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 Contents

Chapter 4 Sound Design 87

Chapter 4 Learning Targets 87
Assessment Methods—A Set of Four Options 88
Selected Response 89
Written Response 90
Performance Assessment 90
Personal Communication 91
Matching Assessment Methods to Learning Targets 93
Assessing Knowledge Targets 93
Assessing Reasoning Targets 96
Assessing Skill Targets 99
Assessing Product Targets 100
Assessment Development Cycle 102
Step 1: Determining Users and Uses 104
Step 2: Specifying the Intended Learning Targets 106
Step 3: Selecting the Appropriate Assessment Method(s) 107
Step 4: Determining the Appropriate Sample Size 107
The Steps in Test Development 112
Use and Refinement 113
Assessment for Learning Using Assessment Blueprints 115
Summary 115
Chapter 4 Activities 116
Activity 4.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 117
Activity 4.2 Practice with Target-method Match 117
Activity 4.3 Audit an Assessment for Clear Purpose 118
Activity 4.4 Audit an Assessment for Clear Learning
Targets 119
Activity 4.5 Make a Test Blueprint 120
Activity 4.6 Try an Assessment for Learning Application 120
Activity 4.7 Reflect on Your Own Learning 121
Activity 4.8 Select Portfolio Artifacts 121

Chapter 5 Selected Response Assessment 122

Chapter 5 Learning Targets 123
When to Use Selected Response Assessment 124
Developing a Selected Response Test 125
Planning Steps 125
Step 1: Determine Users and Uses 125
Step 2: Identify Learning Targets 126
Step 3: Select Assessment Method(s) 126
Step 4: Determine Sample Size 126

[ vii ]
Contents

Development and Use Steps 128

Step 5: Develop or Select Items, Exercises, Tasks, and Scoring
Procedures 128
Step 6: Review and Critique the Overall Assessment for Quality
Before Use 144
Step 7: Conduct and Score the Assessment and Step 8: Revise
as Needed for Future Use 147
Selected Response Assessment for Learning 148
Where Am I Going? 148
Where Am I Now? 150
How Can I Close the Gap? 153
Summary 157
Notes 158
Chapter 5 Activities 159
Activity 5.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 160
Activity 5.2 Audit Items for Quality 161
Activity 5.3 Create a Test 163
Activity 5.4 Develop an Assessment for Learning Activity 164
Activity 5.5 Prepare Quiz or Test for Formative Use 165
Activity 5.6 Reflect on Your Own Learning 167
Activity 5.7 Select Portfolio Artifacts 168

Chapter 6 Written Response Assessment 169

Chapter 6 Learning Targets 170
When to Use Written Response Assessment 171
The Planning Stage for a Written Response Assessment 171
Determining Users and Uses 172
Identifying Learning Targets 172
Selecting Assessment Method(s) 172
Determining Sample Size 172
The Development Stage for a Written Response Assessment 174
Developing the Items 174
Short Answer or Extended Response? 175
Devising Short Answer Items 175
Devising Extended Written Response Items 177
Offering Choices 180
Preparing the Scoring Guides 181
Scoring Guide Options 181
Creating Task-Specific Rubrics 186
Creating General Rubrics 189
Critiquing the Overall Assessment for Quality 192

[ viii ]
 Contents

The Use Stage 192

Conducting and Scoring the Assessment 192
Revising for Future Use 193
Written Response as Assessment for Learning 194
Summary 197
Chapter 6 Activities 198
Activity 6.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 199
Activity 6.2 Evaluate a Written Response Assessment for Quality 199
Activity 6.3 Create a Short Answer Item and Scoring Guide 200
Activity 6.4 Create an Extended Written Response Item and Scoring
Guide 201
Activity 6.5 Apply an Assessment for Learning Strategy 202
Activity 6.6 Reflect on Your Own Learning 202
Activity 6.7 Select Portfolio Artifacts 203

Chapter 7 Performance Assessment 204

Chapter 7 Learning Targets 205
When to Use Performance Assessment 205
Assessment Development Cycle for a Performance
Assessment 207
Determining Users and Uses 207
Identifying Learning Targets 208
Selecting Assessment Method(s) 208
Determining Sample Size 208
Selecting, Revising, or Developing the Task 210
The Content of the Task 211
Structure of the Task 213
Sampling 216
Creating Tasks to Elicit Good Writing 218
Evaluating the Task for Quality 221
Selecting, Revising, or Developing Rubrics 226
Rubric Terminology 226
Content of the Rubric 227
Structure of the Rubric 231
Descriptors in the Rubric 232
Process for Developing Rubrics 235
Evaluating the Rubric for Quality 240
Use Stage 240
Seven Strategies for Using Rubrics as Instructional Tools in
the Classroom 245
Where Am I Going? 245
Where Am I Now? 246
How Can I Close the Gap? 247

[ ix ]
Contents

Using a Performance Task as an Assessment for Learning 250

Summary 252
Notes 253
Chapter 7 Activities 254
Activity 7.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 255
Activity 7.2 Evaluate a Performance Task for Quality 255
Activity 7.3 Create a Performance Task 256
Activity 7.4 Create a Writing Task Using the RAFTS Format 257
Activity 7.5 Evaluate a Rubric for Quality 258
Activity 7.6 Create a Rubric 259
Activity 7.7 Create a Student-friendly Version of a Rubric 260
Activity 7.8 Use Rubrics as Assessment for Learning 261
Activity 7.9 Structure a Task for Formative Use 262
Activity 7.10 Reflect on Your Own Learning 262
Activity 7.11 Select Portfolio Artifacts 263

Chapter 8 Personal Communication as Classroom

Assessment 264
Chapter 8 Learning Objectives 266
When to Use Personal Communication Assessment 266
Sampling 267
Wait Time 269
Personal Communication Options: Instructional Questions
and Answers 270
Developing Questions to Assess Knowledge and
Understanding 270
Developing Questions to Assess Reasoning 270
Suggestions for Effective Formative Use of Instructional
Questions 271
Summative Use of Instructional Questions 275
Personal Communication Options: Class Discussions 275
Developing Class Discussion Topics and Questions 276
Suggestions for Effective Use of Class Discussions 276
Personal Communication Options: Conferences and
Interviews 279
Developing Questions and Topics for Conferences and
Interviews 279
Suggestions for Effective Use of Conferences and Interviews 279
Personal Communication Options: Oral Examinations 280
Developing Questions for Oral Examinations 280
Suggestions for Effective Use of Oral Examinations 281

[ x ]
 Contents

Personal Communication Options: Journals and Logs 281

Response Journals 282
Dialogue Journals 283
Personal Journals 283
Learning Logs 284
Possible Sources of Bias That Can Distort Results 284
Reminder of Problems and Solutions 285
Summary 286
Chapter 8 Activities 288
Activity 8.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 289
Activity 8.2 Frame Diagnostic Questions 289
Activity 8.3 Use Questioning Strategies to Deepen
Understanding 290
Activity 8.4 Develop and Use a Class Discussion Rubric 291
Activity 8.5 Conduct a Line-up Discussion 292
Activity 8.6 Develop Oral Examination Questions 294
Activity 8.7 Use Journals or Logs in the Classroom 295
Activity 8.8 Reflect on Your Own Learning 296
Activity 8.9 Select Portfolio Artifacts 296

Chapter 9 Record Keeping: Tracking Student Learning 297

Chapter 9 Learning Targets 299
Preliminary Decisions 299
Differentiating Information for Formative or Summative Use 299
Deciding Where You Will Keep the Information 306
Record-keeping Guidelines 311
Guideline 1: Organize Entries by Learning Represented 311
Guideline 2: Track Information about Work Habits and Social Skills
Separately 314
Guideline 3: Record Achievement Information by Raw Score,
if Practical 316
Options for Student Record Keeping 318
Summary 323
Chapter 9 Activities 325
Activity 9.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 326
Activity 9.2 Plan Formative and Summative Assessment
Events 327
Activity 9.3 Organize Your Recording System 328
Activity 9.4 Track Work Habits and Social Skills 329
Activity 9.5 Develop Student Record-keeping Forms 330
Activity 9.6 Reflect on Your Own Learning 331
Activity 9.7 Select Portfolio Artifacts 331

[ xi ]
Contents

Chapter 10 Converting Summative Assessment Information

into Grades 332
Chapter 10 Learning Targets 334
The Challenges of Report Card Grading 334
Three Grading Guidelines 336
Guideline 1: Use Grades to Communicate, Not to Motivate 336
Guideline 2: Report Achievement and Other Factors
Separately 340
Guideline 3: Reflect Only Current Level of Achievement
in the Academic Grade 341
Summarizing Information 342
Verify Accuracy of Data 342
Convert Entries to a Common Scale 343
Weight Information as Needed 343
Combine Information Thoughtfully 343
Converting Rubric Scores to Grades 345
Average Ratings 346
Pattern of Ratings 347
Combining Rubric Ratings with Other Assessment Information
to Get a Final Grade 348
Reporting the Final Grade 350
Keep the Link to Learning Targets 350
Make Modifications with Care for Special Needs Students 352
Decide Borderline Cases with Extra Evidence 352
Involve Students 353
Six Steps to Accurate, Fair, and Defensible Report Card Grades 354
Rubric to Evaluate Grading Practices 354
Summary 358
Chapter 10 Activities 359
Activity 10.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 360
Activity 10.2 Develop Solutions Other than Grades 360
Activity 10.3 Analyze Steps in Your Grading Process 361
Activity 10.4 Revisit How You Convert Rubric Scores to
Grades 362
Activity 10.5 Evaluate Your Grading Practices 362
Activity 10.6 Reflect on Your Own Learning 363
Activity 10.7 Select Portfolio Artifacts 363

Chapter 11 Portfolios 364

Chapter 11 Learning Targets 365
Kinds of Portfolios—Focus on Purpose 366
Growth Portfolios 366

[ xii ]
 Contents

Project Portfolios 367

Achievement Portfolios 367
Competence Portfolios 367
Celebration Portfolios 367
Working Folders 368
Portfolio Contents—Focus on Learning Targets 368
Artifact Selection 369
Work Sample Annotations 371
Student Self-reflection 372
Goal Setting 375
Sharing Options 375
Keys to Successful Use 376
1. Ensure Accuracy of the Evidence 376
2. Keep Track of the Evidence 376
3. Invest Time up Front 377
4. Make the Experience Safe 377
Summary 377
Chapter 11 Activities 379
Activity 11.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 380
Activity 11.2 Try a New Portfolio Option with Students 380
Activity 11.3 Revise an Existing Student Portfolio System 381
Activity 11.4 Start a Personal Portfolio 382
Activity 11.5 Review Your Own Classroom Assessment
Portfolio 383
Activity 11.6 Reflect on Your Own Learning 383
Activity 11.7 Select Portfolio Artifacts 384
Activity 11.8 Reflect on Your Learning over Time 384

Chapter 12 Conferences About and with Students 385

Chapter 12 Learning Targets 386
The Feedback Conference 388
Keys to Success 388
The Goal-Setting Conference 390
Keys to Success 391
The Progress Conference 394
Focusing on Growth over Time 394
Focusing on Achievement Status 394
Identifying Participants 394
Preparing the Students 395
Preparing the Parents or Other Adults 395
Conducting a Two-Way Conference 396
Conducting a Three-Way Conference 396

[ xiii ]
Contents

Followup 396
The Showcase Conference 397
Preparing the Students 397
Conducting a Showcase Conference 397
Followup 398
The Intervention Conference 398
Summary 398
Chapter 12 Activities 400
Activity 12.1 Keep a Reflective Journal 401
Activity 12.2 Conduct and Debrief a Feedback Conference 402
Activity 12.3 Conduct and Debrief a Goal-setting Conference 403
Activity 12.4 Organize a Student-led Conference 404
Activity 12.5 Reflect on Your Own Learning 404
Activity 12.6 Select Portfolio Artifacts 405
Activity 12.7 Stage a Share Fair 406

Appendix: CD Table of Contents 408

References 411
Index 414

[ xiv ]
 C H A P T E R

1
Classroom Assessment:
Every Student a Learner

Used with skill, assessment can motivate

the reluctant, revive the discouraged, and thereby
increase, not simply measure, achievement.

F
or many of us, assessment is probably not at the top of the list of topics when we
think about what we want to spend time learning. But we would guess that, in
the last few years, you may have been called upon to do one or more of the fol-
lowing things, each of which may have left you wishing for a stronger understanding
of why it is important to do or of how to do it well.
• Develop common assessments with other teachers in your subject area or grade
level.
• Work with a team to “deconstruct” the new Common Core State Standards to
help identify what should be the content of daily instruction and assessment.
• Attend a Response to Intervention (RTI) training and then make a presentation
to the rest of the faculty on the benefits for students.
• Focus on differentiated instruction this year as a strategy to help more students
master content standards.
• Use more formative assessment in the classroom because the research says it
will work.
• Move to a grading system that centers more on communicating what students
know and can achieve and removes from grades such nonachievement variables
as attendance, effort, and behavior.
All of these actions, along with many other currently popular school improve-
ment initiatives involving assessment, are aimed at raising student achievement in an
era of high-pressure accountability testing. Each action requires classroom teachers to
have classroom-level assessment expertise to carry them out effectively. And yet the

[ 1 ]
Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

opportunity to develop that expertise may not have been available to you through
preservice or inservice offerings.
Without a foundation of what we call classroom assessment literacy, few if any of these
initiatives will lead to the improvements we want for our students. Assessment-literate
educators understand that assessments can serve a variety of important users and fulfill
purposes in both supporting and verifying learning. They know that quality assessments
arise from crystal-clear achievement targets and are designed and built to satisfy specific
assessment quality control criteria. Those steeped in the principles of sound assessment
understand that assessment results must be delivered into the hands of the intended user in
a timely and understandable form. Finally, they are keenly aware of the fact that assess-
ment can no longer be seen merely as something adults do to students. Rather, students
are constantly assessing their own achievement and acting on the inferences they draw
about themselves. Assessment-literate educators know how to engage students in pro-
ductive self-assessments that will support their learning success.
We have framed these components of assessment literacy, derived from the exper-
tise of the measurement community, in terms of five keys to assessment quality. Each
chapter will focus on one or more of these keys to quality. Each chapter includes activi-
ties you can complete individually, with a partner, or with a team to put the principles
of assessment literacy into action in your classroom. By the end of your study, you will
have the expertise needed to handle any classroom assessment challenge.

Chapter 1 Learning Targets

At the end of this chapter, you will know the following:
■ What the five keys to classroom ■ Why they are important to
assessment quality are assessment accuracy and effective
use of assessment information

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT LITERACY

We define classroom assessment literacy as the knowledge and skills needed to do two
things: (1) gather accurate information about student achievement, and (2) use the
assessment process and its results effectively to improve achievement (Figure 1.1).

FIGURE 1.1 Definition of Classroom Assessment Literacy

The knowledge and skills needed to
1. Gather accurate information about student achievement.
2. Use the assessment process and its results effectively to improve achievement.

[ 2 ]
 Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

When people think about assessment quality, they often focus on the accuracy of the
instrument itself—the extent to which the assessment items, tasks, and scoring rubrics
produce accurate information. This is a key feature of assessment quality, but it gives
a far from complete picture of what we have to understand to use assessment well in
the classroom.
You may be surprised to know that teachers can spend up to 30 percent or more
of their classroom time in assessment-related functions. No wonder—consider all of
the things that go into and make up the classroom assessment process:
• Planning and managing both formative and summative assessments in the
classroom
• Identifying, clarifying, and teaching to valued learning targets
• Designing or selecting high-quality assessment items and tasks
• Devising high-quality scoring keys, guides, and rubrics
• Using assessment results to plan further instruction
• Offering descriptive feedback during learning
• Designing assessments so that students can self-assess and set goals
• Tracking student achievement along with other relevant data
• Setting up a system so students can track and share their progress
• Calculating grades that accurately represent student achievement at the time
they are assigned
When viewed as a larger picture, we see that the accuracy of assessment items, tasks,
and scoring rubrics is only one slice of the pie. Prerequisites must be in place to en-
sure accuracy of results. In addition, classroom assessment quality requires that we
use the assessment process and its results effectively. If our assessment practices don’t
result in higher achievement, we would say a component of quality is missing. And,
because accurate assessment skillfully used benefits learning, this expanded defini-
tion of classroom assessment literacy must become part of our understanding of what
it means to teach well. Figure 1.2 shows the expanded definition as an “Assessment
Literacy Pie.”

KEYS TO QUALITY CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

All of the pieces contributing to sound classroom assessment instruments and prac-
tices are built on a foundation of the following five keys to quality:
1. They are designed to serve the specific information needs of intended user(s).
2. They are based on clearly articulated and appropriate achievement targets.
3. They accurately measure student achievement.
4. They yield results that are effectively communicated to their intended users.
5. They involve students in self-assessment, goal setting, tracking, reflecting on, and
sharing their learning.

[ 3 ]
Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

FIGURE 1.2 Components of Classroom Assessment Literacy

Accuracy

Test Item & Task

Clear Targets
Development

Development
Balanced of Scoring
Formative and Guides
Summative Assessment

Tracking Instructional
Results & Grading Planning
w/Results

Self-assessment Descriptive
& Goal Setting Feedback

Effective use

Figure 1.3 shows a graphic representation of the five keys to quality. We will use this
figure as our “mall map” throughout the book to indicate which key or keys to quality
each chapter addresses.
Key 1: Clear Purpose
We assess, in part, to gather information about student learning that will inform instruc-
tional decisions. Teachers and students make decisions every day that drive learning—
they need regular information about what each student has and has not yet learned. We
make some decisions frequently, such as when we decide what comes next in student
learning within lessons or when we diagnose problems. Typically, these decisions, made
day to day in the classroom based on evidence gathered from classroom activities and as-
sessments, are intended to support student learning—to help students learn more. These
are known collectively as formative assessment practices: formal and informal processes
teachers and students use to gather evidence for the purpose of improving learning.
We make other decisions periodically, such as when we assign report card grades
or identify students for special services. In this case, we rely on classroom assessment
evidence accumulated over time to determine how much learning has occurred.
Other instructional decisions are made less frequently, such as when school districts
assess to inform the community about the efficacy of school programs or to decide
whether to continue or discontinue a particular program. Often these decisions are
based on results of once-a-year standardized tests reported in broad categories of

[ 4 ]
 Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

FIGURE 1.3 Keys to Quality Classroom Assessment

Key 1: Clear Purpose Key 2: Clear Targets

Who will use the information? Are learning targets clear to teachers?
How will they use it? What kinds of achievement are to be assessed?
What information, in what detail, Are these learning targets the focus of
is required? instruction?

Key 3: Sound Design

Do assessment methods match learning targets?
Does the sample represent learning appropriately?
Are items, tasks, and scoring rubrics of high quality?
Does the assessment control for bias?

Key 4: Effective Communication

Can assessment results be used to guide instruction?
Do formative assessments function as effective feedback?
Is achievement tracked by learning target and reported
by standard?
Do grades communicate achievement accurately?

Key 5: Student Involvement

Do assessment practices meet students’ information needs?
Are learning targets clear to students?
Will the assessment yield information that students can use to
self-assess and set goals?
Are students tracking and communicating their
evolving learning?

learning. These are all examples of summative assessment: assessments that provide
evidence of student achievement for the purpose of making a judgment about student
competence or program effectiveness.
Formative and summative assessment can be thought of as assessment for
learning and assessment of learning respectively (Figure 1.4). The purpose of one is to
improve achievement, to support learning, and the purpose of the other is to measure,
to verify, learning.
As you can see, assessment information can serve a variety of users—such
as students, teachers, administrators, parents—and uses—both formative and

[ 5 ]
Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

FIGURE 1.4 Formative and Summative Assessment

Formative Assessment
Formal and informal processes teachers and students use to gather evidence for the purpose of
improving learning

Summative Assessment
Assessment information used to provide evidence of student achievement for the purpose of
making a judgment about student competence or program effectiveness

summative. In any assessment context, whether informing decisions along the way
(assessment for learning) or measuring achievement after it has happened (assessment
of learning), we must start by understanding the information needs of the intended
users. Those needs will determine the form and frequency of assessment, as well as
the level and type of detail required in the results.
Chapter 2 describes the key users of classroom assessment information and their
information needs. It also explains differences between formative and summative
assessment (assessment for and of learning), the reasons for engaging in assessment
for learning, and when to use each.

Key 2: Clear Targets

Besides beginning with intended use in mind, we must also start the assessment pro-
cess with a clear sense of the learning to be assessed—the achievement expectations
we hold for our students, the content standards at the focus of instruction. We call
these learning targets. When our learning targets are clear to us as teachers, the next
step is to ensure they are also clear to students. We know that students’ chances of
success improve when they start out with a vision of where they are headed.
Chapter 3 defines kinds of learning targets, explains how to turn broad state-
ments of content standards into classroom-level targets, and shows ways to make
them clear to students.

From the Field 1.1

Jim Lloyd
They say that “what gets measured gets done.” While I believe there is some merit
to this, I believe that a better way of phrasing this work is to say that “what is worth-
while, practical, and useful endures.” Assessment for learning passes the worthwhile,
practical, and usefulness tests.

[ 6 ]
 Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

In our district, we believe that all administrators play a vital role in helping class-
room assessment for student learning gain traction. If our job is to educate all students
up to high standards (a national education mission that is profoundly different from
where it once started), then all the educators working within that system must have
a clear focus and even clearer understanding as to what things make a profound
impact on the achievement of the children. Clearly classroom assessments that are
accurate and communicated appropriately are critical to our mission.
Our district leadership team set two goals that we wanted to be world-class
at—clear learning intentions and high-quality feedback. We’ve had the good
fortune of increasing our staffs’ capacity in these areas through a partnership with
Cleveland State University and have generated significant momentum, which in turn
has impacted teachers’ classroom practices and student learning. We have created
local, cross-grade-level learning teams and are using our own teachers as a means to
further our capacity and understanding of classroom assessment.
Classroom assessment for student learning isn’t a simplistic instructional strat-
egy. Rather, it is a way of being. It is a type of pedagogy that when used as a matter
of practice makes a profound impact on the way the teacher engineers her learning
environment and how the students work within it. We have witnessed firsthand how
the learning environments in our school district have gone from great to greater as
classroom assessment for student learning becomes more deeply embedded in our
classrooms and in our students.
We believe that in order for systemic change to occur and endure it must be em-
braced by those it impacts most of all—teachers and students. Teachers who engage in
quality classroom assessment for student learning as a matter of instructional practice
have clearer student learning intentions, offer more regular and descriptive feedback,
create more accurate assessments, communicate assessment results more effectively
and involve students in the assessment process. All are ingredients for high levels of stu-
dent engagement and learning. It has been our experience that Classroom Assessment
for Student Learning impacts all learners—high, middle, and low achieving.
Jim Lloyd, Ed.D., Assistant Superintendent
Olmsted Falls City Schools, Olmsted, OH
January 2011

Key 3: Sound Assessment Design

Assessments can accurately or inaccurately reflect the current level of student learning.
Obviously, our goal always is to generate accurate information. The previous two keys,
clear purpose and clear targets, lay the foundation for quality assessment by telling us what
needs to be assessed and what kind of results are needed. Next comes the challenge
of creating an assessment that will deliver those results. This requires an assessment
method capable of reflecting the intended target. Will it be selected response, written

[ 7 ]
Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

response, performance assessment, or personal communication? These four assessment

methods are not interchangeable: each has strengths and limitations and each works
well in some contexts but not in others. Our task always is to choose a proper method for
the intended purpose and learning targets—the quality of our assessments hinges on it.
Chapter 4 describes the four assessment methods and provides practice in
matching methods to learning targets. It also offers guidance on assessment planning
with the intended purpose in mind.
After we have chosen a method, we develop it with attention to three other qual-
ity criteria. We must sample well by including just enough exercises to lead to confi-
dent conclusions about student achievement. We must build the assessment of high-
quality items, tasks, or exercises accompanied by proper scoring schemes. And finally,
every assessment situation brings with it its own list of things that can go wrong and
that can bias the results or cause them to be inaccurate. To prevent these problems we
must recognize and know how to eliminate or control for sources of bias.
Chapters 5 through 8 expand on these accuracy requirements for each individual
assessment method: selected response (Chapter 5), written response (Chapter 6),
performance assessment (Chapter 7), and personal communication (Chapter 8).

Key 4: Effective Communication

Once the information needs are clear, the learning targets are clear, and the information
gathered is accurate, an assessment’s results must be communicated to the intended
user(s) in a timely and understandable way. When we do this well, we keep track of both
formative and summative assessment results, and devise sharing options suited to the
needs of whoever will act on the results. Communication of formative assessment infor-
mation provides the kind of descriptive feedback learners need to grow. Communication
in a summative assessment context leaves all recipients understanding the sufficiency
of student learning such as when we convert summative assessment information into
grades that accurately reflect achievement at a point in time.
Chapters 9 through 12 describe formative and summative record-keeping
procedures, sound grading practices, and uses of portfolios and student-involved
conferences to expand our communication options.

Key 5: Student Involvement

Student involvement is the central shift needed in our traditional view of assessment’s
role in teaching and learning. The decisions that contribute the most to student learning
success are made, not by adults working in the system, but by students themselves. Students
decide whether the learning is worth the effort required to attain it. Students decide whether
they believe they are capable of reaching the learning targets. Students decide whether
to keep learning or to quit working. It is only when students make these decisions in
the affirmative that our instruction can benefit their learning. So an essential part of our

[ 8 ]
 Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

classroom assessment job is to keep students in touch with their progress as learners in
ways that keep them believing in themselves as learners so they will keep trying.
Techniques for involving students are woven throughout the chapters. Chapter 2
describes the research on the positive impact of student involvement on motivation
and achievement. Chapter 3 provides specific ways to make learning targets clear to
students. Chapters 5 through 8 include method-specific suggestions for involving
students in self-assessment and goal setting. Chapters 9, 11, and 12 offer techniques for
involving students in keeping track of and communicating about their own learning.

From the Field 1.2

Janna Smith
I used to think of assessment as an “ending” to a learning event. When preparing to
teach a unit, my planning primarily consisted of looking at the objectives and craft-
ing activities that would engage all students. The word assessment was a noun that
referred only to a task generally used at the end to determine a grade. The things stu-
dents were asked to do as part of an endpoint assessment task may—or may not—have
been aligned to the key objectives. Items on an end-of-unit test were usually selected
response or short-answer/essay, but for the most part that was just for variety’s sake.
Now assessment is not a singular noun referring to an individual test or task,
but refers to an ongoing process that is interwoven with instruction. The process
no longer happens only at the end; in fact, it begins with pre-assessment. With my
current group of 7th-grade mathematics students, I introduce a grid at the onset of
each unit. The grid lists the learning targets for that unit, with space for students to
record their analysis of the results of their pre-assessment, target by target.
Additional boxes are included for each target, where students list sources of
evidence from daily work, quizzes, etc. Throughout the unit, we periodically pause
for students to select which of the learning targets their evidence indicates they are
doing well with and on which they need more support. I use their self-assessments
along with my own records of their performance to determine mini-lessons, small-
group instruction topics, and areas where we might move more quickly.
When I was first introduced to the principles of assessment for learning, I was a
district-level administrator. My role consisted of providing professional development
and supporting principals and teachers in implementing quality classroom assessment
practices. I believed it could work and spoke passionately about how to integrate these
strategies into instruction. I modeled lessons to demonstrate how learning targets could
be turned into student-friendly language. I even taught a graduate-level course on
classroom assessment in a school district, but I had never actually used assessment for
learning in my own classroom! When I finally had that opportunity, I was determined
to “walk my talk” with a group of 7th graders who have struggled with mathematics.
I wanted to see my own “Inside the Black Box” (Black & Wiliam, 1998b) with my stu-
dents, hoping it would result in increased achievement and motivation.

[ 9 ]
Chapter 1 • Classroom Assessment: Every Student a Learner

Making assessment for learning come to life in my own classroom has renewed
my zeal for teaching. I am more focused on essential learning targets, and my stu-
dents always know what we are learning, how they are doing, and what we can
work on together to close any gaps. They have become fantastic self-assessors, using
their “evidence files” to determine their own strengths and challenges. Most impor-
tantly, they are becoming more confident problem solvers who no longer avoid and
complain about math. By going back to the classroom, I now know firsthand that
using these strategies can have a significant positive impact on student learning.
Janna Smith, classroom teacher
Far Hills Country Day School, Far Hills, NJ
January 2011

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT COMPETENCIES

Our mission with this book is to help improve the classroom assessment practices
of all teachers wanting to do so. If we are successful, together we’ll move assess-
ment practices in the classroom from a collection of less-effective practices to a
model that is grounded in the research of how to use classroom assessment to im-
prove student learning. Figure 1.5 illustrates key shifts in thought and practice that
are hallmarks of classroom assessment competency.
The teacher competencies listed in Figure 1.6 represent the big picture of what an
assessment-literate teacher knows and can do within each of the five keys to quality.

FIGURE 1.5 Classroom Assessment: From . . . to . . .

From To
Classroom tests disconnected from the focus of Classroom tests reflecting the written and taught
instruction curriculum
Assessments using only selected response Assessment methods selected intentionally to
formats reflect specific kinds of learning targets
“Mystery” assessments, where students don’t Transparency in assessments, where students know
know in advance what they are accountable for in advance what they will be held accountable for
learning learning
All assessments and assignments, including Some assessments and assignments “count”
practice, “count” toward the grade toward the grade; others are for practice or other
formative use
Students as passive participants in the Students as active users of assessments as learning
assessment process experiences
Students not finding out until the graded event what Students being able to identify their strengths and
they are good at and what they need to work on areas for further study during learning

[ 10 ]
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Orense, in Gallicia, her famous gabled bridge, 28, 29, and footnote.
Orléans, Pont d’, in the fifteenth century, 239;
her Belle Croix, 246-7.
Ornament on Bridges, see “Bridge Decoration” or “Decoration of
Bridges.”

Orthez, Vieux Pont, mediæval war-bridge, 278-9. There are two

conflicting accounts of the part played by this bridge in the
battle of Orthez, February 27th, 1814. One of them says
that the bridge was neutralised by agreement in order to
spare it from destruction; the other account declares that
the solidity of the stonework baffled the French attempts to
break it down. Anyhow, the bridge was not used in the
action. Hill crossed well above it, and Picton and Beresford
below. Napier says: “Hill, who had remained with 12,000
combatants, cavalry and infantry, before the bridge of
Orthez, received orders, when Wellington changed his plan
of attack, to force the passage of the Gave, partly in the
view of preventing Harispe from falling upon the flank of
the sixth division, partly in the hope of a successful issue to
the attempt: and so it happened. Hill, though unable to
force the bridge, forded the river above at Souars, and
driving back the troops posted there, seized the heights
above, cut off the French from the road to Pau, and turned
the town of Orthez.”

Ouse Bridge at York, 241-3, and footnote.

Outlaws, Mediæval, in their relation to fords and bridges, 207, 208.

Pacifists, their false and weakening ideas considered in relation to

the varied strife circulated by roads and bridges, vii, 3, 4, 14-
52, 360-1.
Paget and the 10th Hussars, how they protected Moore’s retreat at
the bridges of Castro Gonzalo and Constantino, 335.
Palæolithic Age, 62, 110, 131.
Palæolithic Art, and its approximate date, 131.
Palladian Bridge in Prior Park, 343.
Palladio, Andrea, Italian architect, b. 1518—d. 1580, his evidence
on the Roman bridges in Italy, 193-4, 195-7, 198-9;
his design for the Rialto rejected, though it was better than
Antonio da Ponte’s, 212, and footnote.
Pandy Old Bridge at Bettws-y-Coed, 163.
Paradiso, Matheo, a military architect, in 1217, built a gate-tower to
defend the Alcántara at Toledo, 287.

Parapets, low walls or railings serving to protect the edge of a

bridge; they rest on the outer spandrils; sometimes they
project beyond and need brackets or corbels, like the Pont
Neuf at Paris, 321-2, and plate facing page 320. Often in
the Middle Ages some parts of the parapets were
crenellated, as they are above the angular piers of the
Valentré at Cahors, see the colour plate facing page 264;
even some modern defenceless bridges have battlemented
parapets, for the imitative silliness of industrial engineers
delights in foolish make-believe. Parapets cannot be studied
with too much care, so there are frequent references to
them throughout this monograph. Some Roman bridges
were built without parapets; there is an example near
Colne, 162, 164; and many of the gabled bridges in Spain
repeat in a giddy manner this dangerous defect, 27.
Paris and her Bridges, 225, 321-2. Here is a fine subject for a
book. There is a good reference to the Paris bridges of the
year 1517-18 in the “Revue des Deux Mondes,” xlvii., Sep.,
1908, p. 467. Five bridges existed then, three stone
structures, and two of wood; and all of them had houses
from one end to the other. Tolls were charged and they
belonged to the King. Several illustrations of Paris bridges
 will be found in Lacroix, “Manners, Customs and Dress
during the Middle Ages.” On page 321 there is one of the
year 1500; see also in the same book pp. 302, 316, and
471.
Parliament of Taste, a, necessary in all large towns for the
discussion of art in all matters that concern the public
intimately, 324-5.

Parthenay Bridge, a Bastille bridge of the Middle Ages, 34, 35, 281,
and the plate facing page 36.
Paul’s Bridge, St., 327.
Pavia, her famous covered bridge of the 14th century, 308-9.
Pavilions in the Pul-i-Khaju at Isfahan, 214, 215, and the line block
on page 213.
Peace, considered in her relation to the varied strife circulated
by roads and bridges. She is an illusion of the mind and
belongs to a routine of idle sentiment, vii, because every
phase of human enterprise claims a battle-toll of killed and
wounded and maimed, vii, 3, 4, 33-6; see also section ii,
Chapter I, 14-52, and 333, 351, 360-1.

Peace Fanatics, their dangerous influence on foreign politics, 33

footnote, 351, 360-1.
Peninsular War, the Roman bridge at Alcántara, 16, 186;
the Roman bridge at Constantino, 335;
Orense Bridge, 29 footnote.

Perforated Towers on bridges; modern engineers have passed

suspension cables through towers instead of passing them
over the summits, 346, 354.

Perronet, Jean Rodolphe, 1708-94, French engineer-architect, 282-3,

337-8, also footnote 338.
Pershore Bridge, 355.
Persian Bridges, 202-4, 211, 212-16, 265-70.
Peruvian Bridges, 146 et seq.
Phallus, a symbol of prosperity, carved twice in low-relief on the
Pont du Gard, 174.

Piers of Bridges, 114, 200, 264, 316, 338, 341, 342, 353, 354.
There are other references also, but the reader will be able
to follow the history of piers from the natural bridge of
stepping-stones through the many changes and defects
mentioned in the text. To-day, with the rapid improvements
in airships and aeroplanes, new armoured piers will have to
be designed, strong enough to bear the great weight of a
roofed superstructure of armour-plate steel, yet not thick
 enough to obstruct rivers. Now that bridges are as
vulnerable as Zeppelin sheds, engineers have an excellent
chance to serve their countries well by inventing new and
powerful bridges. How to protect piers—at least as much as
possible—from direct artillery fire is one very difficult
problem; how to protect them from falling shells and
bombs is another. When London is fitted adequately with
new defensive bridges her river will be as impressive as a
fleet of super-Dreadnoughts. See also “Abutment Piers.”

Piers, Criss-cross, Gaulish, 70;

in Kashmír, 71-3;
in North Russia, 73.
Piers, Founding, 99, 197, 251-2, 341-2.
Pigs, in China, sacrificed to rivers when bridges are in danger from
floods, 69 footnote, 248.
Pingeron, M., his remarks on Loyang Bridge, 127.
Piranesi, Giambattista, 1720-78, 193, 197.

Pisa, her chapelled bridge, 209. The late Mr. S. Wayland

Kershaw wrote as follows in 1882: “The most remarkable
bridge chapel abroad is the one dedicated to Santa Maria
del’ Epina on the side of the bridge over the Arno at Pisa,
erected about 1230. Built of the rich stone and marble of
the district, it is ornamented with niches and figures, and,
though renovated and repaired, still presents a graceful
appearance.”

Pointed Arches and Vaults, in Nature, 6 footnote;

in Egypt of the Fourth Dynasty, 155-6;
in Babylonian work, 275 footnote;
at Arpino, 156;
in early French bridges, 6 footnote, 86-93.
Poitou, in its relation to ribbed arches in bridges, 95.
Polo, Marco, 128, 210, 310, 313.
Pons Ælius, 194-5.
Pons Æmilius, 193 footnote.
Pons Aurelius, 197.
Pons Cestius, 196-7.
Pons Fabricius, 195-6.
Pons Gratianus, 196.
Pons Lapideus, 140.
Pons Milvius, 197.
Pons Neronianus, 197.
Pons Palatinus or Senatorius, 192-3.
Pons Salarus, 191.
Pons Selmis, 178.
Pons Sublicius, 41, 64, 136, 140.
Pons Triumphalis, 197.
Pons Vaticanus, 197.
Pont au Change, a Paris bridge, 224.
Pont aux Meuniers, a Paris bridge, 224.
Pont d’Arc, a Nature-made bridge, 6.
Pont d’Ambroise, a Roman bridge, 82.
Pont de Broel, a Flemish war-bridge, 290.
Pont d’Espagne, a modern French bridge, 278.
Pont des Consuls, a mediæval bridge at Montauban, 27, 254-6.
Pont de Vernay at Airvault, see the plate facing page 96.
Pont du Gard, Roman bridge-aqueduct, 83, 167-75.
Pont Flavien at Saint-Chamas, Roman bridge, 176-7.
Pont Napoléon, a great modern bridge, 278.
Pont Neuf, Paris, 321-2, and the illustration.
Pont Notre Dame, Paris, 225.
Pont St. Bénézet at Avignon, frontispiece, 81-4, 217, 236-9, 262,
297.
Pont St. Cloud, 296.
Pont St. Esprit, 92, 126, 296 et seq.
Pont St. Michel at Paris, 225.
Pont Valentré at Cahors, 263-4, 282-5.
Pont-y-Mynach, the Devil’s Bridge near Aberystwyth, 67 et seq.
Pont-y-Pant, 131.
Pont-y-Prydd, 28 footnote.
Ponte Augustus at Rimini, 199.
Ponte Cartaro at Ascoli-Piceno, 201.
Ponte Cecco at Ascoli-Piceno, 201.
Ponte della Trinità at Florence, 222, 316.
Ponte di Porta Cappucina at Ascoli-Piceno, 201.
Ponte Maggiore at Ascoli-Piceno, 200.
Ponte Molle, 197.
Ponte Nomentano, 298-9;
also the picture facing page 296.
Ponte Quattro Capi, 196.
Ponte Rotto, 23, 192.
Ponte S. Bartolommeo, 196.
Ponte Salaro, 191.
Ponte Sant’ Angelo, 194-5, 324.
Ponte Sisto, 197, 265.
Ponte Vecchio, 210, 222.
Pontism, the historical study of bridges.
Pontist, a devotee of bridges and their history.

Pontist Brothers or Friars, or Frères Pontifes, 83, 90, 91, 92,

296, 297, 342. St. Bénézet was one of the leaders in this
religious brotherhood of good craftsmen.

Porta dell’ Arco at Arpino, celebrated in the history of pointed

arches, 156-7.
Portage Bridge, Great, on the Genesee River, 353-4.
Porter, Simon, bailiff at Old Shoreham in the year 1318;
his official defence of the neglected timber bridge, 41-2.
Postbridge, Dartmoor, its famous clapper bridge, 104.
Pratt, Godfrey, nefarious guardian of Old Bow Bridge, 98-9.
Prehistoric Bridges, and their descent from Nature’s models, see
Chapters I and II.
Preston Bridge, 250 footnote.
Prior Park, Palladian Bridge, 343.
Progress in Human Societies, its terrible slowness, 39, and section iii,
Chapter I, “Custom and Convention,” 53-84;
see also 110, 333.
Puente de San Martin at Toledo, 287-8.
Puente la Reina, 27 footnote.
Puente Nuevo at Ronda, 280, and footnote.
Puente Trajan over the Tagus at Alcántara, 6, 153, 183, 186, 212,
321.
Pul-i-Kaisar at Shushter in Persia, 202-4.
Pul-i-Kâredj in Persia, 265-6.
Pul-i-Khaju at Isfahan, 212-16.
Pul-i-Marnun at Isfahan, 212;
see also “Persian Bridges” and “Ali Verdi Khan.”
Pulisangan, China, 310-12.
Pulteney, William, his bridge at Bath, 221.
Puritans, their enmity to chapelled bridges and to wayside shrines,
230, 233 et seq.
Pyrenees, French, great bridges there, 278-80.

Quakers, their attitude to the strife that bridges and roads

circulate, 35-6.
Qualities of a Great Bridge, 320.
Quicksands of Cheapness, 48.

Rabot, the, at Ghent, a fortified bridge and lock, 289, 291.

Railway Bridges, often detestable, 5, 77, 78;
conventional arguments which have governed their structure,
77;
the High Level Bridge at Newcastle, 79-81;
the Tay Bridge and its disaster, 339-42;
the Forth Bridge, 350;
the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge over the Mississippi, 352-3;
the Great Portage Bridge over the Genesee River, 353-4.

Many railway bridges over strategical rivers can be displaced by

tunnels, but many others must be armoured with cone-
shaped roofs as a protection against overhead wars from
 airships and aeroplanes, 358. See Albi Railway Bridge, the
plate facing page 8, and Cannon Street Railway Bridge, the
plate facing page 48.
Rameses II, Temple of, at Abydos, has a primitive vault built
with horizontal courses of stone, showing its descent from the
rock archways made by Nature, 155.

Refinement, a quality often overdone in British art, 168.

Reichenau, John Grubenmann’s Bridge at, 142.

Relief Bays for Flood Water, they were introduced by the

Romans, 284, and were copied by mediæval bridgemen;
witness the Pont des Consuls at Montauban, 255, 256, and
the Pont St. Esprit, 293, 297. Pontists should note both the
difference of shape in flood-water bays and the variation of
their position in the architecture. At Mérida, for example, in
the great squat Roman bridge, they are long and round-
headed, and rise from the low and bold cutwaters, which
are overgrown with grey-green mosses and grass. On the
other hand, a Moorish bridge of four arches near Tangier
has much smaller relief bays with round heads, and they
are pierced high up through the spandrils. They look like
three little windows that give light and air to a work of sun-
bleached antiquity. Moreover, their shape is repeated in
about a dozen little holes cut through the base of the
parapet, perhaps to help in the drainage of the roadway,
perhaps to be useful in military defence. This Moorish
bridge has semicircular arches, and the road is inclined over
each abutment, just like the Roman bridge at Rimini. But
the technical sentiment is less virile than the Roman.
Religious Emblems or Symbols on Historic Bridges, such as the
Phallus on the Pont du Gard, 174; the Janus heads on the
Pons Fabricius, 196; the idol or image on the Chinese
bridge at Shih-Chuan, 247; and the cross and crucifix on
 Gothic bridges of the Middle Ages, 96, 230, 246. The
symbolic lion and tortoise on the Chinese bridge of
Pulisangan were borrowed from the singa and Kûrma of
Hindu mythology, 311 footnote. I should like the cross to
be raised again on all bridges in unfortified towns, as a
protest against a Teutonic misuse of flying warfare.

Renaissance, the, and its Genius, in the war-bridge at Würzburg,

Bavaria, 259;
in Venetian bridges, 211-12, 307, 315-16;
in the bastille bridge at Châtellerault, 331-4;
in the gradual decline of bridges from military forethought into a
complete disregard for national defence, 336-44;
in wasteful artistry such as redundant ornament and too
elaborate parapets, 320, 321, 322, 324, 325, 326.
Rennie, George, his design for London New Bridge has defects of
scale, 256, 257.

Rennie, John, b. 1761—d. 1821, his poor bridge over the

Thames at Southwark was financed by a Company, not by
the City, as if London were a trivial village with some new
industries that needed encouragement, 326-7.
Rennie, Sir John, son of John Rennie and brother of George
Rennie, was the acting engineer during the building of New
London Bridge, according to Professor Fleeming Jenkin.

Research, its illimitable scope in the study of bridges, 3-13.

Rhône, the River, his two famous old bridges, the Pont St.
Bénézet and the Pont St. Esprit, both constructed by the
Frères Pontifes, or Pontist Brothers. See Brangwyn’s
pictures and the text.

Rialto, Venice, 209, 211-12.

Ribbed Arches, like those in the Monnow Bridge at Monmouth,
281, and the Pont de Vernay at Airvault, Deux-Sèvres, plate
facing page 96. The introduction of ribbed vaulting into
English churches and bridges, 93-100. Professor Moseley’s
remarks on groined or ribbed arches may be quoted here
from Hann and Hosking’s profuse volumes. “The groin ... is
nothing more than an arch whose voussoirs vary as well in
breadth as in depth. The centres of gravity of the different
elementary voussoirs of this mass lie all in its plane of
symmetry. Its line of resistance is therefore in that plane....
Four groins commonly spring from one abutment; each
opposite pair being addossed, and each adjacent pair
uniting their margins. Thus they lend one another mutual
support, partake in the properties of a dome, and form a
continued covering. The groined arch is of all arches the
most stable; and could materials be found of sufficient
strength to form its abutments and the parts about its
springing, I am inclined to think that it might be built safely
of any required degree of flatness, and that spaces of
enormous dimensions might readily be covered by it.” Yet
“modern builders, whilst they have erected the common
arch on a scale of magnitude nearly approaching perhaps
the limits to which it can be safely carried, have been
remarkably timid in the use of the groin.” Progress may be
compared to a dilatory army that ever fails to march
forward with all its needed units.

Richmond Bridge, Yorkshire, had a chapel, 231.

Rimini, her Roman bridges, 82, 199, 200, 220.

Ring of an Arch, the compressed arc of voussoirs, 264; the

lower surface of a ring is called the soffit of an arch. In
some bridges the voussoirs form a double or a triple ring,
305, and footnote. Two very fine bridges of this sort, in my
collection of photographs, are the Pont de Vernay at
 Airvault, 12th century, and the Pont Saint-Généroux over
the Thouët, also in Deux-Sèvres, 13th and 14th centuries.
Another monument to be studied is the reputed Roman
bridge at Viviers over the Rhône, built mainly with small
materials. Whether Roman or Romanesque, the structure of
the arches has great interest, and a large photograph is
sold by Neurdein, 52 Avenue de Breteuil, Paris.

Rivers, how their violence has given lessons to bridge-builders,

181.

Roads, ancient British, 22; Roman, 139, and footnote; they and
bridges circulate all the strife in the overland enterprise of
mankind, 4, 14-52; types of society are as old as their
systems of circulation, just as women and men are as old
as their arteries, 13; mediæval roads in England, 51, 52.
Many of them were a survival of the Roman empire, in
which the construction of highways was a military and
political necessity. The genuinely mediæval roads
connected new towns with the main or ancient
thoroughfares, which had traversed Roman Britain from her
principal colonies, London and York, to the other
settlements. “The roads of England,” says Thorold Rogers,
“are roughly exhibited in a fourteenth century map still
preserved in the Bodleian Library, and are identical with
many of the highways which we know familiarly. In time
these highways fell out of repair, and were put in the
eighteenth century under the Turnpike Acts, when they
were repaired. But comparatively little of the mileage of
English roads is modern. What has been constructed has
generally been some shorter and easier routes, for in the
days of the stage-coaches it was highly expedient to
equalize the stages.”

Roanne, Pont de, its length and its cost, 356.

Robin Hood Ballads, their rustic charm is repeated in some old
English bridges, 9, 44.
Roche Percée, La, at Biarritz, natural arched opening, 151.
Roche Trouée, La, near Saint-Gilles Croix-de-Vie, 151.
Rochester Bridge and her Chapel, 243-6.
Rock-Basins, their formation by the erosive power of glaciers, 152,
and footnote.
Rock-Bridges, or bridges made by Nature, 6, and footnote, 150-3.
Rogers, Thorold, Professor, on mediævalism and industrialism, 47;
on mediæval roads, 52;
see also “Roads.”
Roman Gateways to defend bridges, 176-7, 272.
Roman Genius, 23-5, 26-7, 30, and Chapter III.
Roman Castles or Towers to defend bridges, at Mérida, 182, at
Alcantarilla, 367-8.
Rome, Ancient, her bridges, 193 et seq.
Ronda and her Bridges, 183, 280, and footnote.
Rondelet’s “Essai Historique sur le Pont de Rialto,” 212.
Roofed Bridges, the Pons Ælius is said to have had a bronze cover
upheld by forty-two pillars, 195;
Chinese examples, at Ching-tu-fu, 211 footnote, in Western
China, 291;
Grubenmann’s timber bridge at Schaffhausen, 141;
Italian, at Pavia, 308, at Venice, 211;
Sumatra, 291;
Swiss, 291-2;
steel-clad roofs to protect bridges from airships and aeroplanes,
358, 359.
Rope, its first model was the twisted stem of a vine-like creeping
plant, 145;
 bamboo ropes, 145, 348, and footnote;
ropes of Peruvian grass, 146-7.

Ross-on-Wye, Wilton Bridge, an Elizabethan structure with

ribbed arches and angular recesses for pedestrians, 94,
182, and footnote. Recently, I regret to say, this beautiful
old bridge has been attacked by the highwaymen called
road officials; and now she is horribly scarred all over with
“pointing,” just like the mishandled Roman bridge at
Alcántara. A new bridge of ferro-concrete, suitable for
motor lorries and the like, would have cost the county less
than this uneducated trifling with a genuine masterpiece.

Rostro-Carinate, flint tools shaped like an eagle’s beak, 120.

Rotherham Bridge and her Chapel, 93, 209, 219, 232-3.
Rothenburg on the Tauber, her two-storeyed bridge, 271.
Rotto, Ponte, at Rome, 23, 192, 193.
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, French philosopher and writer, born in
Geneva, 1712, d. 1778;
his visit to the Pont du Gard, 168.
Rules of War in the Middle Ages, curious French examples, 237,
241-2.
Runcorn Bridge, dating from 1868, 275.

Saint Angelo’s Bridge at Rome, 194-5, 324.

Saint Bénézet’s Bridge at Avignon, frontispiece, 81, 82, 83, 217,
236-8, 262, 280 footnote.
Saint-Chamas and the Pont Flavien, 176-7.
Saint-Cloud, Pont, 296.
Saint-Esprit, Pont, 92, 293-8.
St. Ives in Huntingdonshire, her chapelled bridge, 232.
St. Martin’s Bridge at Toledo, 285, 287-8.
St. Michel, Pont, Paris, 225.
St. Neot’s Bridge, 305 footnote.
Saint-Nicolas, Pont, on the road to Nîmes, 295.
Saint-Thibéry, a Roman bridge near, 178.
Saintes, Bridge at, in France, and its tremendous fortifications, 300-
1.
Salamanca, Roman bridge at, 182, 285 footnote.
Salaro, Ponte, 191.
Salford Bridge, its date, 250 footnote.
“Sans-Pareil, Le,” Beffara’s bridge near Ardres, 305-6.
Sargisson, C. S., pontist, vi, 61 footnote, 163.
Savoy, hills of, survival there of Gaulish timber bridges, 70-1.
Scale in the Proportion of Bridges, 256;
defective in many English bridges, 256-7.
Scatcherd, N., his writing on Wakefield Bridge Chapel, 228
footnote, 230.
Schaffhausen, Ulric Grubenmann’s bridge at, 141-2.
Schloss Brücke at Berlin, a feeble copy of the Ponte Sant’ Angelo in
Rome, 324.
Scientific Bridges, Modern, 337-42, 349-53.
Scotch Bridges, 44.
Scotch, their neglect of ribbed arches, 94.
Segóvia, the Roman Aqueduct, visited by Marshal Ney, 183-4;
its technique, 189.
Semiramis, her reputed bridge over the Euphrates at Babylon, 273-
4.
Sentimentalists, British, 33 et seq., 294, 360-1.
Sewers, Roman, 161.
Sex in Bridges, 194, 284-5, 293-4.
Sextus IV and the Ponte Sisto, 197, 265.
Shakespeare, his debt to the Mediæval Church, 233.
Shapur I of Persia, 202.
Shih-Chuan, in Western China, its important bridge, 247.
Shoreham Bridge, Old, in Sussex, 41-3.
Shrewsbury, Welsh Bridge at, used to be a fortified work, 261.
Shrines, Wayside, 207, 230, 236, 246-7.
Shrined Bridge at Elche in Spain, picture facing page 236;
at Trier over the Moselle, 247.
Shushter, in Persia, the Pul-i-Kaisar, 202-4.
Sichuan, China, bridges in this province, 126, 145, 210 footnote,
248, 315, 347.
Sighs, Bridge of, 307.
Sin-Din-Fu, now called Ching-tu-fu, this city’s bridges as seen by
Marco Polo, 210 footnote.
Sisto, Ponte, 197, 265.
Slab-Bridges with Stone Piers, 125-8; see also 61-3, 100-5.
Sleep is united by bad dreams to the law of battle, vii.
Smeaton, John, English civil engineer, b. 1724—d. 1792, his big
“scientific” bridge over the Tyne at Hexham was a tragic
failure, 339.
Smiles, Samuel, Scottish author and pontist, 104.
Smith, Sir William, English classical scholar, the Pons Sublicius,
140;
 the Porta dell’ Arco at Arpino, 157;
the stones employed in the Pont du Gard, 171 footnote;
the masonry of the Pont du Gard, 175 footnote;
Roman aqueducts, 189 footnote;
the Pons Salarus, 191;
Pons Cestius, 196;
Pons Neronianus, 197.
Smyrna, Roman Bridge and Aqueduct, 164.
Sommières, on the Vidourle, Roman bridge at, 179.
Sospel, Gateway Bridge at, 276.
Southwark Bridge, London, its queer history, 326-7, 357.
Spain and her Bridges, 13, 27-9, 104-5, 179-88, 238, 285-9.
Spans, Wide, in Stone Bridges, the Puente de San Martin, Toledo,
140 feet, 288;
at Trezzo, 251 feet, 309;
Grosvenor Bridge, Chester, 200 feet, 309;
Trajan’s Bridge over the Tagus, 309
New London Bridge, and Waterloo Bridge, 309-10;
Pont de Gignac and Pont de Lavaur, 160 feet each, 310;
Bridge of Cho-Gan, China, 313-14.
Speed-Worship, and its effects on the strife that bridges and roads
circulate, 48.
Spiders gave lessons to primitive men in the building of suspension
bridges, 145.
Spiers, R. Phené, architect and writer on architecture, 190, 199.
Springers, the voussoirs at the springing of an arch.

Springing of an Arch, the plane of demarcation between the ring

and the abutment is called the springing. In other words,
the springing marks the place where a ring of voussoirs
starts out on its upward curve from a pier or from an
abutment.
Srínagar, capital of Kashmír, her bridges with criss-cross piers of
deodar logs or trunks, 71-2.
Staircase Bridge in China, 248.

Tahmasp, Shah, of Persia, who reigned from 1523 to 1575, built the
Pul-i-Marnun at Isfahan, 212.
Talavera Bridge, Spain, 285 footnote.
Tarabita, a Peruvian suspension bridge, 146.
Tarragona, Roman Aqueduct at, 189.
Tavignano, River, in Corsica, and its old military bridge shaped like
a Z, 238.
Taxes to help the building and repair of bridges, in London, 50;
at Montauban, 255.
Telford, Thomas, Scottish engineer, b. 1757—d. 1834;
his views on Grubenmann’s bridge at Schaffhausen, 141-2;
on Inigo Jones’s bridge at Llanrwst, 282 footnote;
his foolish bridge at Craigellachie, 349.
Tennyson, on Nature’s strife, 37;
his talk with a jerry-builder, 78.
Tenorio, Pedro, Archbishop, renewed the bridges of Toledo,
fourteenth century, 287, 288-9.
Terrace-Walk on the Pul-i-Khaju at Isfahan, 215, and on the Ali
Verdi Khan, 270.
Terror inspired by the slowness of human progress, 55-6.
Tertiary Times, their handicraft, 120-1.
Tessanges, Jean de, Abbot of Cluny, who commissioned the building
of the Pont St. Esprit, 297.
Tewkesbury, King John’s Bridge at, 258 footnote.
Thames Bridges, 96, 256;
 see also “London Bridge” and “Westminster Bridge.”
Thebes, the Temple of Ammon-Rē, an early arch, 155.
Theory, defined, 11;
misuse of this great word, 12.
Theory, the, of Pontine Defence, 14-17, and of the universality of
strife, 17-52.
Thirlmere, a primitive structure at, which is partly a dam, partly a
bridge, 131.
Thornton, Roger, of Newcastle, in 1429, bequeathed a hundred
marks to the Tyne Bridge, 10.
Thouars, in Deux-Sèvres, Gothic bridge at, 275.
Thrift in Bridge-building, 264-5, 325-6.
Tiber, the, and the sacrifice of human beings, 64.
Tiberius, he finished the beautiful Roman bridge at Rimini, which
Augustus had begun, 201.
Ticino, the River, and the covered bridge at Pavia, 308.
Tiles, they have been used in some Chinese bridges, 211 footnote;
Persian bricks resemble Roman tiles, 267;
the spandrils of the Pul-i-Khaju at Isfahan are mostly filled in
with modern tiles, 215.
Timber Bridges, the earliest, 3, 58, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 122,
123;
tree-bridges with stone piers, 129-32;
tree-bridges with timber piles, 133-5;
some typical timber bridges, 136-43;
in the United States of America, 142-3, 353;
see also “Criss-cross Piers.”
Tiryns, early vaults at, 157.
Todentanzbrucke at Lucerne, 292.
Toledo and her Bridges, 285-9.
Tordesillas Bridge, Spain, 285 footnote.
Tortoise, Symbolic, used in the decoration of some Chinese bridges,
311.
Tournai, Pont des Trous at, 290.
Tours, Pont de, on the Loire, her cost and her length, 357;
see the picture facing p. 344.
Tower Bridge, London, 78, 327;
see the two illustrations facing pages 80 and 328.
Trajan’s Bridge over the Danube, 129-30.
Trajan’s Bridge over the Tagus, 183-7, 309.
Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, 158-9.
Tree-Bridges, 3, 4, 58, 114, 115-19, 122, 123;
tree-bridges with stone piers, 129-32;
tree-bridges with timber piles, 133-5.
Trezzo Bridge, destroyed by Carmagnola, 309-10.
Triangular Arches, 157, 160-1.
Triangular Bridge at Crowland, see “Crowland”; in Spain, 181.
Trier Bridge over the Moselle, with her shrines, 247.
Trinità at Florence, 316-17.
Trinoda Necessitas, and its relation to bridges and roads, 40 et seq.
Triumphal Arches, Roman, on the Pont Flavien at Saint-Chamas,
176;
on the bridge at Saintes, 301, and footnote;
on a Chinese bridge described by Gauthey, 315.
Triumphalis, Pons, 197.
Truth differs from fact, 11.
Truths, Technical, in Bridge-building, 13.
Tudela Bridge, Spain, 285 footnote.
Tunnels bored under water by ants, 122;
tunnels to displace many of those strategical bridges which
airships and aeroplanes could wreck with bombs, 59, 358.
Turner, J. M. W., his “Walton Bridges,” 6.
Turnpike Act of 1773, 59.
Turkish Bridge at Zakho, 65-6.
Twizel Bridge and Flodden Field, 94.

Ulloa, Antonio de, Spanish Admiral and traveller, b. 1716—d. 1795,

his book on South America;
primitive timber bridges, 135;
the tarabita, a Peruvian suspension bridge, 146;
the fifth Ynca’s bridge of rushes, 146-7;
bujuco bridges, 147-8.
United States of America, 142-3, 352-4.
Uzès, on the road to Nîmes, the Pont Saint-Nicolas, XIII century,
295-6.

Vaison, in Vaucluse, an important Roman bridge at, 176.

Valentré, Pont, at Cahors, famous war-bridge, 27, 263-4, 282-5,
and two illustrations.
Vaticanus, Pons, 197.
Vauxhall Bridge, London, date and cost, 357.
Vecchio, Ponte, Florence, 210, 222.
Venice, the Rialto, 209, 211-12, and the picture facing page 212;
Ponte della Paglia, the picture facing page 152;
a canal bridge, 329.
Verona. The fine Veronese bridges are not mentioned in this
monograph; they passed from the text in a revision; but pontists
know them well, and set great store by the charming Ponte di
Pietra, and by the old sloping bridge with forked battlements that
swaggers picturesquely across the Adige from the Castel Vecchio.
The Ponte di Pietra rises from ancient foundations and she still
retains two Roman arches, certainly often restored; the other
spans are gracefully architectural. A circular bay for the relief of
floods tunnels the spandrils above the cutwater of the middle pier.

Vicenza, two bridges of Roman origin, 199.

Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel, French architect and historian of
architecture, b. 1814—d. 1879. Gaulish bridges, 70, 71;
arcs doubleaux, or ribbed arches, 94, 95;
the millers’ bridge at Meaux, 223;
some other mill bridges, 224;
on the shape of cutwaters, 262;
on the martial bridge at Saintes, 300, 301.
Visconti, Bernabò, founder of the bridge at Trezzo, 309.
Visconti, Gian Galeazzo, founder of the covered bridge at Pavia,
308.
Vitruvius, 190.
Volcanoes, their lava hardened into a thick crust over many gaps in
the land forming slab-bridges, 124.
Voussoirs, or archstones; they form the compressed arc called the
ring.

Wakefield Bridge and her Chapel, 209, 226-30.

Wales, her bridges, 45, 46;
see also “Brecon,” “Llangollen,” “Pont-y-Pant,” and “Pont-y-
Prydd.”
Walla Brook, Dartmoor, 60, 100.
Wallingford Bridge had a Chapel, 231.
Waltham Abbey and Harold’s Bridge, 163.
War, every sort of human enterprise must be a phase of war, for it
claims a battle-toll of killed and wounded and maimed;
strife everywhere is the historian of life, vii;
examples of this truth chosen from the illusion named Peace,
17, 33-6;
see also “Strife and Historic Bridges,” 14-52.
War, the Present Great, against Germany and Austria, vii, 33
footnote, 350, 358-61.
War-Bridges, vii;
a broken one of the XIII century at Narni in Italy, 14, 277-8;
a fine one of the XIV century at Orthez in France, 18, 278-9;
how war-bridges originated, 118-19;
Roman examples at Mérida, 182, and Alcantarilla, 367;
the Pont des Consuls at Montauban, 254-6;
Würzburg Bridge in Bavaria, 259;
the drawbridge of Old London Bridge, 260-1;
Warkworth Bridge, 261-2;
Pont Valentré at Cahors, 263-4, 282-5;
in Bhutan, India, 272 et seq.;
at Sospel, 276;
Monnow Bridge at Monmouth, 281-2;
the Alcántara at Toledo, 285 et seq.;
Puente de San Martin at Toledo, 287-9;
defensive bridges in Flemish towns, 289-91;
covered defensive bridges of timber, 291-3;
Pont St. Esprit over the Rhône, 293-8;
Ponte Nomentano in the Campagna, 298-300;
at Laroque, near Cahors, 300;
the bridge at Saintes in France, destroyed in 1843, 300-1;
the evolution from fortified bridges into defenceless viaducts,
Chapter V;
new battle-bridges essential, 355-61.
Warkworth Bridge, 93, 258, 261-2.
Warrington Bridge, its date, 250 footnote.
Waterloo Bridge, London, 325-6.
Watermills on Bridges, 209, 223-4;
see also the picture of Millau Bridge facing page 352.
Wayside Shrines, 207, 230, 236, 246-7.
Weavers’ Bridge, Wycollar, Lancashire, 60-3.
Wellington, Duke of, how he repaired the broken arch of the
Puente Trajan over the Tagus, 16, 186;
at Toulouse, 280;
on blowing up modern bridges, 359.
Welsh Bridges, 45, 46; see also “Brecon,” “Llangollen,” “Pont-y-
Pant,” and “Pont-y-Prydd.”
West Rasen, Lincolnshire, a bridge with a double ring of voussoirs,
305.
Westminster Bridge, London, 327, 357.
Wheeled Traffic always postulates some good roads and bridges,
22.
Wheels, their wonderful importance in mankind’s history, 58, 154.
Wigram, Edgar, artist and writer on Spain, vi, 27, 73 et seq., 104,
183, 185, 280, 285, 367.
Wigram, the Rev. W. A., d.d., his notes on Kurdistan bridges, 74-6.
Wilton Bridge, Ross-on-Wye, Elizabethan; see “Ross-on-Wye.”
William, Saint, and the Ouse Bridge at York, 241.
Winchester, the Statute of, 207.
Windmills and Bridges, 208, 219, 224-5.
Wittengen Bridge, 142.
Worcester, Battle of, and Old Pershore Bridge, 355.
Würzburg Bridge, 259.
Wyatt, Sir Thomas, in the revolt of 1553, tried to cross the Thames,
but was thwarted by the drawbridge on Old London Bridge,
261.
Wycollar Valley, Lancashire, its primitive bridges, 60 et seq.

Xerxes, his bridge over the Hellespont, see “Bridge of Boats.”

York, Ouse Bridge at, 241 et seq.

Y-shaped Branches in Primitive Bridges, 148.

Zakho, in Asiatic Turkey, the legend of its bridge, 65-6.

Zamora, Spain, her fortified old bridge, 285.
Zaragoza, her famous bridge, partly Roman, 187, 188.
Zendeh Rud, Isfahan, 212-15, 268-70.
 Transcriber’s Note:
Words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent
hyphenation in the text. These were left unchanged, as were
obsolete and alternative spellings. Misspelled words were corrected.
The captions to several images are not identical to the descriptions
of them in the List of Colour Plates.
Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the
end of the chapter. Footnotes [109] and [115] have two anchors.
Obvious printing errors, such as partially printed letters and
punctuation, were corrected. Final stops missing at the end of
sentences and abbreviations were added. Mid-paragraph illustrations
were moved to the nearest paragraph break.
“Lællenkœnig” was replaced with “Laellenkoenig” for consistency
with other entries.
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