UNIT III

MOBILE NETWORK
LAYER
Mobile IP – DHCP – AdHoc– Proactive protocol-DSDV, Reactive
Routing Protocols – DSR, AODV , Hybrid routing –ZRP, Multicast
Routing- ODMRP, Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET) – MANET
Vs VANET – Security.

3.1 MOBILE IP

 Mobile IP is an Internet Engineering Task Force

(IETF) standard communications protocol that
enhances the existing IP to accommodate mobility.

 Mobile IP allows mobile computers to stay connected to

the internet regardless of their location & without
having to continually change their IP address.
 Every mobile user needs continuous network
connectivity irrespective of his physical location. The
traditional IP does not support user mobility.
 Mobile IP was created by extending IP to enable users to
keep the same IP address while travelling to different
networks.

Advantages of using Mobile IP :

 It allows fast, continuous low‐cost access to corporate

networks in remote areas where there is no public
telephone system or cellular coverage.
 It supports a wide range of applications from Internet
access and e‐mail to e‐commerce.
 Users can be permanently connected to their Internet
provider and charged only for the data packets that are
sent and received
 It can move from one type of medium to another without losing
connectivity

Disadvantage of Mobile IP:

 Routing inefficiency problem caused by the “triangle
routing” formed by the home agent, correspondent host,
and the foreign agent.
 Security risks are the most important problem facing Mobile
IP.
  Problem in making Mobile IP coexist with the security features
within the Internet.

3.1.1 GOALS, ASSUMPTIONS & REQUIREMENTS

 Goal of a mobile IP: Supporting end-system mobility

while maintaining scalability, efficiency, and
compatibility in all respects with existing applications
and Internet protocols.
 Requirements of Mobile IP:
 Compatibility: A new standard cannot require changes
for applications or network protocols already in use.
 Transparency: Mobility should remain “invisible” for
many higher layer protocols and applications.
 Scalability and efficiency: Introducing a new mechanism
in to the Internet must not degrade the efficiency of the
network.
 Security: All messages used to transmit information to another
node about the location of a mobile node must be authenticated
to protect against remote redirection attacks
3.1.2 MOBILE IP - ENTITIES AND TERMINOLOGIES
 Mobile Node (MN):
 Device that moves from home network to Foreign network
 Node that can change the point of connection to the
network without changing its IP address.
 Example: laptops with antennas or mobile phones
 Home Address:
Permanent address of the MN in its original network i.e., IP
address of MN
 Home Network
Original network the MN was associated with respect to its IP
address before moving to new network. No mobile IP support
is needed within the home network.
 Home Agent (HA)
 System in the home network of the MN, typically a router.
 Provides several services for the MN :
 Tunnels IP datagrams to the COA.
 Maintains a location registry of MA
 Implementation of an HA:
 Implemented on a router that is responsible for
the home network.
 Implemented on an arbitrary node in the subnet.
Disadvantage: "Double crossing of the router" - A packet
 for the MN comes in via the router; the HA sends it
through the tunnel which again crosses the router.
 The HA could be again on the ‘router’ but this time only
acting as a manager for MNs belonging to a virtual home
network.
 Foreign Agent (FA)
 System in the current foreign network of the MN, typically
a router.
 It can have COA
 Provides several services to MN during its visit to the
foreign network:
 Forwards the tunnel datagrams to the MA.
 Provides security services
 Foreign Network
A new network that MN visits and which is not the home
network
 Correspondent Node (CN)
 Communication partner i.e., Node that wants to
communicate with MN
 At least one partner is needed for communication.
 It can be a fixed or mobile node.

 Care-of Address (COA)

 A new address of MN in the foreign network.
 Two different possibilities for the location of the COA (Types
of COA):
(i) Foreign Agent COA - The static IP address of a
foreign agent(FA) on a visited network
(ii) Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned
to the MN.
 Represents the current position of the MN on the
Foreign network & can be used by only one MN at a
time.
 A co-located care-of address can be obtained by
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

3.1.3 IP PACKET DELIVERY (HOW MOBILE IP WORKS?)

Steps used in the operation of mobile IP:

 STEP 1: CN sends the Packet to the IP address(home
address) of the MN
 STEP 2:
 Internet Routes the Packet to the router of the MN’s home
network.
 The HA examines the packet to find whether the MN is
present in its current home network or not.
 If the MN is not present, then the HA encapsulates that
datagram in a new packet.
 STEP 3:
 The encapsulated packet is tunneled to the FA, which act
as the new destination address.
 Then FA performs decapsulation to remove the additional
header
  Then forwards the decapsulated packet to the MN.
 STEP 4: MN after receiving the packet from CN forwards a
reply packet to the CN by specifying its own IP address
along with the address of the CN.
3.1.4. KEY MECHANISMS IN MOBILE IP (MOBILE IP
OPERATION
STAGES)

a) Agent Discovery
b) Registration
c) Tunneling & Encapsulation

3.1.4.1 AGENT DISCOVERY

A MN uses a discovery procedure to identify prospective home

and foreign agents.
 Task of MN to determine its FA & HA:
i) Both HA & FA periodically broadcast Agent Advertisement
message.
ii) A MN must discover a HA before it leaves to a home network.
iii)A MN must also discover a FA after it moved to a foreign
network
 Uses ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP).
ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP) - Enables host to
broadcast or multicast to discover the IP address (i.e.,
COA) of their neighbouring routers (i.e., FA)
 Agent Discovery methods:
(i) Agent Advertisement
(ii) Agent Solicitation.
a) Agent advertisement
Functions:
1. It allows the MN to find whether an agent is its HA or a FA.
2. If it is FA then get the COA.
3. It allows the MN to know the type of services provided by the FA.
4. It allows the MN to know about the allowed registration
lifetime or roaming period for visiting foreign network.

NOTE: Upper part represent ICMP while lower part represent

extension needed for mobility.

b) Agent solicitation:
 Rather than waiting for agent advertisements a MN can sent
out an agent solicitation.
 This solicitation forces any agents on the link to immediately
send an agent advertisement.
 If MN determines that it is connected to a foreign network,
then it obtains a COA.
 Types of COA:
(i)Foreign Agent COA - The static IP address of a foreign
agent (FA) on a visited network
(ii) Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned to the
MN.
 Represents the current position of the MN on the
Foreign network & can be used by only one MN at a
 time.
 A co-located care-of address can be obtained by
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
 Steps:
1. MA (HA, FA) broadcast agent advertisement message at
regular intervals.
2. The MN receiving the agent advertisement message
observes whether the message is from its own HA &
determine whether it is on the home network or on the
foreign network.
3. If the MN does not wish to wait for the periodic
advertisement, it can send out agent solicitation message
that will be responded to by a MA.
After these steps of advertisements or solicitations the MN
can now receive a COA, either one for an FA or a co-located
COA. The MN knows its location (home network or foreign
network) and the capabilities of the agent.
The next step for the MN is the registration with the HA if the
MN is in a foreign network

3.1.4.2 REGISTRATION
 If the MN discovers that it is on the home network, then it
operates normally without Mobile IP
 If the MN has moved to a new network & obtain the COA
from a FA, then this address should be registered with the
HA.
 Registration – A MN uses an authenticated registration
procedure to inform the HA of its COA.
 Registration messages uses UDP Protocol.
 Registration can be done in two different ways:
(i) Registration of the MN through FA
 If the COA is at the FA;
 MN sends its registration request containing the COA to the
FA which then forward the request to the HA.
 Now HA will do the mobility binding containing the mobile
node’s home IP address and the current COA.
 Then finally the HA Acknowledges via FA to MN.
ii) Directly with HA

If the COA is co-located;

 MN sends the request directly to the HA and vice versa.
 Also, a registration procedure for MNs returning to their
home network.
REGISTRATION PROCESS:
 The registration process involves the exchange of
registration requests and registration reply messages.
 When the mobile node registers by using a foreign agent,
the registration process takes the following steps, which is
shown in the figure.

1. If MN travels to foreign network, it registers with the FA by

 sending a registration request message, which includes
permanent IP address of the MN & IP address of HA.

2. The FA in turn performs the registration process on behalf of

the MN by sending the registration request message to HA,
which includes permanent IP address of the MN & IP address
of FA(i.e., COA)

3. When the HA receives the registration request, it updates

the “mobility Binding Table”.
4. Then HA sends an acknowledgement (registration reply) to
the FA.

5-6. The FA in turn updates its “Visitor list” & relays the reply to
the MN.
Mobility Binding Table:
 Maintained on HA of MN.

 Maps MN’s home address with its current COA

Visitor List:
 Maintained on FA.

 Maps MN’s home address with its MAC address (address

of NIC) & HA’s address.

3.1.4.3 TUNNELLING AND ENCAPSULATION

 Tunneling (data transfer) – Mechanism used to forward IP
datagrams from a home address to a care-of address i.e.,
sending a packet through a tunnel
 A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between
a tunnel entry and a tunnel endpoint.

Two primary functions:

 Encapsulations – Mechanism of taking a packet consisting
of packet header and data and putting it into the data part
of a new packet.
HA encapsulates all the packets addressed to MN &
forward them to FA.

 Decapsulation - The reverse operation, taking a packet out

of the data part of another packet.
A dencapsulates all the packets addressed to MN &
forward them.

Fig. IP encapsulation
Steps in Encapsulation:
1. When a HA receives a packet addressed to a MN, it
forwards the packet to the COA using IP -within -IP
encapsulation
2. Using IP -within -IP, the HA inserts a new IP header in front
of the IP header of any datagram.
3. Destination address is set to the COA.
4. Source address is set to the HA’s address.
5. After stripping out the 1st header, IP processes the
packet again.
There are different ways of performing the encapsulation.
They are:
1. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
2. Minimal Encapsulation
3. Generic Routing Encapsulation

(1)IP-in-IP Encapsulation:
 This is the mandatory method for Mobile IP.
 Full IP header added to the original IP packet.
 The inner IP header source and destination address identify
the original sender and the receiver.
 The new (outer) header contains HA address as source &
COA as destination.
(2)Minimal Encapsulation :
 It is an optional method for mobile IP
 In IP-in-IP several fields are redundant.
 Minimal Encapsulation will remove these redundancy.

(3)Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) :

 Minimal Encapsulation & IP-in-IP only works for IP while GRE

also supports other network layer protocols.
 Allows the encapsulation of packets of one protocol suite
 into the payload portion of a packet of another protocol
suite.
 The packet of one protocol suite with the original packet
header and data is taken and a new GRE header is
prepended.
 Together this forms the new data part of the new packet.
 Finally, the header of the second protocol suite is put in front.
 The outer header is the standard IP header with HA as
source address and COA as destination address.

 key – used for authentication.

 K bit - if set indicates if authentication key is present.
 S bit - if set indicates if the Sequence number field is present.
 rec – recursion control field. This field represents a
counter that
shows the number of allowed recursive encapsulations.
 rsv – reserved for future use. Must be zero.
 ver = 0 for GRE version.
 Lay 4 protocol specifies the protocol of the packet
 following the GRE header.

3.1.5 OPTIMIZATIONS (ROUTE OPTIMIZATION)

 One of the problem with the mobile IP - "Triangular Routing"

 Triangular Routing:
 An inefficient behavior of a non-
optimized mobile IP
 The triangle is made of the three
segments,
 CN to HA
 HA to COA/MN
 MN back to CN.
 Involves two IP routes - Causes unnecessary network
traffic overhead & higher latency
 To optimize the route ;
 Enable direct notification of the CN.HA informs a
sender about the location of MN
 Direct Tunnelling from the CN to MN.
 Binding cache maintained at the CN. Binding cache
which is a part of the local routing table for the CN

The optimized mobile IP protocol needs four

additional messages:

1. Binding request:
 Any node that wants to know the current location of an MN
can send a binding request to the HA.
 The HA can check if the MN has allowed broadcasting of its
current location.

 If the HA is allowed to reveal the location it sends back a

binding update.

2. Binding update:
 This message sent by the HA to CNs reveals the current
location of an MN.
 The message contains the fixed IP address of the MN and the
COA.
 The binding update can request an acknowledgement
.
3. Binding acknowledgement: If requested, a node returns
this acknowledgement after receiving a binding update
message.
4. Binding warning: If a node decapsulates a packet for an MN,
but it is not the current FA for this MN, this node sends a binding
warning to the HA of the MN.Reverse tunneling is a tunneling

from mobile host to home agent, and makes it

possible for the mobile host from foreign network to

communication in the network

3.2 DHCP - DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL

 DHCP is used to merge the world of mobile phones with the
internet and to
 support mobility.
 Automatically assigns a unique IP address to each device
that connects to a network.
 Used to simplify the installation and maintenance of
networked computers.

 If a new computer is connected to a network, DHCP can

provide it with all the necessary information for full
system integration into the network,
e.g., addresses of a DNS server and the default router,
the subnet mask, the domain name, and an IP address.

 DHCP is based on a client/server model.

Fig. Basic DHCP Configuration

1. DHCP clients send a request to a server (DHCPDISCOVER)

to which the server responds.
2. A client sends requests using MAC broadcasts to reach all
devices in the LAN.
3. A DHCP relay might be needed to forward requests across
inter-working units to a DHCP server.
Fig. Client initialization via DHCP
 The above figure shows one client and two servers.
1. The client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER into the subnet.
2. Two servers receive this broadcast and find the
configuration they can offer to the client.

3. Servers reply to the client’s request with DHCPOFFER and

offer a list of configuration parameters.
4. Then the client can choose one of the configurations offered.
5. Then the client in turn replies to the servers, accepting one
of the configurations and rejecting the others using DHCP
REQUEST.
6. If a server receives a DHCP REQUEST with a rejection, it
can free the reserved configuration for other possible
clients.
7. The server with the configuration accepted by the client now
confirms the configuration with DHCP ACK. This completes
the initialization phase.
8. If a client leaves a subnet, it should release the
configuration received by the server using DHCP RELEASE.
9. The configuration a client gets from a server is only leased
for a certain amount of time, it has to be reconfirmed from
time to time.

3.3.1 MOBILE AD-HOC (MANET)

 Types of wireless network:

 Infrastructured:
  The MN can move while communicating
 The BSs are fixed
 As the node goes out of the range of a BS, it gets into
the range of another BS.
 Infrastructureless or Mobile ad-hoc (MANET):

 The MN can move while communicating

 There are no fixed BSs.
 All the nodes in the network need to act as routers.
 Used to simplify the installation and maintenance of
networked computers.
 MANET are formed dynamically by an autonomous
system of mobile nodes that are connected via wireless
links.
 No existing fixed infrastructure or centralized
administration
 Mobile nodes are free to move randomly i.e., network
topology changes frequently.
 Each node work as a router.

3.3.2 FEATURES OF MANET

 MANET can be formed without any pre-existing infrastructure.

 It follows dynamic topology where nodes may join and leave the
network at any time and the multi-hop routing may keep changing as
nodes join and depart from the network.

 It does have very limited physical security, and thus increasing security
is a major concern.
  Every node in the MANET can assist in routing of packets in the network.
 Limited Bandwidth & Limited Power

3.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MANET

1. Lack of fixed infrastructure

– bring new n/w designing challenges.

– Pair of nodes can either communicate directly when they are in within the
range or can communicate via multi-hop communication.
2. Dynamic topologies :
– N/w topology can change unpredictably because of the mobility of
devices in MANET
– Rate of topology change depends on the speed of mobile movement

3. Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity link:

– Wireless link have lower capacity compare to wired link
– Factors affecting Bandwidth: Noise, Interference…….

4. Energy constrained operation:

– Nodes depends on battery power
– Small battery – limited amount of energy
– Need more energy during Routing
– “Energy Conservation” – important objective of MANET routing protocol
5. Increased vulnerability:
– New type of security threats
– Increased the possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, DOS attacks.
– Difficult to identify the attacker because:
• Devices keeps on moving
• Do not have global Identifier
3.3.4 CHALLENGES / CONSTRAINTS / DESIGN ISSUES OF MANET

1) Limited bandwidth:
Limited bandwidth because of the effect of multiple access, fading, noise,
and interference conditions, etc.,

2) Dynamic topology:
Dynamic topology membership may disturb the trust relationship among
node.
3) Routing Overhead:
Unnecessary routing overhead since nodes often change their location
within network.
4) Hidden terminal problem:
The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a
receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that
are not within the direct transmission range of the sender, but are within
 the transmission range of the receiver.
5) Packet losses due to transmission errors:
Much higher packet loss due to factors such as increased collisions due
to the presence of hidden terminals, presence of interference, uni-
directional links, frequent path breaks due to mobility of nodes.
6) Mobility-induced route changes:
The network topology in an ad hoc wireless network is highly dynamic
due to the movement of nodes; hence an on-going session suffers
frequent path breaks. This situation often leads to frequent route
changes.
7) Battery constraints:
Devices used in these networks have restrictions on the power source in
order to maintain portability, size and weight of the device.
8) Security threats:
Brings new security challenges to the network design. As the wireless
medium is vulnerable to eavesdropping.

3.3.5. APPLICATIONS OF MANET

3.3.6 AD-HOC MOBILE ROUTING PROTOCOLS
 Routing is a process of finding an efficient, reliable and secure path from
a source node to a destination node via intermediate nodes in a network.
 Efficiency of the path is measured in various metrics like, Number of
hops, traffic, security, etc.

• Not suitable for MANET.

• Popularly used in packet switching n/w

– SP (Link State Protocol)

– DVP (Distance Vector Protocol)
Both of these needs to find the next hop along the shortest path towards the
 destination
3.3.6.1 TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS
 LINK STATE ROUTING
 Link – connection of one router to its neighboring router
 Each router maintains;
 LSPDB (Link State DataBase) - Router store its local connectivity
information & flood this through “Link state advertisement”
 Routing Table
 Content of (LSP) Link Sate Packet or (LSA) Link State Advertisement:
 Identity of the router originating the message
 Identities of all its neighbors
 Delay along various link to its neighbors
 Unique seq.no, which is formed by increasing the count every time the
router forms a new link state advertisement.
 Procedure:
1. Exchange of HELLO messages to find the neighbors.
2. Compute the cost between the neighbors
3. Build up LSP.
4. Flooding LSP – Broadcast the LSP
5. Compute the new path using Dijkstra’s algorithm

 Exchange of HELLO messages - to learn its direct neighbors

 Flooding LSP – for example Router E sends its LSP on all its links and
routers D, B and C insert the LSP in their LSDB and forward it over their
other links.

 Link state databases received by all routers- By combining the received

LSPs with its own LSP, each router can compute the entire network
topology.
  Each router computes the spanning tree by using Dijkstra’s shortest path
algorithm

DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DV) Protocols

• Manipulates vectors (distance, direction) of distances to other nodes in
the network.
• Distance – no. of hops b/w 2 nodes
• Direction – Next hop router to which the packet is forwarded
• Other name: Distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm or RIP(Routing
 Information Protocol)
• Each router maintain routing table.
• All available destination (Dest)
• Next node to reach to destination (Next)
• No. of hops to reach the destination (Metrics)
1. Periodically advertises its routing table to its neighbors
2. Neighbors updates its own routing table by examining the received
information, which in inform its neighbors.
3. Computes shortest path to each host based on the information advertised
by its neighbors.

3.3.6.2 PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS(Table-driven routing protocol)

 Maintain the global topology information in the form of tables at every node.

 These tables are updated frequently in order to maintain consistent and

accurate network state information.
 EX: DSDV, WRP, and STAR.

DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR ROUTING

(DSDV)
 Based on Proactive method
 Enhanced version of the distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm or Distance
Vector (DV) Routing Protocol.

 DSDV adds two things to the distance vector algorithm

 Sequence Number:
 Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number.
 Within ad-hoc networks, advertisements may propagate along many
paths.
 Sequence numbers help to apply the advertisements in correct order.
 This avoid the loops in the network.
 Damping:
 Transient changes in topology that are of short duration should not
weaken the routing mechanisms.

 Unstable changes in the topology are not forwarded

Example Ad-hoc network

 For each node N1 maintain a table that contain;
 The next hop toward this node
 The metric (number of hops)
 The sequence number
 The time at which the path has been installed first.
 Important steps in the operation of DSDV:
1. Each router (node) in the network collects route information from its
neighbor’s.
2. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to the
destination based on the gathered information.
3. Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is generated.
4. The router broadcasts this table to its neighbors. On receipt by neighbors, the
neighbor nodes recomputed their respective routing tables.
5. This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.
 Advantages
 Simple
 Loop free through destination seq. numbers
 No latency caused by route discovery
 Disadvantages
 No sleeping nodes
 Overhead: most routing information never used

3.3.6.3 REACTIVE PROTOCOLS (On-demand routing protocol)

 They execute the path-finding process and exchange routing information only
when a path is required by a node to communicate with a destination.
 i.e., a route is discovered only when it is necessary.
 Source initiates route discovery
 2 step process
 Route Discovery
 Route Maintenance
 Route discovery is expensive

Example: Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector

(AODV)
(a) DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING PROTOCOL (DSR)

 DSR is a source initiated on-demand(or reactive) routing protocol for ad-hoc

network
 Designed to restrict the bandwidth consumed by packets by eliminating the
periodic table-update messages i.e., the nodes do not need to exchange the
routing information periodically, which helps to reduce the bandwidth
overhead.
 Each mobile node participating in the protocol maintains a “routing cache” which
contains the list of all routes that the node has learnt
 DSR works in 2 phases:
(a) Route Discovery:
 Allows any host to dynamically discover the route to any destination in the ad-
hoc network.
 Route Discovery Process takes place by :
1. Broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbours.
 The Route request (RREQ) packet contains the
i) Source address
ii) Request id
iii) Route Record, in which the sequence of hops traversed by the request
packet before reaching the destination is recorded.
2. A node after receiving RREQ
If the node is an intermediate node then
 If the message has the same ID i.e. has seen it before, then the node discards
this message,
 If not, the node appends its own address to the route record in the ROUTE
REQUEST message then propagates the message to the next hop neighbors.

If the node is the Target (Destination) then

 Returns a Route Reply (RREP) message to the sender
 Copies the accumulated route record from RREQ into RREP

Fig. Broadcasting the RREQ packets

 Fig. Propagation of RREP packets back to source
(b) Route Maintenance:
 A known route can get broken due to the movement of some node or the battery
of a node getting exhausted.
 Route maintenance: The process of monitoring the correct operation of a route
in use & taking corrective action when needed.
 Steps:
1. When a node detects that one of its next hop neighbor node is not responding,
it sends back a route error(RERR) packet containing its own address and the
address of the hop that is not working
2. As Soon as source node receives the RERR message it deletes the broken link
route from its cache.
3. If it has another route to the destination, it starts to retransmit the packet using
the alternative route.
4. Otherwise it initiates the route discovery process again. The
basic message set consists of:
o RREQ – Route request
o RREP – Route reply
o RERR – Route error
o HELLO – For link status monitoring
Advantages:
 A perfect route is discovered always.
 Highly efficient.
 Low bandwidth Consumption.

Drawback:

 Packet header size (Non Uniform Packet Size) grows when intermediate
node increases.
 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network

(b) AD HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (AODV)

 Based on Reactive method

DSR vs AODV:
 Major problem of DSR is its non-uniform packet size because it includes source
routes in its packet header which degrades the performance. If a packet is large,
it has to be split into smaller packets.
 The packet size in AODV is uniform unlike DSR.
 AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the nodes,
so that data packets do not have to contain routes.

 AODV holds the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained only
between nodes which need to communicate.
 Route is established only when it is required by a source node for transmitting data
packets
 Make use of hop-by-hop routing, sequence numbers and beacons.
 Steps:
1.The node that needs a route to a specific destination generates a route
request(RREQ).
2.The route request(RREQ) is forwarded by intermediate nodes which also
learn a reverse route from the source to themselves.
3.When the request reaches a node with route to destination, it generates a
route reply(RREP) containing the number of hops required to reach the
destination.
4.All nodes that participate in forwarding this reply to the source node
create a forward route to destination.
5. This route created from each node from source to destination is a hop- by-hop
route.

Example: Suppose Node S needs a routing path to Node D

1. Node S creates a RREQ packet & broadcasts to its neighbors. RREQ

[D's IP addr, Seq#, S's IP addr, hopcount]

2. Node A rebroadcasts RREQ to all its neighbours.

3. Since, Node C known a route to Node D

 Node C creates a RREP & unicasts RREP to A.
 Set forward path in C's routing table.

4. Node A creates a RREP & unicasts RREP to S

5. Set forward path in A's routing table
 6. Set forward path in S's routing table

Difference between DSR, DSDV & AODV

Property DSR DSDV AODV

Loop Free Yes Yes Yes
Multicast Routes Yes No No
Unidirectional Link Yes No No
Periodic Broadcast No Yes Yes
Routes maintained Route Cache Route Table Route Table
Reactive Yes No Yes

3.3.6.4 HYBRID PROTOCOLS

 Combines the best features of both proactive & reactive routing protocols.

Eg: ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)

ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)

 It is Hybrid Protocol
 Based on the concept of zones.
 A routing zone is defined for each node separately and zones of neighboring nodes
overlap.
 The routing zone has a radius expressed in hops. i.e., Zone radius: Number of
hops
Key concept in ZRP to:
 Use a proactive routing scheme within a limited zone
 Use a reactive routing scheme for nodes beyond this zone.
Routing is divided into two parts:

Intrazone routing: 1st the packet is sent within the routing zone of the source
node to reach the peripheral nodes

Interzone routing: The packet is sent from the peripheral nodes towards the
destination node

In the diagram the routing zone of S includes the nodes A-I, but not K.
 The nodes are divided into peripheral nodes and interior nodes.

Peripheral nodes: Nodes whose minimum distance is less than the radius.
 Interior nodes - Nodes A-F
 Peripheral nodes - Nodes G-J
 Node K is outside the routing zone
 Within the zone table driven is used
 Outside the zone On demand Route Discovery is used

Procedure:
1. The source sends a Route Request packet (RREQ) to the border nodes of its zone,
containing its own address, destination address and the unique sequence no.
2. Each border nodes checks its local zone for the destination.
3. If the destination is not a member of local zone, then the border node adds its
own address to the route request packet and forwards the packet to its own border
nodes.
4. When the destination node is reached in this process, a route reply (RREP) is sent
on the reverse path back to the source.
 5. The source saves the path which is mentioned in Route Reply to send data
packets to the destination.

3.3.7 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL

 Multicast is the delivery of a message to a group of destination nodes in a single

transmission.
 Multicast Protocols are
Tree based Protocol and Mesh based Protocol
a) Tree based Protocol
 This establishes a single path between any two nodes in the multicast group.

Example: AMRoute, AMRIS

 The tree consists of root node(r), three intermediate nodes (p,s,t) and seven
group members.
 For node u, the packet transmission is relayed through two tree links, that is, from
r to q and then q to u.

To maintain the tree structure even when nodes move, group members periodically
send Join Request message.

b) Mesh Based Protocol

o This establishes a multiple path between source - receiver pair.

Example: ODMRP, CAMP

o Tree based protocols, may not perform well in the presence of highly mobile
nodes because multicast tree structure is fragile and needs to be frequently
readjusted.
o Each node in a mesh can have multiple parents.
o Multiple links exist and other links are immediately available when the primary
link is broken due to node mobility. This avoids frequent reconfigurations.
 o Sending a Packet from R to U involves three transmissions(R,Q,U) & fourteen
receives(5 neighbors of R,6 neighbors of Q and 3 neighbors of U).
o For eg, the transmission from node Q is received not only by U but also be
neighbour nodes R,S,T,W and X; the redundant link from Q to W may be useful
when the path from P to W is broken

o Drawback of this scheme is that multiple copies of the same packet are forwarded
through the mesh.

ON-DEMAND MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL (ODMRP)

 Provides richer connectivity among multicast members using a mesh based
approach.
 Supplies multiple route for one particular destination.
 Helps in case of topology changes & node failures.
 Use the concept of Forwarding Group - A subset of nodes forwards multicast
packets.

Operation of ODMRP:

1. A sender node wishing to send multicast packets periodically floods a JOIN

REQUEST to entire network.
2. A Node receiving a non-duplicate JOIN REQUEST, stores the upstream node ID (i.e.
backward learning) into routing table & rebroadcasts the packet.
3. A multicast receiver getting the JOIN REQUEST creates or updates the source entry
in its member table.
4. As long as valid entries in receiver's member table, JOIN TABLE are broadcasted
periodically.

5. An intermediate node, receiving the JOINT TABLE, compares it's Node ID with the
entries of that table.
6. If there's a match, it is a member of the forwarding group. Then it sets FG- FLAG &
broadcasts its JOIN TABLE.
7. This process is going to create a mesh between all forwarding group members.
8. JOIN TABLE is propagated by each forwarding Group member until it reaches
source via a shortest path.
9. Routes from source to receivers builds a mesh of nodes called "Forwarding Group"
3.4 TYPES OF MANET
 VANET - VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORKS: Used for communication between vehicles and
roadside equipment.

 SPANET - SMART PHONE AD HOC NETWORKS : Used to create peer-to-peer

networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or
traditional network infrastructure.

 i MANET - INTERNET BASED MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS : Used to link mobile

nodes and fixed Internet-gateway nodes.

 Military / Tactical MANET : Used by military units with emphasis on security,

range, and integration with existing systems.

3.4.1 VANET: VEHICULAR AD - HOC NETWORK

The Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network, or VANET, is a technology that uses moves cars
as nodes in a network to create a mobile network.

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are created by applying the principles of

mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) - the spontaneous creation of a wireless
network for data exchange - to the domain of vehicles. They are a key component
of intelligent transportation systems (ITS).

The term VANET became mostly synonymous with the more generic term inter-
vehicle communication (IVC).

VANET is an application of mobile ad hoc network. More precisely a VANET is self-

organized network that can be formed by connecting vehicle aiming to improve
driving safety and traffic management with internet access by drivers and
programmers.

WORKING OF VANET

VANET turns every participating car into a wireless router or node, allowing cars
approximately 100 to 300 meters of each other to connect and, in turn, create a
network with a wide range.
As cars fall out of the signal range and drop out of the network, other cars can join in,
connecting vehicles to one another so that a mobile Internet is created.
It is estimated that the first systems that will integrate this technology are police and
fire vehicles to communicate with each other for safety purposes.

COMMUNICATION IN VANET

Two types of communication are provided in the VANET.

 First a pure wireless ad hoc network where vehicle to vehicle without any
 support of infrastructure.
 Second is communication between the Road Side Units (RSU), a fixed
infrastructure, and vehicle.

ARCHITECTURE OF VANET

Each node in VANET is equipped with two types of unit i.e. On Board
Unit(OBU) and Application Unit (AU). OBU has the communicational
capability whereas AU executes the program making OBU‘s communicational
capabilities. An RSU can be attached to the infrastructure network which is connected
to the Internet.

TECHNOLOGY USED IN VANET

  To establish a VANET, IEEE has defined the standard 802.11p or 802.16
(WiMax). A Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) is proposed
which is operating on 5.9GHz band and uses 802.11 access methods.
 It is standardized as 802.11p which provides short range communication with low
latency.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VANET

 High Mobility: The nodes in VANETs usually are moving at high speed. This
makes harder to predict a node’s position and making protection of node
privacy
 Rapidly changing network topology: Due to high node mobility and random
speed of vehicles, the position of node changes frequently. As a result of this,
network topology in VANETs tends to change frequently.
 Unbounded network size: VANET can be implemented for one city, several
cities or for countries. This means that network size in VANET is
geographically unbounded.
 Frequent exchange of information: The ad hoc nature of VANET motivates
the nodes to gather information from the other vehicles and road side units.
Hence the information exchange among node becomes frequent.
 Wireless Communication: VANET is designed for the wireless environment.
Nodes are connected and exchange their information via wireless. Therefore
some security measure must be considered in communication.
 Time Critical: The information in VANET must be delivered to the nodes with
in time limit so that a decision can be made by the node and perform action
accordingly.

APPLICATIONS OF VANET

Safety Related Application:

These applications are used to increase the safety on the roads. These applications can
be further categorized in following way.
 Collision Avoidance: If a driver gets a warning message on time then the collision
can be avoided.
 Cooperative Driving: Drivers can get traffic related warning signals & these
signals can co-operate the driver for an uninterrupted and safe driving.
 Traffic optimization: Traffic can optimized by the use of sending signals like
jam, accidents etc. to the vehicles so that they can choose their alternate path and
can save time.
User Based Application:
These applications provide the user infotainment. A VANET can be utilized to
provide following services for the user apart from safety:
 Peer to peer application: These application are useful to provide services like
sharing music, movies etc. among the vehicles in the network.
 Internet Connectivity: People always want to connect with the Internet all the
time. Hence VANET provides the constant connectivity of the Internet to the
users.
  Other services: VANET can be utilized in other user based application such as
payment service to collect the tall taxes, to locate the fuel station, restaurant etc.

CHALLENGING ISSUES IN VANET

 Network Management: Due to high mobility, the network topology and channel
condition change rapidly.
 Congestion and Collision Control: The unbounded network size also creates a
challenge. The traffic load is low in rural areas and night in even urban areas. In
rush hours the traffic load is very high and hence network is congested and
collision occurs in the network.
 Environmental Impact: VANETs use the electromagnetic waves for
communication. These waves are affected by the environment.

 MAC Design: VANET generally use the shared medium to communicate hence
the MAC design is the key issue.
 Security: As VANET provides the road safety applications which are life critical
therefore security of these messages must be satisfied

SECURITY ISSUES IN VANET

Lack of physical boundary: Each mobile node functions as a router & forwards packets
from other nodes. AS a result, network boundaries become blurred. So it is difficult to
deploy firewalls or monitor the incoming traffic.

 Low power RF transmission: It if possible for a malicious node having high power
RF transmission capability to continuously transmit & monopolize the medium &
cause its neighboring nodes or the entire targeted MANET to wait endlessly for
transmitting their messages. Also signal jamming can lead to denial-of-service(DOS)
attack.

 Limited computational capabilities: Nodes in an ad hoc network usually have

limited computational capabilities. It therefore becomes difficult to deploy
compute-intensive security solutions such as setting up a public-key cryptosystem.
Inability to encrypt messages invites a host of security attacks such as spoofing as
well as several other forms of routing attacks.

 Limited power supply: Since nodes normally rely on battery power, an attacker
might attempt to exhaust batteries by causing unnecessary transmissions to take
place at the targeted node or might cause excessive computations to be carried out
by the targeted nodes.

 Real time Constraint: VANET is time critical where safety related message
should be delivered with 100ms transmission delay. So to achieve real time
constraint, fast cryptographic algorithm should be used. Message and entity
authentication must be done in time.

 Data Consistency Liability: In VANET even authenticate node can perform

malicious activities that can cause accidents or disturb the network. Hence a
mechanism should be designed to avoid this inconsistency. Correlation among the
 received data from different node on particular information may avoid this type of
inconsistency.

 Low tolerance for error: Some protocols are designed on the basis of probability.
VANET uses life critical information on which action is performed in very short
time. A small error in probabilistic algorithm may cause harm.

MANET Vs VANET

MANET VANET
Collection of mobile nodes that Nodes(vehicles) can communicate
communicate with each other over with certain roadside infrastructures
bandwidth constrained wireless links or base stations.
without any infrastructure support.

The node movement is more random The node mobility is constrained to

in nature the road topologies.

Power is a major constrained The battery power available in a

vehicle is quite adequate.

Cost of production is cheap Expensive

Change in network topology is slow Frequent & very fast
Node lifetime depends on power depends on lifetime of vehicles
resource

Multi-hop routing is available. Weakly available.

Attribute based addressing scheme Location-based

Dynamic Source Routing

The Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) is a simple and efficient routing protocol
designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes.
DSR allows the network to be completely self-organizing and self-configuring, without
the need for any existing network infrastructure or administration. The protocol is
composed of the two main mechanisms of "Route Discovery" and "Route
Maintenance", which work together to allow nodes to discover and maintain routes to
arbitrary destinations in the ad hoc network. All aspects of the protocol operate entirely
on-demand, allowing the routing packet overhead of DSR to scale automatically to only
that needed to react to changes in the routes currently in use.
Route discovery. If the source does not have a route to the destination in its route cache,
it broadcasts a route request (RREQ) message specifying the destination node for which
the route is requested. The RREQ message includes a route record which specifies the
sequence of nodes traversed by the message. When an intermediate node receives a RREQ, it
checks to see if it is already in the route record. If it is, it drops the message. This is done to
prevent routing loops. If the intermediate node had received the RREQ before, then it
also drops the message. The intermediate node forwards the
RREQ to the next hop according to the route specified in the header. When the
destination receives the RREQ, it sends back a route reply message. If the destination has
a route to the source in its route cache, then it can send a route response (RREP) message
along this route. Otherwise, the RREP message can be sent a long the reverse route back to
the source. Intermediate nodes may also use their route cache to reply to RREQs. If an
intermediate node has a route to the destination in its cache, then it can append the route to
the route record in the RREQ, and send an RREP back to the source containing this route.
This can help limit flooding of the RREQ. However, if the cached route is out-of-date, it
can result in the source receiving stale routes.
Route maintenance. When a node detects a broken link while trying to forward a packet
to the next hop, it sends a route error (RERR) message back to the source containing the link
in error. When an RERR message is received, all routes containing the link in error are
deleted at that node.
As an example, consider the following MANET, where a node S wants to send a packet to D,
but does not know the route to D. So, it initiates a route discovery. Source node S floods
Route Request(RREQ). Each node appends its own identifier when forwarding RREQ as
shown below.
Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route Reply (RREP). RREP is sent on a route
obtained by reversing the route appended to received RREQ. RREP includes the route from S to D
on which RREQ was received by node D.

Route Reply can be sent by reversing the route in Route Request (RREQ) only if links are
guaranteed to be bi-directional. If Unidirectional (asymmetric) links are allowed, then RREP
may need a route discovery from S to D. Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route
included in the RREP. When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is included in
the packet header { hence the name source routing}. Intermediate nodes use the source
route included in a packet to determine to whom a packet should be forwarded.
J sends a route error to S along route J-F-E-S when its attempt to forward the data packet S
(with route SEFJD) on J-D fails. Node shearing RERR update their route cache to remove link
J-D
Advantages of DSR:
 Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate-- reduces overhead of
route maintenance
 Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead
 Asingleroutediscoverymayyieldmanyroutestothedestination,duetointermediate nodes
replying from local caches

Disadvantages of DSR:
 Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing
 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network
 Care must be taken to avoid collisions between route requests propagated by
neighboring nodes—insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ
 Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to nodes replying using
their local cache-- Route Reply Storm problem. Reply storm may be eased by preventing a
node from sending RREP if it hears another RREP with a shorter route
 An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a stale cached route, thus polluting other
caches
An optimization for DSR can be done called as Route Caching. Each node caches a new route
it learns by any means. In the above example, When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to
node D, node S also learns route [S,E,F] to node F. When node K receives Route Request
[S,C,G] destined for node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S. When node F forwards
Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node F learns route[F,J,D]to node D. When node E forwards
Data[S,E,F,J,D] it learns route [E,F,J,D] to node D. A node may also learn a route when it
overhears Data packets. Usage of Route cache can speed up route discovery and can also
reduce propagation of route
requests. The disadvantages are, stale caches can adversely affect performance. With passage of time
and host mobility, cached routes may become invalid.
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)

AODV is another reactive protocol as it reacts to changes and maintains only the active
routes in the caches or tables for a pre-specified expiration time. Distance vector means a
set of distant nodes, which defines the path to destination. AODV can be considered as a
descendant of DSR and DSDV algorithms. It uses the same route discovery mechanism used
by DSR. DSR includes source routes in packet headers and resulting large headers can
sometimes degrade performance, particularly when data contents of a packet are small. AODV
attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the nodes, so that data packets
do not have to contain routes. AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are
maintained only between nodes which need to communicate. However, as opposed to DSR,
which uses source routing, AODV uses hop-by-hop routing by maintaining routing table
entries at intermediate nodes.
Route Discovery. The route discovery process is initiated when a source needs a route to
a destination and it does not have a route in its routing table. To initiate route discovery,
the source floods the network with a RREQ packet specifying the destination for which
the route is requested. When a node receives an RREQ packet, it checks to see whether it is
the destination or whether it has a route to the destination. If either case is true, the node
generates an RREP packet, which is sent back to the source along the reverse path. Each
node along the reverse path sets up a forward pointer to the node it received the RREP
from. This sets up a forward path from the source to the destination. If the node is not the
destination and does not have a route to the destination, it rebroadcasts the RREQ packet.
At intermediate nodes duplicate RREQ packets are discarded. When the source node receives
the first RREP, it can begin sending data to the destination. To determine the relative
degree out-of- datedness of routes, each entry in the node routing table and all RREQ and
RREP packets are tagged with a destination sequence number. A larger destination
sequence number indicates a more current (or more recent) route. Upon receiving an RREQ
or RREP packet, a node updates its routing information to set up the reverse or forward path,
respectively, only if the route contained in the RREQ or RREP packet is more current
than its own route.
Route Maintenance. When a node detects a broken link while attempting to forward a
packet to the next hop, it generates a RERR packet that is sent to all sources using the broken
link. The RERR packet erases all routes using the link along the way. If a source receives a
RERR packet and a route to the destination is still required, it initiates a new route
discovery process. Routes are also deleted from the routing table if they are unused for
a certain amount of time.
An intermediate node (not the destination) may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided
that it knows a more recent path than the one previously known to sender S. To
determine whether the path known to an intermediate node is more recent, destination
sequence numbers are used. The likelihood that an intermediate node will send a Route
Reply when using AODV is not as high as DSR. A new Route Request by node S for a
destination is assigned a higher destination sequence number. An intermediate node
which knows a route, but with a smaller sequence number, cannot send Route Reply

When node X is unable to forward packet P(from node S to node D) on link(X,Y), it

generates a RERR message Node X increments the destination sequence number for D
cached at node X. The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR. When
node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for D using destination
 sequence number at least as large as N. When node D receives the route request with
destination sequence number N, node D will set its sequence number to N, unless it is
already larger than N.

Sequence numbers are used in AODV to avoid using old/broken routes and to determine
which route is newer. Also, it prevents formation of loops.
Assume that A does not know about failure of link C-D because RERR sent by C is lost.

Now C performs a route discovery for D. Node A receives the RREQ (say, via path C-E-A)
Node A will reply since A knows a route to D via node B resulting in a loop (for instance, C-
E-A-B-C )

Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message and absence of hello message
indicates a link failure. When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to
node D) on link (X, Y), it generates a RERR message.

Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at node X. The
incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR. When node S receives the
RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for D using destination sequence number at least
as large as N.
When node D receives the route request with destination sequence number N, node D
will set its sequence number to N, unless it is already larger than N.

Another example for AODV protocol:

Assume node-1 want to send a message to node-14 and does not know the route. So, it
broadcasts (floods) route request message, shown in red.
Node from which RREQ was received defines a reverse route to the source. (Reverse
routing table entries shown in blue).
The route request is flooded through the network. Destination managed sequence number,
ID prevent looping. Also, flooding is expensive and creates broadcast collision
problem.
Route request arrives at the destination node-

14. Upon receiving, destination sends route reply by setting a sequence number(shown in
pink)
Routing table now contains forward route to the destination. Route reply follows reverse route
back to the source.
The route reply sets the forward table entries on its way back to the source.
Once the route reply reaches the source, it adopts the destination sequence number. Traffic
flows
alongtheforwardroute.Forwardrouteisrefreshedandthereverseroutesgettimedout.Suppose
there has been a failure in one of the links. The node sends a return error message to the source
with incrementing the sequence number.
Once the source receives the route error, it re-initiates the route discovery process.

A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a timeout interval.
Timeout should be long enough to allow RREP to come back. A routing table entry
maintaining a forward path is purged if not used for a active route timeout interval. If no
data is being sent using a particular routing table entry, that entry will be deleted from
the routing table (even if the route may actually still be valid).
Cluster-head Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)

The cluster-head gateway switch routing (CGSR) is a hierarchical routing protocol. It is

a proactive protocol. When a source routes the packets to destination, the routing
tables are already available at the nodes. A cluster higher in hierarchy sends the packets
to the cluster lower in hierarchy. Each cluster can have several daughters I and forms a
tree-like structure in CGSR. CGSR forms a cluster structure. The nodes aggregate into
clusters using an appropriate algorithm. The algorithm defines a cluster- head, the
node used for connection to other clusters. It also defines a gateway node which
 provides switching (communication) between two or more cluster-heads. There will
thus be three types of nodes— (i) internal nodes in a cluster which transmit and receive
the messages and packets through a cluster-head, (ii) cluster-head in each cluster such
that there is a cluster-head which dynamically schedules the route paths. It controls a
group of ad-hoc hosts, monitors broadcasting within the cluster, and forwards the
messages to another cluster-head, and (iii) gateway node to carry out transmission and
reception of messages and packets between cluster-heads of two clusters.
The cluster structure leads to a higher performance of the routing protocol as compared to
other

protocols because it provides gateway switch-type traffic redirections and clusters

provide an effective membership of nodes for connectivity.
CGSR works as follow:
 periodically, every nodes sends a hello message containing its ID and a monotonically increasing
sequence number
 Using these messages, every cluster-head maintains a table containing the IDs of nodes
belonging to it and their most recent sequence numbers.
 Cluster-heads exchange these tables with each other through gateways; eventually, each node
will have an entry in the affiliation table of each cluster-head. This entry shows the node’s
ID & cluster-head of that node.
 Each cluster-head and each gateway maintains a routing table with an entry for every
cluster- head that shows the next gateway on the shortest path to that cluster head.

Disadvantages:
 The same disadvantage common to all hierarchal algorithms related to cluster formation and
maintenance.
 Hierarchal State Routing (HSR)

 A hierarchal link state routing protocol that solves the location management problem found in
MMWN by using the logical subnets. A logical subnet is a group of nodes that have common
characteristics (e.g. the subnet of students, the subnet of profs , employees etc. ). Nodes of the same
subnet do not have to be close to each other in the physical distance.

HSR procedure:
1. Based on the physical distance, nodes are grouped into clusters that are supervised by
cluster- heads. There are more than one level of clustering.
2. Every node has two addresses :
I. A hierarchal-ID ,(HID), composed of the node’s MAC address prefixed by the
IDs of its parent clusters.
II. A logical address in the form <subnet, host>.
3. Every logical subnet has a home agent, i.e. a node that keeps track of the HID of all
members of that subnet.
4. The HIDs of the home agents are known to all the cluster-heads, and the cluster-head
can translate the subnet part of the node’s logical address to the HID of the
corresponding home agent.
5. when a node moves to a new cluster, the head of the cluster detects it and informs the
node’s home agents about node’s new HID.
6. When a home agent moves to a new cluster, the head of the cluster detects it and
informs all other cluster-heads about the home agent’s new HID.
To start a session:
1. The source node informs its cluster-head about the logical address of the destination node.
2. The cluster-head looks up the HID of the destination node’s home agent and uses
it to send query to the home agent asking about the destination‘s HID.
3. After knowing the destination’s HID, the cluster-head uses its topology map to find
a route to the destination’s cluster-head.
Disadvantages: cluster formation and maintenance.

Optimized Link State Routing Protocol

Optimized link state routing protocol (OLSR) has characteristics similar to those of
link state flat routing table driven protocol, but in this case, only required updates are
sent to the routing database. This reduces the overhead control packet size and
numbers.
OSLR uses controlled flood to disseminate the link state information of each node.
 Every node creates a list of its one hop neighbors.
 Neighbor nodes exchange their lists with each other.
 Based on the received lists, each node creates its MPR.
The multipoint relays of each node, (MPR), is the minimal set of 1-hop nodes that
covers all 2- hop points.
 The members of the MPR are the only nodes that can retransmit the link state
information in an attempt to limit the flood.
Security in MANET’s

Securing wireless ad-hoc networks is a highly challenging issue. Understanding possible

form of attacks is always the first step towards developing good security solutions.
Security of communication in MANET is important for secure transmission of
information. Absence of any central co-ordination mechanism and shared wireless
medium makes MANET more vulnerable to digital / cyber-attacks than wired network
there are a number of attacks that affect MANET. These attacks can be classified into
two types:
1. External Attack: External attacks are carried out by nodes that do not belong to the
network. I t causes congestion sends false routing information or causes unavailability of
services.
2. Internal Attack: Internal attacks are from compromised nodes that are part of the network.
In an internal attack the malicious node from the network gains unauthorized access and
impersonates as a genuine node. It can analyze traffic between other nodes and may
participate in other network activities.
 Denial of Service attack: This attack aims to attack the availability of a node or the
entire network. If the attack is successful the services will not be available. The attacker
generally uses radio signal jamming and the battery exhaustion method.
 Impersonation: If the authentication mechanism is not properly implemented a malicious
node can act as a genuine node and monitor the network traffic. It can also send fake
routing packets, and gain access to some confidential information.
 Eavesdropping: This is a passive attack. The node simply observes the confidential
information. This information can be later used by the malicious node. The secret
 information like location, public key, private key, password etc. can be fetched by
eavesdropper.
 Routing Attacks: The malicious node makes routing services a target because it’s an
important service in MANETs. There are two flavors to this routing attack. One is attack
on routing protocol and another is attack on packet forwarding or delivery mechanism.
The first is aimed at blocking the propagation of routing information to a node. The latter
is aimed at disturbing the packet delivery against a predefined path.
 Black hole Attack:: In this attack, an attacker advertises a zero metric for all destinations
causing all nodes around it to route packets towards it.[9] A malicious node sends fake
routing information, claiming that it has an optimum route and causes other good nodes to
route data packets through the malicious one. A malicious node drops all packets that it
receives instead of normally forwarding those packets. An attacker listen there quests in
a flooding based protocol.
 Wormhole Attack: In a wormhole attack, an attacker receives packets at one point in the
network, ―tunnels them to another point in the network, and then replays them into the
network from that point. Routing can be disrupted when routing control message are
tunneled. This tunnel between two colluding attacks is known as a wormhole.
 Replay Attack: An attacker that performs a replay attacks are retransmitted the valid data
repeatedly to inject the network routing traffic that has been captured previously. This
attack usually targets the freshness of routes, but can also be used to undermine poorly
designed security solutions.