UNIT-II

Part-2

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Boolean functions and their representation:
1) Sum-of-Products (SOP) form: This form is also
called the Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF).
Ex:
2) Product-of-Sums (POS) form: This form is also
called the Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF).
Ex:
3) Truth Table form: In this form, the function is
specified by listing all possible combinations of
values assumed by the variables and the
corresponding values of the function.

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Truth Table for

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4) Standard Sum-of-Products form:
• This form is also called Disjunctive Canonical Form
(DCF), Expanded Sum of Products form or Canonical
Sum-of-Products form.
• The function is the sum of a number of product terms
where each product term contains all the variables of
the function either in complemented or
uncomplemented form.
• Ex:

• A variable appears in uncomplemented form if it has a

value of 1 in the combination and appears in
complemented form if it has a value 0 in the
combination.
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• A Product term which contains all the variables of
the function either in complemented or
uncomplemented form is called a Minterm.
• An ‘n’ variable function can have 𝟐𝒏 min terms.
• The sum of the min terms whose value is equal to 1
is the Standard SOP form of the function.
• The minterms are denoted as 𝒎𝟎 , 𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 ,…….
• For a three variable function n=3, The number of
minterms= 𝟐𝟑 = 8.

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• In Canonical SOP form representation, the sum of
min terms for which the function equals to 1 are
noted.
f(A,B,C)= 𝐦𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 + 𝐦𝟑 + 𝐦𝟓
• Another way of representation in DCF is by listing
the decimal codes of the minterms for which f=1.

where represents the sum of all minterms.

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5) Standard Product-of-Sums (POS) form:
• This form is also called Conjunctive Canonical Form
(CCF), Expanded Product-of-Sums form or Canonical
POS form.
• This is derived by considering the combinations for
which f=0.
• A variable appears in uncomplemented form if it has
a value of 0 in the combination and appears in
complemented form if it has a value 1 in the
combination.
• A Sum term which contains all the variables of the
function either in complemented or
uncomplemented form is called a Maxterm.

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• Ex:

• An ‘n’ variable function can have 𝟐𝒏 max terms.

• The product of the max terms corresponding to the
rows for which f=0 is the Standard POS form of the
function.
• The maxterms are denoted as 𝐌𝟎 , 𝐌𝟏 , 𝐌𝟐 ,…….
• CCF of f is

Where represents the product of all maxterms.

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6) Karnaugh Map:
• This is extremely used and extensively used in the
minimization of functions of 3,4,5, or 6 variables.
• The rows and columns are assigned a binary code
(Gray code) such that two adjacent rows or columns
differ in one bit only.
• The Karnaugh map consists of a number of squares.
• Each square is called a Cell. Each one of the squares
represents a minterm or maxterm.
• Two squares are said to be adjacent to each other if
they are physically adjacent to each other or can be
made adjacent by wrapping the map from left to right
or top to bottom.
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• The column on the extreme left is adjacent to
column on the extreme right. Likewise the top row
and bottom row are adjacent.
• A function is represented by placing 1s in cells
corresponding to the minterms present or 0s in the
cells corresponding to the maxterms present in the
function.

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Expansion of a Boolean expression in SOP
form to the standard SOP form:
1) Write down all the terms.
2) If one or more variables are missing in any
product term, expand that term by multiplying it
with the sum of each one of the missing variable
and its complement.
3) Drop out the redundant terms.

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Ex: Write the algebraic terms of a four variable
expression having the following minterms.

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Expansion of a Boolean expression in POS
form to the standard POS form:
1) Write down all the terms.
2) If one or more variables are missing in any sum
term, expand that term by adding the products of
each one of the missing variable and its
complement.
3) Drop out the redundant terms.

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Ex: Write the algebraic terms of a four variable
expression having the following maxterms.

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Conversion between Canonical Forms:
• To convert one canonical form to another,
interchange the symbols ∏ and ∑ , and list those
numbers missing the original form.

• This has a complement that can be expressed as:

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Ex: Expand 𝐀 ഥ to minterms and maxterms.
ഥ+𝐁
Solution:

The minterm 𝐦𝟑 is missing in SOP form. The maxterm

𝐌𝟑 will be present in POS form.
Hence, the POS form is 𝐌𝟑 i.e., 𝐀
ഥ+𝐁
ഥ

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Ex: Expand to minterms and
maxterms.
Solution:

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• In the SOP form, the minterms 0,1,2,3,6 and 7 are
missing.
• So in the POS form, the maxterms 0,1,2,3,6 and 7
will be present. Therefore, the POS form is:
f=
Another method:

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Ex:

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Ex:

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Boolean Expressions and Logic Diagrams
Converting Boolean Expression to Logic:
Ex: Realize the function using AOI logic.

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Converting Logic to Boolean Expression:

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Ex: Obtain the Duals of the following functions
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Sol:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

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Ex: Find the Complements of the following functions
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Sol:
(i)
(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
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 Ex: Simplify the following Boolean expressions to
minimum number of literals
(i)
Sol:
(ii)
Sol:

(iii)
Sol:

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Ex: Draw the logic diagram using only two input
NAND gates to implement the following expression

Sol:
To implement the expression only using NAND gates,
the expression must have only product terms.

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Ex: Implement the function using NOR gates only

Sol:
To implement the expression only using NOR gates,
the expression must have only sum terms.

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Ex: Simply the following expressions and implement
them with NAND gate circuits.

Sol:

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Express the following functions as sum of minterms
and product of max terms.

Sol:

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 Minimization of Switching functions
Two Variable K-map (SOP form):
Ex:

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Minimization of SOP expression:
• Look for adjacent squares having 1s and combine
them to form larger squares to eliminate some
variables.
• 2 squares are said to be adjacent to each other, if
their min terms differ in only one variable.

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• A 4-square eliminates 2 variables. A 4-square is
called a Quad.

• To read the squares on the map after minimization,

consider only those variables which remain
constant throughout the square, and ignore the
variables which are varying.

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Ex: Reduce the expression using K-map.

Sol:

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Two Variable K-map (POS form):
Ex:

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Minimization of POS expression:
• Look for adjacent squares having 0s and combine
them to form larger squares to eliminate some
variables.

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Ex: Reduce the expression
using K-map.

Sol:

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Three Variable K-map:

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General procedure to simplify the Boolean
expression:

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Minimization of SOP and POS expression:
Ex: Reduce the expression using
K-map and implement it in AOI logic as well as in
NAND gate.

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• Ex: Reduce the expression using
K-map and implement it in AOI logic as well as in
NOR gate.

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Ex: Obtain the real minimal expression for
and implement it using Universal gates

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Four Variable K-map:

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Ex: Reduce the following expression using K-map
f= (2,3,6,7,8,10,11,13,14)

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Ex: Reduce the following expression using K-map
f= (0,1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10,12,13)
Sol: In POS form-

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• SOP form requires 9 gate inputs, whereas POS form
requires 12 gate inputs. So, SOP realization is more
economical.

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Ex: Reduce the following expression using K-map
f= (2,8,9,10,11,12,14)
Sol: In SOP form-

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• SOP form requires 12 gate inputs, whereas POS
form requires 10 gate inputs. So, POS realization is
more economical.

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Ex: Reduce the following expression using K-map
and implement the real minimal expression in
universal logic.
Sol: In POS form-

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SOP minimal is

POS minimal is

• SOP form requires 17 gate inputs,

whereas POS form requires 12 gate
inputs. So, POS realization is more
economical.

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Prime Implicant (PI):
• Each square or rectangle made up of the bunch of
adjacent min terms is called a Subcube. Each of
these subcubes is called a ‘Prime Implicant’.
Non-Prime Implicant (NPI):
• A Non-Prime implicant is a min term which doesnot
have any adjacent minterms.
Essential Prime Implicant (EPI):
• The Prime implicant(PI) which contains atleast one
1 which cannot be covered by any other PI is called
an Essential Prime Implicant(EPI).

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Redundant Prime Implicant (RPI):
• The Prime implicant whose each 1 is covered
atleast by one EPI is called Redundant Prime
Implicant(RPI).
Selective Prime Implicant (SPI):
• A Prime implicant which is neither an EPI nor a RPI
is called Selective Prime Implicant (SPI). It may or
may not appear in Minimal expression.

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 Ex:
• The above expression is a unique Minimal SOP (MSP)
form comprising of EPIs.
• The RPI (BD) may be included without changing the
function but the resulting expression would not be in
MSP form.

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Ex:

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• MSP form of a function need not be Unique.
• MSP form can be obtained by including two EPIs
and selecting a set of SPIs to cover the remaining
uncovered minterms 5,13,15.
• These can be covered in the following ways:

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Ex: Reduce the following function using K-map and
identify PIs and EPIs.

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Ex: Reduce the following function using K-map and
identify PI and Non-PI.

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Five Variable K-map:

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Ex: Reduce the following expression using K-map.

Sol: In POS form-

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Don’t Care Combinations:
• The combinations for which the values of the
expression are not specified are called Don’t care
combinations or Optional combinations.
• For example, in Excess-3 code system, the binary
states 0000,0001,0010,1101,1110,1111 are
unspecified and invalid. These are called Don’t
cares.
• Similarly in 8421 code, the binary states
1010,1011,1100,1101,1110,1111 and corresponding
outputs are don’t cares.
• The Don’t care terms are denoted as d, X or ϕ

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• During the process of design using an SOP(POS)
map, each don’t care is treated as 1 (0) if it is
helpful in map reduction; otherwise it is treated as 0
(1) and left alone.
• A standard SOP expression with don’t cares can be
converted to standard POS form by keeping the
don’t cares as they are and write the missing
minterms of the SOP form as the maxterms of the
POS form.
• A standard POS expression with don’t cares can be
converted to standard SOP form by keeping the
don’t cares as they are and write the missing
minterms of the POS form as the maxterms of the
SOP form.

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 Ex: Reduce the following expression and implement
the real minimal expression in universal logic

• In POS form: F= M(0,3,7,8,9,10,11,15). d(2,4)

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• SOP minimal is:

• POS minimal is:

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Ex: Minimize the expressions using K-map. Also,
show the EPIs and SPIs on the K-map.

• Sol:

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Ex: Minimize the expressions using K-map. Also,
show the EPIs and SPIs on the K-map.

Sol:

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Ex: Obtain the simplified expression in POS form.
Also, show the EFPIs and SFPIs on the K-map.

Sol:

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Ex: Obtain the simplified expression in POS form.
Also, show the EFPIs and SFPIs on the K-map.

Sol:

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Ex: Obtain the simplified expression in POS form.
Also, show the EFPIs and SFPIs on the K-map.

Sol:

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Ex: Design a logic circuit with minimal number of
gates for the following Boolean expression

Sol:

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Ex: Simplify the Boolean expression using K-map

Sol:

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Ex: Simplify the Boolean expression using K-map

Sol:

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Ex: Simplify the Boolean expression using K-map

Sol:

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Ex: Reduce the following expression to simplest SOP
and POS forms.

Sol:

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• In POS form-

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Limitations of K-map:
• The K-map method of simplification is convenient
as long as the number of variables does not exceed
6.
• As the number of variables increases, it becomes
difficult to make judgements about which
combinations form the minimal expression.
• It is almost impossible to work with problems of 7
or more variables using K-maps.
• K-map simplification is a manual technique and
simplification process is heavily dependent on the
human abilities. It cannot be programmed.

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Quine-McClusky method:

• The Quine-McClusky method, also known as

Tabular method, is a more systematic method of
minimizing expressions of even larger number of
variables.
• This is suitable for hand computation as well as
computation by machines, i.e., it is Programmable.

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Procedure for Minimization of Boolean
expression by Tabular method:

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Ex: Obtain the set of prime implicants for the
Boolean expression using tabular method.

Sol:
Group the minterms in terms of number of 1s
present in them and write their binary designations.

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 P, Q, R, S are the set of Prime Implicants
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Ex: Obtain the minimal expression using tabular
method

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Ex: Using Tabular method, Obtain the minimal expression for

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Ex: Using Tabular method, Obtain the minimal expression for

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Ex: Minimize the expression using tabular method.

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Ex: Find the minimal expression for

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Ex: Obtain the minimal POS expression for

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