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The document provides an overview of artificial intelligence (AI), including its definitions, historical context, and current state of the art. It categorizes AI perspectives into four views: acting humanly, acting rationally, thinking humanly, and thinking rationally, with a focus on rational agents. Key milestones in AI history and notable achievements, such as Deep Blue's chess victory and autonomous driving, are also highlighted.

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4 views

hafta1_m1-intro

The document provides an overview of artificial intelligence (AI), including its definitions, historical context, and current state of the art. It categorizes AI perspectives into four views: acting humanly, acting rationally, thinking humanly, and thinking rationally, with a focus on rational agents. Key milestones in AI history and notable achievements, such as Deep Blue's chess victory and autonomous driving, are also highlighted.

Uploaded by

queen28222
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Artificial Intelligence

INTRODUCTION: CHAPTER 1
 Textbook: S. Russell and P. Norvig Artificial Intelligence: A Modern
Approach Prentice Hall,
Outline

 Course overview
 What is AI?
 A brief history
 The state of the art
What is AI?

Views of AI fall into four categories (System):

Acting Humanly Acting rationally


Thinking Humanly Thinking Rationally

The textbook advocates "acting rationally"


Thinking / Acting | Humanly/Rationally

 Thinking humanly — cognitive modeling. Systems


should solve problems the same way humans do.
 Thinking rationally — the use of logic. Need to worry
about modeling uncertainty and dealing with
complexity.
 Acting humanly — the Turing Test approach.
 Acting rationally — the study of rational agents:
agents that maximize the expected value of their
performance measure given what they currently
know.
Some Definitions

 The study of agents that receive percepts from the environment and perform
actions. (Russell and Norvig)
 The science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs (John McCarthy)
 The ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks
commonly associated with intelligent beings (Encyclopædia Britannica)
 The study of ideas to bring into being machines that respond to stimulation
consistent with traditional responses from humans, given the human capacity for
contemplation, judgment and intention (Latanya Sweeney)
 The scientific understanding of the mechanisms underlying thought and intelligent
behavior and their embodiment in machines (American Association for Artificial
Intelligence)
 A branch of science which deals with helping machines find solutions to complex
problems in a more human-like fashion (AI depot)
 A field of computer science that seeks to understand and implement computer-
based technology that can simulate characteristics of human intelligence and human
sensory capabilities (Raoul Smith)
Acting humanly: Turing Test

 Turing (1950) "Computing machinery and intelligence":


 "Can machines think?"  "Can machines behave intelligently?"
 Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game

 Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30% chance of fooling


a lay person for 5 minutes
 Anticipated all major arguments against AI in following 50 years
 Suggested major components of AI: knowledge, reasoning, language
understanding, learning

Thinking humanly: cognitive modeling

 1960s "cognitive revolution": information-processing


psychology

 Requires scientific theories of internal activities of the brain

 -- How to validate? Requires
1) Predicting and testing behavior of human subjects (top-down)
or 2) Direct identification from neurological data (bottom-up)

 Both approaches (roughly, Cognitive Science and Cognitive


Neuroscience)
 are now distinct from AI

Thinking rationally: "laws of thought"

 Aristotle: what are correct arguments/thought processes?



 Several Greek schools developed various forms of logic:
notation and rules of derivation for thoughts; may or may not
have proceeded to the idea of mechanization

 Direct line through mathematics and philosophy to modern AI

 Problems:
1. Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical deliberation
2. What is the purpose of thinking? What thoughts should I have?
3.
Acting rationally: rational agent

 Rational behavior: doing the right thing



 The right thing: that which is expected to maximize
goal achievement, given the available information

 Doesn't necessarily involve thinking – e.g., blinking
reflex – but thinking should be in the service of
rational action

Rational agents

 An agent is an entity that perceives and acts



 This course is about designing rational agents

 Abstractly, an agent is a function from percept histories to
actions:

[f: P*  A]
 For any given class of environments and tasks, we seek the
agent (or class of agents) with the best performance

 Caveat: computational limitations make perfect rationality
unachievable
 design best program for given machine resources
AI prehistory

 Philosophy Logic, methods of reasoning, mind as physical


system foundations of learning, language,
rationality
 Mathematics Formal representation and proof algorithms,
computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability,
probability
 Economics utility, decision theory
 Neuroscience physical substrate for mental activity
 Psychology phenomena of perception and motor control,
experimental techniques
 Computer building fast computers
engineering
 Control theory design systems that maximize an objective
function over time
 Linguistics knowledge representation, grammar
Abridged history of AI

 1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain


 1950 Turing's "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
 1956 Dartmouth meeting: "Artificial Intelligence" adopted
 1952—69 Look, Ma, no hands!
 1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel's checkers
program, Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist,
Gelernter's Geometry Engine
 1965 Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning
 1966—73 AI discovers computational complexity
Neural network research almost disappears
 1969—79 Early development of knowledge-based systems
 1980-- AI becomes an industry
 1986-- Neural networks return to popularity
 1987-- AI becomes a science
 1995-- The emergence of intelligent agents
State of the art

 Deep Blue defeated the reigning world chess champion


Garry Kasparov in 1997
 Proved a mathematical conjecture (Robbins conjecture)
unsolved for decades
 No hands across America (driving autonomously 98% of
the time from Pittsburgh to San Diego)
 During the 1991 Gulf War, US forces deployed an AI
logistics planning and scheduling program that involved up
to 50,000 vehicles, cargo, and people
 NASA's on-board autonomous planning program
controlled the scheduling of operations for a spacecraft
 Proverb solves crossword puzzles better than most
humans

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