• Autism is a developmental disorder that affects social interaction and

communication skills, appearing typically in the first three years of life.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) includes various related
conditions, such as Asperger’s syndrome.
• The term ASD highlights the diversity in symptoms and experiences
among individuals.
• Theory of mind refers to the ability to understand that others have
thoughts, beliefs, and desires.
• Theory of mind is often impaired in individuals with ASD.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):
• Affects social skills, behavior, and communication.
• Some may not speak, while others repeat words or talk a lot.
• Therapy focuses on improving communication.
• Specific Language Impairment (SLI):
• Problems with understanding and using language.
• Not caused by hearing loss or brain injury.
• Dyslexia:
• Trouble reading, writing, and spelling.
• Caused by problems with processing sounds, not intelligence.
• Aphasia:
• Language problems caused by brain injury.
• Affects speaking, reading, or writing.

• Language Barriers:
• Some groups face exclusion due to language differences.
• This can limit their participation in society.
additional language is any language learned after a person’s first language
(native language). It can be acquired for communication, education, work,
or cultural integration. Examples include second languages, foreign
languages, and languages learned for specific purposes.

Convergence in talk is when a person changes the way they speak to sound
more like the person they are talking to (or how they think the other
person speaks). For example, a language teacher may use simpler
sentences when speaking to beginner learners.

Divergence occurs when a person changes their speech to sound less like
the person they are talking to, such as a local exaggerating their accent to
stand out from an outsider.

Decreolization occurs when a creole begins to merge with varieties of the

superstrate language through (renewed) contact with it.

Homesign is a basic communication system developed within a family with

one or more deaf children. It is more complex than non-linguistic gesture,
but not as linguistically sophisticated as a sign language, which will only
emerge given a rich enough interactional environment.

Pidgins are very basic linguistic systems that sometimes emerge in

situations in which users of different languages find themselves in frequent
contact and need to communicate.

Creoles are complete languages that have evolved from more basic pidgin
languages, in some cases in a matter of two or three generations.

In a language contact situation, the superstrate language is the one used by

the politically and socioeconomically dominant group. The substrate
language is used by a less powerful group, and influences the development
of grammatical features in an emerging variety based on the superstrate
vocabulary
. Additional languages may be classified as second languages when they
are routinely used in a country outside the context in which they are
learned (for example, in bilingual countries) and as foreign languages
when they are not so used.

Blind People: Use Braille (raised dots) or technology to read and write
.
Deaf People: Use sign language or written communication instead of
spoken language.

People with Autism: May have difficulty communicating and

understanding others.

People with Dyslexia: Have trouble reading, writing, or spelling

.
Marginalized Groups: People excluded because of their language or how
they speak.

Literacy: The ability to read and write, but also to understand and use
information in daily

Braille: A system of raised dots that blind people use to read and write.

Ideologies: Ideas about power and society that influence how we see the
world and use

Glottographic: Writing systems that use symbols to represent sounds, like

letters or
syllables. Examples include the English alphabet or Japanese syllabaries
like hiragana.
. Logographic: Writing systems that use symbols to represent entire words
or ideas, rather
than individual sounds. Examples include Chinese characters, where one
symbol can represent a
whole word
Question:
How do language and social factors contribute to economic and gender
marginalization?

Language can marginalize people economically and socially by limiting

access to resources and reinforcing inequality. Revitalizing minority
languages, like in Botswana’s Naro community, can boost education,
confidence, and income. Gender bias in language also reinforces male
dominance, contributing to women’s marginalization. Addressing these
issues can promote equality and empowerment.

• women talk more than men

• women are more verbally skilled than men;
• men talk more about things and facts, women talk more about people,
relationships and their feelings;
• misunderstandings between men and women are a frequent
occurrence.
in the Deaf community whereby the use of the lowercase d
indicates the inability to hear.

deafness is a physical description.

There are different levels of deafness and these may be described using
word or phrases such as ‘profound’, ‘severe’, ‘moderate’ or ‘partial hearing
loss.’

Deaf, with an uppercase D, is a description of an identity, a community,

culture and mode of being.

Uppercase Deaf is most commonly used to describe people who were born
deaf or were deaf from an early age. So, you can be deaf and not Deaf.

In traditional communities, women lack equal opportunities due to cultural

values, limiting their participation in public discourse. Women confined to
the home suffer from limited opportunities due to language skills, including
writing, and have little influence on their local future.

Examples include:
deaf children learning sign language and then a spoken language

immigrants who don’t speak the local language facing legal problems

children with dyslexia needing extra help in bilingual schools

blind children needing Braille education.

Biological and social factors are closely connected, with poverty being
linked to more language-related issues, like preventable blindness and
deafness, especially in children in poorer countries.

The factors

• Poor education causing late detection of deafness, wrong use of

medicines, and lack of treatment knowledge.
• Weak healthcare with few doctors, check-ups, and medicines.
• Spread of diseases like AIDS, meningitis, and “river blindness” in
some African areas.
• Vitamin shortages due to bad nutrition.
• Dangerous working conditions that harm health.

Age affects language:

older adults face more hearing, vision, and cognitive issues, while early
childhood is key for detecting language disorders

. There’s a “critical age” for language learning, often around puberty, and
children may lack the focus adults have when learning new languages

. This shows the link between biology and culture.

How can diseases like AIDS and meningitis affect language skills?
These diseases can cause brain damage, impairing language abilities.

What role does culture play in language in traditional

communities?
Culture can restrict women’s language development by limiting their
participation in public discourse.

1. How does age impact language ability in older adults?

Older adults may experience hearing and vision loss, affecting
communication.
2. What are the risks associated with longer lifespans in
relation to language and communication?
Increased risk of stroke, dementia, and conditions that impact language
skills.
3. Why is infancy a critical period for detecting and treating
language disorders?
Early detection and treatment are key for language development during
this time.
 4. What is the “critical age” for language learning, and why
does it exist?
Around puberty, the brain becomes less adaptable to learning languages.
5. How do children’s attention span, motivation, and
confidence affect their language learning compared to adults?
Children may struggle with focus and motivation, while adults often have
more confidence and strategies.
6. How do biological factors like hearing and vision loss affect
language skills?
Hearing and vision loss can hinder communication and language
development.
7. In what ways do social factors, such as poverty, influence
language-related issues?
Poverty can limit access to education and healthcare, worsening language
problems.
8. How does limited access to education affect language
development and communication skills?
Lack of education restricts language learning opportunities and
communication abilities.
9. What role does culture play in the way language is learned
and used?
Culture influences language norms, usage, and opportunities for learning.
10. How can healthcare and working conditions impact
language development and literacy?
Poor healthcare and unsafe working conditions can affect physical and
cognitive development, hindering language and literacy skills

Why do people learn additional languages?

People learn additional languages for various reasons, such as personal
interest, education, or professional needs.
2. What factors influence language learning?
Factors include location, age, beliefs about language learning, resources
available, and personal goals.
How can applied linguists support multilingual individuals?
Applied linguists can help provide materials and services in the languages
that multilingual individuals prefer to use.

What does the term “minority language” refer to?

It refers to a language spoken by a smaller group or a disadvantaged group
within a larger population.

What are macrofamilies in linguistics?

Macrofamilies are groups of closely related languages considered as one in
certain contexts.

How are languages categorized in bilingual or multilingual contexts?

They are categorized as either majority (dominant) languages or minority
(subordinate) languages.

Question:
How do applied linguists approach the concept of minority languages, and
what factors determine whether a language is considered a minority
language?

Answer:
Applied linguists focus on revitalizing and maintaining minority languages
within communities, recognizing that a language may be considered
minority not just by the number of speakers, but also by the social and
political context of its users. A minority language is defined from the
perspective of its speakers, particularly if they face disadvantage or
discrimination due to their language use. While the European Charter for
Regional or Minority Languages defines minority languages as those
spoken by smaller groups and distinct from official languages, applied
linguists argue that the definition should account for the users’ experience,
regardless of the number of speakers or the language’s status. For example,
in Pakistan, Panjabi has the largest number of speakers, but Seraiki
speakers feel discriminated against and are advocating for linguistic rights.

Example of majority and minority:

In France, French is the majority language, while Moroccan Spoken Arabic

(MSA) is a minority language.

Question:
How do applied linguists address the challenges faced by preliterate
children and non-literate adults in accessing language, and what
assumptions must be challenged in their approach?

Answer:
Applied linguists address the challenges faced by preliterate children and
non-literate adults by recognizing that these individuals lack access to
written language and the discourses dependent on literacy. They must
challenge the assumption that written language is the primary form of
communication. For example, applied linguists need to understand that
spoken language differences, like h-dropping, are not “wrong,” but
different. They must also acknowledge that literacy issues go beyond
learning writing conventions, recognizing broader cultural and social
contexts in language use.

Question:
How do literacy levels impact social inclusion and justice, and what are the
different levels of literacy identified by UNESCO?

Answer:
Literacy levels are crucial for social inclusion, with low literacy contributing
to poverty, health inequalities, and crime, as seen in reports from the UK.
UNESCO identifies three literacy levels:
 1. Level 1: Poor skills, unable to manage basic tasks.
2. Level 2: Basic reading skills, but struggles with new challenges.
3. Level 3: Adequate skills for daily life and work, necessary for
secondary education and beyond.

How do applied linguists support deaf and blind people in overcoming

language access challenges, and what advancements have been made to
assist them?

Applied linguists support deaf and blind people by developing strategies

for language acquisition and communication. For the blind, this includes
promoting Braille literacy, designing accessible materials, and advising on
assistive technologies like speech-to-text systems. For the deaf, they focus
on enhancing access to sign language education and interpreting services.
Advancements such as assistive technologies for mobile devices and
standardized Braille systems have significantly improved access to
education and communication for both groups.

What are some language solutions for deaf individuals?

• Depending on the type of deafness, solutions include lip-reading,
finger-spelling, or teaching sign language.
5. What are the arguments in favor of teaching sign language?
• Sign languages, like ASL or MSL, are full, complex languages with
phonological and grammatical systems, acquired at the same pace as
spoken languages.
6. What role do applied linguists play in supporting the deaf
community?
 • They promote awareness of sign languages, develop instructional
materials, advise on policy changes, and advocate for bilingualism.
7. What benefits does bilingualism offer to deaf individuals?
• Bilingualism allows deaf individuals to access both sign and spoken
languages, enhancing communication and participation in society

.
What is the definition of deafness?
• Deafness refers to a continuum of hearing impairment, ranging from
partial hearing loss to complete absence of hearing.