Love and belongingness needs: friendship, family, intimacy, connections

4. Self-esteem needs: confidence, achievements, respect for others, connections, need for individuality

5. Self-actualisation: morality, creativity, spontaneity, acceptance, experience, purpose, meaning, and inner potential

These needs can be grouped into three categories namely, physiological (basic) needs, psychological needs and self-
fulfilment needs.

Physiological needs = physiological + safety:

Satisfying the physiological needs is seen as motivated behaviour at its lowest level. Satisfying these basic needs of
a learner is a prerequisite for motivation to learning. For example, if a learner is hungry, the learner will not be
motivated to learn.

Psychological needs = love & belonging + self-esteem:

The basic needs (e.g., protection and safety) and the social needs (e.g., love and belonging) of the learner have an
influence on their self-fulfilment needs (e.g. academic achievement). Looking at the developmental profile of the
adolescent, this learner is mainly characterized by the need for love, acceptance and belonging. Failure to meet the
adolescents’ need for safety and social needs may result in deviant behaviour. The need for appreciation and self-
esteem is central to adolescent development. This need includes two groups, one of which is centred on respect and
self-esteem, and the other one around respect and approval.

Self-fulfilment needs = self-actualisation:

Self-fulfilment needs encompass the desire for individuals to reach their fullest potential, to become all that they are
capable of becoming, and to achieve a sense of personal satisfaction and fulfilment in their lives. Adolescents
particularly display the need to achieve and to experience independence and freedom and answer the question “who
am I”? The need for self-actualisation is the highest need in Maslow’s pyramid.

7.2.2 Motivation and attribution theory

By studying the observed causes of achievement success and failure, Bernard Weiner (1986; 2018) introduced the
study of attribution theory to motivation and educational psychology. Attribution theory focus on understanding why
an event or behaviour occurred, to understand the cause of other people’s behaviour (Weiner, 2018). In other words,
the attribution theory aims to explain why people generally strive to make sense of the world around them by
attributing causes to behaviours or events. They tend to make attributions based on three dimensions, namely:

locus of control
stability
controllability

Locus of control:

This dimension refers to whether the cause of a behaviour or event is perceived as internal (within the individual) or
external (outside of the individual). For example, an individual may attribute their success in a job interview to their
own skills and abilities (internal locus of control) or to external factors such as luck or the interviewer’s mood
(external locus of control).

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Figure 7.3: Dimensions of Attribution theory

Stability:

This dimension refers to whether the cause of behaviour or event is seen as stable or unstable over a period of time.
For example, if an individual attributes their failure in an exam to their lack of intelligence (stable cause), they may
believe that they will continue to perform poorly in future exams. On the other hand, if they attribute their failure to
a lack of preparation (unstable cause), they may believe that they can improve their performance by studying more
in the future.

Controllability:

This dimension involves the perception of whether the cause of a behaviour or event is controllable or
uncontrollable. For example, if someone attributes their weight gain to their genetic predisposition (uncontrollable
cause), they may feel less responsible for their weight gain, and less likely to engage in efforts to lose it. Conversely,
if they attribute their weight gain to their unhealthy eating habits (controllable cause), they may feel more motivated
to change their diet and exercise habits. Gouws, 2019; Slavin, 2012

7.2.3 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to activities that people to “for their own sake”, or for their own interest and enjoyment
(Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsically motivated people want to perform because they would like to and because they
find the task at hand interesting and informative and derive a sense of self-actualisation from it. Interests and
intrinsic motivation are closely linked. A person who is interested in a particular task will also be motivated to
undertake the task and carry it out without any encouragement or pressure from others (Gouws, 2019).

Extrinsic motivation on the other hand refers to sources of motivation that come from outside oneself, from external
factors. People who are extrinsically motivated take action because of one of the following (Kolesnik, 1978;
Santrok, 2013; Gouws, 2019):

Something or someone other than themselves has prompted them to do something.

Someone other than themselves will reward them.
They want to impress or satisfy someone other than themselves.
They will be punished if they don’t take action.

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Educational implications for motivating learners in your classroom:

As a teacher you play a crucial role in the motivation of your learners. Below we discuss some of the ways in which
you can contribute to foster their motivation:

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION:

Autonomy and choice: Teachers can provide learners with opportunities to make choices and have some control
over their learning. This can include selecting topics for projects or offering different approaches to assignments.
Promoting curiosity and interest: Teachers can create an engaging and stimulating learning environment that
encourages curiosity and exploration. They can use varied instructional methods, real-world examples, and
hands-on activities to spark learners' interest in the subject matter.
Providing meaningful feedback: Constructive feedback that focuses on effort, improvement, and mastery rather
than simply grades or scores can help learners develop a sense of competence and intrinsic motivation. Teachers
can offer specific feedback that highlights strengths and areas for growth.
Encouraging intrinsic goals: Teachers can emphasize the value of learning for personal growth, mastery, and self-
improvement rather than solely focusing on external rewards like grades or prizes. By highlighting the inherent
value of learning, teachers can inspire learners to develop a genuine love for the subject.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION:

Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity to obtain external rewards or avoid punishments. While it is not
as desirable as intrinsic motivation, it can still be effectively used by teachers to support learners learning and
achievement. Here are some strategies for promoting extrinsic motivation:

Clear expectations and rewards: Teachers can establish clear expectations for learner performance and
communicate the rewards or recognition associated with meeting those expectations. This can include
certificates, verbal praise, class privileges, or other forms of recognition.
Goal setting and progress tracking: By involving learners in setting specific, attainable goals and tracking their
progress, teachers can help create a sense of achievement and motivation. Teachers can provide regular feedback
on goal attainment and celebrate milestones reached.
Cooperative and competitive activities: Teachers can design learning experiences that incorporate cooperative
and competitive elements. Cooperative activities encourage learners to work together, fostering a sense of
teamwork and shared accomplishment. Competitive activities, when used appropriately, can spur students to
strive for success and engage actively in their learning.
Celebrating successes: Recognizing and celebrating learners' achievements, both big and small, can be a powerful
motivator. Teachers can acknowledge individual and collective accomplishments, which helps reinforce positive
behaviors and encourages learners to continue their efforts.

By combining these approaches thoughtfully, teachers can create an environment that fosters motivation,
engagement, and a love for learning in their learners. Motivation plays an important role in determining the level of
engagement, effort, and persistence that leaners exhibit in their learning.

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7.3 ADOLESCENT TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teachers must guide learners in their acquisition of knowledge, skills and values and
must also facilitate the application of what they have learnt to everyday life and to
achieve their goals in life. This is a challenging task because of everyone’s uniqueness
and the diversity of learners from different socio-economic backgrounds and with
different holistic profiles (e.g., cognitive abilities, spiritual, cultural etc.).

7.3.1 What is teaching, learning and cognition?

Teaching and learning form a single and integrated concept. The value of teaching can
therefore be found in the type of learning it encourages and the behaviour changes that
stems from this learning. There is no single way to learn. Learning is a complex and
ongoing process throughout a person’s life. Learning involves a process of change from
not knowing to knowing, because of experience and practice. Human achievement is
driven by learning, which has made learning a core topic of focus throughout the history
of psychology as a science (Young & Wasserman, 2005:1).

Looking to cognition as ability to learn, we can safely assume that cognition is concerned
with the process of “getting to know”, but it also entails awareness, judgement and the
product of knowing (Davis, 2013:1). It thus has to do with thinking (or mental activities
such as reasoning, perceiving, attending and remembering. Cognition and learning are
inter-linked; the one goes with the other. New experiences lead to new awareness and
concepts. We therefore become aware of new information; we learn it and it then
becomes part of our body of knowledge (Davis, 2013:1).

Figure 7.4: Cognition and learning interaction

The brain is constantly trying to make sense of the world around us. We are often not
even aware of the way our brains process information. Learning involves aspects such as
attention, comprehension, memory, problem solving and decision-making. You need to
remember that communication and language are important in the cognitive learning
process. According to Weiten, Hammer and Dunn (2018:229) learning is the process
involved in observable behaviour changes. For example, a teacher explains a
mathematics concept to learners, and notes that they struggle to grasp the concept and
apply their knowledge. She changed her teaching method and learners then understood
the concept and were able to apply their knowledge. In our example it is clear that both
the learners and the teacher have learnt (Weiten et al., 2018).

Education in formal environments is influenced by numerous factors, some of which are

unique or intrinsic to the learner while others are extrinsic or in the environment of the
learner, influencing their learning acquisition and experiences. Intrinsic and extrinsic
factors can exert a mutual influence on each other. In a diverse classroom environment,
teachers need to take these factors into consideration to unlock learning opportunities for
all their learners. In doing so, teachers should have knowledge of teaching and learning,
cognitive development and the theories that inform learning (Nel & Nel, 2016:35–36).
This is the reason why we provide additional information on theories that can guide and

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support teachers to use a variety of teaching methods – to be able to guide a diversity of
learners.

If you download the following open education resource from or click on the hyperlink in
the title, you will find a wealth of information to supplement your knowledge of learning
theories:

https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=education-textb

Zhou, M. & Brown, D. 2015. Educational Learning Theories. Education Open Textbo

Save the PDF as “Zhou_Brown_Ed learning theories” for future reference.

7.3.2 Theories about learning

To date, there is no single, unified theory of learning but a number of theories on

different aspects of learning, each of which should be taken into account in trying to
understand learning (Young & Wasserman, 2005:12). These theories are specifically
relevant for teachers – to use when planning teaching and learning (Eryaman & Genc,
2010:2). You should also note that theories are not necessarily uncontested truths.
Existing theories are sometimes amended and new theories challenge or critique earlier
theories – with varying degrees of success. Some theories withstand the test of time and
others do not. Although there are many different approaches to learning, the following
paradigms[1] are seen as the foundations for the different types of learning theories
which can be sorted as: behaviourism, cognitivism, (socio)constructivist
and connectivism.

Behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism (including social constructivism), and

connectivism are all theories and frameworks that attempt to understand and explain how
people learn and acquire knowledge. While they have distinct perspectives and
approaches, there are some commonalities among them, for instance:

1. Focus on Learning: All these theories are concerned with the process of learning
and how individuals acquire new knowledge or skills.
2. Influence of Environment: These theories acknowledge the significance of the
learning environment in shaping individuals' learning experiences.
3. Psychological Perspective: They are grounded in psychology and seek to explain
learning and behaviour from a psychological standpoint.
4. Developmental Aspect: They take into account the learners' developmental stage
and cognitive abilities.

Figure 7.5 gives a summary of the four types of learning theories.

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Figure 7.5: Four types of paradigms of education underlying all learning theories

Herewith a more elaborative discussion on each of the paradigms of education and

possible learning theories that stem from their underlying assumptions and perspectives
on learning.

7.3.2.1 Behaviourism

The basic proposition of behaviourism is that behaviour is a reaction (or a response) to

something in the environment (a stimulus). According to Louw, Louw and Kail (2014),
behaviour is therefore learnt from stimuli in the environment and the contribution of the
behaviourist theory is that it made us aware of the importance of environmental
influences (learners’ background, peers, teachers and the school atmosphere).

The learning theories typically associated with this paradigm are:

1. The first behaviourist, Watson, was influenced by a Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov,
who did the well-known experiment with dogs to illustrate classical conditioning.
Pavlov rang a bell every time he offered food to the dogs. The dogs salivated
when they saw or tasted the food and heard the bell. Later Pavlov only rang the
bell, which caused the dogs to salivate. This type of learning, where an initially
neutral stimulus (ringing of the bell) is combined with a stimulus (food), and it
stimulates a specific response (saliva), is called classical conditioning – or in
easier terms, learning through association. Watson claimed that children develop
only because of their environment and not so much because of heredity (Louw et
al., 2014).
2. Then came Skinner who suggested a different kind of learning. He
introduced operant conditioning: children learn by responses they get from the
environment, for example, by getting some kind of reward or punishment. For
instance, if a learner, Simon, does his homework, he is praised by the teacher (he
is rewarded). This will reinforce his behaviour and he will keep on doing his
homework. However, if Thabo keeps on throwing paper balls at the girls, he is
punished by the teacher who keeps him in class after school and he cannot attend
soccer. This punishment may keep him from repeating his naughty behaviour
(Louw et al., 2014). This type of learning is also called “learning through the
consequences of your behaviour”.
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3. Following this, Bandura (whom you know by this time) presented his social
learning theory, which he later called the social-cognitive theory because he also
acknowledged the role of cognition. He believed that cognition plays a major role
in the choice of behaviour. The choice of behaviour is influenced by personal,
behavioural and environmental needs. Bandura suggested that children simply
learn behaviour by observing others (models) and imitate the behaviour after
seeing the consequences of the model’s behaviour (this is called observational
learning). Bandura also introduced the concept of self-efficacy which plays a role
when children decide whom to imitate (Louw et al., 2014). Models can be positive
(being rewarded for doing the right thing) or negative (doing the wrong thing and
suffering the consequences). Negative models are less likely to motivate a change
in behaviour. External reinforcement (rewards) and intrinsic reinforcement
(“feeling good” after performing the behaviour) influence learning. Observational
learning and modelling include the following components:

Table 7.1: Components of observational learning

Focus You must pay attention to the model to learn something new. An int
model with whom you identify and who fits into your local context
your attention more fully and you will learn.

Remember You remember new information about what the model did and said
(reflect) about it later.

Repeat After watching and remembering the model’s behaviour, you try to
yourself. Repeating the behaviour may lead to lifelong change.

Motivation You must be motivated to repeat the behaviour. If you repeat the be
you get positive results, you will keep doing it. If it leads to negativ
(punishment or failure), you will stop the behaviour.

It is evident that we learn intentionally and unintentionally from the example set to us by
other people in our life world. A teacher who is a good role model can therefore have an
enormous influence on learners and can definitely help to create an atmosphere of
tolerance and optimism in our country. By setting an example of integrity and
productivity, and showing that you intend to succeed, and that you intend to help others
to succeed, you will be making an enormous contribution.

7.3.2.2 Cognitivism

The basic proposition of cognitivism, is that mental processes, such as perception,

attention, memory, and problem-solving, can be studied scientifically and understood as
information processing activities within the mind. Cognitivism focuses on the idea that
human cognition involves internal mental representations and processes that can be
analyzed and studied using various methods, including experimentation and computer
modeling. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying structures and
mechanisms that enable cognitive processes, with the belief that these processes can be
explained using principles from fields like psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, and
artificial intelligence.

The learning theories typically associated with this paradigm are:

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1. Piaget is a well-known cognitive theorist, describing how cognitive development
takes place until adolescence. You learnt about this theory in learning unit
2 Piaget’s concepts, referring to the ways to respond to new information, namely
assimilation and accommodation, are particularly important aspects for teachers to
understand. Many authors refer to the use of learners’ existing knowledge (when
assimilation takes place) and teaching of new information – when learners must
process new information (accommodation). Adolescents can develop to the stage
of formal operations, where they are able to think abstractly, logically and
idealistically about possibilities (Hardman, 2016:220).
2. Miller developed the Information Processing Theory, where he views learning as a
process of information acquisition, storage, and retrieval. It emphasizes the mental
processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information, including
attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving.

Please note: Vygotsky’s theory is also a cognitive theory that you studied in learning unit
2., however, most authors (e.g. Louw et al., 2016:28) consider his theory to be close to
socio-constructivism because of its contextual and connectional nature.

7.3.2.3 Constructivism

The basic proposition of constructivism, is that knowledge and understanding are

actively constructed by individuals based on their prior experiences, interactions with the
environment, and social interactions. It suggests that people actively create their own
knowledge and meaning rather than passively receiving it from the outside world.
Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner's active engagement, reflection,
and interpretation in the learning process. It also recognizes the influence of social and
cultural factors in shaping an individual's construction of knowledge. One of the main
characteristics of constructivism is that it differs from the idea that learners are “empty
vessels” that have to be filled up with knowledge (also called the “talk-and-chalk”
teaching) (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014:104). According to the constructivist
approach new knowledge is not passively taken in but it is “actively and continuously
constructed and reconstructed as the individual progresses to higher levels of
understanding” (Donald et al., 2014:104). The approach is based on the principle that the
brain is not an inactive organ but is continuously learning. Furthermore, constructivism
differs from the idea that there is one truth that is unchanging (the positivist approach),
because what is true in one context may not be correct in another. A central concept in
constructivism is that people are actively and continuously constructing the information
or stimuli they receive from their environment.

The learning theories typically associated with this paradigm are:

They compare new information with remaining knowledge structures (schemata).

Schulze, Snowman and McCown (2016) explain that existing structures are increased
(assimilation) and new structures of knowledge are formed (accommodation).
Knowledge is constructed in social contexts through social interaction (think of
Vygotsky’s theory). Very often the constructivist view of learning proposes active
learning or guided discovery. Another concept in constructivism is metacognition –
people can be aware of their own thinking and can evaluate their own thoughts and
maybe improve strategies to engage with new information. In addition, constructivism
emphasises:

1. When referring to social constructivism, it reminds us of Vygotsky’s theory. As

Schulze et al (2016) pointed out, Vygotsky proposed assisted learning, where
teachers or more informed learners can assist learners (cooperative and
collaborative learning). Also, an individual’s ability to “represent the world in the
mind” by using the “tools” of language, mathematics or musical notation – they
use the abstract symbols of letters, numbers and music notes to symbolise the real
world, which is unique to humans (Donald et al., 2014:107–108). Davis’ (2013)
view is that adolescents learn successfully when they are in contact with others
and when they take part in discussions in a group. This is even more so if the
discussions are applicable to what happens outside school. The connection with
peers – talking to them, sharing experiences with them – has social value, to feel
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part of the group, but it also has cognitive results because peers can sometimes
make concepts clearer to each other. This can also lead to a sense of independence
(Davis, 2013). This “dialogic discourse” is in contrast with the more traditional
“monologic conversation” where the teacher was the only one talking (Davis,
2013:70–71). Vygotsky suggests that children learn through others in their social
environment (through the help of adults and peers, by collaborative learning or
guided learning) or in Vygotsky’s words: “Learning is a social construct”
(Vygotsky xxx) This theory is important for teachers because it conveys the idea
that the skillful teacher supports the learner (“providing intellectual scaffolding” –
Gouws, 2019:40) by taking the learner’s level of development and existing
knowledge into account. Vygotsky also proposed that learners work together and
learn from each other (cooperative learning). Vygotsky’s model therefore
advocates collaborative learning with peers and other adults. He sees the child as
an apprentice who acquires knowledge and skills through help from those who
already possess such knowledge. In Africa, adult and peer mentors are quite useful
in children’s learning – and learning occurs when human beings are part of
activities that are provided by the society in which they live (Tchombe, 2011). A
“community of practice” builds on Vygotsky’s “social constructivism”, which
requires the interaction between social and practical elements in learning through
oral teachings and practical activities (Vygotsky, 1978). In this model (Community
of Practice) the learner functions at two levels:A) He or she makes his or her
learning meaningful through practical activity at an intrapersonal (within the self)
levelB) He or she interacts with others using speech and cultural tools to connect
the meaning of the interpersonal (between people) world he or she shares with
other
2. But what is meant by the concept “community of practice”? It was first proposed
in a book titled “Situated Learning” (Lave & Wenger, 1991), after studying the
people on the island of St Kilda. A “community of practice” refers to the learning
that occurs when people who have a common interest in some subject or problem
work together to share ideas and find solutions (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The
community provides opportunities to learn how to do something or to improve and
do it better and it acts as a “collective store” of wisdom and experience. In Africa
and specifically in the Chewa culture, peer group cooperation is very important.
“Kugwirizana ndi anzache”, in Chi-Chewa means to cooperate with one’s peers. It
is a highly valued dimension of behaviour in many societies in Africa. To work
together in harmony towards a shared goal is the dynamic relationship that enables
individuals to pool their efforts for the benefit of a group (Serpell 2011). The
features of “communities of practice” can be summarised as:

a common or shared interest in something;

community members interacting and learning together;
sharing collective resources that members have developed over time.

To apply constructivism to their teaching, teachers must make the study material relevant
to the learners’ worlds – for example, when giving them a problem to solve, it must come
from a context with which the learners are familiar. Teachers must also know what
knowledge the learners already possess, in order to use it in their acquiring of new
information. With regard to social constructivism, teachers can give problems to be
unraveled in groups. In this way children learn how to negotiate and they can learn from
each other (Schulze et al., 2016).

7.3.2.4 Connectivism

The basic proposition of connectivism is that learning and knowledge are no longer
confined to individuals, but are distributed across networks of people, technologies, and
resources. In connectivism, learning is seen as a process of making connections and
navigating these networks. It emphasizes the importance of being able to access,
evaluate, and use information effectively rather than focusing solely on the accumulation
of knowledge. Connectivism recognizes that the rapid growth of digital information and
the increasing complexity of the world require new ways of learning and adapting. It

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suggests that the ability to create and maintain connections, both with other people and
with information sources, is a vital skill in the digital age.

The learning theories typically associated with this paradigm are:

1. George Siemens and Stephen Downes developed a theory for the digital age,
called connectivism. Their proposed learning theory has issued a debate over
whether it is a learning theory or instructional theory or merely a pedagogical
view (Dunn, 2011). But, what is connectivism? It is regarded as a learning theory
that “describes the process of learning which takes place through the building of
online connections between people” (IGI Global, n.d.:1). It further acknowledges
the development of learning networks, and the invention of new learning
networks. The life of knowledge is shrinking. What we know today is replaced
with new information tomorrow. Gonzalez (in Siemens 2005) referred to this
phenomenon as “the half-life of knowledge”. An individual’s knowledge is not
only in his or her brain. The knowledge resides in connections with electronic
devices and other humans. Instead of teaching a learner to memorise the contents
of a school handbook, it is therefore better to teach the learner how to access new
knowledge (Darrow 2009). The theory is about how the internet produces limitless
opportunities for individuals to obtain knowledge and share the information with
others (IGI Global, n.d.). Learning occurs in simulated (or virtual) networks and
communities through social interaction (IGI Global: n.d.:1). Learning therefore
takes place in various ways: through e-mail and e-mails lists, conversations, web
searches, on reading blogs and in communities. Connectivism further refers to
education where language together with media and technology is the channel of
information, “promoting greater student participation, collaboration and
interaction between networked learners, who socially construct an active learning
experience within different learning networks” (IGI Global, n.d.:2). Knowledge is
therefore shared with others and is changeable, not isolated and exists in network
groups.

This is a new theory and therefore we do not find much written about it or research done
on it in comparison to the wealth of information and research studies that exist on other
theories. Marquis (2012:2) describes it as a revolutionary theory. The development of
technology has lead to the theory of connectivism and it creates new challenges to
education. “The application of connectivism to teaching and learning requires a thorough
rethinking of the educational process and the role of the teacher, student, and technology
in that process” (Marquis, 2012:1). Connectivism as a theory forced teachers to look at
what is being done in digital education and to rethink, debate, and philosophise over how
each part fits. They must continually be evaluating how each new generation learns
(Dunn, 2011).

Not all teachers are up to date with the latest technology, and in this digital age, the role
of teachers is diminishing because learners can become more independent learners,
connected to different forms of communication outside formal education. A paradigm
shift in educational theory is necessary to keep up with what is changing in this time of
technological progress (Kop & Hill, 2008).

[1] Paradigmns represents a set of beliefs, assumptions, and practices that guide and
shape the way people think about and approach a given subject.

7.4 TEACHING AND LEARNING LESSON MODELS

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7.4 TEACHING AND LEARNING LESSON MODELS

Lesson models refer to structured frameworks or approaches that guide the design and
delivery of instructional lessons or units. These models provide a systematic way of
organizing and presenting information to enhance learning outcomes. These models are
among the most prominent and widely used in instructional design. However, it's
important to note that there are many other models and approaches available, and the
choice of model depends on the specific context, learning goals, and preferences of the
instructional designer or educator. Here are explanations of three prominent lesson
models:

7.4.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchical framework that categorizes educational objectives

and cognitive skills into six levels: Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing,
Evaluating, and Creating. Developed by Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues in 1956, the
taxonomy aims to promote higher-order thinking and guide the design of instruction. The
theory behind Bloom's Taxonomy is based on the belief that learning progresses from
lower-level cognitive processes to higher-level ones. The levels in the taxonomy
represent different levels of cognitive complexity. Here's a brief explanation of each
level:

Remembering: At the Remembering level, learners recall or retrieve factual information,

concepts, or procedures. This involves recognizing, recalling, or reproducing information
without necessarily understanding its deeper meaning.

Understanding: In the Understanding level, learners demonstrate comprehension and

interpret the meaning of information. They can explain ideas, summarize concepts, and
interpret data or instructions.

Applying: At the Applying level, learners use acquired knowledge and skills to solve
problems, apply procedures, or carry out tasks in new situations. They can apply learned
concepts to real-life scenarios.

Analyzing: In the Analyzing level, learners break down information into its constituent
parts, examine relationships, and identify patterns or connections. They can analyze data,
identify motives, and differentiate between different components or perspectives.

Evaluating: At the Evaluating level, learners make judgments or assessments based on

criteria and standards. They can evaluate the validity, effectiveness, or quality of ideas,
methods, or products.

Creating: In the Creating level, learners generate new ideas, products, or solutions. They
can combine existing elements to create something original or propose alternative
approaches to a problem.

Bloom's Taxonomy fosters learning by providing a framework for educators to set clear
learning objectives and design instruction that promotes cognitive growth. It encourages
educators to move beyond rote memorization and promote higher-order thinking skills.
By progressing through the taxonomy levels, learners engage in deeper processing,
critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, enabling them to apply knowledge in
meaningful ways and become independent learners.

7.4.2 Bruner’s Discovery Learning Model

Jerome Bruner, a cognitive psychologist, proposed the Discovery Learning Model, which
emphasizes active student engagement and problem-solving. According to Bruner,

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learners construct knowledge through their own discoveries and interactions with the
environment. Bruner’s view is that if knowledge reaches the child, it is processed
(stored) in certain ways and encoded (converted). The first way to store and encode
information is to remember some action (like a baby remembering the action of shaking
a rattle or an adult remembering how to type or sew), and it is called “enactive
representation”. Another kind of representation is “iconic” – information is stored as
mental pictures in the mind. Iconic representation can also be used by drawing diagrams
or making illustrations – some people remember information easier this way. The last
ability to develop is that of “symbolic representation”, when language, mathematical
symbols or other codes or symbols are used. These symbols (e.g. language) can be
adapted and organised and be used in abstract concepts (McLeod 2018).

Bruner suggested that teachers’ purpose must not be to divulge knowledge, but to enable
learners to think and develop problem-solving skills and to construct their own
understanding and develop their own coding system to store knowledge. He proposed the
spiral curriculum which means that teachers start to convey difficult ideas at a simple
level first, and then move to more difficult levels (like going up in a spiral). Bruner
called this discovery learning when teachers facilitate the learning process that helps
learners to discover the links between fragments of information themselves (McLeod,
2018).

7.4.3 Kolb’s experiential learning model

Kolb’s learning model are one of the best known and widely used learning theories. The
learning model described by Kolb are based on two major dimensions: active/reflective
and abstract/concrete (Kolb & Kolb, 2012:169). Kolb presented these as lines of axis,
each with “conflicting” modes at either end:

Concrete Experience – CE (feeling) –V– Abstract Conceptualisation – AC (thinking)

Active Experimentation – AE (doing) –V– Reflective Observation – RO (watching)

A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis is called the
Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north south axis is called the
Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or how we think or feel about it).

This learning model is the combination of two lines of axis (continuums) – each formed
between what Kolb calls “dialectically related modes” of “grasping experience” (doing
or watching), and “transforming experience” (feeling or thinking).

When applied to an educational situation the process can be summarised as follows:

You must:

be willing to be actively involved in doing something

be able to think about what you have done
use analytical skills to think about the experience; and use decision-making and
problem-solving skills to use the new ideas gained
learn from the experience and apply it to the next situation

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FIGURE 7.7 Kolb’s Experiential Model

Source: Adapted image from Pfeiffer & Jones 1985; Kolb & Kolb 2012

According to Kolb & Kolb (2013:13) data from empirical and clinical studies over the
years has shown that the original four learning style types – accommodating,
assimilating, converging and diverging – can be refined further into a nine style typology.
The nine learning styles better define the unique patterns of individual learning styles
and reduce the confusions introduced by borderline cases in the old four-style typology.

Kolb and Kolb (2012:1700–1701) mention some characteristics of learners who display
the nine learning styles.

Experiential style: Learners enjoy working in groups, role-playing, brainstorming, or

doing fieldwork.
Reflecting style: Learners “thrive in learning environment rich in discussions,
interactions, and through readings that provide them with a deeper understanding of
themselves and the world around them.”
Thinking style: Learners prefer well-structured, logical tasks and may prefer to work
alone.
Practical learning style: Learners “learn best through real-life projects, field trips, and
hands-on experiments”.
Divergent learning style: Learners prefer to work in groups where they gather
information and are able to listen with an open mind.
Assimilating style: Learners prefer “lectures, readings, exploring analytical models,
and having time to think things through”.
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Converging style: Learners enjoy doing simulations, practical applications, and
laboratory assignments.
Accommodating learning style: Learners like to work with others, do field work or
find different ways of doing a project.
Balancing learning style: Learners are able to change their learning style to match the
task.

The focus on nine different learning styles assists teachers in planning for a diverse range
of activities that may suit the different learning styles in the classroom. This is important
because teacehrs may only provide activities for a learning style that suits the teacher.
Remember that research does indicate that learners should be provided with different
learning activities. You may find all nine styles in a single classroom.

7.4.4 Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Robert Gagne, an educational psychologist, proposed the Nine Events of Instruction

model, which outlines a sequence of events to optimize learning. This model focuses on
the instructional process and addresses different aspects of learning. Gagne refers to
conditions for learning which include:

o internal conditions – what the learner already knows before the teaching

o external conditions – what the teacher offers to the learner (Khadjooi, Rostami &
Ishaq, 2011).

Gagne advanced the hierarchical theory of learning, which he also referred to as the nine
conditions of learning or the hierarchy of learning. The hierarchy of learning consists of
the following stages:

Capture attention: At the start of the lesson, capture learners’ interest and motivation.
Inform learners of objectives: Clearly communicate the learning goals and desired
outcomes to the learners.
Stimulate prior knowledge: Activate relevant prior knowledge to provide a foundation
for new learning.
Introduce new content: Present new information or skills in a clear and organized
manner.
Provide guidance: Offer support, examples, and explanations to assist learners in
understanding the content.
Engage performance: Involve learners in active practice or application of the newly
acquired knowledge or skills.
Provide feedback: Offer constructive feedback to reinforce correct responses and
guide improvements.
Assess performance: Evaluate learners' mastery of the content or skills through
assessments or activities.
Enhance retention and transfer: Encourage learners to apply what they have learned in
real-life situations and provide opportunities for further practice and reinforcement
(Pandey, 2020; Swartz, De la Rey, Dunn, Townsend & O’Neill, 2016:194; Tuckman
& Monetti, 2011:227–228).

When teaching, the teacher must first of all spells out the outcomes that the learners must
reach. Then comes Gagne’s “Events of Instruction”, comprising nine steps that teachers
can implement to ensure that learning takes place (Khadjooi et al., 2011:117).

These events can be converted by the teacher so that it can be used in any teaching
environment with the aim that learners can reach the learning outcomes (Instructional
Design n.d.). The main objective is not so much that learners remember, but that they
understand what is presented to them. To be able to reach this goal, teachers must
organise their lessons very well with the outcomes as objective (Khadjooi et al., 2011).

Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS)

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First of all, you need to take note of the SIAS (Screening, Identification, Assessment and
Support) policy which was implemented in 2014 by the National Department of Basic
Education (DBE) together with other African countries to make sure that all schools offer
care and support to all learners. The SIAS offers standardised procedures to identify,
assess, and provide programmes for all learners who require additional learning support
to help them gain access to quality education. The SIAS also provides guidelines on
enrolling learners in special schools and settings as well as a protocol and a set of official
forms to be used by teachers, school-based support teams and district-based support
teams for screening, identifying and assessing learners. The SIAS policy is rooted in the
belief that all learners must be able to access quality education to the best of their ability
as far as possible, within their local school. This belief is called “inclusion”. Inclusion is
rooted in diversity that requires teachers to be able to recognise and respect the
differences among their learners and be able to adjust their teaching accordingly.

If you want to know more about the SIAS policy, go to: https://www.education.gov.za/

The SIAS policy is especially significant for our South African teachers, because the
nature of the population in South African schools has changed drastically over the past
few years. In the same school, it is possible to find children from different races and
ethnic groups, children with different abilities and disabilities, and children from
different socioeconomic backgrounds. The teacher must therefore be prepared
beforehand to handle such diversities in the classroom.

7.5 INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES OR PREFERENCES

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7.5 INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES OR PREFERENCES

Individual learning preferences refer to the unique ways in which individuals prefer to receive, process, and engage
with information and learning experiences. People have diverse learning styles and preferences that influence how
they best understand and retain information. It's important to note that learning preferences can vary among
individuals, and most people have a combination of preferences rather than a strict preference for one style.
Recognizing and accommodating diverse learning preferences can enhance engagement, understanding, and overall
learning outcomes. Educators and instructional designers often strive to incorporate a variety of teaching methods,
instructional materials, and activities to cater to different learning preferences and create inclusive learning
environments. While there are different models and theories on learning preferences, here are some common
dimensions or factors that can contribute to individual learning preferences:

7.5.1 Individual learning preferences

Visual vs. Verbal: Some individuals prefer visual representations such as diagrams, charts, or videos, while others
prefer verbal information presented through written text or spoken explanations.
Auditory vs. Visual: Some learners prefer to hear information through lectures, discussions, or audio recordings,
while others benefit more from visual cues and presentations.
Active vs. Reflective: Active learners prefer hands-on experiences, group work, and practical applications, while
reflective learners prefer to think and process information internally before engaging in discussions or activities.
Sequential vs. Global: Sequential learners prefer a step-by-step, linear approach to learning, whereas global
learners tend to grasp the big picture first and make connections before delving into details.
Individual vs. Collaborative: Some individuals thrive in solitary learning environments, where they can work
independently, while others prefer collaborative settings that involve group discussions, teamwork, and social
interactions.

7.5.2 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Multiple Intelligences theory, developed by Howard Gardner, suggests that individuals possess different types of
intelligences or ways of processing information and demonstrating competence in various domains. Gardner
identified several intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

Learners differ with regard to learning styles and that teachers should acknowledge each one’s potential and should
use the theory of multiple intelligences (MI) to be effective in their teaching and treat learners according to their
specific abilities. To add to this, we would like to make you aware of various kinds of learning styles that learners
may have (because all individuals are unique) and what methods teachers can use to accommodate all the different
learning styles.

First of all, teachers must have knowledge of the basic principles of learning to be able to create a culture of
learning. They must furthermore have good knowledge of the field they teach and be aware of their own learning
preferences – “Teachers identifying themselves as learners is key to the development of a community of thinking in
a school” (South Australian Teaching for Effective Learning Framework, n.d.:13). If teachers understand their own
learning and how others learn, they can value their learners’ diversity and be able to help them in their learning.

Teachers must therefore know their learners and the learning styles they prefer. It is important to realise that one
style is not right and the other wrong – learners must use the style that is best for them, or even a combination of
styles (Loveless, 2019). According to Srijongjai (2011:1559) “everyone has a mix of learning styles, and learning
styles are not fixed, so instructors should also accommodate other types of learning styles by providing diverse
learning environments.” In one individual a learning style can dominate, but he or she may use other styles also –
learning styles can be combined and therefore teachers must not label learners and define them by one style only
(Loveless, 2019).

While these connections can be observed, it's important to recognize that individuals possess a unique combination
of multiple intelligences and learning styles. Understanding and considering these individual differences can help
educators tailor instructional approaches and create learning environments that cater to diverse needs and
preferences.

7.5.3 VAK learning styles

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The VAK model, suggested by Loveless (2019:2), suggests the following styles: Visual (learn best by seeing),
Auditory (learn best by hearing), and Kinaesthetic (learners learn best by moving and doing). A fourth style can be
identified, namely learning through the tactile sense (learning by touching and feeling, mostly with their hands)
(Integrated learning strategies, 2016; Warren, 2017). Teachers must help learners to recognise their own learning
styles, which will help them to study more efficiently. This refers to metacognition – to understand your own
thinking (you have been referred to this under Constructivism above).

FIGURE 7.6: Types of learning styles (Loveless 2019:3)

What teachers can do with regard to the different learning styles:

For visual learners (who learn the most by what they see), it will help to use colours, drawings, posters, charts,
graphs and hand signs (Loveless, 2019).
For auditory learners (who like to speak or ask questions in the classroom, and learn best by what they hear),
teachers can use audio books and let the learners discuss topics, make speeches or let them debate some issue.
They can also be encouraged to make recordings of lectures or make recordings of themselves – of what they
want to write down in their notes or when writing essays (Loveless, 2019).
Kinaesthetic learners learn best by doing something or by actions. They like to do experiments (e.g. in a science
lab) or going on field trips. They can be guided to act out historical events or you can let them move around in the
class by asking those who agree or disagree with a statement, to move to one side of the class (Loveless, 2019).
Tactile learners like to doodle while concentrating/listening or fidgeting with something. Here a stress ball can be
of help to pay attention. They also sometimes like drawing, colouring, building something, moving or painting.
Playing a musical instrument can also stimulate their cognitive development. It also helps them to take notes
while listening in the classroom (Integrated Learning Strategies, 2016; Warren, 2017).

Apart from these basic learning styles, one also finds some individuals who learn best by writing, for example,
making their own notes or summaries (they learn while they read and write). There are also logical learners (who do
well in mathematics), social learners (who do well in discussions and working in groups) and solitary learners (who
want to study alone) (Loveless, 2019).

Loveless (2019) suggests that teachers must be creative in their teaching by accommodating more than one learning
preference while presenting a lesson, in order to benefit most of the learners. He stresses the importance of

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understanding that every learner is unique, and that even two learners who prefer the same learning style, can still
differ in how they learn. Therefore, teachers have the enormous task to know and understand their learners.

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7.6 STUDY TECHNIQUES

Study techniques are important for several reasons. (1) It help optimize the learning process by promoting
understanding, retention, and application of knowledge.(2) Good study techniques enable students to manage their
time efficiently. (3) Improves focus and concentration. (4) Assists in organizing their study materials, notes, and
resources. (5) Enhances problem-solving skills, critical thinking, and application of knowledge. (6) It reduced stress
and anxiety related to exams and assignments. (7) Good study techniques promote long-term learning and retention
of information. By employing appropriate study techniques, students can optimize their learning experience and
achieve better academic outcomes. Here are some methods worth exploring:

7.6.1 The SQ3R method

The SQ3R method is a study technique and reading comprehension strategy that helps students actively engage with
their reading materials. The acronym stands for the five steps involved in the process: Survey, Question, Read,
Recite, and Review. One frequently suggested method for reading study material is the SQ3R (SQRRR) method
(Coon & Mitterer, 2015:23 Robinson, 1978:47).

Organising learning material à You should organise the content of your learning material as soon as possible. Do it
in such a way that it makes sense to you, that you can understand it better and that it will help you to recall the
information at a later stage. You can be as creative as you want when doing this. Use diagrams, pictures, tables, mind
maps, flashcards or anything creative that your brain can come up with.

Grouping and sorting à We all have a natural tendency to want to sort large groups of objects into smaller groups.
We group together things that are similar – usually based on common characteristics such as size, colour, shape,
texture, flavour and purpose. It helps us to make sense of what is going on around us and makes us feel more
secure. Sorting and classifying are basic skills taught to children from a young age. As children become more
confident in sorting, they are encouraged to explain their thought process in sorting by identifying and naming the
characteristic that determines the different groups. Recognising groups of objects requires logical thinking, an ability
that will be important for the rest of your life. Understanding the relationship between the different groups and being
able to discuss that relationship requires analytical skills. Here is a very simple example to demonstrate grouping
and sorting:

Look at Figure A. How many triangles, circles and squares are there?

FIGURE A

Look at Figure B. How many triangles, circles and squares are there?

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FIGURE B

Can you see that the grouping and sorting of learning material according to shape, will enhance your ability to
remember information?

Getting the “bigger picture à We have touched on this concept of working from the “Whole-to-Part” in our
discussion of the SQ3R method. In the survey (exploring) stage we tried to get a “big picture” of the learning
material – before looking at the finer detail (that what is written underneath the headings). Some learners need to
understand the “whole concept” before getting the details. “Part-to-whole” learners are more comfortable moving in
the opposite direction (receiving the details first). They like to use a “step-by-step” approach. The whole concept
makes them feel overwhelmed – they want to see the whole process unfold. The “whole-to-part” approach can be
applied to learning in the following way:

Look at the title of the textbook or study guide – write it down

Write down all the names of the units
Write down all the main headings underneath each unit
Write down all the subheadings of each main heading
Write down the keywords underneath each subheading

This process will enable you to get the “big picture” of what the learning material is all about. You can write it all
below one another or you can become creative and use diagrams or pictures to help you to remember. Here is ONE
example of how you can get the “bigger picture”:

EXAMPLE

7.6.2. Afrocentric teaching

First of all, we will explain the Afrocentric-indigenous pedagogy as presented by Van Wyk (2014). He describes an
eight-way framework for Afrocentric teaching including the following (please note that these strategies all contribute

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to the “inclusive classroom” – including learners of various cultures, backgrounds, abilities and learning styles) (Van
Wyk, 2014:52–58):

Storytelling: Knowledge is usually shared by elders through telling stories. Hereby the traditions, history and
heritage are spread to the new generations. It was used to teach the new generations how to endure difficult
circumstances in their natural environment. Today, teachers can use stories to teach many kinds of subject matter.
Deconstruct-reconstruct strategy: Teachers must first focus on the whole of the outcomes they want to reach.
Then the teacher can take the lesson apart (deconstruct it) into sections that learners are able to cope with,
according to their abilities and learning styles.
Learning through associations and connections (non-linear strategy): A good way to learn new information is
to link it to existing knowledge. Teachers can help learners by repeating concepts and making sure that all
learners grasp the concepts before continuing.
Learning through field trips and environmental excursions: By visiting a wilderness area or wildlife park,
learners can come close to connecting to the land and place (and even to ancestral relations). Many field guides
or game rangers are indigenous people who can convey indigenous knowledge to learners.
Community involvement-linked strategy: Parents and community members can be asked to be involved in the
school’s fundraising, maintenance and cleaning. They contribute to their children’s school, while the learners
understand the community life and values.
Experiential learning maps: To help learners to grasp the study material, teachers can use charts, diagrams and
other visual material. They can also teach learners the value of using mind maps to help them develop a holistic
picture of the material they must study, or to use it for assignments.
Symbols-and-images strategy: Teachers can help learners to reach the learning outcomes easier when they use
images, maps or metaphors. It makes the study material more significant and easier to remember.
Non-verbal: Body language, kinaesthetic learning and actions help learners to experience what they learn in
practice, inter alia through introspection and experiences.

When looking closely at Afrocentric education, you will realise that these principles are also included in some of the
theories of learning that you have studied earlier in this unit. An example of the “infusion of indigenous knowledge
(IK), Western science (WS) and Ubuntu” (Mukwambo, Ngcoza & Chikunda, 2014:70) is: Afrocentric principles are
also related to what is called non-linear or non-traditional ways of education. When proposing that existing
knowledge must be used, it links to Piaget’s assimilation and to the theory of constructivism (which you know by
this time). Also, the idea that community members must be involved in the school, and to work with others or
connect to others (as in Ubuntu) is related to social constructivism and connectivism.

The Afrocentric notion of disclosing the outcomes of a lesson to learners is also mentioned in Gagne’s theory of
information processing. Therefore, Afrocentric indigenous pedagogy, Ubuntu and Western science are not excluding
each other (Mukwambo et al., 2014).

One could say that all in all, the Afrocentric ideas of education strongly aim to attain the “inclusive classroom” as
Van Wyk pointed out: It does not exclude any learner on the basis of race, culture, language or background. “The
Afrocentric-indigenous classroom is not only for black learners, but inclusive of all learners for the advancement of
quality education” (Van Wyk, 2014:58). Afrocentric education does take indigenous knowledge and everyday
experiences of learners into account, and uses what learners already know, in a non-linear orientation. When
working according to these concepts, teachers will make an effort to get to know their learners and will be sensitive
to gender and racial issues – thereby they instil “awareness, respect, Ubuntu, humanity and inclusivity” in their
learners by the inclusive climate they create (Van Wyk, 2014:57).

To add to the Afrocentric view on learning, Muthivhi (2010) used the theories of Vygotsky and Piaget to explore the
role of cultural content in the development and cognitive functioning of the child. His research included eighty
Tshivenda speaking children in diverse rural South African settings. The study showed that rural children
simultaneously use concrete-functional, formal-abstract and conceptual ways of thinking. Muthivhi (2010) found
that children demonstrate forms of thinking and problem solving that come from both their formal learning
experiences (school) and from their natural, daily learning and cultural settings (home). The understanding of
concepts and the specific styles of thinking and problem solving are linked to the sociocultural context and the
learning activities in which the child participates. The cultural context in which the child’s learning and development
take place is complex and involves many layers of meaning. It includes the traditions of learning in the formal
school setting as well as their everyday learning in their sociocultural context.

The progress in cognitive development that occurs during the middle school years are therefore tied to learning in
school but also to learning in sociocultural context. Through learning, children become increasingly skilled and

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develop critical areas of their brains. Cognitive tasks will therefore be solved according to the experience of the
individual child.

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7.7 CONCLUSION

This extensive learning unit covered many essential aspects that teachers should take serious note of. Think of the
importance of the motivation and self-efficacy beliefs of learners and the importance of these aspects for making a
success of their lives. Also consider the importance for teachers to know how learning takes place and to have
knowledge of learning theories, learning styles and the individual differences between learners. If they succeed in
these objectives, teachers will also create a culture of teaching and learning and an inclusive classroom to include all
learners, regardless of their backgrounds.

Considering the above requirements for effective teachers, one becomes aware of the challenges that teachers in
South Africa are confronted with, especially because of the diversity in our country with regard to language, culture,
socioeconomic background and beliefs. By taking on these challenges, you, as a student of education, show that you
are willing to confront the enormous task ahead.

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