Differentiation and Integration

Richard Olatokunbo Akinola

April 25, 2017

2
CHAPTER 1
FUNCTIONS

Certain sets of real numbers, called intervals appear frequently in Calculus. They can be grouped
into the following categories.

Table 1.1: Intervals that occur frequently.

Interval Notation Description
Open interval ( a, b) All x such that a < x <b
Open interval (−∞, a) All x such that x < a
Open interval ( a, ∞) All x such that x > a
Half-open, half-closed interval ( a, b] All x such that a < x ≤b
4.1
Half-open, half-closed interval [ a, b) All x such that a ≤ x <b
Closed interval [ a, b] All x such that a ≤ x ≤b
Closed interval (−∞, a] All x such that x ≤ a
Closed interval [ a, ∞) All x such that x ≥ a
The Real line (−∞, ∞) All real numbers

Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A function is a rule that assigns to each element of A a
unique element in B. A is called the domain while B is the codomain. For a function to be well
defined, you need: (1). Domain (2). Codomain (3). A rule.
We may want to associate or assign members of set A to members of B. If the assignment is
such that every element a ∈ A is associated with a unique (one and only one) element b ∈ B,
then the result of such an assignment is called a mapping from set A (called the domain of the
mapping) to set B (or codomain of the mapping). When the codomain is a set of numbers, then
the mapping is also called a function. In a mapping from A to B, no element in A must be assigned
to one element in B.
If a is a member of the domain A (i.e., a ∈ A), then the unique element in B which the mapping
assings to a is called the image of a under the mapping. The range of the mapping is the set of
the images of all members of the domain A. Note that the range of a mapping is a subset of the
codomain.
Example 1.0.1.
Consider A = {Pupils in a primary school} and B = {Teachers in the school}. Assign every
student in set A with his/her class teacher.

3
4 CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS
CHAPTER 2

5
6 CHAPTER 2.
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION

The derivative of a function is the limit of the ratio of the increment of the function to the incre-
ment of the independent variable when the latter increment varies and approaches zero as a limit.
Consider the function y = f ( x ),

y + ∆y = f ( x + ∆x )
∆y = f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
∆y f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
= . (3.1)
∆x ∆x
The limit of the right hand side when ∆x tends to zero or ∆x → 0 is the derivative of y = f ( x ) and
dy
is donated by the symbol dx . Therefore,

dy ∆y f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
= lim = lim , (3.2)
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x

defines the derivative of y with respect to x.

From the above definition of the derivative, the process of differentiating a function f ( x ) consists
in taking the following three steps:

1. Replace x by x + ∆x in the function, and y by ∆y.

2. Find ∆y by subtracting y from both sides of the new value.

3. Divide both sides by ∆x.

dy
4. Find the limit of the quotient as ∆x tends to zero. This gives dx .

The above process is seldom termed differentiation from first principles.

We begin by using first principles to show that the derivative of a constant is zero.

1. Differentiate y = f ( x ) = C from first principles. Note that f ( x + ∆x ) = C and f ( x ) = C.

dy ∆y f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) C−C 0
= lim = lim = lim = lim = 0.
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x

7
8 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

2. Differentiate y = x from first principles only.

y + ∆y = x + ∆x
∆y = x + ∆x − y
∆y = x + ∆x − x
∆y = ∆x
∆y
= 1.
∆x
Therefore,
dy ∆y
= lim = lim 1 = 1.
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0

3. Differentiate from first principles y = 2 − 3x.

y + ∆y = 2 − 3( x + ∆x )
∆y = 2 − 3x − 3∆x − y
= 2 − 3x − 3∆x − (2 − 3x )
∆y = −3∆x.

After dividing both sides by ∆x and taking limit as ∆x → 0,

dy ∆y −3∆x
= lim = lim = lim −3 = −3.
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0

4. Differentiate from first principles y = 3x2 + 5.

y + ∆y = 3( x + ∆x )2 + 5
∆y = 3x2 + 6x∆x + 3(∆x )2 + 5 − y
∆y = 3x2 + 6x∆x + 3(∆x )2 + 5 − (3x2 + 5)
∆y = 6x∆x + 3(∆x )2
∆y
= 6x + 3∆x.
∆x
If we take limit as ∆x → 0, then
dy ∆y
= lim = lim (6x + 3∆x ) = 6x.
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0

5. Differentiate from first principles y = (3x − 2)( x2 + 3).

y + ∆y = [3( x + ∆x ) − 2][( x + ∆x )2 + 3]
∆y = [3x + 3∆x − 2][ x2 + 2x∆x + (∆x )2 + 3] − (3x − 2)( x2 + 3)
∆y = 3x3 + 9x2 ∆x + 9x (∆x )2 + 3(∆x )3 − 2(∆x )2 +
9∆x − 4x∆x − 2x2 + 9x − 6 − 3x3 + 2x2 − 9x + 6
= 9x2 ∆x + 9x (∆x )2 + 3(∆x )3 − 2(∆x )2 − 4x∆x + 9∆x.
After dividing both sides by ∆x, we have
∆y
= 9x2 + 9x∆x + 3(∆x )2 − 2∆x − 4x + 9.
∆x
 9

Therefore,
dy ∆y
= lim = 9x2 − 4x + 9.
dx ∆x →0 ∆x

6. Differentiate from first principles y = sin x.

y + ∆y = sin( x + ∆x )
∆y = sin x cos ∆x + cos x sin ∆x − y
∆y = sin x cos ∆x + cos x sin ∆x − sin x
∆y = sin x (cos ∆x − 1) + cos x sin ∆x.
Divide both sides by ∆x to yield
∆y sin x (cos ∆x − 1) + cos x sin ∆x
= .
∆x ∆x
Taking limits we have
dy ∆y sin x (cos ∆x − 1) cos x sin ∆x
= lim = lim + lim ,
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x
and
dy cos ∆x − 1 sin ∆x
= sin x lim + cos x lim
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 ∆x
= (sin x ) × 0 + (cos x ) × 1
= cos x.

7. Differentiate from first principles y = e x .

y + ∆y = e(x+∆x)
∆y = e(x+∆x) − y = e(x+∆x) − e x .
After dividing both sides by ∆x and taking limits as ∆x tends to zero, we have
∆y e x (e∆x − 1) dy e∆x − 1
= and = e x lim = ex × 1 = ex .
∆x ∆x dx ∆x →0 ∆x
√
8. Differentiate from first principles y = x.
√
y + ∆y = x + ∆x
√ √ √
∆y = x + ∆x − y = x + ∆x − x.
We rationalise the right hand side and using the fact
x2 − y2 = ( x − y)( x − y) to yield
√ √ √ √
( x + ∆x − x )( x + ∆x + x )
∆y = √ √
x + ∆x + x
x + ∆x − x
= √ √
x + ∆x + x
∆x
= √ √
x + ∆x + x
∆y 1 ∆x 1
= √ √ =√ √ .
∆x ∆x x + ∆x + x x + ∆x + x
10 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

Hence,
∆y
 
dy 1 1 1
= lim = lim √ √ =√ √ = √ .
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x →0 x + ∆x + x x+ x 2 x
√
9. Differentiate from first principles only y = 3 x. This example is a bit different from the
previous ones in the sense that we use the identity a3 − b3 = ( a − b)( a2 + ab + b2 ), where
1 1
a = ( x + ∆x ) 3 and b = x 3 . This means that we can write
1 1 2 1 1 2
( x + ∆x ) − x = [( x + ∆x ) 3 − x 3 ][( x + ∆x ) 3 + x 3 ( x + ∆x ) 3 + x 3 ].
Now
1
y + ∆y = ( x + ∆x ) 3
1 1
∆y = ( x + ∆x ) 3 − x 3
1 1
[( x + ∆x ) 3 − x 3 ][( x + ∆x ) − x ]
∆y = .
[( x + ∆x ) − x ]
Using the above identity,
1 1
[( x + ∆x ) 3 − x 3 ][∆x ]
∆y = 1 1 2 1 1 2
[( x + ∆x ) 3 − x 3 ][( x + ∆x ) 3 + x 3 ( x + ∆x ) 3 + x 3 ]
∆x
= 2 1 1 2
( x + ∆x ) 3 + x 3 ( x + ∆x ) 3 + x 3
∆y ∆x
 
1
= .
∆x ∆x ( x + ∆x ) 32 + x 13 ( x + ∆x ) 13 + x 23

By taking limits,
dy ∆y 1
= lim = lim
∆x →0 ∆x
2 1 1 2
dx ∆x →0 ( x + ∆x ) 3 + x 3 ( x + ∆x ) 3 + x 3

1 1 1 −2
= 2 1 1 2 = 2 = x 3.
x3 + x3 x3 + x3 3x 3 3

1
10. Differentiate wrt x the function y = x from first principles.
1
y + ∆y =
x + ∆x
1 1 ∆x
∆y = − =− .
x + ∆x x x ( x + ∆x )
∆y dy
This implies that ∆x = − x(x+1 ∆x) and dx = − x12 = − x −2 .

11. Differentiate wrt x, y = ax n from first principles only.

y + ∆y = a( x + ∆x )n
n ( n − 1 ) n −2
 
n −1 n −1
∆y = a x + nx ∆x +
n
x (∆x ) + · · · + nx (∆x )
2
+ (∆x ) − ax n
n
2!
n ( n − 1 ) n −2
 
n −1 n −1
= a nx ∆x + x (∆x ) + · · · + nx (∆x )
2
+ (∆x ) .
n
2!
 11

After dividing both sides by ∆x

∆y n ( n − 1 ) n −2
 
a n −1 n −1
= nx ∆x + x (∆x ) + · · · + nx (∆x )
2
+ (∆x ) n
∆x ∆x 2!
n ( n − 1 ) n −2
 
n −1 n −2 n −1
= a nx + x (∆x ) + · · · + nx (∆x ) + (∆x ) .
2!
As ∆x → 0, the second and remaining terms vanish so that
dy
= nax n−1 . (3.3)
dx
Exercise 3.0.1.
Differentiate the following functions from first principles.
1. y = x3 (4x2 − 1)
2. y = sin(3θ + 4)
3. y = x2 − cos x
4. y = x sin x
√
5. y = 2x2 − 1
1
6. y = x +1
1
7. y = 2x +1
1 1 1 1
 2 2

2 h 3 −x 3 (h 3 − x 3 )(h 3 + x 3 )
8. y = x ,3 Hint: h− x = 1 1 2 1 1 2 .
(h 3 − x 3 )(h 3 +h 3 x 3 + x 3 )
1 1 1 1
 3 2

3 h 2 −x 2 (h 2 − x 2 )(h+h 2 x 2 + x )
9. y = x ,2 Hint: h− x = 1 1 1 1 .
(h 2 − x 2 )(h 2 + x 2 )

10. y = e ax = exp( ax ), a 6= 0.
We state some important relationships that will aide our understanding.
1. If a is any constant, then
d d
a f (x) = a f ( x ). (3.4)
dx dx
2. If y1 , y2 , · · · , yn , are differentiable functions of x, then
d dy dy2 dyn
[ y1 + y2 + · · · + y n ] = 1 + +···+ . (3.5)
dx dx dx dx
3. If y = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , where the ai ’s are constants, then
dy d
= [ a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + · · · + a 1 x + a 0 ]
dx dx
d d d d
= ( an x n ) + ( a n −1 x n −1 ) + · · · + ( a1 x ) + ( a0 )
dx dx dx dx
d d d d
= a n ( x n ) + a n −1 ( x n −1 ) + · · · + a 1 ( x ) + a 0 (1 )
dx dx dx dx
n n −1
= nan x + (n − 1) an−1 x + · · · + a1 . (3.6)
12 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

3.1 Methods of Differentiation

3.1.1 Examples
dy
Find dx in the following
dy
1. y = x −3 . Using the formula (3.3), dx = −3x −3−1 = −3x −3 .
2. y = 3x2 + 2x + 1. Using a combination of (3.4) and (3.6), we have
dy
= 2 × 3x2−1 + 1 × 2x1−1 + 0 × x0−1 = 6x + 2.
dx
1
3. y = 3
x3
− √1 .
x
We can rewrite y = 3x −3 − x − 2 using indices. Hence,

dy 1 1 1 3
= −3(3x −3−1 ) − (− x − 2 −1 ) = −9x −4 + x − 2 .
dx 2 2
3x4 +2x2 −1
4. y = 2x2
. Divide both sides by the denominator to have
1 −2 dy
y= 3 2
2x − 2x + 1. Now, dx = 2(3/2) x − 2(−1/2x −3 ) = 3x + x −3 .
Exercise 3.1.1.
Differentiate the following wrt to the variables contained in them and simplify as far as possi-
ble.
√
1. k = 4 4 x.
√
2. y = 3x7 − 3x5 + 32 x3 + 20x − 8.

3. y = − t47 .

4. y = 7t−5 .
3
5. y = −4t2 + t6
1
6. y = x2 − x3

3.2 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we find the derivative of trigonometric functions.
Example 3.2.1. Find the derivative of the following wrt x.
1. g = −4x −3 + 2 cos x.
2. g = 3 sin 4x − 5 cos 2x.
1. Using what we have learnt so far and the facts of Table 3.1.
dg
= (−3)(−4x −3−1 ) + (−2 sin x ) = 14x −4 − sin x.
dx
2. In the same vein,
dg
= 3(4 cos 4x ) − 5(−2 sin 2x ) = 12 cos 4x + 10 sin 2x.
dx
3.3. PRODUCT RULE 13

Table 3.1: Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

dy
y dx
sin x cos x
cos x − sin x
sin( ax + b) a cos( ax + b)
cos( ax + b) − a sin( ax + b)
tan x sec2 x
sec x sec x tan x

3.3 Product Rule

Let u( x ), v( x ) and w( x ) be three differentiable functions of x. If y = u( x )v( x ), then

dy dv du
=u +v . (3.7)
dx dx dx
If y = u( x )v( x )w( x ), then
dy dw dv du
= uv + uw + vw .
dx dx dx dx
Example 3.3.1. Differentiate the following functions wrt x.

1. y = (2x − 3)( x + 5).

2. y = x sin x.

3. y = x2 e x .
du dv
1. Let u = 2x − 3 and v = x + 5. Then dx = 2 and dx = 1. Using the formula in (3.7), we have

dy dv du
= u +v
dx dx dx
= (2x − 3) × 1 + ( x + 5) × 2
= 4x + 7.

2. Let u = x and v = sin x, then du dv

dx = 1 and dx = cos x. Now,
dy
dx = x × cos x + sin x × 1 = x cos x + sin x.

3. Let u = x2 , v = e x , then du dv x
dx = 2x and dx = e . Therefore,
dy 2 x x 2 x x
dx = x × e + e × 2x = x e + 2xe .

Exercise 3.3.1.

Differentiate the following functions wrt the variables contained in them.

1. y = (3x + 1)(2x2 − 5x ).

2. y = (1 + 1x )(2 − 1x ).

3. y = ( x − 1x )( x − 1
x3
).
14 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

4. y = (3x − sin x )( x2 + cos x )

5. y = e x (1 − cos 2x ).
√
6. y = x ( x + 3).

7. y = (1 + x3 )(2 − x )2 .

3.4 Quotient Rule

u( x )
Let u( x ) and v( x ) be two differentiable functions of x and v( x ) 6= 0. If y = v( x )
, then

dy v du dv
dx − u dx
= . (3.8)
dx v2
dy
Example 3.4.1. Find dx if
x 2 +1
1. y = x 2 + x +1
.

2. y = tan x.
√
x
3. y = x 3 +1
.
x sin x
4. y = ( x 2 +1)
.

1. Let u = x2 + 1 and v = x2 + x − 1. Now, du dv

dx = 2x and dx = 2x + 1. Substituting these values
into (3.8)
dy ( x2 + x − 1)(2x ) − ( x2 + 1)(2x + 1) x2 − 4x − 1
= = .
dx ( x 2 + x − 1)2 ( x 2 + x − 1)2
sin x
2. Using trigonometric identity, we can write y = tan x as y = cos x . Let u = sin x and v = cos x.
So du dv
dx = cos x and dx = − sin x. This leads to

dy (cos x )(cos x ) − (sin x )(− sin x ) cos2 x + sin2 x 1

= = = = sec2 x.
dx cos2 x cos2 x cos2 x
√ 1
3. Let u = x and v = x3 + 1. This implies that du
dx = 12 x − 2 and dv
dx = 3x2 .
5
1 1 √1 − 5x 2
dy ( x3 + 1)( 21 x − 2 ) − ( x 2 )(3x2 ) x 1 − 5x3
= = = √ .
dx ( x 3 + 1)2 2( x 3 + 1)2 2 x ( x 3 + 1)2

du dv
4. Let u = x sin x and v = x2 + 1. This means dx = sin x + x cos x and dx = 2x. Now,

dy ( x2 + 1)(sin x + x cos x ) − ( x sin x )(2x )

=
dx ( x 2 + 1)2
x3 cos x − x2 sin x + sin x + x cos x
= .
( x 2 + 1)2

Exercise 3.4.1.
3.5. CHAIN RULE 15

Differentiate the following.

2t
1. y = et
.
2x sin x
2. y = ex .

6x
3. y = 1+5x .

4. y = √3x −1 .
2x −1
√
2
5. y = √ x +1 .
1− x 2
x
6. y = x +cos x .
cosec x
7. y = x2
.
x −1
8. y = x +1 .

x 2 +1
9. y = x 4 +1
.

x2 +5x +2
10. y = x 2 + x −2
.

2x3 + x
11. y = 3x2 −6
.
cos x +sin x
12. y = cos x −sin x .

x 2 +1
13. y = sin x cos x .

2x sin x
14. y = ex .

2x +1
15. y = 3x +1 .

3.5 Chain Rule

So far the methods of differentiation described cannot be used to differentiate expressions of the
11 √
form y = (3x2 + 1) 6 or y = 3 2x + 1. This is what gives rise to the Chain rule. The chain rule is
used for composite functions in which we can express y = f ( g( x )) where f and g are differentiable
functions of x. The following result is of importance in understanding the chain rule.

Lemma 3.5.1. : Let f and g be two differentiable functions of x such that

y = f ( g( x )). If u = g( x ), then
dy dy du
= × . (3.9)
dx du dx
du dy
1. Differentiate y = (2x + 5)3 . Let u = 2x + 5, dx = 2 and y = u3 . This means du = 3u2 and
dy 2 2 2
dx = (3u ) × 2 = 6u = 6(2x + 5) .

du dy
2. Differentiate y = sin 3x wrt x. Let u = 3x, dx = 3 and y = sin u or du = cos u. Using (3.9),
dy
dx = cos u × 3 = 3 cos u = 3 cos 3x.
16 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
√ 1 dy 1
3. Differentiate y = x4 + 1 wrt x. Let u = x4 + 1, du
dx = 4x3 . y = u 2 and du = 12 u− 2 . This
dy 1 3
implies dx = ( 12 u− 2 )(4x3 ) = √2x4 .
x +1

dy
4. y = e±αx , where α is a constant. If we let u = ±αx, then y = eu . Hence, du = eu and du
dx = ±α.
Using (3.9) and after making the necessary substitutions, we obtain

dy
= ±αe±αx .
dx
More generally, if f ( x ) is a differentiable function of x, we find by the Chain rule that

d f (x)
dx e = f 0 ( x )e f (x) .

1 1 dy 2
5. y = ( x2 + a2 ) 3 . Let u = x2 + a2 , then y = u 3 . Hence, du
dx = 2x and du = 31 u− 3 . Therefore,
 
dy 1 2 2x
= (2x ) × u− 3 = √ 3
.
dx 3 3( x 2 + a2 )2

6. Suppose y is a differentiable function of x. Express the derivative (wrt x) of each of the

dy
following in terms of x, y and dx .

(a). y3
(b). sin y
(c). 2x3 y4

(a). It might appear that the derivative of y3 with respect to x would be 3y2 , but this is false
because we must differentiate y3 with respect to x, not with respect to y. To differentiate
correctly, we use Chain rule of the form

du du dy
= × , (3.10)
dx dy dx

where u = y3 . We obtain du
= d 3 d 3 dy dy
= 3y2 dx
dx dx ( y ) = dy ( y ) dx .
(b). Let u = sin y. This implies

d d dy dy
(sin y) = (sin y) = cos y .
dx dy dx dx

(c). Since 2x3 y4 is the product of the functions 2x3 and y4 , we take the derivative of the
product using (3.10) with u = y4 when we differentiate y4 with respect to x.
 
d 3 4 d 3 4 d
(2x y ) = 2x y + 2x3 (y4 )
dx dx dx
 
2 4 3 3 dy
= 6x y + 2x 4y
dx
dy
= 6x2 y4 + 8x3 y3 .
dx
3.6. DIFFERENTIATION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 17

Exercise 3.5.1. Using the Chain rule, differentiate the following with respect to the variable contained in
them.
1
(1). y = cos 3x (8). y = √
(1+ x )3
2
(2). y = (6x2 − 7)7 (9). y = (sin√x ) 3
(3). y = sin(4x + 5) (10). y = e− x
(4). y4 (11). cos y3
2
(5). y (12).x5 y3
p √
(6). x 2 + y2 (13). sin y
 32
√

p
1 3 1 −2
(7). y = 1 + x (14). y = 3 α − 2 α

3.6 Differentiation of Exponential Functions

As discussed earlier under Chain rule for differentiation, if f ( x ) is a differentiable function of x,
then
d f (x)
dx e = f 0 ( x )e f (x) . (3.11)

Sometimes, depending on the complexity of the function to be differentiated, one may take the
natural logarithm of both sides before differentiating.

Example 3.6.1.

Differentiate the following functions

1. y = eαx , find a formula for the nth derivative of y.

2
2. y = e x

2
3. y = ex

√
4. y = e− 2x

5. y = e ax sin bx

6. y = esin x
x
7. y = ee

− βx
8. y = ke−αe

9. The distance s travelled by a moving particle is given by s = aekt + be−kt , where a, b and
k are positive constants and t denotes time. Show that the acceleration of the particle is
proportional to the distance travelled.
18 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

1. Using formula (3.11),

dy
= αeαx
dx
d2 y
= α2 eαx
dx2
d3 y
= α3 eαx
dx3
d4 y
= α4 eαx .
dx4
In general, for any positive integer n,

dn y
= αn eαx .
dx n
2 dy 2
2. If y = e x , then dx = 2xe x .
dy
3. If y = 2
ex = 2e−x , then dx = −2e−x .
√
dy √ √
4. If y = e− 2x , then dx = − 2e− 2x .
5. If y = e ax sin bx, then by applying the product rule with u = e ax and v = sin bx we have
dy ax
dx = e ( a sin bx + b cos bx )
dy
6. If y = esin x , then dx = esin x cos x.
x x
7. y = ee . In this example, we take the natural logarithm of both sides i.e, ln y = ln ee . This
gives ln y = e x ln e = e x , because
ln e = loge e = 1. We differentiate both sides implicitly to yield
1 dy x dy x dy x +e x .
y dx = e or dx = ye . If we substitute the value of y, then dx = e

− βx − βx
8. y = ke−αe where k is a constant. Take ln of both sides, to yield ln y = ln ke−αe =
− − βx − − −
ln k + ln e αe = ln k − αe βx ln e = ln k − αe βx . Hence, ln y = ln k − αe βx . Differentiate
implicitly to yield,
1 dy − βx or dy = y [ αβe− βx ] = ( kαβ ) e−(αe− βx + βx )
y dx = αβe dx

9. If s = aekt + be−kt , then ds

dt = kaekt − kbe−kt . Differentiating again yields,

d2 s
= ak2 ekt + bk2 e−kt = k2 ( aekt + be−kt )
dt2

Exercise 3.6.1. :

Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

x
1. y = e a
x x
2. y = e a + e− a

3. y = e2x ln x
3.7. LEIBNITZ RULE 19

4. y = x2 e3x
√1
5. y = e x

2 + bx + c
6. y = e ax
e x −1
7. y = e x +1

d2 y dy
8. If y = 3e2x cos(2x − 3), then show that dx2
− 4 dx + 8y = 0.
d2 y dy
9. If y = 2x2 − 5x, then prove that x2 dx2 − 2x dx + 2y = 0.
d2 y dy
10. If y = xe ax , then show that dx2
− 2a dx + a2 y.

3.7 Leibnitz Rule

Let u = u( x ) and v = v( x ) be differentiable functions of x. If y = uv, then applying product rule
repeatedly, we have
y0 = uv0 + u0 v.
Similarly, differentiating the above wrt x
y00 = uv00 + u0 v0 + u0 v0 + u00 v = u00 v + 2u0 v0 + uv00 .
In the same vein, if we differentiate the above expression, we obtain
y000 = uv000 + u0 v00 + 2(u0 v0 + u00 v0 ) + u00 v0 + u000 v
= uv000 + u0 v00 + 2u0 v00 + 2u00 v0 + u00 v0 + u000 v
= u000 v + 3u00 v0 + 3u0 v00 + uv000 .
Continuous differentiation yields
dn y
= un v +n C1 un−1 v0 +n C2 un−2 v00 + nC3 un−3 v000 + · · · + uvn ,
dx n
where un , un−1 , · · · etc are the nth, (n − 1)th derivative of u with respect to x. Alternatively, since
y = uv, then
  n −1   n −2 2
dn y dn u n d u dv n d ud v
= v+ + +···
dx n dx n 1 dx n − 1 dx 2 dx n−2 dx2
du dn−1 v dn v
 
n
+ + u
n − 1 dx dx n−1 dx n
dn u n dn−1 u dv n dn−2 u d2 v
= v + C1 + C2 n−2 2 + · · ·
dx n dx n−1 dx dx dx
n
du d v − 1 n
d v
+n Cn−1 n − 1
+ u n. (3.12)
dx dx dx
nC n!
where r = (n−r )!r!
and
dk M
 
d d d
= (· · · ) M,
dx k dx dx dx
| {z }
k times
20 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

means differentiating M, k times with respect to x as in the case k = 3 below.

d3 4 2 d2 d
3
( x + 4x − 1 ) = 2
(4x3 + 8x ) = (12x2 + 8) = 24x.
dx dx dx
Example 3.7.1.
d 3
Use Leibnitz rule to find the third derivative ( dx 3 ) of the following functions

1. y = x2 ( x3 + 1)

2. e x sin x

3. e ax cos bx

4. e ax sin bx

1. Let u = x2 and v = x3 + 1.
u0 = 2x, v0 = 3x2
u00 = 2, v00 = 6x
000
u = 0, v000 = 6
Using Leibnitz rule with Pascal’s coefficients, we have

d3 2 3
x ( x + 1) = u000 v + 3u00 v0 + 3u0 v00 + uv000
dx3
= 0( x3 + 1) + 3(2)(3x2 ) + 3(2x )(6x ) + 6x2
= 18x2 + 36x2 + 6x2 = 60x2 .

2. Let u = e x and v = sin x.

u0 = e x , v0 = cos x
u00 = e x , v00 = − sin x
u000 = e x , v000 = − cos x.
Using Leibnitz rule with Pascal’s coefficients, we have

d3 x
e sin x = u000 v + 3u00 v0 + 3u0 v00 + uv000
dx3
= e x sin x + 3e x (cos x ) + 3e x (− sin x ) + e x (− cos x )
= 2e x (cos x − sin x ).

3. Let u = e ax and v = sin bx.

u0 = ae ax , v0 = b cos bx
u00 = a2 e ax , v00 = −b2 cos bx
u000 = a3 e ax , v000 = b3 cos bx
Using Leibnitz rule with Pascal’s coefficients, we have

d3 ax
e sin bx = u000 v + 3u00 v0 + 3u0 v00 + uv000
dx3
= a3 e ax sin bx + 3( a2 e ax )(b cos bx )
+3( ae ax )(−b2 cos bx ) + b3 e ax sin bx
= ( a3 + b3 )e ax sin bx + 3( a2 b − ab2 )e ax cos bx.
3.7. LEIBNITZ RULE 21

4. Let u = e ax and v = cos bx.

u0 = ae ax , v0 = b cos bx
u00 = a2 e ax , v00 = −b2 sin bx
u000 = a3 e ax , v000 = −b3 cos bx
uiv = a4 e ax , viv = b4 sin bx.
Using Leibnitz rule with Pascal’s coefficients, we have

d4
uv = uiv v + 4u000 v0 + 6u00 v00 + 4u0 v000 + uviv
dx4
= ( a4 e ax )(sin bx ) + 4( a3 e ax )(b cos bx ) + 6( a2 e ax )(−b2 sin bx )
+4( ae ax )(−b3 cos bx ) + e ax (b4 sin bx )
= ( a4 − 6a2 b2 + b4 )e ax sin bx + 4( a3 b − ab3 )e ax cos bx.

Exercise 3.7.1.

d4
Find dx4
of the following:
√
(1). x ( x + 3)2 (2). e2x ln x
(3). e3x cos 5x (4). 3e2x sin 4x
(5). e−ax cos 3x (6). e−ax sin2 2x
d3 2x
(7). e2x cos(2x − 1) (8).Find dx 38 cos 5x.

(9). The Gompertz growth curve, which appears in population studies, is the graph of the func-
tion g defined by
−cx )
g( x ) = ae(−be .

Find g00 ( x ).

(10). Let
α
f (x) = , x ≥ 0,
(1 + βe−kαx )

where α, β and k are non negative but real constants. The graph of f is a logistic curve and it
has played a significant role in population ecology during the past century and a half.

(a). Show that

α3 βk2 e−kαx (−1 + βe−kαx )
f 00 ( x ) = .
(1 + βe−kαx )3

(b). Use the formula in (a) above to find the value of c such that f 00 (c) = 0.
(c). Find f (c) in terms of α.

(11). Show that y = e−2mx sin 4mx is a solution of the equation

d2 y dy
dx2
+ 4m dx + 20m2 y = 0.
22 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

3.8 Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions

Logarithmic differentiation consists of the following steps
1. If there is no label, then label the function to be differentiated by a new letter say y = f ( x ),
ELSE, jump to step 2 below.

2. Take natural logarithm of both sides, apply the laws of logarithm and simplify.

3. Differentiate both sides implicitly with respect to x.

dy
4. Solve for dx , replace the value of y = f ( x ) and simplify.
We start by showing how to find the derivative of y = ln x. First, this is the same as y = loge x.
dy
Using the property of logarithm ey = x. Differentiating both sides implicitly, we have ey dx = 1,
dy dy
this implies dx = e1y . Substitute the value of y = ln x yields dx = eln1 x . But, eln x = eloge x = x.
dy
Hence, dx = 1x .
Theorem 3.8.1. If u = u( x ) 6= 0 is a differentiable function of x and y = ln u( x ), then
dy 1 du
= . (3.13)
dx u( x ) dx

Proof: From the definition of ln, y = ln u( x ) = loge u( x ) or u( x ) = ey . After differentiating both

dy dy
sides implicitly wrt x, we have ey dx = du y du
dx . But e = u ( x ), implies u ( x ) dx = dx and after making
dy dy 1 du
dx the subject, we have dx = u( x ) dx .

Example 3.8.1. :

1. If y = ln ax, then using (3.13),

dy 1 du 1 d 1 1
= = ( ax ) = ( a) = .
dx u( x ) dx ax dx ax x

2. If y = ln 2x = ln 2x −1 , then with u = 2x −1 , du
dx = −2x −2 .
dy 1 du 1 1
= = −1 (−2x −2 ) = − .
dx u( x ) dx 2x x

3. If y = ln( ax2 + b), then

dy 1 du 1 d 2ax
= = 2 ( ax2 + b) = 2 .
dx u( x ) dx ax + b dx ax + b
q
1+ x 2
4. If y = ln 1− x 2
, then using the properties of ’ln’,
p p
y = ln 1 + x2 − ln 1 − x2
1 1
= ln(1 + x2 ) 2 − ln(1 − x2 ) 2
1 1
= ln(1 + x2 ) − ln(1 − x2 ).
2 2
3.8. DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 23

Differentiate both sides,

dy 1 1 1 1
= (2x ) − (−2x )
dx 2 (1 + x 2 ) 2 (1 − x 2 )
 
1 2x 2x
= +
2 (1 + x 2 ) (1 − x 2 )
2x
= .
1 − x4

5. If y = log3 ( x2 + 4), then using the definition of ’log’, we have

3y = x2 + 4. Taking ln of both sides yields ln 3y = ln( x2 + 4) or y ln 3 = ln( x2 + 4). This
ln( x2 +4)
implies y = ln 3 . Hence,
dy 1 2x
= 2
.
dx ln 3 ( x + 4)
2
6. y = 2(x −1) . Take ’ln’ of both sides, ln y = ( x2 − 1) ln 2. Differentiating both sides implicitly,
dy
we have 1y dx = 2x ln 2. Hence, after multiplying both sides by y

dy 2 2
= 2(x −1) (2x ln 2) = 2x ( x ln 2).
dx

3.8.1 Logarithmic Differentiation of a Product

Consider y = uvw · · · , where u, v, w · · · are differentiable functions of x. Take ln of both sides
ln y = ln u + ln v + ln w + · · · .
Differentiating, we have
d d d d
(ln y) = (ln u) + (ln v) + (ln w) + · · ·
dx dx dx dx
d dy d du d dv d dw
(ln y) = (ln u) + (ln v) + (ln w) +···
dx dx du dx dv dx dw dx
1 dy 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
= + + +···
y dx u dx v dx w dx
 
dy 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
= y + + +···
dx u dx v dx w dx
 
dy 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
= (uvw · · · ) + + +··· .
dx u dx v dx w dx
Example 3.8.2. :
1. If y = ln[( x2 − 1)( x3 + 2)], then using the properties of ’ln’ we have y = ln( x2 − 1) + ln( x3 +
2). Differentiating both sides we have
dy 2x 3x2
= +
dx x2 − 1 x3 + 2
2x ( x3 + 2) + 3x2 ( x2 − 1)
=
( x2 − 1)( x3 + 2)
5x4 − 3x2 + 4x
= .
( x2 − 1)( x3 + 2)
24 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

2. Let y = x3 tan(3x + 2) sin 3x. Take ln of both sides to obtain

ln y = ln x3 + ln tan(3x + 2) + ln(sin 3x ).

Differentiating both sides wrt x yields

1 dy 3 1 d 1 d
= + tan(3x + 2) + sin 3x
y dx x tan(3x + 2) dx sin 3x dx
3 1 3 1
= + × 2
+ × (3 cos 3x )
x tan(3x + 2) cos (3x + 2) sin 3x
3 3
= + + 3 cot 3x
x sin(3x + 2) cos(3x + 2)
3 6
= + + 3 cot 3x.
x sin(6x + 4)

Therefore,
 
dy 3 6
= y + + 3 cot 3x
dx x sin(6x + 4)
 
3 6
= x3 tan(3x + 2) sin 3x + + 3 cot 3x .
x sin(6x + 4)

1 1
(5 ln tan x ) 2 (5 ln tan x ) 2
3. Differentiate ln(ln cos ax sin bx) with respect to x. Let y = ln(ln cos ax sin bx )
. In the usual fashion,
take ln of both sides to yield

1
ln y = ln[5 ln tan x ] − ln[ln(ln cos ax sin bx )].
2

Differentiate both sides wrt x, to yield

1 dy 1 1 5 sec2 x 1 1
= − ×
y dx 2 (5 ln tan x ) tan x ln(ln cos ax sin bx ) ln cos ax sin bx
1
(b cos ax cos bx − a sin ax sin bx )
cos ax sin bx
sec2 x b cos ax cos bx − a sin ax sin bx
= − .
2 tan x ln tan x ln(ln cos ax sin bx )(ln cos ax sin bx )(cos ax sin bx )

Hence, if we let w = ln(ln cos ax sin bx )(ln cos ax sin bx )(cos ax sin bx ) for ease of notation,
then

sec2 x b cos ax cos bx − a sin ax sin bx

 
dy
= y −
dx 2 tan x ln tan x ln(ln cos ax sin bx )(ln cos ax sin bx )(cos ax sin bx )
1
sec2 x b cos ax cos bx − a sin ax sin bx
 
(5 ln tan x ) 2
= − .
ln(ln cos ax sin bx ) 2 tan x ln tan x w

dy
Exercise 3.8.1. Find dx of the following or with respect to the variables contained in them:
3.9. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 25
(1). xsin x (2). xcos 3x
(3). 2ln x (4). x2x−1
(5). (ln x ) x (6). ln(ln x )
(7). (log10 x ) ln x (8). log10 cos x
(9). y = (3x − 2)2 e2x+3 cos(2 − x ) (10). y√= (αx + β) ax+b
(11). y = ln(αx + b)αx+ β (12). ln x
√ √
(13). ln qsin 2x (14). y = (2x − 1) 3
1−cos x 1
(15). ln 1+cos x (16). x (2x + 1)5 ( x2 + 4) 2
(3u+1)(cos 2u)
(17). q e5u (18). x x
α+ βt
(19). ln α− βt (20). y = x log2 x
√
 √ 
x + √ x 2 −1
(21). y = ln[ x + x 2 − 1] (22). ln 2
x − x −1
2
(23). (3x + 5)4 ( x 2 + 3)5 (24). e a sin x cos x
1 √
−1 [ln(ln 1 − x2 )]
(25). (3x + 5)4 ( x2 + 3)√5 (6x + 1) 3 (26). y = cos
√
−1 x2 −1 ln(ln x ) 2 ln cos−1 x
(27). y = (cos2 x )tan (28). y = ln(1+tan2 x )
.

(29). If s = t cos πt
10 , then show that

d2 s 2 ds π2
 
2
− + + s = 0.
dt2 t dt 100 t2

(30). If y = e2x cos πx, then prove that

d3 y d2 y dy
3
− 4 2
+ ( π 2 + 4) = 0.
dx dx dx

3.9 Implicit Differentiation

If y is given in terms of x, y is said to be an explicit function of x. However, if y and x are connected
by an equation (from which we may or may not be able to express y in terms of x), then y is said
to be an implicit function of x.
Example 3.9.1. :
dy
1. Differentiate implicitly x2 + y2 = 9. Differentiate both sides to yield 2x + 2y dx = 0 or
dy dy
2y dx = −2x. This implies dx = − yx .
√
2. Find the equation of the line that is tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = 9 at the point (−2, 5).
Since the equation of a line is given by y = mx + c, then we need to find the gradient m at
√ dy
the point (−2, 5). But dx = − yx , hence
√
dy 2 2 5
m= =√ = .
dx (x,y)=(−2,√5) 5 5

Recall from elementary geometry that given a gradient m and any two points ( x1 , y1 ), the
equation of a line is √ √
y − y1 y− 5 2 5
m= or = .
x − x1 x+2 5
26 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
√ √
Which reduces to 5y − 2 5 = 9 5.
dy
3. Find dx if x3 + y3 = 2xy (this is called the folium of Descartes). If we differentiate both sides,
dy dy dy
then 3x2 + 3y2 dx = 2y + 2x dx . After collecting like terms and making dx the subject we have
dy 2y−3x2
dx = 3y2 −2x
.

4. Differentiate xe−y = ln x + sin x implicitly. After differentiating both sides wrt x,

dy 1 dy
e−y − xe−y = + cos y .
dx x dx
dy
This can also be written as x ( xe−y + cos y) dx = xe−y − 1. Hence,
dy xe−y − 1
= .
dx x ( xe−y + cos y)
dy
5. Find dx if y sin x + y2 = 1. Differentiate both sides to obtain
dy dy dy y cos x
y cos x + sin x dx + 2y dx = 0. Hence, dx = − 2y+sin x .

6. Find the equation of the line that is tangent to ln xy = 2x + 3y − 5 at the point (1, 1). Differ-
entiate both sides implicitly to obtain
 
1 dy dy dy dy
y+x = 2+3 or y+x = 2xy + 3xy .
xy dx dx dx dx
dy 2xy−y
This reduces to dx = x −3xy and

dy 2(1)(1) − 1 1
= =− .
dx (1,1) 1 − 3(1)(1) 2
y −1
This means x −1 = − 21 and x + 2y = 3.
dy d2 y
7. If x2 − xy + y2 = 7, then find dx and dx2
at x = 3 and y = 2. If we differentiate both sides,
dy dy dy dy y−2x
then 2x − y − x dx + 2y dx = 0. Hence, (2y − x ) dx = y − 2x and dx = 2y− x . Now1 ,
dy dy
d2 y (2y − x )( dx − 2) − (y − 2x )(2 dx − 1)
=
dx2 (2y − x ) 2

dy dy
(2y − x ) dx + 2x − 4y − [(2y − 4x ) dx + 2x − y]
=
(2y − x )2
dy
3x dx − 3y
= .
(2y − x )2
dy 3−4 d2 y d2 y
At x = 2, y = 3, dx = 6−2 = − 41 . Substituting these values into dx2
, we obtain dx2
= − 21
32 .
1 Another approach: dy dy
Cross-multiply, (2y − x ) dx = y − 2x. After differentiating both sides implicitly, we have (2 dx −
dy d2 y dy
1) dx + (2y − x ) dx2 = dx − 2. Hence,
dy dy dy
d2 y 2[( dx )2 − dx + 1] 3x dx − 3y
2
= = ,
dx x − 2y (2y − x )2
dy
after making substitutions for dx .
3.9. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 27
d2 y dy
8. Find dx2
if x2 + y2 = 9. Recall from Example 1 that dx = − yx . Using quotient rule,

dy
d2 y (−1)y − (− x ) dx
=
dx2 y2
dy
−y + x dx
=
y2
−y − x ( yx )
=
y2
−( x2 + y2 )
=
y3
9
= − 3.
y

dy dy dy dy d y 2
Alternatively, from dx = − yx , we have y dx = − x. Differentiate implicitly, ( dx )( dx ) + y dx 2 =
d y 2
x +y 2 2 d2 y 2 2
−1. This simplifies to y dx 2 = −( y2 ) and dx2
= −( x y+3y ) = − y93 .

Exercise 3.9.1.

Differentiate implicitly the following functions

1. x2 + 3xy + 5y2 = 1

2. xey + ye x = 4

3. 10x ln y = ye x

4. xe−y = ln x + sin y
y
xy + 1 = yx + x
p
5.
√ p
6. xy + x + 2y = 7
√
7. y + y ln x = x2 + y2
sin y
8. y2 +1
= 3x
3
9. ( x2 + y3 ) 2 = 2xy
d2 y
10. Use implicit differentiation to find dx2
in

(a). x2 + y4 = 8

(b). x2 sin 2y = 2

(c). 2xy3 = 3

11. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given equations at the specified
points.

(a). sin x = cos y; ( π6 ; π3 )

28 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

(b). y = xe x ; (1, e)

(c). y = x ln x, (e, e)

(d). sin( x + y) = 2x; (0, π )

(e). ln( x2 − 3y) = x − y − 1; (2, 1)

2y
(f). 2e x = x; (2, 0)

(g). xey + y = e2 + ln x; (e, 1)

d2 y
12. If x2 + 2xy + 3y2 = 1, then show that ( x + 3y)3 dx2 + 2 = 0

3.10 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric functions

The inverse trigonometric functions are:

(i) y = sin−1 x if x = sin y, and − π2 < y < π

2.

(ii) y = cos−1 x if x = cos y, and 0 < y < π.

(iii) y = tan−1 x; if x = tan y, and − π2 < y < π

2.

(iv) y = cot−1 x if x = cot y, and 0 < y < π.

(v) y = sec−1 x if x = sec y, and 0 ≤ y < π

2 and π
2 < y ≤ π.

(vi) y = csc−1 x if x = csc y, and − π2 ≤ y < 0 and 0 < y ≤ π

2.

To obtain the derivative of the six inverse trigonometric functions, we proceed as follows.

(i) Let y = sin−1 x where x ∈ [−1, 1]. Rearrange the expression to have x = q sin y. Differentiate
dy dy
implicitly to have 1 = cos y dx . This means that dx = cos y . But cos y = 1 − sin2 y. Thus
1

dy
dx = 1
cos y =√ 1
= √ 1 , (since sin2 y = x2 ).
1−sin2 y 1− x 2

(ii) Let y = cos−1 x where x ∈ [−1, 1]. Rearrange the expression to have x = cos y. Differentiate
dy dy
implicitly to have 1 = − sin y dx . This means that dx = − sin1 y . But sin y = 1 − cos2 y. Thus
p

dy
dx = − sin1 y = − √ 1
= − √11−x2 , (since cos2 y = x2 ).
1− cos2 y

(iii) Let y = tan−1 x where x ∈ (−∞, ∞). Rearrange the expression to have x = tan y. Differenti-
dy dy
ate implicitly to have 1 = sec2 y dx . This means that dx = sec12 y . But sec2 y = 1 + tan2 y. Thus
dy 1 1 1
dx = sec2 y
= 1+tan2 y
= 1+ x 2
, (since tan2 y = x2 ).

(iv) Let y = cot−1 x where x ∈ (−∞, ∞). Rearrange the expression to have x = cot y. Differen-
dy dy
tiate implicitly to have 1 = − csc2 y dx . This means that dx = − csc12 y . But csc2 y = 1 + cot2 y.
dy
Thus dx = − csc12 y = − 1+cot
1 1 2 2
2 y = − 1+ x 2 , (since cot y = x ).
3.10. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 29

(v) Let y = sec−1 x where | x |> 1. Rearrange the expression to have x = sec y. Differentiate
dy dy
implicitly to have 1 = sec y tan y dx . This means that dx = sec y1tan y . But tan y = ± sec2 y − 1.
p

dy 1 1 
Thus = = ± √ =± √1 , (since sec2 y = x2 ).
dx cos y sec2 y−1 sec y (x x 2 −1 )
dy
Therefore, = √1 , for | x | > 1.
dx | x | x 2 −1

(vi) Let y = csc−1 x where | x |> 1. Rearrange the expression to have x = csc y. Differentiate
implicitly to have
dy dy
1 = − csc y cot y dx . This means that dx = − csc y1cot y . But cot y = ± csc2 y − 1. Thus,
p

dy
dx = − csc y1cot y = ± √ 1 
=− √1 , (since csc2 y = x2 ).
csc2 y−1 csc y (| x| x 2 −1 )

Generally, if u is a differentiable function of x, then

d −1 √ 1 du d −1 1 du
dx (sin u) = ; dx (cos u) = − √
1−u2 dx 1−u2 dx

d −1 1 du d −1 u) = − 1+1 u2 du
dx (tan u) = 1+ u2 dx
; dx (cot dx

d −1 √1 du d −1 u) = − √1 du
dx (sec u) =
|u| u2 −1 dx
; dx (csc |u| u2 −1 dx
We prove the first two and leave the rest as exercise for the reader.

(i) Let y = sin−1 u, where u is a function of x. Then u = sin y. By implicit differentiation, we

dy dy dy
have du 1 du
dx = cos y dx . Making dx , the subject we have dx = cos y dx =
√ 1 2 dudx =
√ 1 du
2 dx
,
1−sin y 1− u
2
(since u2 = sin y). This gives the formula

d 1 du
(sin−1 u) = √
dx 1 − u dx
2

(ii) Let y = cos−1 u, where u is a function of x. Then u = cos y. By implicit differentiation, we

dy dy dy
have du 1 du
dx = − sin y dx . Making dx , the subject we have dx = − sin y dx = −
√ 1 2 du dx = 1− cos y
− √11−u2 du 2 2
dx , (since u = cos y). This gives the formula

d 1 du
(cos−1 u) = − √
dx 1 − u2 dx

Example 3.10.1. Differentiate the following inverse trigonometric functions.

1+tan−1 x

4
(a) y = x3 cos−1 (4x3 − 1) (b) y = e x sin−1 ( x2 − 2) (c) y = 4−5 tan−1 x
(d) y = sin−1 ( x3 ) .

Solution.
30 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

(a) Let y = x3 cos−1 (4x3 − 1). If we apply the product rule, then

dy d  −1  d
= x3 cos (4x3 − 1) + cos−1 (4x3 − 1) ( x3 )
dx dx ! dx
1 d
= x3 − p 4x3 − 1


3
1 − (4x − 1) 2 dx
+ 3x2 cos−1 (4x3 − 1)
!
1
3
12x2 + 3x2 cos−1 (4x3 − 1)


=x −p
1 − (4x3 − 1)2
12x5
= −p + 3x2 cos−1 (4x3 − 1)
1 − (4x3 − 1)2
!
4x3
= 3x2 cos−1 (4x3 − 1) − p
1 − (4x3 − 1)2
− cos−1
p
4x3 − 1 (−4x4 + 2x ) + 2x2



= −3x2 p .
(−4x4 + 2x )

(b) Let y = e x sin−1 ( x2 − 2). If we apply the product rule, then

dy d  −1 2  d
= ex sin ( x − 2) + sin−1 ( x2 − 2) (e x )
dx dx ! dx
1 d
= ex p x2 − 2 + sin−1 ( x2 − 2)e x


2
1 − ( x − 2) 2 dx
2xe x
=p + sin−1 ( x2 − 2)e x
1 − ( x 2 − 2)2
−1


p
x 2x + sin x2 − 2 (−3 − x4 + 4x2 )
=e p .
(−3 − x4 + 4x2 )

1+tan−1 x
(c) Let y = 4−5 tan−1 x
. After applying the quotient rule, we have

4 − 5 tan−1 x 1 + tan−1 x − dx
d d
4 − 5 tan−1 x




dy dx
=
2
dx 4 − 5 tan−1 x
−1 x

 1  −1 x

 
1

dy 4 − 5 tan 1+ x 2 − 1 + tan (− 5 ) 1+ x 2
=
2
dx −
4 − 5 tan x 1

dy 9
=
2 .
dx (1 + x2 ) −4 + 5 tan−1 x
3.10. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 31

4
(d) Let y = sin−1 ( x3 ) . If we apply the chain rule, then
dy  3 d  
= 4 sin−1 ( x3 ) sin−1 ( x3 )
dx dx !

−1 3
3 1 d 3


= 4 sin ( x ) p x
1 − ( x3 )2 dx
 3  3x2 
−1 3
= 4 sin ( x ) √
1 − x6
3
12x2 sin−1 ( x3 )


= √ .
1 − x6

3.10.1 Exercises
1. Differentiate the following inverse trigonometric functions with respect to x.
(a) sin−1 (4x3 − 3) (b) cos−1 (sin x ) (c) cos−1 (2x3 e x ) (d) tan−1 12x


−x
−1 x, d2 y dy
2. If y = etan show that 1 + x2 + 2x (1 + x2 ) dx


dx2
− y = 0.

21
dy
3. If y = 1 − x2 cos−1 x, prove that 1 − x2 + xy + 1 − x2 = 0.


dx

3  2
4. Differentiate (a) y = x2 tan−1 x (b) y = tan−1 e− x (c) y = cot−1 1
− tan−1 x


x

dy
if y = exp x cos−1 (ln x ) .


5. Find dx

3.10.2 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.

The inverse hyperbolic functions can be differentiated by the following technique.
1) Write the relationship in such a way that the independent variable becomes the dependent
variable. For example if y = sinh−1 x, then x = sinh y.
2) Differentiate the equation implicitly.
dy
3) Rearrange to make derivative (in this case dx ), the subject.
4) Using an appropriate identity, write the expression in terms of the independent variable.
Example 3.10.2. Differentiate the following
(a) y = cosh−1 x (b) y = sinh−1 x (c) y = tanh−1 x
Solution:
dy
(a) Let y = cosh−1 x. This means that x = cosh y. Differentiate implicitly to have 1 = sinh y dx .
y −y
Since cosh y = e +2e and dx d
(cosh y) = 21 dx
d
(ey + e−y ) = 21 (ey − e−y ) = sinh y. Therefore
q
dy 2 2
dx = 1
sinh y . But cosh y − sin 2
y = 1 ⇒ sin 2
y = cosh y − 1 and sin y = cosh2 y − 1;
√ dy
sin y = x2 − 1. Therefore dx = √ 12 .
x −1

dy
(b) Given that y = sinh−1 x. Then x = sinh y Differentiating implicitly, we have 1 = cosh y dx .
dy
q √
1
This implies that dx = cosh y . But cosh y = 1 + sin2 y = 1 + x2 , since sinh2 y = x2 .
32 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
dy dy
(c) Let y = tanh−1 x, −1 < x < 1. Then x = tanh y, and 1 = sec h2 y dx . Thus dx = 1
sec h2 y
=
1 1
= , x2 < 1.
1−tanh2 y 1− x 2

Generally, if u is a differentiable function of x, then the derivative of the inverse hyperbolic

functions can be obtained as follows:
dy
(i) Let y = sinh−1 u , then u = sinh y. Using implicit differentiation du
dx = cosh y dx . Hence,
dy 1 du
dx = cosh y dx =
√ 1 2 dudx =
√ 1 du
2 dx
. This gives the formula
1+sinh y 1+ u

d 1 du
(sinh−1 u) = √ .
dx 1 + u dx
2

(ii) Similarly, let y = cosh−1 u, then u = cosh y. Now using implicit diffferentiation, we have
du dy dy 1 du
dx = sinh y dx . Hence, dx = sinh y dx =
√ 12 du
dx =
√ 1
2
du
dx . This gives the formula
cosh y−1 u −1

d 1 du
(cosh−1 u) = √ u > 1.
dx u − 1 dx
2

dy dy
(iii) Let y = tanh−1 u then u = tanh y, and du
dx = sec h2 y dx . Rearrange to have dx = 1 du
sec h2 y dx
=
1 du 1 du
1−tanh2 y dx
= 1−u2 dx
. This gives the formula

d 1 du
(tanh−1 u) = , u < 1.
dx 1 − u2 dx
 
dy dy
(iv) Let y = coth−1 u, then u = coth y. This means that du
dx = − csc h2 y dx = 1 − coth2 (y) dx ;
dy
Since coth2 y − csc h2 y = 1, we have dx = − 1−1u2 du
dx . This gives the formula

d 1 du
(coth−1 u) = − , u>1
dx 1 − u2 dx

dy
(v) Let y = sec h−1 u then u = sec hy. Differentiate implicitly to have du
dx = − sec hy tanh y dx .
Rearrage to have

dy 1 du
=−
dx sec hy tanh y dx
1 du
=− √
sec hy 1 − sec h2 u dx
1 du
=− √ .
u 1 − u dx
2

This gives the formula

d 1 du
(sec h−1 u) = − √ , 0 < u < 1.
dx u 1 − u dx
2
3.10. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 33

(vi) Finally, using simliar arguments, it can be proved that

d 1 du
(csc h−1 u) = − √ , u 6= 1.
dx | u | 1 + u dx
2

Example 3.10.3. Find the derivative of the following inverse

√ hyperbolic functions with respect to x.
−1 2 −1 3 −1
(i) cosh (2x + 3) (ii) sinh ( x ) (iii) sinh ( x2 − 1)
(iv) tanh−1 ( 3x2x
+ x2
). (v) sec h−1 ( x3 − 1)

Solution

(i) Let y = cosh−1 (2x2 + 3), and u = 2x2 + 3. From d

dx (cosh
−1
u) = √ 1 du
we have that
u2 −1 dx

d 1 d
(cosh−1 (2x2 + 3)) = p (2x2 + 3)
dx 2 2
(2x + 3) − 1 dx
4x
=p
(2x2 + 3)2 − 1
2x
=p .
( x4 + 3x2 + 2)

(ii) Let y = sinh−1 ( x3 ), and u = x3 . Now from the relation

d 1 du
(sinh−1 u) = √ ,
dx 1 + u dx
2

we have

d 1 d 3
(sinh−1 ( x3 )) = p (x )
dx 1 + ( x3 )2 dx
3x2
=p
1 + ( x 3 )2
3x2
=p .
(1 + x 6 )

√ √
(iii) Let y = sinh−1 ( x2 − 1), and u = x2 − 1, then

d p 1 d p 2
(sinh−1 ( x2 − 1)) = q √ ( x − 1)
dx 2 dx
1 + ( x 2 − 1)
1
1 2
2 (x − 1)− 2 (2x )
= q √
1 + ( x 2 − 1)2
1
=p .
( x2 − 1)
34 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

(iv) Let y = tanh−1 ( 3x2x

+ x2
), and u = 2x
3x + x2
, then from formula d
dx (tanh
−1
u) = 1 du
1−u2 dx
, we have
  
d −1 2x
tanh
dx 3x + x2
1 d 2x
= 2x
( )
1 − ( 3x+ x2 ) dx 3x + x2
2
!
d d
1 (3x + x2 ) dx (2x ) − 2x dx (3x + x2 )
=
1 − ( 3x2x
+ x2
)2 (3x + x2 )2
!
1 2(3x + x2 ) − 2x (3 + 2x )
=
1 − ( 3x2x
+ x2
)2 (3x + x2 )2
2
=− .
5 + 6x + x2

(v) Let y = sec h−1 ( x3 − 1), and u = x3 − 1. Then from the formula d −1
dx (sec h u ) = − u√11−u2 du
dx ,
we have

d 1 d 3
(sec h−1 ( x3 − 1)) = − p ( x − 1)
dx 3 3
( x − 1) 1 − ( x − 1) 2 dx
3x2
=− p
( x 3 − 1) 1 − ( x 3 − 1)2
3x
=− p .
( x − 1) (− x4 + 2x )
3

3.10.3 Exercises
(a) Differentiate the following hyperbolic functions with respect to x.
(i) cosh(3x ) (ii) cosh (e x ) (iii) e x sinh x2 + 3x


√
(iv) tanh 3x3 − 1 (v) coth x3 x2 − 1


 2

(vi)csc h(e x x2 − 2 (vii) sec h (3x2x−1)2

du dv
(b) If u = e x cosh x and v = e x sinh x, show that dx = dx and give a relation between u and v
that is independent of x.

(c) Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

(i) sinh−1 ( x4 − 2) (ii) sinh−1 (e−3x ) (iii) sinh−1 (cosh( x4 − 2))
√ √
(iv) x cosh−1 x + 1 + x2 (v) x2 ln x2 − 1 − x cosh−1 x
√  −1
(vii) sec h−1 (viii) x2 coth−1 x3 − 1 (ix) esinh x


1 − x2

3.11 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions

Recall that the six hyperbolic functions are:
3.11. DIFFERENTIATION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 35
e x −e− x e x + e− x
sinh x ≡ 2 , cosh x ≡ 2 ,

sinh x e x −e− x cosh x e x + e− x

tanh x ≡ cosh x = e x + e− x , coth x ≡ sinh x = e x −e− x ,

1 2 1 2
sec hx ≡ cosh x = e x +e− x , csc hx ≡ sinh x = e x −e− x .
The following identities are true of the hyperbolic functions.

cosh2 x − sinh2 y = 1; sec h2 x + tanh2 x = 1,

and coth2 y − csc h2 y = 1.

The derivatives of the hyperbolic functions can be obtained easily when written in terms of
exponentials. Since the derivative of e x is still e x and the derivative of e− x is −e− x , we can differ-
entiate the above equations to have:

d e x − e− x
 
d
[sinh x ] =
dx dx 2
1
= (e x + e− x )
2
d
= cosh x [cosh x ]
 dx
d e x + e− x

=
dx 2
1
= (e x − e− x )
2
= sinh x

Notice that the derivative of hyperbolic trigonometric sinh x is cosh x and the derivative of cosh x
is sinh x. This is unlike the trigonometric version, where the derivative of cos x is − sin x.
The derivatives of the remaining four functions can be obtained in a similar manner. That is

 
d d sinh x
[tanh x ] =
dx dx cosh x
d d
cosh x dx (sinh x ) − sinh x dx (cosh x )
= (quotient rule)
[cosh x ]2
cosh2 x − sinh2 y
=
cosh2 x
1
=
cosh2 x
= sec h2 x.
36 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

 
d d cosh x
[coth x ] =
dx dx sinh x
d d
sinh x dx (cosh x ) − cosh x dx (sinh x )
= 2
(quotient rule)
[sinh x ]
sinh2 y − cosh2 x
=
sinh2 x
(cosh2 x − sinh2 y)
=−
sinh2 x
1
=−
sinh2 x
= − csc h2 x.

 
d d 1
[sec hx ] =
dx dx cosh x
d d
cosh x dx (1) − (1) dx (cosh x )
= 2
[cosh x ]
sinh x
=−
[cosh x ]2
= − sec hx tanh x.

 
d d 1
[csc hx ] =
dx dx sinh x
d d
sinh x dx (1) − (1) dx (sinh x )
= 2
[sinh x ]
cosh x
=−
[sinh x ]2
= − coth x csc hx.
In general if u is a differentiable function of x, then
d du
[sinh u] = cosh u .
dx dx
d du
[cosh u] = sinh u .
dx dx
d du
[tanh u] = sec h2 u .
dx dx
d du
[coth x ] = − cos ech2 u .
dx dx
d du
[sec h(u)] = sec h(u) tanh u .
dx dx
d du
[csc h(u)] = − coth u csc h(u) .
dx dx
3.12. APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION 37

Example 3.11.1. Differentiate the following hyperbolic functions.

(i) sinh(4x2 ) (ii ) cosh (e x + x ) (iii ) tanh(3x )

Solution:
dy d
(i) Let y = sinh(4x2 ) and u( x ) = 4x2 , then dx = cosh(4x2 ) dx (4x2 ) = cosh(4x2 )(8x ) = 8x cosh(4x2 ).
dy d
(ii) Let y = cosh (e x + x ) and u( x ) = e x + x, then dx = sinh(e x + x ) dx (e x + x ) = (e x + 1) sinh(e x +
x ).
dy d
(iii) Let y = tanh(3x ) and u ( x ) = 3x then dx = sec h2 (3x ) dx (3x ) = 3 sec h2 (3x ).

3.12 Application of Differentiation

3.12.1 Critical Points
The value of c for which f (c) = 0, is called the critical (or turning) point of f . Geometrically this
means that the tangent to f at (c, f (c)) is horizontal. The critical point of a function f ( x ) will
therefore be found by calculating and solving for x,the equation f 0 ( x ) = 0 .

Example 3.12.1. Find the critical points of:

a) f ( x ) = x3 − 3x2 − 24x + 8.
1
b) y = 1 − x2
.

Solution:

a) f 0 ( x ) = 3x2 − 6x − 24, f 0 ( x ) = 0 ⇒ x = 4, −2.

b) y0 = 2
x3
, y 6= 0 for any value of x. So f has no critical point.

Example 3.12.2. 1. Find the critical points of

i) f ( x ) = x3 − 3x + 7. ii) y = −2x3 + 6x2 − 12x + 4.

3. Show that f ( x ) = x3 + x + 1 has no critical points.

Second Derivative Test:

Suppose that a function f ( x ) has a derivative on an open interval ( x1 , x2 ) containing p, and
that f 0 ( p) = 0.

i) If f 00 ( p) < 0, then f ( x ) has a local maximum at the point ( p, f ( p)).

ii) If f 00 ( p) > 0, then f ( x ) has a local minimum at the point ( p, f ( p)).

The notion of concavity of the graph of f can be used to illustrate conditions (i) and (ii) above as
follows.

i) If f 0 ( p) = 0, the tangent line to the graph at ( p, f ( p)) is horizontal. In addition if f 00 ( p) < 0,

then the graph is concave down at p and hence there is an open interval ( x1 , x2 ) containing
p such that the graph lies below the tangent line at p. It then follows that f ( p) is a relative
(local) maximum.
38 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION

ii) If f 0 ( p) = 0, the tangent line to the graph at ( p, f ( p)) is also horizontal. If in addition , the
graph is concave up at p and hence there is an open interval ( x1 , x2 ) containing p such that
the graph lies above the tangent at p. Then f ( p) is a relative (local) minimum.
If f 0 ( p) = 0, the second derivative test is not employed in that case, the first derivative test is
employed. P is called a flex and ( p, f ( p)) point of inflexion.
Example 3.12.3. Use concavity and second derivative test to examine the following curves for minima,
maxima, flex point.
i) x5 − 2x3 + x − 12 ii) x ln x.
Solution:
i) f ( x ) = x5 − 2x3 + x − 12
f 0 ( x ) = 5x4 − 6x2 + 1 = (5x2 − 1)( x2 − 1)
f 0 ( p) = (5p2 − 1)( p2 − 1) = 0
1
p = ±√ ;
5
p = 1 or p = −1.
f 00 ( x ) = 20x3 − 12x.
For p = 1, f 00 (1) = 8 which is positive. This implies that (1, f (1)) is a local minimum and
the graph is concave up at p = 1. For p = −1, f 00 (−1) = −8 which is negative. Therefore,
f (−1) is a local maximum and the graph is concave down at (−1, −12).
For p = − √15 = −0.45, f 00 (−0.45) = 3.58 which is positive. Therefore, f (−0.45) is a local
minimum and the graph is concave upward at (−0.45, −12.46).
For p = √15 = 0.45, f 00 (0.45) = −3.58 which is negative. Therefore f (0.45) is a local
maximum and the graph is concave downward at (0.45, −11.54).
For inflexion point, f 00 ( p) = 0 and this implies that 20p2 − 12p = 0 ⇒ 4p[5p2 − 3] = 0. So
= ±3/5 = ±0.77. Therefore, the points of inflection are (0, f (0)) ,
either p = 0 or p !
r q q q 
3 3 3 3
− 5 , f (− 5 ) and 5 , f( 5 ) or (0, −12) ,
 q  q 
− 35 , −12.12 and 3
5 , − 12.5

ii) f ( x ) = x ln x
Solution:
f 0 ( x ) = ln x + 1; f 0 ( p) = ln p + 1 = 0 implies that: ln p = −1 and p = e−1 f 00 ( p) =
= 1
p
1
= e. Hence f 00 ( e−1 )
= e, is positive. Therefore, f ( e −1 )
is a local minimum, and the graph
e −1
− 00
is concave up at p = e . For flex point, f ( p) = 0 implies that 1p = 0 ⇒ 1 = 0 which is a
1

contradiction, and so p = ∞. Hence there is no flex point.

Example 2:
Use the concavity and second derivative test to examine the following curves for minimum,
maximum and flex point.
i) 12 + 2x2 − x4 ii) x5 − 5x3 iii) 1 − x1/3
Solution:
3.12. APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION 39

i) f ( x ) = 12 + 2x2 − x4 ; f 0 ( x ) = 4x − 4x3 = 4x [1 − x2 ]; f 0 ( p) = 4p[1 − p2 ] = 0 ; ⇒p=0

or p = ±1 ; f 00 ( p) = 4 − 12p2 .
For p = 0, f 00 (0) = 4, is positive. Therefore, f (0) is a local minimum and the graph is
concave upward at (0, 12).
For p = 1; f 00 (1) = −8 is negative. Therefore, f (1) is a relative (local) maximum, and the
graph is concave down at (1, 13).
For p = −1; f 00 (1) = −8 is negative. Therefore, f (−1) is a local maximum, and the graph
is concave down at (−1, 13).
For the flex point f 0 ( p) = 0 and this implies that 4 − 12p2 = 0, p2 = 31 ⇒ p = ± √13 =
±0.58 Therefore, the points of inflection are (−0.58, 12.56) and (0.58, 12.56).
ii) f ( x ) =√x5 − 5x3 ; f 0 ( x ) = 5x4 − 15x2 = 5x2 [ x2 − 3]; f 0 ( p) = 5p2 [ p2 − 3] = 0 ⇒ p = 0 and
p = ± 3 = ±1.73; f 00 ( p) = 20p3 − 30p
For p = 0; f 00 (0) = 0. Therefore the second derivative test is not applicable
For p = 1.73; f 00 (1.73) = 46.36is positive. Therefore, f (1.73) is a local minimum and the
graph is concave up at (1.73, −10.37)
For p = −1.73; f 00 (−1.73) = −51.65 for positive. Therefore, f (−1.73) is a local maximum,
and the graph is concave down at (−1.73, −10.37) .
For theqflex point; f 00 ( p) = 0. Therefore 20p3 − 30p = 0; ⇒ 10p[2p2 − 3] = 0; ⇒ p = 0 or
3
p=± 2 = ±1.22 So the points of inflection are (0, 0), (−1.22, 6.38) and (1.22, −6.38)

3.12.2 Exercise:
Examine the following curves for minima, maxima and flex point:
i) x4 − 6x2 + 18x + 10 ii) ( x + 5)4 (2x − 3)3
iii) x3 + 2x2 + x + 1
Definition 3.12.1. Suppose the function f is defined at p and for all values of x near p. Then the function
is said to be continuous at p provided that lim f ( x ) = f ( p) .
x→ p

Example 3.12.4. Let us define if f ( x ) = sinx x if x 6= 0. This definition of f ( x ) has no meaning if

x = 0, since division by 0 is undefined. However, let us make the additional definition f (0) = 1. With this
definition f is continuous at x = 0.
For lim sinx x = 1.
x →0

We have based the concept of continuity directly upon the concept of a limit. A condition for
continuity of a function may be given directly in terms of inequalities, just as we defined a limit in
terms of inequalities.
Definition 3.12.2. Thus, if f is defined throughout some interval containing p and all points near p, f is
continuous at P if to each positive ε > 0 corresponds some positive δ > 0 such that
| f ( x ) − f (b)| < ε whenever| x − p| < δ.
This form of the condition for continuity is equivalent to the original definition.

3.12.3 Curve Sketching

40 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
CHAPTER 4
INTEGRATION

Integration is the opposite of differentiation and sometimes referred to as anti-differentiation in

some parlance.

R
4.1 History of
R
The integral sign was first used by Leibnitz on the 29th October, 1675. The symbol is derived
from the first letter of the Latin word ’summa’ which means sum.
In the following table (Table 4.1) we present the integrand of some commonly encountered
functions.
We give some examples to illustrate the topic below. Integrate the following functions.

Example 4.1.1. :
R√
1. xdx

√1 dx
R
2. x

(t + 1t )2 dt
R
3.

(5x3 − x2 + 2)dx
R
4.

(3e2x + 10 sinh x )
R
5.

3x dx
R
6.

n +1
1. We use property (1) from Table 4.1 which states x n dx = xn+1 +C.
R
1 3
R√ x 2 +1 x2 2 3
Z
1
xdx = x dx = 1
2 = 3 = x 2 + C where C is an arbitrary constant.
2 +1 2
3

1
1 x − 2 +1 √
Z Z
1 − 12
2. Write √1
x
= x− 2 . So, √ dx = x dx = 1 = 2 x + C.
x −2 + 1

41
42 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

Table 4.1: Table showing some functions

Z and their integrand.
f (x) f ( x )dx + C
x n +1
1. x n , ( n 6 = −1) n +1
1
2. x ln x
1 ax
3. e ax , ( a 6 = 0) ae
x ax
4. a , ( a > 0) ln a
5. ln x x ln x − x
6. sin ax − 1a cos ax
1
7. cos ax a sin ax
1
8. tan ax a ln | sec ax |
9. sec x ln | sec x + tan x |
10. cot x ln | sin x |
11. cosec x ln | cosec x − cot x |
12. sec2 x tan x
13. cosec2 x − cot x
14. cosh x sinh x
15. sinh x cosh x
16. sech2 x tanh x
17. cosech2 x − coth x
18. 1 1 −1 x
x 2 + a2 a tan a
√ 1 −1 x
19. sin a , (| x | < a)
a2 − x 2
( ax +b)n+1
20. ( ax + b)n a ( n +1)
4.2. METHODS OF INTEGRATION 43

3. Expand (t + 1t )2 = t2 + 2 + 1
Hence, (t + 1t )2 dt = (t2 + 2 + 1
R R
t2
. t2
)dt

1 t3 1
Z Z Z Z
(t + )2 dt = t2 dt + 2 dt + t−2 dt = + 2t − + C,
t 3 t
where C is an arbitrary constant.

4. (5x3 − x2 + 2)dx = 5 x3 dx − x2 dx + 2dx = 54 x4 − 31 x3 + 2x + C.

R R R

5. (3e2x + 10 sinh x ) = 3 e2x dx + 10 sinh xdx = 32 e2x + 10 cosh x + C.

R R R

x
6. We use property (4) of Table 4.1, a x dx = lna a + C, a > 0. This means
R

3x
Z
3x dx = + C.
ln 3

Exercise 4.1.1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals

R √3 R 2
1. x dx 2. √ dx
R√ 3
R x −311
3. R √x −2 dx 4. R x 4 dx
√
5. p q
x dx 6. ( a p x + √pb x )dx
7. R x −0.55 dx 8. R ( x − 3e x )dx
R R

9. ( 1 − 1 + 2y)dy 10. ( 1 − 1 + 2y)dy

R y−x3 y−2 R y3 y2
11. 10 dx 12. (π sin 3x − 2x + x52 + 2π 2 )dx
Z √ 
1 R 5π
13. t + √ dt 14. x dx
t

4.2 Methods of Integration

We discuss the methods of integration, the method to use depends on the type of integral.

1. Substitution

2. Trigonometric substitution

3. Partial Fraction

4. Parts

5. Reduction formula

4.3 Integration by Substitution

Example 4.3.1. : Evaluate the following integrals

53x dx
R
1. I =
2
x.5− x dx
R
2. I =
R √
3. I = x 2x + 1dx
44 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION
1
Z
4. I = √ dx
x+ x
R √
5. I = x5 x2 − 1dx

6. I = (3x − 1)235 dx
R

7. I = sin4 t cos tdt

R

(ln x )2
Z
8. I = dx
x
We find the integrands by the method of substitution below.

1. Let u = 3x, du 1 1
5u du. This reduces to
R
dx = 3; du = 3dx or dx = 3 du. This implies I = 3
1 5u 3x
I = 3 ln 5 + C = 35ln 5 + C.

2. Let u = − x2 , this reduces to xdx = − du

2 . Therefore,
Z
2
I = x.5− x dx
1
Z
= − 5u du
2
5u
= − +C
2 ln 5
2
5− x
= − + C.
2 ln 5

u −1 du
3. Let u = 2x + 1, x = 2 and dx = 2 . This means

√ Z 
u−1

1
Z
1
x 2x + 1dx = u 2 du
2 2
1
Z
3 1

= u 2 − u 2 du
4
 
1 2 5 2 3
= u2 − u2 + C
4 5 3
1 5 1 3
= (2x + 1) 2 − (2x + 1) 2 + C.
10 6
√
4. Let u = x + 1 from which x = (u − 1)2 . Now, dx = 2(u − 1)du
Z
1
Z
( u − 1)
Z
1 √
√ dx = 2 du = 2 du = 2 ln u = 2 ln | x + 1| + C.
x+ x ( u − 1)2 + u − 1 u
√
5. Let u = x2 − 1, u2 = x2 − 1 and x4 = (u2 + 1)2 . After differentiation, we have du =
√ x dx or udu = xdx. This implies
2
x −1

1 2 1
Z p Z p Z
5 4
x x2 − 1dx = x x2
− 1 xdx = (u6 + 2u4 + u2 )du = u7 + u5 + u3 + C.
|{z} | {z } |{z} 7 5 3
( u2 +1)2 u udu
4.4. DEFINITE INTEGRAL 45
du
6. Let u = 3x − 1, from which dx = 3 . Subsitute these values into I to yield

1 1 u235 (3x − 1)235

Z Z
235
(3x − 1) dx = u234 du = +C = + C.
3 3 235 705

7. Let u = sin t and du = cos tdt. Hence,

u7 sin7 t
Z
I= u6 du = +C = + C.
7 7

8. Let u = ln x, after differentiating we have du = 1x dx. Upon substitution,

(ln x )2 u3 (ln x )3
Z Z
I= dx = u2 du = +C = + C.
x 3 3

Exercise 4.3.1. Evaluate, using the method of substitution.

R√
(1 − 4x2 )10xdx
R
1. 4x − 3 dx 2.
3x dx
Z R
3. √ 4. tan 2x dx
1 − x2
x5 dx x
Z Z
5. 6 + 1)3
6. 2+1
dx
R √( x R √4x
7. Z x x + 2 dx 8. x x − 1 dx
2t − 3
cos−4 t sin tdx
R
9. 2 − 3t + 1
dt 10.
t R 2√
11. Z ecos x sin x dx
R
12. x x3 + 5dx
2v
(1 + cos θ )3 sin θdθ
R
13. 2
dv 14.
1 − v Z √
Z
x x+1 √
15. 2
dx 16. dx. Let u = x
Z x√ +1 Z x+1
x √ 2x − 3
17. √ dx. Let u = x 6
18. dx
1+ x 3
( x − 3x + 1)2
2
 −3
Z 
√ √

1 1 R
19. 1− 2 x+ dx 20. (2 − x ) 3 x dx, let u = 3 x
x x

4.4 Definite Integral

Example 4.4.1. : Evaluate the following definite integrals
Z 0
1. 3− x dx
−2

x5 dx
Z 1
2.
0 ( x 6 + 1)3
3.

The solution is below.

46 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

1. We first integrate the function, before evaluating the integrand at the upper and lower limits
as follows.
Z 0 Z 0
−x
3 dx = e− x ln 3 dx
−2 −2
0
1 − x ln 3
= − e
ln 3 −2
0
1 −x
= − 3
ln 3 −2
9 1
= −
ln 3 ln 3
8
= .
ln 3
In the next example, we show that it is possible to first integrate before taking limits as well
as making the substitution but with change of limits.
du
2. Let u = x6 + 1, after differentiating both sides we have x5 dx = 6 . Hence,
1
x5 dx
Z 1 Z 1
1 1 1 1
6 3
= u−3 du = − = .
0 ( x + 1) 6 0 12 ( x + 1)2
6
0 16

Alternatively, with the same substitution, u = x6 + 1. If x = 0, then u = 1 and if x = 1, then

u = 2. So
2
x5 dx
Z 1
1 2 −3 1 1 1
Z
6 3
= u du = − 2
= .
0 ( x + 1) 6 1 12 u 1 16

4.5 Integration by Trigonometric substitution

In this section, we show how to carry out integration by using trigonometric substitutions. Such
integrals are not easily evaluated except with the use of trigonometric substitutions as we will see.
√
4.5.1 Integrals involving R2 − x 2
Example 4.5.1. : Evaluate the following integrals.
Z p
1. I = R2 − x2 dx

Z 1
2
p
2. I = 1 − 4x2 dx
0

1
Z
3. I = √ dx
a2 − x2
1
Z
4. I = √ dx
x2 16 − x2
x2
Z
5. I = √ dx
16 − x2
4.5. INTEGRATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION 47
1
Z
6. I = √ dx
2 − 5x2
We provide the solutions below.
dx
1. Let x = R sin θ such that dθ = R cos θ, or dx = R cos θ dθ. After making the necessary
substitutions, this implies
Z p Z p
R2 − x2 dx = R2 − R2 sin2 θ × R cos θ dθ
Z q
= R2 (1 − sin2 θ ) × R cos θ dθ
Z
= R2 cos2 θ dθ.

cos 2θ +1
From trigonometric identities, cos2 θ = 2 . Hence,

R2
Z p Z
R2 − x2 dx = (cos 2θ + 1) dθ
2
R2 sin 2θ
 
= +θ +C
2 2
R2 2 sin θ cos θ
 
= +θ +C
2 2
R2 R2 θ
= sin θ cos θ + +C
2 2

Recall from the above substitution

√
x = R sin θ, sin θ = x
R and θ = sin−1 Rx . Hence, using
R2 − x 2
Pythagoras theorem cos θ = R . Substitute these into the last expression and after some
simplifications, we obtain

xp 2 R2 sin−1 x
Z p
R
R2 − x2 dx = R − x2 + + C.
R 2
Z p
1 1
2. We have to evaluate 1 − 4x2 dx first before taking limits. Let x = 2 sin θ, dx = 2 cos θ dθ
and obviously, θ = sin−1 2x. Hence, by making the trigonometric substitutions,
s
 2  
1 1
Z p Z
1 − 4x2 dx = 1−4 sin θ × cos θ dθ
2 2
1 p
Z
= 1 − sin2 θ cos θ dθ
2
1
Z
= cos2 θ dθ
2
1
Z
= (cos 2θ + 1) dθ
4
sin 2θ θ
= + + C.
8 4
48 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

Using
√ the trigonometric identity sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ, the fact that sin θ = 2x, cos θ =
1 − 4x2 . Therefore,
sin θ cos θ θ
Z p
1 − 4x2 dx = + +C
4 4
√
x 1 − 4x 2 sin−1 2x
= + + C.
2 4
Z 1
2
p
To evaluate 1 − 4x2 dx, we substitute the upper and lower limits for x. This gives
0
 √ 1
x 1 − 4x2 sin−1 2x 2 sin−1 2( 12 ) sin−1 (1) π
I= + = = = .
2 4 0 4 4 8

3. Let x = a sin θ, θ = sin−1 x

a and dx = a cos θ dθ. After all necessary substitutions, this means

1 1 x
Z Z Z
√ dx = a cos θ dθ = dθ = θ + C = sin−1 + C.
a2 − x 2 a cos θ a

4. We let x = 4 sin θ, this implies that dx = 4 cos θ dθ. In the same vein tan θ = √ x and
√ 16− x2
16− x2
cot θ = x . Substitute these into the integral via

1 1
Z Z
√ dx = p (4 cos θ ) dθ
x2 16 − x2 16 sin θ2
16 − 16 sin2 θ
1 cos θ
Z
= p dθ
16 sin2 θ 1 − sin2 θ
1 1
Z
= dθ
16 sin2 θ
1
Z
= cosec2 θ dθ
16
1
= − cot θ + C
16
√
16 − x2
= − + C.
16x

5. Let x = 4 sin θ, then

x2 16 sin2 θ
Z Z
√ dx = p (4 cos θ ) dθ
16 − x2 16 − 16 sin2 θ
16 sin2 θ
Z
= (4 cos θ ) dθ
Z4 cos θ
= 16 sin2 θ dθ
= 8θ − 4 sin 2θ + C

Using the trigonometric identity sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ, the second term in the above reduces
to √ √
x 16 − x2 x 16 − x2
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ = 2( ) = .
4 4 8
4.5. INTEGRATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION 49

Since x = 4 sin θ, then θ = sin−1 4x . Therefore,

√
x2 x x 16 − x2
Z
−1
√ dx = 8θ − 4 sin 2θ + C = 8 sin − + C.
16 − x2 4 2

6.
1 1 1
Z Z
√ dx = √ q dx
2 − 5x2 5 2
− x2
5
1 1
Z
= √ q √
dx
5 2
√2 − x2
5
1 x
= √ sin−1 √ + C
5 √2
5
√
1 5
= √ sin−1 √ x + C.
5 2

Exercise 4.5.1. Evaluate the following definite and indefinite integrals.

Z 2r
x2
1. I = 1− dx
0 4
Z 4p
2. I = 16 − x2 dx
0
Z 1p
3. I = 4 − x2 dx
0
Z 5
2
p
4. I = 25 − 4x2 dx
− 52

5
1
Z
2
5. I = √ dx
0 25 − 4x2
x2
Z
6. I = √ dx
9 − x2
1
Z
7. I = √ dx
x2 9 − 4x2
1
Z
8. I = √ dx
1 − 4x2
√
4.5.2 Integrals involving x 2 − a2
√
Each time we encounter integrals involving x2 − a2 , we make the substitution a = a sec u for
u ∈ [0, 2π ) or u ∈ [π, 3π
2 ] then a tan u ≥ 0. Hence dx = a sec u tan u du.

Example 4.5.2. :
50 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION
Z p
1. I = x2 − a2 dx

Z −3 √ 2
x −9
2. I = dx
−6 x
1. We make the substitutions, x = a sec u and dx = a sec u tan u du to have
p p q p
x − a = a sec u − a = a2 (secu −1) = a2 tan2 = a tan u.
2 2 2 2 2

Now, we let t = tan u so that dt = sec2 u du. This means that

√ √
Z Z p
t 1 + t 2 1 t 1 + t2 1 p
− 1
sec3 u du = 1 + t2 dt = + sinh t = + log(t + 1 + t2 ).
2 2 2 2
Observe that
Z p
I = x2 − a2 dx
Z
= a tan u( a sec u tan u) du
Z
= a2 sec u tan2 u du
Z
2
= a sec u(sec2 u − 1) du
Z
= a2 (sec3 u − sec u) du
√
2
 
2 tan u 1 + tan u 1 p
= a 2
+ log(tan u + 1 + tan u) − ln | sec u + tan u| + C.
2 2

4π
2. Let x = 3 sec u and dx = 3 sec u tan u du. By considering the limits, if x = −6, then u = 3
and if x = −3, then u = π. Making these substitutions, we have
p p √
x2 − 9 = 9 sec2 u − 9 = 9 tan u = 3 tan u,

and
Z −3 √ 2
x −9 3 tan u
Z π
dx = (3 sec u tan u) du.
−6 x 4π
3
3 sec u
Z π
= 3 4π
tan2 u du
3
Z π
= 3 4π
(sec2 u − 1) du
3
 π
= 3 tan u − u
4π
3
4π 4π
= 3(tan π − π ) − 3(tan − )
√ 3 3
= π − 3 3.

Exercise 4.5.2. Evaluate the following (in)definite integrals

4.5. INTEGRATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION 51
Z 2√2 √ 2
x −4
1. dx
2 x
dx
Z
2. √
x x 2 − a2
Z  
x+1 x 1
Z
3. √ dx = √ +√ dx
4 − x2 4 − x2 4 − x2
√
4.5.3 Integrals involving x 2 + a2
√
Each time we encounter integrals involving x2 + a2 , we make the substitution x = a sinh u from
which dx = a cosh u du. Using the identity 1 + sinh2 u = cosh2 u. This implies
Z p Z
x2 + a2 dx = a2 cosh u du
a2
Z
= (cosh 2u + 1) du
2
a2 a2 u
= sinh 2u +
4 2
1 a2 u
= a sinh u( a cosh u) +
2√ 2√
x x 2 + a2 a2 x + x 2 + a2
= + log + C.
2 2 a
dx
Z
In addition, consider the next example √ . We make the same substitution as above with
x 2 + a2
x = a sinh u and dx = a cosh u du. This implies
dx a cosh u du x
Z Z Z
√ = = du = u = sinh−1 .
x2 + a2 a cosh u a
We give the following practical example to explain the theory.
dx
Z
1. I = √ . We first simplify the integral as follows
4 + 16x2
dx 1 dx 1 dx
Z Z Z
I= √ = √ = p .
4 + 16x2 2 1 + 4x2 2 1 + (2x )2
1 1
Let x = 2 sinh u from which dx = 2 cosh u du, so that
1
1 cosh u du
Z
I = p2
2 1 + sinh2 u
1
Z
= u
4
1
= u+C
4
1
= sinh−1 2x + C
4
1 p p
= log[2x + 4x2 + 1] + C because sinh−1 x = log[ x + x 2 + 1].
4
52 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

4.5.4 Integrals involving x2 + a2

R
4.5.5 Integrals of the form sin ax cos bx dx

4.6 Integration by Partial Fractions

If the integrand is of the form of an algebraic fraction and the integral cannot be evaluated by
previous methods, the fraction should be expressed in partial fractions before integration takes
place.

1. Evaluate
dx
Z
, where x2 < a2 .
a2 − x2

We first split the integrand into partial fractions. Let

1 1 A B
≡ ≡ + .
a2 −x 2 ( a − x )( a + x ) a+x a−x

We find the Lower Common Multiple of the denominator of the last term above and upon
simplifications, 1 ≡ A( a − x ) + B( a + x ). Substitute x = − a in the equation reduces to
1 1
1 = 2aA, from which A = . In the same way, if we let x = a, then 1 = 2aB and B = .
2a 2a
Therefore, the integrand reduces to the following partial fraction,

1 1 1
= + .
a2 − x 2 2a( a + x ) 2a( a − x )

Hence,

Z  
dx 1 1
Z
= + dx
a − x2
2 2a( a + x ) 2a( a − x )
Z  
1 1 1
= + dx
2a a+x a−x
1
= [ln | a + x | − ln | a − x |] + C
2a
1 a+x
= ln + C. (4.1)
2a a−x

Evaluate:
Z 2
dx
1. .
0 9 − x2

Z 4
dx
2. .
2 x2 −4
4.6. INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS 53

1. Using equation (4.1) with a = 3, we have

Z 2  2
dx 1 3+x
= ln
0 9 − x2 2×3 3−x 0
 2
1 3+x
= ln
6 3−x 0
1
= (ln 5 − ln 1)
6
1
= ln 5
6
1
= × 1.60944 = 0.2682,
6
to 4 significant figures.

2. Using the previous theorem

Z 4 4
x−2
  
dx 1 1 2 1
= ln = ln − ln
2 x2 − 4 2×2 x+2 2 4 6 5
 
1 1 1 1
= ln − ln = [− ln 3 + ln 5]
4 3 5 4
1 1
= [−1.09861 + 1.60944] = [0.51083]
4 4
= 0.1277 to 4 significant figures.

3dx
Z
3. Evaluate I = .
9 − 4x2
We split the integrand into partial fractions as follows: Let

3 A B
≡ + .
9 − 4x2 3 − 2x 3 + 2x

After finding the Lowest Common Multiple of the right hand side,

3 ≡ A(3 + 2x ) + B(3 − 2x ).

Substitute x = 32 , into the above, we obtain 6A = 3 or A = 12 . In the same vein, by plugging

Z  
3dx 1 1 1
Z
3 1
in x = − 2 , B = 2 . Hence, = + dx. Integrating term by
9 − 4x2 2 3 − 2x 3 + 2x
term using integration by substitution, yields
 
1 1 1
I = ln(3 + 2x ) + ln(3 − 2x )
2 2 2
1
= [ln(3 + 2x ) − ln(3 − 2x )]
4
1 3 + 2x
= ln + C.
4 3 − 2x
54 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION
Z 1
x
4. Evaluate the following integral I = 2 + 5x + 6
dx.
0 x
We split the integrand into partial fractions in the following manner. Let

x A B
≡ + .
x2 + 5x + 6 x+2 x+3

After finding the LCM, x ≡ A( x + 3) + B( x + 2). If we let x = −2, then A = −2. Similarly,
x 3 2
if x = −3, then B = 3. This implies 2 = − . Hence,
x + 5x + 6 x+3 x+2
Z 1 Z 1 
x 3 2
2
dx = − dx
0 x + 5x + 6 0 x+3 x+2
 1
= 3 ln( x + 3) − 2 ln( x + 2)
0
= [(3 ln 4 − 2 ln 3) − (3 ln 3 − 2 ln 2)] = 3 ln 4 − 5 ln 3 + 2 ln 2
= 3(1.38629) − 5(1.09861) + 2(0.69313)
= 4.15887 − 5.49305 + 1.38630 = 0.0521.

dx
Z
5. Integrate using partial fractions.
x (2x − 1)2
We decompose the integrand into partial fractions by letting

1 A B C
2
≡ + + .
x (2x − 1) x 2x − 1 (2x − 1)2

This implies x ≡ A(2x − 1)2 + Bx (2x − 1) + Cx after some simplifications. If we substitute,

x = 0, x = 12 and x = 1 into x ≡ A(2x − 1)2 + Bx (2x − 1) + Cx, then we obtain A = 1, C = 2
and B = −2 respectively. This means

1 1 2 2
= − + .
x (2x − 1)2 x 2x − 1 (2x − 1)2

Now,
Z  
dx 1 2 2
Z
= − + dx
x (2x − 1)2 x 2x − 1 (2x − 1)2
1
= ln x − ln |2x − 1| −
2x − 1
x 1
= ln − + C.
2x − 1 2x − 1

dx
Z
6. Find and simplify as far as possible.
x ( x − 1)(2x + 1)
We split the integrand as

1 A B C
≡ + + ,
x ( x − 1)(2x + 1) x x − 1 (2x + 1)
4.6. INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS 55

where A and B are constants which are to be determined. This implies

1 ≡ A( x − 1)(2x + 1) + Bx (2x + 1) + Cx ( x − 1).

After substituting x = 0, x = 1 and x = − 12 into the above, we obtain A = −1, B = 31 and

Z  
dx 1 1 4
Z
4
C = 3 respectively. This means, = − + + dx.
x ( x − 1)(2x + 1) x 3( x − 1) 3(2x + 1)
Integrating term by term using the techniques for integration, yields

dx 1 2
Z
= ln x − ln | x − 1| + ln |2x + 1|
x ( x − 1)(2x + 1) 3 3
1
= (−3 ln x + ln | x − 1| + 2 ln |2x + 1|)
3
1
− ln x3 + ln( x − 1) + ln(2x + 1)2

=
3
1 ( x − 1)(2x + 1)2
= ln + C.
3 x3
1
2 − x + x2 2 − x + x2
Z
2
7. Express in partial fractions and evaluate dx.
(1 + x )(1 − x )2 0 (1 + x )(1 − x )2
To resolve the integrand into partial fractions, we let

2 − x + x2 A B C
2
≡ + + .
(1 + x )(1 − x ) 1 + x 1 − x (1 − x )2

Hence,
2 − x + x2 = A(1 − x )2 + B(1 − x )(1 + x ) + C (1 + x ).
If we substitute x = −1 into the above, then we have A = 1. When x = 1, the above reduces
to C = 1. If we let x = 0 and after some simplifications, then B = 0. This means

2 − x + x2 1 1
2
≡ + .
(1 + x )(1 − x ) 1 + x (1 − x )2

Using the partial fractions obtained,

1 1
2 − x + x2
 
1 1
Z Z
2 2
dx = + dx
0 (1 + x )(1 − x )2 0 1 + x (1 − x )2
  12
1
= ln(1 + x ) +
1−x 0
= ln(1.5) + 2 − (ln(1) + 1)
= ln 1.5 + (2 − 1) = ln 1.5 + 1 = 1.4055.

x2 + x + 4
Z
8. Evaluate the following integral dx using partial fractions.
( x + 1)( x2 + 3)
Let
x2 + x + 4 A Bx + C
2
≡ + 2 ,
( x + 1)( x + 3) x+1 x +3
56 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

from which
x2 + x + 4 = A( x2 + 3) + ( x + 1)( Bx + C ).
Substituting x = −1, x = 0 and x = 1 into the above to obtain A = 1, C = 1 and B = 0
x2 + x + 4 1 1
respectively, so that 2
= + 2 . Hence,
( x + 1)( x + 3) x+1 x +3
x2 + x + 4
Z  
1 1
Z
dx = + dx
( x + 1)( x2 + 3) x + 1 x2 + 3
 
1 −1 x
= ln | x + 1| + √ tan √ + C.
3 3
4x2 + 4x + 25
Z
9. Integrate dx using partial fractions.
x (4x2 + 25)
4x2 + 4x + 25 A Bx + C
We can write ≡ + 2 or 4x2 + 4x + 25 = A(4x2 + 25) + x ( Bx + C )
x (4x2 + 25) x 4x + 25
After making necessary substitutions, we obtain the following partial fractions
4x2 + 4x + 25 1 4
2
= + 2 .
x (4x + 25) x 4x + 25
Hence,
4x2 + 4x + 25
Z  
1 1
Z
dx = + dx
x (4x2 + 25) x x2 + 25
4
   
1 x
= ln x + 5 tan−1 5
2
 2
2 2x
= ln x + tan−1 + C.
5 5

2x2 + 6x + 15 2x2 + 6x + 15
Z
10. Resolve into partial fractions. Hence, evaluate dx.
(2x − 1)( x2 + 9) (2x − 1)( x2 + 9)
We can express
2x2 + 6x + 15 A Bx + C
2
≡ + 2 .
(2x − 1)( x + 9) 2x − 1 x +9
This simplifies to
2x2 + 6x + 15 ≡ A( x2 + 9) + (2x − 1)( Bx + C ).
Substituting x = 21 , x = 0 and x = 1 into the above to obtain A = 2, C = 3 and B = 0
respectively, so that
2x2 + 6x + 15 2 3
2
= + 2 .
(2x − 1)( x + 9) 2x − 1 x + 9
Integrating term by term yields
2x2 + 6x + 15 2 3
Z Z Z
dx = dx + dx
(2x − 1)( x2 + 9) 2x − 1 2
x +9
     
1 1 −1 x
= 2 ln(2x − 1) + 3 tan
2 3 3
 
x
= ln(2x − 1) + tan−1 + C.
3
4.6. INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS 57
p
√ In general, when the integrand contains √ ( a + x ) the substitution to be made (if not given) is
a + x = z and when a = 0, this reduces to x = z.
Evaluate the following integrals
√
sin x
Z
1. √ dx.
x
√
dx x
Z
−1
2. I = √ Ans = tan +C
( x + 4) x 2
Z √ 
√ √
√ 
x+3 −1 x+3
3. I = dx Ans = 2 x + 3 − 2 tan + C.
x+5 2

4.6.1 Exercises on Partial Fractions

Exercise 4.6.1. :
Z 2
dx
1. Find .
0 4 − x2
Z 2
1 + 5x 1 + 5x
2. Express in partial fractions and evaluate dx.
(5 − x )(1 + x2 ) 0 (5 − x )(1 + x2 )
x2 + 4x − 14 4 x2 + 4
Z 4 Z
3. Evaluate ( a). dx ( b ). dx.
1 ( x + 2)( x + 5)( x + 8) 1 x ( x + 2)
Z 2√
dx x+2
Z
4. Find and show that dx = 0.858.
x ( x 2 − 3) 0 x +6
Z 3
dx 1 208
5. Show that = ln .
2 x ( x 3 − 1) 3 189
Z 4
1 1
6. Express in partial fraction 2 and hence evaluate dx.
x −1 2 x2 − 1
1
Z
7. dx.
x2 − 8x + 15
1
Z
8. dx.
x ( x2 + 1)
2
Z
9. dx.
x2 −x−6
x2
Z
10. dx.
( x2 − 4)2
−x
Z
11. dx.
x3 − 3x2 + 2x
x2 + x + 1
Z
12. dx
x2 − 1
Z
1 √ √
13. 4
dx that: x4 + 1 = ( x2 + 2x + 1)( x2 − 2x + 1)
x +1
58 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION
x2 − 1
Z
14. dx.
x3 + 3x + 4

t2 − 1
Z
15. dt.
t2 + 1

x
Z
16. dx.
x+1

x2
Z
17. dx.
x2 − 1

x2 + 2x + 1
Z
18. dx.
x2 − 1

x8
Z
19. dx.
a2 + x 2

x3 + 2x2 + x + 1
Z
20. dx.
2x3 − x2 − 5x − 2

x3
Z
21. dx.
3 − 2x2

dx
R
4.7 Integrals of the form ax2 +bx +c

dx
where 4ac − b2 is positive and ax2 + bx + c has no real
R
4.7.1 To find I = ax2 +bx +c
factors.
The main idea is to use completing the squares in the denominator. Now,

 
2 2b c
ax + bx + c = a x + x+
a a
 2
b2
 
b b c
= a x2 + x + + − 2
a 2a a 4a
2 
b2
 
b c
= a x+ + −
2a a 4a2
2
4ac − b2
 
b
= a x+ +
2a 4a2
2  √ 2 
4ac − b2

b
= a x+ +
2a 2a
 2 
b
= a x+ + k2 ,
2a
 DX
R
4.7. INTEGRALS OF THE FORM AX 2 + BX +C
59
√
4ac−b2
where k = 2a . This means that we can write

dx
Z
I =
ax2
+ bx + c
1 dx
Z
= 2 .
a 
b
x+ + k2
2a

x + b  x+
b
We let tan−1 2a = θ from which 2a = tan θ and x + b = k tan θ. Differentiate both
k k 2a
sides with respect to θ to yield dx = k sec2 θdθ. This implies

1 k sec2 θdθ 1 k sec2 θ 1 1

Z Z Z
I= 2 2 2
= 2 2
dθ = dθ = θ + C.
a k tan θ + k a k (1 + tan θ ) ak ak

x + b 
1 2a + C. We solve two examples to
If we substitute the value of θ, we obtain I = tan−1
ak k
illustrate the above theory.

Example 4.7.1.

Evaluate the following

dy
Z
1. I = .
4y2 + 8y + 5
Z −1
dt
2. I = .
0 t2 + 2t + 2
1. Observe that by completing the squares on the denominator,

dy 1 dy 1 dy 1 dy
Z Z Z Z
= 5
= 5
= .
4y2 + 8y + 5 4 2
y + 2y + 4
4 2
( y + 1) + ( 4 − 1) 4 (y + 1)2 + 14
 
y+1
We make the following trigonometric substitution, that is, let tan−1 1
= θ so
2
1 1
y+1 = 2 tan θ. After differentiating both sides with respect to θ, dy = 2 sec2 θdθ. This
implies
1
1 sec2 θdθ 1 sec2 θ 1 1
Z Z
I= 1
2
1
= 2
dθ = θ = tan−1 [2(y + 1)] + C.
4 4 tan2 θ + 4
2 tan θ + 1 2 2

Z −1
dt
2. Evaluate the integral I = .
0 t2 + 2t + 2
Z −1
dt
To evaluate the integral, we complete the squares on the denominator to yield I = .
0 ( t + 1)2 + 1
We make the trigonometric substitution by letting tan−1 (t + 1) = θ. This implies that
t + 1 = tan θ and dt = sec2 θdθ after differentiating both sides with respect to θ. Next,
60 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

we need to change the limit of integration from t to θ such that, when t = 0, θ = tan−1 1, and
θ = π4 . Similarly, when t = −1, θ = tan−1 0 and θ = 0. This means

  π4
sec2 θdθ
Z −1 π π
dt
Z Z
4 4 π
I= = = dθ = θ = .
0 ( t + 1)2 + 1 0 tan2 θ + 1 0 0 4

dx
R
4.8 Integrals of the form √
− ax2 +bx +c
dx
where a is positive and (b2 + 4ac) is positive.
R
4.8.1 To find I = √
− ax2 +bx +c
We can rewrite − ax2 + bx + c as c + bx − ax2 . The key point here is to complete the square in the
denominator. This means

− ax2 + bx + c = c + bx − ax2
 
c bx
= a + − x2
a a
 2   2 
b c b
= a + − x−
4a2 a 2a
 2   2 
b + 4ac b
= a − x− .
4a2 2a
√
b2 +4ac
If we let k = 2a , then we can write

dx 1 dx
Z Z
I= √ =√ q . (4.2)
2
− ax + bx + c a k2 − ( x − b 2
2a )

b 
x − 2a

−1
By making the trigonometric substitution, sin = θ, x − 2ab = k sin θ and after differen-
k
tiating both sides with respect to θ, dx = k cos θdθ. If we substitute the above into (4.2), then

1 k cos θdθ
Z
I = √ p
a k2 − k2 sin2 θ
1 k cos θdθ
Z
= √ p
a k 1 − sin2 θ
1
Z
= √ dθ
a
b 
−1 x − 2a

1
= √ sin +C
a k
2ax − b
 
1 −1
= √ sin √ + C.
a b2 + 4ac
Evaluate the following integrals.
Z 1
dt dx
Z
1. I = √ . 2. I = √ .
9 + 8t − 4t2 0 2x − x2
 DX
R
4.8. INTEGRALS OF THE FORM √ 61
− AX 2 + BX +C
1. We complete the square for the denominator 9 + 8t − 4t2 .

dt 1 dt 1 dt
Z Z Z
I= s   =2 q = q .
9 [( 94 + 1) − (t − 1)2 ] 2 [ 13 2
4 + 2t − t2 4 − ( t − 1) ]
4
 
−1 t −1 2( t −1)
Now, let sin √ 13
= θ from which sin θ = √ . After differentiating both sides with
13
4
√
13
respect to θ, dt = 2 cos θdθ. Hence,
q
13
1
Z
2 cos θdθ 1
Z
cos θdθ 1
Z
1

2( t − 1)

I= q = q = dθ = sin−1 √ + C.
2 ( 13 13
sin2 θ ) 2 2 2 13
4 − 4 (1 − sin2 θ )

Z 1 Z 1
dx dx
2. I = p = . Let x − 1 = sin θ. Next, we change the limits
p
0 (2x − 0 x2 )
[1 − ( x − 1)2 ]
from the t variable to θ. When x = 1, θ = sin−1 0 = 0 and when x = 0, θ = sin−1 (−1) = − π2 .
If we differentiate x − 1 = sin θ with respect to θ, then dx = cos θdθ.
Z 0 Z 0  0
cos θ π
I= p dθ = dθ = θ = .
− π2 1 − sin2 θ − π2 − π2 2

Exercise 4.8.1. :
Z 2+ √2
1
1. Find √ dx
3 4x − x2
1
Z
2. dx
2x2 + 2x + 1
dx
Z
3.
2x2 + 4x + 6
cos 4x
Z
4. p dx
sin 4x 16 sin2 4x − 4
dx
Z
5. √
2x2 + 3x + 4
dx
Z
6. √
4 + 3x − 2x2
Z p
7. 1 + e x + e2x dx
Z p
8. e2x + ae x dx

dx
Z
9. √
1 − 3x − x2
62 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION
(1 + x )
Z
10. dx
(2x2 + 3x + 4)
x−1
Z
11. 1 dx
( x2 + 2x − 1) 2
3x + 4
Z
12. 1 dx
( x2 + 2x + 5) 2

4.9 Integration by Parts

Integration by parts depends upon the formula for the differentiation of a product of functions u
and v i.e. d(uv) = udv + vdu or udv = d(uv) − vdu; when this is integrated, we have
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu + C, (4.3)

where
R C is an arbitrary constant or constant
R of integration. This formula expresses one integral,
udv, in terms of a second integral, vdu. If by proper choice of u and dv, the second integral is
simpler than the first, we may be able to evaluate it and thus arrive at an answer. Next, we present
rules for chosing u.

4.9.1 Rules for u

The rules for chosing u are in the following order.
1. If one factor is a log or ln function, then that must be taken as 0 u0 .
2. If there is no log or ln function but a power of x, then that becomes 0 u0 .
3. If there is neither a log or ln function nor a power of x, then the exponential function is taken
as 0 u0 .
Example 4.9.1.
Evaluate the following integrals:
(i) xe x dx.
R
R
(ii) ln x dx.
(iii) tan−1 x dx.
R

(iv) x2 e x dx.
R

Solution
(i) Let u = x and dv = e x dx. That is du = dx and e x dx. Hence, v = e x and
R R
dv =
Z Z Z
udv = xe x dx = uv − vdu
Z
= xe x − e x dx
= xe x − e x + C
= e x ( x − 1) + C,
where C is a constant.
4.10. INTEGRATION BY REDUCTION FORMULA 63
dx
(ii) Let u = ln x and dv = dx then du = x and v = x. So,

dx
Z Z
ln xdx = x ln x − x
Z x
= x ln x − dx
= x ln x − x + C
= x (ln x − 1) + C.

(iii) Let u = tan−1 x and dv = dx then du = dx

1+ x 2
and v = x so that

xdx
Z Z
−1 −1
tan xdx = x tan x−
1 + x2
1
= x tan−1 x − ln(1 + x2 ) + C.
2
Sometimes, an integration by parts must be repeated to obtain an answer, as shown in the
next example.

(iv) Let u = x2 and dv = e x dx; du = 2xdx and v = e x . Now, x2 e x dx = x2 e x − 2 xe x dx. This

R R
is similar to the original integral, except that we have reduced the power of x from 2 to 1.
We nowR integrate xe x by Rparts again. Let u = x and dv = e x dx. From which du = dx and
v = e x . xe x dx = xe x − e− x dx = xe x − e x + C. Hence, x2 e x dx = x2 e x − 2xe x + 2e x + C.
R

4.9.2 Exercises
Evaluate the following integrals by parts
R
(1) x ln xdx.
R
(2) x sin axdx.
R
(3) x cos(2x + 1)dx.

(4) x2 cos axdx.

R

(5) sin−1 axdx.

R

(6) x2 tan−1 xdx.

R

4.10 Integration by Reduction Formula