In-Situ Testing

In-situ testing is a critical component of site investigation in geotechnical engineering, allowing

engineers to assess soil and rock properties directly at the site without removing samples. Here's
an overview of in-situ testing and its importance:

Definition of In-Situ Testing:

In-situ testing refers to a group of methods used to evaluate the properties of soils, rocks, or other
materials directly in their natural state, without disturbing or removing them. These tests are
conducted at the site of interest, providing real-time data on the material's behavior under existing
conditions.

In-situ tests play a crucial role in determining design parameters for foundation design, primarily
by providing indirect measurements of these parameters. Published correlations are often utilized
to convert these indirect measurements into design parameters.

Additionally, a statistical approach is necessary to analyze the spatial distribution of a measured

parameter on-site and its variability with depth or ground strata. This statistical analysis helps
engineers understand the heterogeneity of the subsurface conditions and make informed decisions
during foundation design.

However, it's imperative to consider the limitations of in-situ tests and the specific conditions and
ground types they can effectively assess. This consideration is essential to avoid misinterpretation
of the data obtained and ensure that foundation designs are based on accurate and reliable
information.

Importance of In-Situ Testing:

In-situ testing provides valuable data for understanding ground conditions, assessing geotechnical
hazards, and informing engineering design decisions. It offers several advantages over laboratory
testing and other site investigation methods:

Real-Time Data: In-situ testing allows engineers to obtain real-time data on soil and rock properties
directly from the field, providing immediate insights into ground conditions.
Representative Samples: By testing materials in their natural state, in-situ testing provides more
representative samples than laboratory tests conducted on disturbed samples.

Cost and Time Efficiency: In-situ testing is often more cost-effective and time-efficient than
laboratory testing, as it eliminates the need to transport samples to a laboratory and wait for test
results.

Site-Specific Data: In-situ testing provides site-specific data that cannot be replicated in a
laboratory setting, allowing engineers to tailor their investigations to the unique conditions of each
site.

Common Types of In-Situ Testing:

• Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

• Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
• Pressure meter Test
• Dilatometer Test
• Vane Shear test
• Plate Load Test

In this chapter two of the most important in-situ testing as SPT and CPT will be covered.

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a critical and widely utilized soil testing method in the field
of geotechnical engineering. Despite its simplicity, SPT offers invaluable insights into the
subsurface conditions, facilitating the assessment of soil properties crucial for designing and
constructing foundations.

The Standard Penetration Test is not just a test but a reflection of soil behavior under dynamic
loading. Its versatility makes it applicable in a diverse range of soil types, including gravels, sands,
silts, clays, and mixed soils. The procedure involves driving a sample tube into the soil at the
bottom of a borehole by a standard weight dropped from a specified height.
Test Procedure

The core of the SPT method involves a hammer weighing approximately 63.5 kg, which is dropped
from a height of 762 mm onto steel rods connected to a sample tube. This setup is carefully inserted
into the exploratory hole drilled for this purpose.

• Seating Blow: The initial phase involves recording the number of hammer blows required
to drive the sample tube 150 mm into the soil. These initial blows, termed 'seating blows',
are disregarded in the final calculation as they primarily serve to seat the sampler in the
bottom of the borehole.
• Main Test: Following the seating blow phase, the test continues with the recording of
hammer blows for two additional 150 mm penetrations. The cumulative number of blows
required for these penetrations, totaling 300 mm, is denoted as the SPT value or the "N"
value. The N-value, obtained from the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), is often utilized as
an empirical measure to estimate various soil properties, including the unconfined
compressive strength (𝑞𝑢 ) of soils, especially when direct laboratory testing is not feasible
or practical.

Procedure Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjWDOqQjsyQ

Reminder:

Unconfined Compressive Strength (𝐶𝑢 ) for Cohesive Components such as clays: It stands
for the undrained shear strength of a cohesive soil when it is subjected to compressive stress
without any lateral confinement, hence the term "unconfined." The parameter (𝐶𝑢 ) is used
within the context of shear strength and is particularly relevant for clays and other fine-
grained, cohesive soils.
Unconfined Compressive Strength (Total Stress):
The maximum axial compressive stress (𝑞𝑢 ) means that a cylindrical sample of soil can
sustain under unconfined conditions. It is typically reported in units of pressure, such as
kPa or psi. the (𝑞𝑢 ) applies to the stress condition in a uniaxial compression test, which is
a laboratory test used to determine the unconfined compressive strength of a soil specimen.
Consideration in SPT Test

Alternative Method for Stiff Soils: In certain cases, particularly stiff soils, an alternative
approach is employed wherein the number of blows for three successive 100 mm penetrations is
measured post-seating blows. This method may yield more accurate data for such soil conditions.

Refusal stage: A scenario termed 'refusal' occurs when 50 blows are insufficient to achieve a 300
mm penetration. The depth achieved is recorded, and the N-value is adjusted accordingly based on
the proportion of the 300 mm penetration completed. In such instances, the test is considered to
have reached 'refusal stage', and the penetration achieved is reported. The results are then
𝑁×300
extrapolated for an equivalent 300 mm penetration using the formula: 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Presence of Obstacles: The SPT method faces limitations when encountering subsurface
obstacles such as large cobbles and boulders (Stones, rocks). These obstructions can cause the tip
of the test assembly to rebound, leading to potentially inaccurate results.

N value in SPT Tests

The SPT N-value is a fundamental parameter in geotechnical engineering, extensively used for
estimating the bearing capacity of soil and other critical design parameters. Its simplicity, coupled
with the depth of information it provides, makes SPT a staple in soil testing for foundation design.
The raw or original SPT N-value (N) is the number of hammer blows required to drive the sampler
a distance of 300mm (after seating penetration) into the soil at the bottom of a borehole. This value
can be influenced by several factors, including the energy efficiency of the hammer blow, rod
length, borehole diameter, and the method of drilling.

Understanding N60

To enhance the reliability and comparability of SPT results, adjustments are applied to the raw N-
value. These adjustments account for factors such as the energy ratio of the hammer system (ER),
borehole diameter, rod length, and sampler type. The adjusted N-value (𝑁60 ) is calculated to
represent the number of blows that would have been required if the test were performed with a
60% energy ratio (the theoretical energy transfer efficiency of the standard SPT hammer system).

The following formula is converting the raw N value obtained from SPT test into 𝑁60

Correlations for (𝑵𝟔𝟎 ) in Cohesive Soil

The correlation between the Standard penetration Number (𝑁60 ) and the consistency of clay soils
is a valuable tool for geotechnical engineers. The consistency of clay (which can be described as
its firmness and resistance to deformation) is an important factor in assessing the behavior of clay
soils under load and when planning construction projects.

Szechy and Vargi (1978) provided a method for calculating the Consistency Index (𝐶𝐼 ) from SPT
N-values, which is used to estimate the state of the clay, ranging from very soft to very hard. The
Consistency Index is a dimensionless number that indicates the relative hardness of a clay soil,
and it is used to infer its undrained shear strength.
The following table is Approximating the Correlation between (𝐶𝐼 ), (𝑁60 ), and Unconfined
compression strength (𝑞𝑢 ) of clay soils. These correlations are useful for geotechnical engineers
to estimate soil behavior quickly.

These correlations are approximate and are intended to give a general indication of the soil
properties based on SPT results. They are especially handy in the absence of direct laboratory tests,
allowing for preliminary assessment and decision-making in engineering projects. However, for
critical designs, these estimates should be confirmed with laboratory testing, and the empirical
correlations should be calibrated against local data whenever possible.

Other Empirical Correlations between 𝑪𝒖 and 𝑵𝟔𝟎

1. Stroud and Butler (1974) Correlation:

𝐶𝑢 = 𝑓 × 𝑁60 (Kpa)

Here,

𝐶𝑢 is the unconfined compressive strength in kilopascals (KPa). f is an empirical factor that varies
between 4.5 and 6.5. This factor may depend on the plasticity index (PI) of the soil, with the value
tending to be at the lower end of the range when the plasticity index (PI) is greater than or equal
to 30.

2. Hara et al. (1971) Correlation:

𝐶𝑢 = 2.9 × 𝑁60 (Kpa)

These correlations are based on field observations and experience, and they provide a quick
method for estimating the strength of clay soils when laboratory tests are not available. However,
they should be used with caution and should be calibrated against local data when possible. The
actual 𝐶𝑢 value of the soil can be influenced by many factors, including soil structure, moisture
content, over-consolidation ratio, and others not directly accounted for in these simple empirical
formulas. Therefore, these correlations are generally considered as first approximations and should
be substantiated with more comprehensive testing and analysis for critical engineering decisions.

Correlations for 𝑵𝟔𝟎 in Granular Soil (Sand and Gravel)

The following outlined a series of empirical relationships used to correct the (SPT) 𝑁60 for granular
soils, accounting for the effective overburden pressure (σ
̅). The corrected value, called 𝑁1 60 ,
normalizes the N60 value to a standard effective overburden pressure to make the values obtained
from different depths or sites comparable. The value for 𝑁1 60 is calculated from following formula:

𝑁1 60 = 𝐶𝑁 × 𝑁60

Where, the correction factor 𝐶𝑁 is used to adjust the raw 𝑁60 , to a standardized value that considers
the overburden pressure.

The correction factor, 𝐶𝑁 itself will be calculated from:

Where the 𝜎𝑜́ is the effective overburden pressure and 𝑃𝑎 is the atmospheric pressure which is
approximately 100 kN/m².

𝑵𝟏 𝟔𝟎 Correlation with 𝑫𝒓 in Granular Soil (Sand and Gravel)

Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) modified an empirical relationship (the following table) for relative
density 𝐷𝑟 and 𝑁1 60 . Relative density (also known as density index or degree of density) is a
measure used in geotechnical engineering to quantify the compactness of cohesionless soil, such
as sands and gravels, relative to the loosest and densest possible states of the soil.
Based on the values for approximation of the relative density we can interpret the table as:

• Very Loose: A relative density of 0% indicates the soil is in its loosest state.
• Loose: Relative density values between 0% and 30% suggest the soil is loose.
• Medium Dense: Values between 30% and 70% indicate a medium dense condition.
• Dense: Values between 70% and 85% suggest the soil is dense.
• Very Dense: Relative density above 85% indicates a very dense state of soil.

Correlation between Angle of Friction ∅́ and Standard Penetration Number

𝑵𝟔𝟎 in Granular Soil (Sand and Gravel)

The peak friction angle, of granular soil has also been correlated with 𝑁60 or 𝑁1 60 by several

investigators. According to Schmertmann (1975), the correlation between 𝑁60 and ∅́ are as
follows:

Where,

Also, according to Hatanaka and Uchida (1996) provided a simple correlation between 𝑁1 60 and

∅́ that can be expressed as:

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) is a method used in geotechnical engineering to determine the
geotechnical properties of soils. It involves pushing a cone penetrometer into the ground at a
constant rate and measuring the resistance to penetration.

Test Procedure

Testing Rig: The cone penetrometer is attached to a series of rods and pushed into the ground by a
hydraulic ram from a truck-mounted or crawler-mounted rig. The hydraulic ram provides a
continuous thrust, which keeps the penetration rate constant and allows for continuous
measurements.

Penetration Rate: The rate is standardized at 20 mm per second to ensure consistency across tests
and to comply with international testing standards. This rate can be reduced to the value of 10 mm
per second if necessary to adapt to specific soil conditions or to meet specific testing protocols.

Manual Procedure Videos: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59qqWwfJCH8

Cone demonstration: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98Q9Huc9Us0

CPT Characteristics

• Constant Rate of Penetration: The CPT involves pushing a cone penetrometer into the
soil at a constant rate, typically 20 mm per second as per international standards. This
uniform speed is crucial as it ensures that the resistance measured by the cone is consistent
and comparable across different depths and different testing sites.
• Strain-Controlled Test: The CPT is considered a strain-controlled test because the rate of
penetration (strain rate) is controlled, not the stress applied to the soil. The resistance to
penetration is measured as the cone is pushed into the soil at this constant rate, which gives
a continuous measurement of soil resistance as a function of strain.
• Measurement of Soil Resistance: The primary purpose of the CPT is to measure the
resistance of soil to penetration. This is directly measured through the cone tip resistance
𝑞𝑐 and indirectly through the sleeve friction 𝑓𝑠 . These measurements are used to assess the
type and condition of the soil, including its density and strength.
 • Limitation in Stiff Grounds: CPT may have limitations in very stiff or hard soils,
especially where large stones, boulders, or other obstructions are present. In such
conditions, the force required to push the cone penetrometer can exceed the capacity of the
equipment, or the data collected may not be reliable due to the interference of the
obstructions. Moreover, there is a risk of damaging the equipment in such environments.
• Soil Classification: The data from CPT is used not only for determining physical
properties but also for classifying soil types based on empirical correlations, which can be
particularly useful in the initial phases of site investigation.

Classification of CPT Tests

1. Mechanical Cone:

Design: The mechanical cone is an earlier version of the CPT equipment. It includes a cone tip
attached to a series of rods that are pushed into the ground. The cone typically has an apex angle
of 60 degrees, and the area of the cone tip is usually 10 cm².

Measurement: As the cone is driven into the ground, the resistance to penetration is measured
mechanically, often with a set of springs that are calibrated to measure the force required to push
the cone into the soil. This force is then recorded at the surface.
 2. Electric Cone (Piezocone):

Design: The electric cone includes sensors that measure various parameters electronically. In
addition to the cone tip resistance and sleeve friction, some electric cones can measure pore water
pressure, which is especially useful in saturated soils or soils with a high groundwater table.

Measurements:

With the electric cone two important measurement are carried out:

Cone Tip Resistance (𝒒𝒄 ): This electronic measurement is a direct indication of the strength of
the soil at various depths. Higher tip resistance generally indicates denser or harder soil.

Sleeve Friction (𝒇𝒔 ): The friction between the sleeve of the penetrometer and the soil is measured
electronically as the cone is pushed into the ground. This measurement helps to identify the type
of soil, as different soils will exert different amounts of friction on the sleeve.

Application of 𝒒𝒄 and 𝒇𝒔

The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) provides critical soil parameters, notably 𝒒𝒄 (cone resistance)
and 𝒇𝒔 (sleeve friction), which are essential for various geotechnical engineering applications.
Here's how these parameters are used:

1. Foundation Design: 𝒒𝒄 is used to estimate the bearing capacity and settlement

characteristics of soils for the design of foundations, including shallow foundations, deep
 foundations (such as piles and drilled shafts), and embankments. It helps in determining
the appropriate type and size of foundations for buildings, bridges, and other structures.
2. Soil Type Identification: The combination of 𝒒𝒄 and 𝒇𝒔 values is used to classify soil
types. Different soils (clay, silt, sand, gravel, etc.) show characteristic patterns of cone
resistance and sleeve friction, allowing for the identification of soil layers and their
distribution with depth. This is crucial for understanding the stratigraphy of a site and for
the design of civil engineering projects.
3. Estimation of Soil Parameters: again, the combination of 𝒒𝒄 and 𝒇𝒔 are correlated with
various soil mechanical properties such as undrained shear strength (especially in clays),
relative density (in sands), and friction angle. These parameters are vital for the analysis
and design of geotechnical engineering projects, including slope stability, earth retaining
structures, and earthworks.
4. Liquefaction Assessment: In areas susceptible to seismic activity, 𝒒𝒄 values from CPT
tests are used to assess the potential for soil liquefaction under earthquake loading
conditions. This assessment is critical for designing earthquake-resistant structures and for
planning mitigation measures in seismic zones.
5. Compaction Control: During the construction of embankments, landfills, or other earthfill
projects, 𝒒𝒄 values can be used to assess the degree of compaction and the uniformity of
the compacted soils. This ensures that the earthworks meet the required specifications for
density and strength.
6. Design of Pavements: CPT results, including 𝒒𝒄 and 𝒇𝒔 can be used to determine the
thickness and composition of pavement layers. Understanding the underlying soil
properties helps in designing pavements that can withstand anticipated traffic loads and
environmental conditions.
7. Hydrogeological Studies: In combination with piezometric measurements (when a
piezocone is used), 𝒒𝒄 and 𝒇𝒔 can aid in assessing the permeability of soil layers, which is
important for the design of drainage systems, the assessment of groundwater recharge, and
the management of contaminated sites.
Frictional Resistance 𝒇𝒄

The term 𝑓𝑐 could be less consistently defined across different contexts, but in many cases, it refers
to the total frictional resistance encountered by a structural element, such as a pile or a pier, when
it is being driven into the ground. Frictional Resistance could encompass both skin friction along
the sides of the structural element and any base resistance at its tip, depending on context. It's a
broader term that accounts for the cumulative frictional resistance against a structural foundation
element from the surrounding soil. Like 𝑓𝑠 and 𝑓𝑐 is also measured in units of force per unit area.

The key difference between the two measurements lies in their application and the specific aspect
of soil-structure interaction they represent:

• 𝑓𝑠 is more directly related to the CPT process, providing a localized measure of friction that
helps in soil profiling and classification.
• While 𝑓𝑐 on the other hand might not be a direct output of the CPT, relates to the overall
frictional resistance a structural element experiences due to soil interaction, important for
the design and analysis of foundation elements.
• When designing foundations, engineers often use the data obtained from 𝑓𝑠 in CPT tests to
estimate 𝑓𝑐 for various foundation elements, adjusting for scale effects and other factors to
ensure the stability and safety of the structure.

Friction Ration 𝑭𝒓

Both of the measured value 𝒒𝒄 and 𝒇𝒔 led us to calculate Friction Ration 𝑭𝒓 . The friction ratio in
the context of Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) is a calculated value that helps in the classification
of soil types. It is defined as the ratio of the sleeve friction which is the resistance to penetration
experienced by the sleeve of the penetrometer, to the cone resistance, which is the resistance to
penetration experienced by the tip of the penetrometer. The friction ratio is typically expressed as
a percentage and is given by the formula:

In other study by Anagnostopoulos et al. (2003) 𝐹𝑟 expressed as:

where 𝐷50 size through which 50% of soil will pass through (mm). The for soils based on which
Eqs. (2.42) and (2.43) have been developed ranged from 0.001 mm to about 10 mm.

Correlations for (𝑭𝒓 ) in Cohesive Soil

According to Robertson and Campanella’s correlation (1983), through the calculation of 𝐹𝑟 , and
measurement of the 𝑞𝑐 the soil type could be interpreted using following graph;

Correlation between 𝒒𝒄 and Drained Friction Angle ∅́ for Granular Soils:

The correlation between 𝑞𝑐 and drained Friction angle ∅́ for sands on the basis of experimental
results of Robertson and Campanella (1983) could be expressed as:

Where the 𝜎𝑜́ is the effective overburden pressure and 𝑞𝑐 is the cone point resistance.