Introduction to Quantum Phase Transitions

Lum

June 2024

Abstract

Quantum phase transitions (QPTs) represent a paradigm shift in our understanding of condensed
matter, where quantum fluctuations, rather than thermal agitation, drive dramatic transformations in
the ground state properties of a system. This document provides a comprehensive overview of QPTs,
delving into their fundamental concepts, theoretical frameworks, and experimental realizations. We ex-
plore the intriguing realm of quantum criticality, where systems exhibit unique scaling behaviors and
exotic phenomena. We discuss prominent examples like unconventional superconductivity and the Mott
metal-insulator transition, highlighting the role of quantum critical fluctuations. The theoretical under-
pinnings of QPTs are elucidated, encompassing Landau-Ginzburg theory, Hertz-Millis-Moriya theory, and
the powerful framework of renormalization group theory. We venture beyond the thermodynamic limit,
exploring QPTs in single-atom cavity QED systems, revealing the emergence of collective behavior in
minimal systems. The captivating realm of topological quantum phase transitions (TQPTs) is explored,
where topological invariants, such as Chern numbers, characterize distinct phases. We discuss the poten-
tial of TQPTs for fault-tolerant quantum computation, leveraging exotic states like Majorana fermions.
The document further explores open quantum systems and dissipative phase transitions, driven by the
interplay of drive and dissipation. We delve into the theoretical challenges and methods employed to
study these non-equilibrium systems, highlighting their potential applications in quantum optics, simula-
tion, and metrology. The power of quantum simulation in exploring QPTs is emphasized, with examples
from ultracold atoms in optical lattices and superconducting circuits. Finally, we review experimental
techniques for probing QPTs, including transport measurements, spectroscopy, thermodynamic measure-
ments, and quantum gas microscopy. This document provides a comprehensive exploration of quantum
phase transitions, showcasing their profound impact on our understanding of quantum matter and their
potential for shaping future technologies.

Contents
1 Introduction 2

2 Quantum Criticality 2
2.1 Examples of Quantum Critical Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Theoretical Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Beyond the Thermodynamic Limit: Single-Atom Cavity QED 3

4 Topological Quantum Phase Transitions: Characterization and Applications 4

4.1 Topological Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Topological Quantum Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.3 Applications of Topological Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

5 Open Quantum Systems and Dissipative Phase Transitions: Non-Equilibrium Phenom-

ena 6
5.1 Driven-Dissipative Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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5.2 Theoretical Challenges and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

5.3 Applications of Dissipative Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6 Quantum Simulation of QPTs: Exploring Uncharted Territory 7

6.1 Ultracold Atoms in Optical Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6.2 Superconducting Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

7 Experimental Techniques for Probing QPTs 9

8 Conclusion 9

1 Introduction
Quantum phase transitions (QPTs) represent a fascinating frontier in condensed matter physics, where
systems undergo dramatic changes in their ground state properties driven by quantum fluctuations rather
than thermal agitation. This document delves into the intricacies of QPTs, covering their fundamental
concepts, theoretical frameworks, experimental realizations, and potential applications.

2 Quantum Criticality
At the heart of QPTs lies the concept of quantum criticality. Unlike classical phase transitions, driven
by thermal fluctuations (kB T ), QPTs occur at absolute zero temperature (T = 0 K), where quantum
fluctuations, arising from Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, dominate. The quantum critical regime is
reached when the thermal energy scale (kB T ) becomes comparable to the characteristic energy scale of
quantum fluctuations (h̄ω):

kB T ∼ h̄ω (1)

where kB is the Boltzmann constant, h̄ is the reduced Planck constant, and ω represents the characteristic
frequency of quantum fluctuations. In this regime, the system exhibits unique scaling behaviors, with phys-
ical quantities often exhibiting power-law dependencies on temperature, external fields, and other relevant
parameters. These power laws are characterized by critical exponents that provide valuable insights into
the universality class of the QPT, indicating that seemingly disparate systems can exhibit similar critical
behaviors.

2.1 Examples of Quantum Critical Phenomena

• Unconventional Superconductivity: Heavy fermion compounds and cuprate high-temperature su-

perconductors exhibit unconventional superconductivity, where the superconducting state emerges in
proximity to a quantum critical point associated with antiferromagnetic order. It is believed that quan-
tum critical fluctuations mediate the pairing of electrons, leading to unconventional pairing mechanisms
that challenge traditional BCS theory. For example, in heavy fermion systems, the strong Coulomb
interactions between electrons lead to the formation of quasiparticles with very large effective masses,
hence the name “heavy fermions.” These heavy fermions can then condense into a superconducting
state, mediated by spin fluctuations associated with the nearby antiferromagnetic phase.

• Mott Metal-Insulator Transition: The Mott transition, observed in certain strongly correlated ma-
terials, exemplifies a QPT where a system transitions between a metallic and an insulating state. This
transition is driven by the competition between the kinetic energy of electrons, favoring delocalization
and metallic behavior, and the Coulomb repulsion between electrons, favoring localization and insu-
lating behavior. At the quantum critical point, the system exhibits unusual transport properties and

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anomalous scaling behaviors. For instance, the Mott transition can be understood in the framework
of the Hubbard model, which describes interacting electrons on a lattice. At half-filling, when there is
one electron per lattice site, the strong Coulomb repulsion suppresses charge fluctuations, leading to
an insulating state. However, as the electron density is tuned away from half-filling, the system can
undergo a transition to a metallic state, driven by the increased kinetic energy.

2.2 Theoretical Frameworks

Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to describe QPTs:

• Landau-Ginzburg Theory: This phenomenological theory provides a general framework for describ-
ing continuous phase transitions, including QPTs. It introduces an order parameter, a quantity that
is zero in the disordered phase and nonzero in the ordered phase, and constructs a free energy func-
tional that governs the behavior of the system near the critical point. The Landau-Ginzburg theory
postulates that the free energy can be expanded in powers of the order parameter, and the coefficients
of this expansion determine the critical behavior of the system.

• Hertz-Millis-Moriya Theory: This theory focuses on quantum critical points associated with mag-
netic ordering. It predicts the behavior of various physical quantities, such as specific heat (C) and
magnetic susceptibility (χ), near the quantum critical point. For example, the specific heat is predicted
to scale with temperature as:

C ∝ T d/z (2)

where d is the spatial dimension and z is the dynamical critical exponent, reflecting the anisotropy
between space and time directions in the quantum critical regime. The Hertz-Millis-Moriya theory takes
into account the coupling between the order parameter fluctuations and other low-energy excitations,
such as particle-hole excitations, which can lead to non-Fermi liquid behavior near the quantum critical
point.

• Renormalization Group Theory: This powerful theoretical tool allows for the systematic study of
systems with many degrees of freedom by progressively integrating out high-energy modes to obtain
an effective theory describing the low-energy physics. Renormalization group methods have been
instrumental in understanding the critical behavior and universality classes of QPTs. By analyzing
how the effective Hamiltonian changes as the energy scale is lowered, one can identify the relevant
degrees of freedom and interactions that govern the critical behavior. The renormalization group flow
of the coupling constants can lead to fixed points, which correspond to different phases of matter, and
the stability of these fixed points determines the order of the phase transition.

3 Beyond the Thermodynamic Limit: Single-Atom Cavity QED

The observation of QPTs in single-atom cavity QED systems has challenged the traditional notion that QPTs
require macroscopic systems. These experiments highlight the emergence of collective behavior and critical
phenomena even in systems with a minimal number of degrees of freedom.

• Effective Many-Body Physics: While a single atom coupled to a cavity mode might seem far from
a many-body system, the strong light-matter interaction effectively creates a many-body problem.
The cavity photons act as collective excitations, mediating interactions between the atom and the
electromagnetic field, giving rise to emergent collective behavior. For example, in the strong coupling
regime, where the light-matter interaction strength exceeds the dissipation rates, the atom and the
cavity mode can no longer be treated as independent entities. Instead, they form a hybrid light-matter

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excitation called a “dressed state,” which exhibits properties distinct from those of the bare atom or
cavity mode.

• Dicke Model Analogy: The single-atom cavity QED system exhibiting a QPT can be mapped onto
the Dicke model, which describes an ensemble of two-level atoms interacting with a single cavity mode.
This mapping provides insights into the emergence of collective behavior and QPTs in these minimal
systems. The Dicke Hamiltonian is given by:

N N
g X † −
(3)
X
H = ωc a† a + ωa σiz + √ (a σi + aσi+ )
i=1
N i=1

where ωc is the cavity frequency, ωa is the atomic transition frequency, g is the coupling strength, a
and a† are the annihilation and creation operators for the cavity mode, and σiz , σi− , and σi+ are the
Pauli operators for the i-th atom. The Dicke model exhibits a superradiant phase transition, where the
atoms collectively emit photons into the cavity mode, analogous to the collective behavior observed in
single-atom cavity QED systems. This collective behavior arises from the exchange of virtual photons
between the atoms via the cavity mode, which leads to an effective atom-atom interaction that can
drive the system into a superradiant state.

4 Topological Quantum Phase Transitions: Characterization and

Applications
Topological quantum phase transitions (TQPTs) represent a fascinating class of QPTs where the system’s
ground state undergoes a topological change. Unlike conventional QPTs, characterized by changes in sym-
metry or order parameters, TQPTs are distinguished by changes in topological invariants, mathematical
quantities that remain unchanged under smooth deformations of the system’s Hamiltonian.

4.1 Topological Invariants

Topological invariants, such as Chern numbers or winding numbers, provide a robust way to characterize
different topological phases. These invariants are often related to the system’s geometry or topology and
are insensitive to local perturbations or disorder. For example, the Chern number, a topological invariant
associated with the integer quantum Hall effect, counts the number of edge states, conducting channels that
appear at the boundaries of the system, providing a direct experimental signature of the topological phase.

Magnetic Field
y

Figure 1: Illustration of the quantum Hall effect. A strong magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a two-
dimensional electron gas. The Hall conductivity is quantized, and edge states propagate along the boundaries of the
sample.

The Chern number can be defined as the integral of the Berry curvature over the Brillouin zone, which is
a measure of the “twisting” of the system’s wavefunction in momentum space. The integer quantization of
the Chern number is a consequence of the single-valuedness of the wavefunction, and it implies the existence

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of robust edge states that are insensitive to disorder or impurities. These edge states are chiral, meaning
that they propagate in a single direction along the edge, and they are protected from backscattering by
time-reversal symmetry.

Another example of a topological invariant is the winding number, which characterizes the topological prop-
erties of systems with a periodic parameter space, such as one-dimensional lattices with periodic boundary
conditions. The winding number counts the number of times the system’s Hamiltonian “winds” around a
closed loop in parameter space, and it is also quantized to be an integer. A nonzero winding number indicates
that the system cannot be smoothly deformed into a trivial insulator, and it is often associated with the
presence of protected edge states at the boundaries of the system.

4.2 Topological Quantum Computation

Topologically protected states, such as Majorana fermions, have emerged as promising candidates for building
fault-tolerant quantum computers. Majorana fermions, particles that are their own antiparticles, exhibit
non-Abelian statistics, meaning that the exchange of two Majorana fermions does not commute, a property
that can be exploited for robust quantum information processing. TQPTs offer a route to creating and
manipulating these exotic states, potentially paving the way for topological quantum computation.

γ1 γ2
Superconductor
Topological Insulator

Figure 2: Illustration of Majorana fermions in a one-dimensional topological superconductor. Majorana fermions

(red circles) can be realized at the ends of a superconducting wire deposited on top of a topological insulator. The
exchange of two Majorana fermions is a non-Abelian operation that can be used for topological quantum computation.

Majorana fermions can be realized as quasiparticle excitations in certain condensed matter systems, such as
topological superconductors and semiconductor nanowires with strong spin-orbit coupling. The key idea is
to create a system with a superconducting gap that protects the Majorana fermions from decoherence, while
at the same time engineering the system’s topology to ensure the existence of these exotic excitations.

4.3 Applications of Topological Materials

Topological materials, materials that exhibit topological phases, hold immense potential for various techno-
logical applications:

• Spintronics: Topological insulators, materials that are insulating in their bulk but conduct electricity
on their surfaces, have promising applications in spintronics, a field that aims to manipulate the spin of
electrons for information processing and storage. The spin-momentum locking of the surface states in
topological insulators allows for the generation and manipulation of spin currents with high efficiency,
which could lead to faster and more energy-efficient electronic devices.

• Thermoelectrics: Topological materials, with their unique electronic structures, have the potential to
exhibit high thermoelectric efficiencies, enabling the conversion of waste heat into electricity. The low
thermal conductivity and high electrical conductivity of some topological materials, such as bismuth
telluride, make them promising candidates for thermoelectric applications.

• Catalysis: The surface states of topological materials can exhibit catalytic properties, facilitating
chemical reactions with enhanced efficiency. The unique electronic structure of topological materials
can lead to enhanced catalytic activity by promoting the adsorption and dissociation of molecules on
their surfaces.

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5 Open Quantum Systems and Dissipative Phase Transitions: Non-

Equilibrium Phenomena
Open quantum systems, systems that interact with their environment, exhibit rich and complex dynamics
beyond the realm of traditional equilibrium thermodynamics. Dissipative phase transitions, QPTs that
occur in open systems due to the interplay of drive and dissipation, represent a fascinating frontier in non-
equilibrium physics.

5.1 Driven-Dissipative Systems

In driven-dissipative systems, energy is continuously pumped in and dissipated out, leading to non-equilibrium
steady states. The interplay of drive, dissipation, and quantum coherence can give rise to dissipative QPTs,
where the system transitions between distinct steady-state phases. These transitions are not driven by ther-
mal fluctuations but rather by the competition between the driving force, which tends to order the system,
and dissipation, which tends to disorder the system. For example, consider a collection of atoms trapped in
an optical cavity and driven by a laser. The atoms can absorb photons from the laser and emit them into
the cavity mode, leading to a coherent exchange of energy between the atoms and the cavity field. However,
the cavity is not perfectly isolated from its environment, and photons can leak out, leading to dissipation.

5.2 Theoretical Challenges and Methods

Studying dissipative QPTs poses significant theoretical challenges, as they require going beyond the tradi-
tional equilibrium thermodynamics framework. Master equation techniques, quantum Langevin equations,
and path integral methods are commonly employed to model these systems.

• Master Equation Techniques: Master equations describe the time evolution of the system’s density
matrix, a mathematical object that encodes the system’s state, taking into account the effects of the
environment. By solving the master equation, one can study the system’s steady-state properties and
its response to external driving. For example, the master equation for a two-level atom interacting
with a dissipative cavity mode can be written as:

dρ
= −i[H, ρ] + κD[a]ρ (4)
dt

where ρ is the density matrix of the atom-cavity system, H is the Hamiltonian describing the coherent
interaction between the atom and the cavity mode, κ is the cavity decay rate, and D[a]ρ = aρa† −
2 (a aρ + ρa a) is the Lindblad superoperator describing the dissipation due to cavity loss.
1 † †

• Quantum Langevin Equations: Quantum Langevin equations describe the time evolution of the
system’s operators, taking into account the effects of the environment through fluctuating forces and
dissipation terms. These equations provide a Heisenberg picture description of the system’s dynam-
ics. For example, the quantum Langevin equation for the cavity field operator a in the presence of
dissipation can be written as:

da κ √
= −i[a, H] − a + κain (t) (5)
dt 2

where ain (t) is the input noise operator, which represents the fluctuations of the electromagnetic field
entering the cavity.

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• Path Integral Methods: Path integral methods represent the system’s dynamics in terms of all
possible paths it can take in time, weighted by a phase factor that depends on the system’s action. By
evaluating the path integral, one can obtain the system’s partition function and other thermodynamic
quantities. In the path integral formalism, the influence of the environment is taken into account by
integrating over all possible realizations of the environmental degrees of freedom. This leads to an
effective action for the system that incorporates the effects of dissipation and decoherence.

5.3 Applications of Dissipative Systems

Dissipative systems, with their rich dynamics and non-equilibrium properties, have potential applications in
various fields:

• Quantum Optics: Driven-dissipative systems are ubiquitous in quantum optics, where lasers, optical
cavities, and atomic ensembles are used to create and manipulate light at the quantum level. Dissipative
QPTs in these systems can lead to novel states of light with tailored properties. For instance, dissipative
QPTs have been explored in systems of coupled cavities, where the interplay between photon hopping,
on-site photon-photon interactions, and cavity loss can give rise to a variety of exotic phases, such as
Mott insulators of photons and superfluid states of light.

• Quantum Simulation: Dissipative systems can be used to simulate complex quantum systems,
including those that are difficult to realize in equilibrium settings. By engineering the drive and
dissipation, one can mimic the desired Hamiltonian and explore the system’s properties. For example,
researchers have used trapped ions to simulate the dynamics of the spin-boson model, a paradigmatic
model in condensed matter physics that describes a two-level system coupled to a bath of harmonic
oscillators.

• Quantum Metrology: Dissipative systems can be used to enhance the precision of measurements.
For example, dissipative QPTs can be exploited to create highly sensitive sensors of magnetic fields
or other physical quantities. For instance, researchers have proposed using the critical behavior of a
driven-dissipative superconducting qubit to detect weak magnetic fields with high sensitivity.

6 Quantum Simulation of QPTs: Exploring Uncharted Territory

Quantum simulation, the use of one quantum system to simulate the behavior of another, has emerged as
a powerful tool for studying QPTs, especially in regimes that are inaccessible to classical computation or
challenging to realize experimentally.

6.1 Ultracold Atoms in Optical Lattices

Ultracold atoms in optical lattices provide a highly controllable platform for quantum simulation. By trap-
ping ultracold atoms in periodic potentials created by interfering laser beams, one can create artificial crystals
of light, mimicking the behavior of electrons in solids. This platform allows researchers to simulate various
condensed matter Hamiltonians, including those exhibiting QPTs. By tuning the interactions and lattice
parameters, different quantum phases can be realized and studied with high precision.

• Bose-Hubbard Model: The Bose-Hubbard model, which describes bosons in a lattice, exhibits a
superfluid-to-Mott insulator transition, a paradigmatic example of a QPT driven by the competition
between kinetic energy and interactions. The Hamiltonian for the Bose-Hubbard model is given by:

UX
(b†i bj + b†j bi ) + (6)
X X
H = −t ni (ni − 1) − µ ni
2 i i
hi,ji

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where t is the hopping amplitude, U is the on-site interaction strength, µ is the chemical potential, bi
and b†i are the annihilation and creation operators for bosons at site i, and ni = b†i bi is the number
operator. Ultracold atoms in optical lattices provide an ideal platform to realize this model and explore
its phase diagram. By tuning the lattice depth and the scattering length between atoms, one can control
the ratio of t/U and drive the system between the superfluid and Mott insulator phases.

Laser Beams

Laser Beams

Figure 3: Schematic illustration of the Bose-Hubbard model in an optical lattice. Ultracold atoms (blue circles) are
trapped in a periodic potential created by interfering laser beams. The atoms can hop between neighboring lattice
sites with a tunneling amplitude t, and they interact with each other via an on-site interaction energy U .

• Fermi-Hubbard Model: The Fermi-Hubbard model, which describes fermions in a lattice, is believed
to capture the essential physics of high-temperature superconductivity. Ultracold fermionic atoms
in optical lattices allow for the study of this model with unprecedented control over the system’s
parameters, potentially providing insights into the mechanism of high-temperature superconductivity.
By cooling fermionic atoms to ultracold temperatures and trapping them in optical lattices, one can
study the competition between kinetic energy, interactions, and the Pauli exclusion principle, which
are believed to play crucial roles in high-temperature superconductivity.

6.2 Superconducting Circuits

Superconducting circuits, another promising platform for quantum simulation, consist of superconducting
elements, such as Josephson junctions and capacitors, connected to form artificial atoms and other quantum
mechanical circuits. Their high degree of controllability, long coherence times, and scalability make them
ideal for studying QPTs in strongly correlated systems.

• Transmon Qubits: Transmon qubits, a type of superconducting qubit, are relatively insensitive to
charge noise, making them well-suited for quantum simulation. By coupling multiple transmon qubits,
one can simulate various spin models and study their phase diagrams. For example, researchers have
used transmon qubits to simulate the Ising model, a fundamental model in statistical mechanics that
exhibits a ferromagnetic-to-paramagnetic phase transition.

• Circuit QED: Circuit QED systems, consisting of superconducting qubits coupled to microwave
resonators, offer a versatile platform for quantum simulation. The strong coupling between the qubits
and the resonator allows for the creation of effective photon-mediated interactions, enabling the study
of QPTs in driven-dissipative systems. For instance, researchers have used circuit QED to simulate
the Dicke model, observing the superradiant phase transition and exploring its properties in a highly
controlled setting.

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7 Experimental Techniques for Probing QPTs

A variety of experimental techniques have been developed to probe the properties of QPTs, each offering
unique insights into the system’s behavior:

• Transport Measurements: Transport measurements, such as electrical conductivity and thermal

conductivity, can reveal signatures of QPTs. For example, at a metal-insulator transition, the electrical
conductivity exhibits a sharp change, reflecting the change in the system’s electronic structure. Trans-
port measurements can also reveal the presence of edge states in topological materials. For instance,
in the quantum Hall effect, the Hall conductivity is quantized, and the quantization is associated with
the presence of chiral edge states that carry current along the edges of the sample.

• Spectroscopy: Spectroscopic techniques, such as neutron scattering, Raman scattering, and angle-
resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES), can probe the system’s excitations and reveal signatures
of QPTs. For example, ARPES can directly measure the system’s band structure, providing insights
into the changes in the electronic structure at a QPT. Spectroscopic techniques can also be used to
study the excitations of quantum magnets and to probe the superconducting gap in unconventional
superconductors.

• Thermodynamic Measurements: Thermodynamic measurements, such as specific heat, magneti-

zation, and susceptibility, can reveal signatures of QPTs through their characteristic scaling behaviors
near the critical point. For example, the specific heat of a system often exhibits a peak or a divergence
at a quantum critical point, and the exponent of this divergence is related to the universality class of
the transition.

• Quantum Gas Microscopy: Quantum gas microscopy allows for the imaging of individual atoms
in optical lattices, providing unprecedented insights into the system’s microscopic properties. This
technique has been instrumental in studying the Mott insulator transition and other QPTs in ultracold
atomic systems. By imaging the atoms in situ, one can directly observe the formation of correlated
phases, such as the Mott insulator, and study their properties with single-site resolution.

8 Conclusion
The study of quantum phase transitions continues to be a vibrant and rapidly evolving field, pushing the
boundaries of our understanding of quantum matter. From unconventional superconductivity to topological
phases, from dissipative systems to quantum simulation, QPTs offer a rich tapestry of phenomena that
challenge our intuition and inspire new technological horizons. As experimental techniques advance and
theoretical frameworks mature, we can anticipate even more exciting discoveries and applications in the
years to come.