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Edexcel GCSE (9–1)

Design and Technology

Trish Colley Andrew Dennis Jenny Dhami Mark Wellington Timothy Weston

A LW AY S L E A R N I N G
Published by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL.
www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk
Copies of official specifications for all Edexcel qualifications may be found on the website: www.edexcel.com
Text © Pearson Education 2017
Typeset by Tek-Art, East Grinstead, West Sussex
Illustrations by Tek-Art, East Grinstead, West Sussex
Original illustrations © Pearson Education
Designed by Colin Tilley Loughrey
Cover photo: Getty Images/Yagi Studio
The rights of Trish Colley, Andrew Dennis, Jenny Dhami, Mark Wellington and Tim Weston to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published 2017
19 18 17 16
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 1 29218 458 6
Copyright notice

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means (including photocopying or
storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication)
without the written permission of the copyright owner, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Barnards Inn, 86 Fetter Lane, London
EC4A 1EN (www.cla.co.uk). Applications for the copyright owner’s written permission should be addressed to the publisher.
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Printed and bound TBC
Acknowledgements
For acknowledgements, please see page 347.
Notes from the publisher
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1.
In order to ensure that this resource offers high-quality support for the associated Pearson qualification, it has been through
a review process by the awarding body. This process confirms that this resource fully covers the teaching and learning content
of the specification or part of a specification at which it is aimed. It also confirms that it demonstrates an appropriate balance
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between the development of subject skills, knowledge and understanding, in addition to preparation for assessment.
Endorsement does not cover any guidance on assessment activities or processes (e.g. practice questions or advice on how
to answer assessment questions), included in the resource nor does it prescribe any particular approach to the teaching or
delivery of a related course.
While the publishers have made every attempt to ensure that advice on the qualification and its assessment is accurate, the
official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and
should always be referred to for definitive guidance.
Pearson examiners have not contributed to any sections in this resource relevant to examination papers for which they have
responsibility.
Examiners will not use endorsed resources as a source of material for any assessment set by Pearson.
Endorsement of a resource does not mean that the resource is required to achieve this Pearson qualification, nor does it mean
that it is the only suitable material available to support the qualification, and any resource lists produced by the awarding
body shall include this and other appropriate resources.
2.
Pearson has robust editorial processes, including answer and fact checks, to ensure the accuracy of the content in this
publication, and every effort is made to ensure this publication is free of errors. We are, however, only human, and occasionally
errors do occur. Pearson is not liable for any misunderstandings that arise as a result of errors in this publication, but it is our
priority to ensure that the content is accurate. If you spot an error, please do contact us at [email protected]
so we can make sure it is corrected.
Contents
Introduction iv

1 Core content 2

Preparing for your exam 1 78

2 Metals 86

Preparing for your exam 2 124

3 Papers and boards 128

Preparing for your exam 3 156

4 Polymers 162

Preparing for your exam 4 198

5 Systems

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Preparing for your exam 5
6 Fibres and textiles
202

234

240
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Preparing for your exam 6 270

7 Timbers 276
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Preparing for your exam 7 306

Controlled assessment: Introduction

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312

Controlled assessment: Investigation 315

Controlled assessment: Design 322

Controlled assessment: Make 329

Controlled assessment: Evaluate 333

Index 337

Acknowledgements 343

iii
Introduction

Welcome to Edexcel GCSE (9–1) Design and

Technology
Building innovative design skills
The new Edexcel GCSE course is a qualification with creative design and making
at its heart. Throughout the course, you will be encouraged to take design risks
and to innovate through inspiring contextual challenges, helping you to develop
the practical skills that you need to succeed in your chosen pathway.

There are many benefits to taking the Edexcel GCSE Design and Technology course.

• There are clear routes to specialisms in material areas that you enjoy and
want to study.
• You will have the opportunity to demonstrate innovative design and making
skills through the completion of your non-examined assessment.
• If you do well in this course you will be in a good position to progress to

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further study of design and technology at AS or A level. The content of this
GCSE is ideal grounding for these qualifications, and it has been designed
using a similar approach in order to make the experience of moving on as
smooth as possible.

How you will be assessed

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The GCSE course consists of compulsory and optional topics. You will study one
compulsory topic, (the core content) and one optional topic from a selection of
six material categories.
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Your assessment will consist of two separate assessments: an externally
examined paper and a non-examined assessment component. Your exam paper
will consist of two sections: Section A covers the core content and Section B
covers the material category you have chosen. The non-examined assessment
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takes the form of a project. You will be assessed on your skills in investigating,
designing, making and evaluating a prototype of a product.

How to use this book

This book contains all the information you need for the core content and
material categories you will be learning about. Each section guides you through
the content of the course in a practical and engaging way, making it clear what
you will cover and providing useful activities and questions to help you practise
what you have learned.

Each topic is covered in full and has a dedicated section to help you with exam
questions on that topic. The exam section after Topic 1 (core content) provides
useful strategies for the exam.

This book also includes a section dedicated to the non-examined assessment.

It covers each of the stages of your assessment – Investigate, Design, Make,
Evaluate – and includes all the information you need to succeed at each stage of
the process.

iv
 Introduction

Features of the book

In this student book there are lots of different features. They are there to help
you learn about the topics in your course in different ways, to understand it
from multiple perspectives and to get the most from your learning.

• Learning objectives – a Learning objectives

summary at the beginning of
each topic that outlines exactly By the end of this section, you should know:
what you are going to learn. • the importance of the evaluative process and criteria when considering
the impact of new and emerging technologies
• how design decisions are affected by emerging technologies
• why current and future scenarios need to be fully investigated.

• Getting started – an activity or questions to check what you may already

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know about the topic and to encourage reflection or broader discussion.

Getting started
Electronic systems have developed a lot, and have become an essential part of our everyday life. Think about
where you live and consider the following questions:
• Write a list of all of the electronic products you can think of.
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• If you could only keep one electronic product in your life what would it be and why?
Think of an idea for an electronic product you would like that does not exist at the moment. What would you like
the product to do? Why do you think it would be useful? What sort of people do you think would buy it?
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Key terms
• Key terms – there are certain terms that you will
Chuck: is a clamp that will hold
need to know and be able to explain. Key words
cylindrical items, such as drills or
that are explained within the main text are coloured
mills or a rotating work piece on
pink and are bold to emphasise their importance.
a centre lathe.
They are explained in the nearby Key terms boxes.
You will find all of these words put together in an Tungsten carbide: a type of
alphabetical glossary at the back of the book. metal made up from tungsten and
cobalt, which results in a tool that
has greater shock resistance.

• Apply it – this feature allows you

Apply it
to practise applying a theory or
concept you have learned to a The properties of acrylic make it an ideal material for rear car light covers,
specific task or question. but unsuitable for lights on the front of a car. Analyse the parts made from
polymers on a family member or relative’s car. Consider the properties of
polymers that make them suitable for each part.

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Introduction
• Link it up – these features show
Link it up
you how different parts of your
The working properties of flexibility, printability and biodegradability were course link together.
covered in the core content (Section 1.9) of this book. To remind yourself,
look at page 41.

• Summary – this gives a short conclusion about the key points of the
topic you have just studied.

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Timber is sawn into standard sizes by sawmills.
• PAR and PSE are planed timber, which has smooth surfaces.
• Mouldings can be used to add decorative trim to products.
• Manufactured boards come in standard-sized sheets, in a range of thicknesses.

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that you remember and understand the topic you have just studied. You’ll
have an opportunity to take your learning further with the ‘Challenge’
questions provided.
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Checkpoint
Strengthen
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S1 What do PAR and PSE mean?
S2 Why is most timber sold in multiples of 25 mm?
S3 What is a dowel?
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Challenge
C1 Why is it important for a product designer to use standard-sized timber wherever possible?

• Exam-style question – these

Exam-style question
questions match the style of
Use notes and/or sketches to show the process of riveting two sheets of questions that you are likely to
3 mm sheet metal. (4 marks) find in the written exams and will
give you useful practice as you go
through your course.

• Exam tip – hints and tips to aid

Exam tip your learning and help you in the
Remember that marks will be awarded for understanding of design and exam.
technology, not how well you can draw.

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 Introduction

• Maths in practice – helps you to understand new concepts by providing a

worked example for new ideas, calculations and questions.

Maths in practice
Cross-sectional area
To calculate the cross-sectional area of a tube, the area of the inner Note the tube has a wall thickness
circle must be subtracted from the area of the outer circle. The of 3 mm. This ultimately makes the Radius = 12 mm
equation for calculating the area of a circle is: inside circle 6 mm less in diameter and
πr2 therefore the radius is given as 12 mm.
where: • Use the same equation for the inner
π = 3.14 (to two decimal places) circle to calculate how much material
Diameter = 30 mm
r = Radius needs to be removed to calculate
the area shaded brown.
• Study the diagram opposite illustrating the end of an acrylic
tube. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the tube. The tube has πr 2 = Area of inner circle
an outside diameter of 30 mm and a wall thickness of 3 mm. 3.14 × 12 × 12 = 452.16 mm2
Using the above equation to find the area of the outside circle, • Finally you need to subtract the area of the inner circle from the
area of the outer circle.
the answer is as follows.
Area of outer circle – Area of inner circle = cross-sectional area of tube
πDr 2 = Area of circle

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706.5 – 452.16 = 254.34 mm2
r = Diameter ÷ 2 = 15
The cross-sectional area of the acrylic tube surface = 254.34 mm2
3.14 × 15 = 706.5 mm2

Preparing for your exam

Dedicated exam preparation sections with tips and guidance for success in your
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written exams. You will find example questions and answers, together with notes
and explanations about the quality of the answers shown. This will really help you
build your understanding of how to write stronger answers.
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Supporting materials
Answers to exam-style questions can be downloaded from the Pearson GCSE (9-1)
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Design and Technology website at www.pearsonschools.co.uk/edgcsedtsupport.

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1 Core content
1 Core content

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 1.1 The impact of new and emerging technologies

1.1 The impact of new and emerging technologies

Getting started
What products, services and software have you used this week that are the result of technologies that have become
common in the last 30 years? You may want to research this question using the Internet, or discuss ideas in groups.

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how new and emerging technologies have had an impact on people, culture and society
• how developments in industry have affected production and the environment.

New and emerging technologies offer more efficient ways Countries losing people Countries gaining people
to carry out tasks, which can maximise output, reduce
prices and improve the quality of products. However, there Advantages: Advantages:
• Fewer people to house • Labour shortages can

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are also disadvantages, for example a decline in traditional
and feed be overcome
skills, such as the production of handmade goods.
• Extra income may be • Migrants often
Industry sent back home prepared to take lower
• Reduced pressure on paid jobs
Benefits of introducing new technology to industry include:
jobs and resources • Adds cultural diversity
• cutting costs by changing to more efficient
manufacturing methods Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
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• products being brought to market more quickly • Loss of young and most • Language problems
able people or other barriers to
• easier manipulation of information to reduce material
• Loss of those with good integration
and stock holding
education and skills • Pressure on housing
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• a decrease in human error. and health services
• Families become divided
Together, these benefits reduce costs and increase revenue,
but some changes are not always seen as positive. For Table 1.1.1 Possible advantages and disadvantages of
demographic movement
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example, robotics and computers enable factories to be

productive for longer hours, work more safely and improve Science and technology parks support new and emerging
quality. However, they also reduce the need for manual technologies by enabling businesses to associate with
input, making some lower-skilled assembly line jobs a particular centre of knowledge, such as a university or
redundant. In some regions, this can cause widespread research organisation. They help the transfer of knowledge,
unemployment, particularly if high numbers of people had while promoting technology-led economic development in
previously been employed in low-skilled work. the area. For example, emerging technology firms linked
There is an increasing need for employees to take greater to the USA’s Stanford University transformed Silicon Valley
personal responsibility for acquiring and updating their into a global centre of technology, finance, education and
skills following the introduction of new technologies. This research. However, science parks are often built on the
is known as the workforce skill set. All workers need to outskirts of cities and may encroach on green field areas.
embrace technology to compete in the labour market. This can result in habitat loss for wildlife and resentment
among local residents.
Demographic movement may occur due to new
technologies, for example younger workers moving to Key term
jobs involving new or specialist technologies. As a result,
Demographic movement: the way in which the
some areas or countries lose people and other countries
population’s structure changes, for example as a result
gain them. Table 1.1.1 shows some advantages and
of an ageing community or migration into an area.
disadvantages of demographic movement.

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1 Core content
Not-for-profit organisations reinvest the money they
Exam-style question
make in their chosen cause. Many engage with new
Explain one reason why unemployment in the UK may technologies to help their causes. For example, the
rise as new and emerging technologies develop. organisation Charity: Water worked with Google to
(2 marks) develop remote sensor technology to identify when
water flows at its projects across the world. Other
Enterprise examples could include healthcare phone apps and
Small enterprises are important to the economy; in reducing admin costs via online communications.
2016 they employed 15.7 million people in the UK,
which accounts for 60 per cent of all private sector Exam-style question
employment. As new enterprises develop, using new Explain one benefit of crowd funding that can help
technologies could ensure that they are ahead of the to promote new and emerging technologies. (2 marks)
market and attract funding.
Privately owned businesses tend to be relatively Sustainability
small with limited sales, stock and workforce. Strategic Sustainable technologies have been driven by
decisions are made by the owner(s). An advantage is environmental awareness and the rising costs of fossil fuels.

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that they are often sufficiently flexible to easily adopt, Companies must balance different, and often competing,
adapt and exploit new technologies. However, they needs against an awareness of the environmental, social
may not have enough funds to invest in cutting-edge and economic limitations we face as a society.
manufacturing equipment.
Crowd funding is a comparatively new way of launching
Transportation costs
new products or technologies. It funds a project by The environmental costs of moving products between
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raising money from a large number of people who each locations can be high and transport is one of the biggest
contribute a small amount of money online. It depends energy users. Companies need to develop practices that
on capturing the imagination of potential funders, using reduce the use of carbon dioxide, are economically viable
and improve quality of life. Solutions could include:
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online platforms to coordinate and administer the funds.
Government funding is often available for new • changing from diesel-intensive lorries to electric
businesses that could contribute to the overall economy, vehicles or trains
• making fewer journeys, for example by establishing
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making the use of new and emerging technologies

easier for them. More than 40,000 UK businesses have distribution centres with good links to the end
taken advantage of business start-up loans since the destinations
scheme was launched in May 2012. Local councils may • designing products that are lighter or with compact
also provide lower-level loans or grants. packaging, so that more products can fit into the carrier.

ideas
Key terms
Enterprise: a business, particularly one started by
someone who shows initiative by taking a risk setting
up, investing in and running it.
Crowd funding: a method of raising funds from many
people for an enterprise via online platforms.
Sustainability: the ability to meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future funding people
generations to meet their own needs.
Figure 1.1.1 Cloud funding enables innovation

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 1.1 The impact of new and emerging technologies

Pollution Key terms

Companies have an economic and environmental responsibility to keep
Pollution: the release of
pollution to a minimum by using new technologies to reuse or dispose of
contaminating substances that
waste without harming the environment, and by being energy efficient and
are likely to harm the natural
creating less pollution in the first place. Government regulations to encourage
environment.
companies to reduce pollution include a carbon tax or subsidies for alternative
energy resources. Recycling: the process of
converting waste material into
Demand on natural resources other usable products, such
Both natural fuels like coal and gas, and minerals such as tin, copper, iron ore, as glass bottles made from
lead and zinc are finite – if we continue to use them they will run out. Even recycled glass.
though new technologies have increased the efficiency of their extraction, Consumer: a person who uses
companies need to manage the demand for natural resources, for example by goods and services.
developing new sustainable materials, such as biodegradable plastics, that can
replace the original materials.
Apply it
Waste generated

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Companies are encouraged to
Raw materials are often wasted due to manufacturing inefficiencies. Minimising
use alternative energy resources.
waste via new technologies makes products sustainable and generates
Find out which renewable energy
significant cost savings. Here are some strategies companies could adopt.
resources are most popular in
• Reducing the amount of waste produced, for example by using computer- the UK.
controlled machines to minimise off-cuts and rejects, and sending emails
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instead of letters.
• Reusing products or materials that would otherwise become waste.
For example, some ink cartridge suppliers enable used cartridges to be
Apply it
returned, refilled and used again and plastic food containers can be reused
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around the home. Think about the technology you
could be using in 10 or 20 years’
• Recycling allows for materials to be used a number of times. Some newly time. How do you think you will
developed plastics can be melted and reset with no degradation of quality.
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travel? How will you work? How

• Recovering waste generated in factories. This may be in the form of heat will you contact your friends?
energy, which can then be used as a fuel for heating or for boilers to
generate steam and power electric turbines.

People
Workforce
Technology, such as the internet, enables some people to choose how they
work productively, blurring home and work boundaries. This can have a
negative effect on home life and lead to overworking. Companies need a wider Exam-style question
skills base to adapt to changes in technology as manufacturing becomes more Explain two ways in which
responsive to changing markets. a shampoo manufacturer
could change the packaging
Consumers
of its products to reduce its
Consumers are often aware of new technologies, which increases demand
transportation costs. (4 marks)
but also increases use of scarce resources. Also, some new technologies
allow consumers to have input into the design themselves, via things like 3D
printing or customising business cards online.

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1 Core content
Children create training opportunities for apprentices but no
New and emerging technologies can offer rich guarantee of employment at the end of their training.
opportunities for education and entertainment, developing
children’s academic and practical skills. For example, the Culture
online game Minecraft offers greater creative opportunities Technology and culture have always been linked.
than traditional building toys. However, there are concerns New technologies may support existing patterns of
that children spend too much time using digital devices at behaviour or evolve to meet the needs of different
the expense of social and physical activities. cultures. Cultures also evolve as technology advances.

People with disabilities Population movement within the EU

Assistive technology covers small devices such as pencil Migration is the movement of people from one
grips to larger lifting devices and all-terrain wheelchairs permanent home to another. Migration is common
for people with disabilities. Prosthetic limb technology within the European Union because EU residents are
harnesses electrical activity in the body, providing the free to choose to live and work in any EU member state.
user with more control. New technology in stem cell Immigrants can bring energy, innovation and experience
therapy can treat cerebral palsy, heart conditions and of different skills and technologies, filling skills gaps.
visual problems but years of trialling are required first. However, online communication tools may reduce

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the need for workers to move. After the UK voted to
Wage levels leave the EU in a referendum in 2016, free movement
Companies may need to pay more to attract staff with between the UK and the rest of Europe may change.
specialist technological skills. Learning new skills can
lead to higher wages, but as some previously high-paid Exam-style question
jobs become automated, associated wages may fall. Explain one advantage of a company employing
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Highly skilled workforce migrant workers. (2 marks)
Technology leads to the automation of routine or
repetitive production systems that were previously labour Exam tip
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intensive. Demand is growing for highly skilled, highly Remember to write about an advantage. Mentioning
educated managers and professionals. People with hybrid disadvantages will not get you any more marks.
skill sets, such as technology and project management, are
likely to be in demand. Workers must keep developing new Key terms
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technical skills throughout their careers otherwise workers

with the necessary skills may be recruited from elsewhere. Apprenticeship: a job with training that allows
people to gain nationally recognised qualifications.
Apprenticeships Automation: using control systems to operate equipment.
Even manual trades are enhanced by new technologies.
Culture: the way a group of people behave, dress,
Manufacturers often give training providers new
eat and live their lives. Culture can be influenced by
products for testing, encouraging apprentices to use
anything from religion, tradition and history to local
them in their work. Apprentices and their tutors can
food sources, climate and artistic expression.
log evidence and progress online. New technology may

Voice recognition software Screen reader Eye tracking

Figure 1.1.2 Assisted technology can help people with disabilities carry out tasks at work

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 1.1 The impact of new and emerging technologies

Social segregation factory management and energy conservation. There

Although many residential areas are becoming more are concerns that we might become over-reliant on
ethnically mixed, some minority populations have tended technology and risk personal data being accessed and
to live in clusters, which can lead to social segregation. used fraudulently.
This leads to reduced contact between different groups, • Remote working: when an employee completes work
which could create social barriers and ultimately limit away from their usual workplace, for example at home,
access to better education, jobs and technologies. at a hotel or on a train. Advances in technology enable
employees to access their employer’s information and
Society systems easily using remote devices.
A society is a large, organised group of people living
together. The term applies equally to a village, a country Possible advantages Possible disadvantages
or even a continent. New technologies are influencing the Enables a more flexible Could lead to a lack of
decisions that shape our society. Here are some examples. work schedule routine
• Changes in working hours and shift patterns: the Less time and money Less workplace social
internet and mobile apps enable office workers to spent commuting interaction
access systems at convenient times to them and
Work at your own pace as Blurs the work–life

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their business. This maximises the labour available,
no set hours balance
increases productivity and improves morale. This can
have a positive or negative effect on home life. Technological advances Less IT support may
• Internet of Things (IoT): the system of interrelated make more work possible compromise productivity
devices that are connected via the internet is called Fewer distractions Less face-to-face
the Internet of Things. For example, a home’s heating interaction with
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or washing machine can be programmed remotely via customers and colleagues
an app, and many people use smartwatches or bands
Potential security
to track their fitness. Systems can malfunction, such as breaches of information
home alarms not informing the user (remotely via an
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app) that there was an emergency. Benefits to business Table 1.1.2 Possible advantages and disadvantages of
include tracking and inventory control, security, remote working
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Alarm clock: Refrigerator: Computer:

Remote programs, RFID tags reorder VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Centralised control for Printer:
custom tones, turns groceries as needed, Automatic updates, remote interface to Automatically reorders toner
and suggests recipes integration and forwarding any other devices and paper as needed

Home COMMUTE Workplace COMMUTE Home

Lighting Curtains Power

Exit Heating Cooling

Menu < > – +

Automobile: Mobile phone: HVAC (Heating, ventilation and air conditioning) : Oven: Television:
Performs secure Controls temperature Oven settings from Immediate ‘one-click’
others can track your location and lights for computer or phone ordering of products
if running late seen on commercials

Figure 1.1.3 The growing scope of the internet of things

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1 Core content
Video conference meetings • eliminating outdated, polluting technology
Two-way audio and video telecommunications allow • improving inefficient waste disposal methods
people to connect from two or more sites for a • improving extraction and conversion methods of raw
meeting. Often, they can share documents and display materials.
information onscreen. Providers such as Skype are
making video conferencing widely available for free or
Waste disposal
at a low cost. Businesses must manage any production waste
or try and eliminate it using new technologies, for
Possible advantages Possible disadvantages example by:
• using efficient manufacturing processes
Meetings and training can May not be as productive
• reusing waste within the same manufacturing process
take place without leaving as a discussion around a
• recycling waste in a different manufacturing process
the office table
• designing products so that the whole or parts of
Travel costs and the time Confidential documents them can be reused or recycled
taken to travel can be may need to be viewed
• harnessing any waste energy such as heat and using
reduced or eliminated and signed in person
it elsewhere.

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Meetings can be called May be a high set-up cost
Materials separation
instantly at multiple
If useful materials are separated from waste to be
locations with little notice
recycled and used again, fewer raw materials are
Speeds up decision May be difficult to find required and less material is sent to landfill.
making and problem a suitable time across
Automated machines separate materials by type
solving time zones
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(metals, plastics or chemicals, for example). Individual
People may not pick materials need to be separated and reprocessed into
up on non-verbal the main material with all impurities removed.
information such as body
Transportation of goods around the world
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language
Local production reduces the need for environmentally
Table 1.1.3 Possible advantages and disadvantages of video damaging transport. As new methods of construction
conferencing become available, it is easier to reduce the size and
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Environment volume of products and packaging, enabling more

products to be delivered in one shipment.
Businesses must balance the demand for a wider range
of cheaper goods against the needs of the environment. Packaging of goods
Factors to consider include all the energy, wastes and Packaging can be made from metal, glass, plastic,
by-products of manufacturing processes, and disposal paper, cardboard and other mixed materials, especially
of the products after their useful life. paper and cardboard. As new technologies emerge
and new materials are developed, packaging can be
Apply it redesigned to improve ability to biodegrade. Many
Many modern products are more easily recycled than companies now only use packaging that can be
previously. Find out how manufacturers are facilitating recycled- making it much better for the environment.
material separation and the recycling process. However, this can sometimes increase the price of a
product for consumers.
Pollution
The environmental impact of pollution can be monitored and Exam-style question
minimised using emerging technologies, for example by:
Explain two ways in which a company that produces
• using software to ensure all growth is planned and
televisions could reduce packaging waste. (4 marks)
environmental impacts are predicted

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 1.1 The impact of new and emerging technologies

Production techniques and systems

Different production techniques and systems ensure that products are manufactured efficiently and cost effectively.

Technique/ Description Example Advantages Disadvantages

system
Standardised • The same • Electronic (e.g. • Consistent safety • Difficult to customise
design and components or resistors), or and quality • Quality of a product
components modular systems mechanical (e.g. • Speeds up product may suffer
are used across nuts and bolts) development as
many designs components parts already exist
• Usually an • Workforce can be
individual part, easily trained to
manufactured in deal with standard
large numbers, to components
an internationally
• Cost saving
accepted standard

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Just-in-time (JIT) • Computerised stock • Car manufacturers • Can increase • Any break in the
control ensures (e.g. production efficiency and supply chain holds
that parts are only line) reduce waste up production
received when they • On-demand • Enables changes • Cost of more
are needed in the publishing (e.g. to production runs frequent deliveries
production process photos, greeting to meet demand • Fewer bulk-buying
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and go straight to cards) discounts
the production site
rather than being
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stored
Lean • Reducing or • Eliminating • Multi-skilled teams • Requires time-
manufacturing eliminating overproduction (cells) are each consuming data
waste in design, • Minimising defects responsible for part analysis
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manufacturing, of the production • Requires disruptive

• Reducing storage,
distribution and process, which can changes to existing
movement or
customer services improve efficiency processes
processing of
as workers share
parts or products
their skills and
expertise
Batch • A set number • Olympic medals • Could lower • Downtime when
production of products are • Books with capital costs reconfiguring the
manufactured that limited print run • Reduces production system
are made in limited inventory/storage
quantities or for a space
limited time
Table 1.1.4 Types of production cont...

9
1 Core content

Technique/ Description Example Advantages Disadvantages

system
Continuous • Manufacturing • Production of • Removes the • Automation can
production of identical high- sheet materials, cost of stopping lead to staff
demand products, such as glass, and starting redundancy
24 hours a day or standard the production • High-capital input
components, such process • Low flexibility in
as nuts and bolts • Materials can be changing product/
cheaper in high design
quantities • A fault in
production can stop
the whole process
One-off • A single, unique • Complex, large- • High-quality • Products are
production product made by scale products products expensive as cost of
skilled workers (e.g. a yacht) or materials is higher
smaller-scale and production is

FT
crafted products labour intensive
(e.g. specialist • Production times
furniture) are longer
Mass production • Efficiently and • Toy manufacture • Materials can be • Initial set-up costs
consistently cheaper in high can be high
producing many quantities • If a production
A
products at a low line breaks,
cost per unit manufacture is
• Often automated, halted
with parts added in • Repetitive
R
sequence
Table 1.1.4 Types of production
D

Summary
Key points to remember:
• The nature of industry is changing due to new and emerging technologies.
• Companies are more environmentally aware and many create products that are more sustainable.
• The types of production are changing as technology advances.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Explain two ways in which new enterprises can be funded.
S2 Describe two ways in which a business can reduce its demand on natural resources.
S3 Describe four ways in which a company can reduce its waste.
Challenge
C1 Explain why robotic technology may increase unemployment and how companies will benefit by increasing the
use of robot technology.
C2 Examine the type of work employees completed in a factory in the early 1900s and compare how their work
has changed now.

10
 1.2 Evaluating new and emerging technologies to inform design decisions

1.2 Evaluating new and emerging technologies to inform

design decisions
Learning objectives Key term
By the end of this section, you should know: Critical evaluation: a process
• the importance of the evaluative process and criteria when considering that identifies positives and
the impact of new and emerging technologies negatives from a range of
• how design decisions are affected by emerging technologies areas to assess the suitability
of concepts such as a design,
• why current and future scenarios need to be fully investigated.
process or material.

Manufacturing capabilities
•
• Will automated assembly lines produce high-quality, customised products?

FT
•

Budget constraints
• How much are customers prepared to pay?

• Can cost savings be made via speed of manufacture, reduction in materials,

A
reduction in size or a process redesign?
R

The materials used

• Have the materials been tested for the required use?
D

• Will improvements outweigh any increased costs?

• Are the materials sustainable? Examples of critical
evaluation questions

Timescale
• Will production times be cut?

• What lead time do customers expect?

Who the product is for?

• Has the target market been researched?

Figure 1.2.1 Questions to ask when critically evaluating new and emerging technologies that inform design decisions

11
1 Core content

Exam-style question
How long will it take to produce? What are the budget constraints?
Evaluate the considerations
for using new and emerging
technologies in the development
of a new bicycle for competitive 3D printing Will the implant fulfil the
cyclists. (9 marks) How strong are the materials? a lower jaw patient’s needs and improve
implant their quality of life?

Are the materials suitable

How long will the materials last? and will not cause adverse
reactions to the patient?

Figure 1.2.2 Critical evaluation example 1

FT Do customers want a new How much are customers

type of power source? prepared to pay?

What new technologies could What is the design’s expected

Portable power lifespan?
A
source for
mobile hardware

Are potential materials Is the intended market budget

R
environmentally friendly? or premium?

What materials are available?

D

Figure 1.2.3 Critical evaluation example 2

Consideration of contemporary and potential

future scenarios
When making design decisions, you must examine possible
scenarios. Outcomes could be positive, negative or both. Here
are some examples.
• Natural disasters such as floods and hurricanes are
increasingly attributed to human causes. Advances in
technology should help us to reduce our environmental
impact and predict extreme weather patterns, evaluating the
likelihood of natural disasters. Technology also enables better
designs, such as earthquake-proof offices.

Example of a mobile power source – it is a portable

power source

12
 1.2 Evaluating new and emerging technologies to inform design decisions

• Medical advances such as in biotechnology

Organisations producing Fairtrade
(examples include artificial organs, implants and products should: (see also page 59) Where was it made?
prosthetic limbs) and medical equipment (such as
• Use raw materials from sustainably • Cheap labour in other countries
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners to help managed sources may save costs but exploit workers
diagnose illnesses) improve health overall. However, • Try to buy materials locally • New technologies may produce
the impact on the population needs to be evaluated • Seek to reduce energy consumption less pollution and waste
(e.g. via renewable energy
and understood. For example, medical advances that technologies)
allow people to live longer also create a greater need • Minimise the impact of their waste
for supporting the elderly. stream on the environment

• Travel has not become significantly quicker over the

last 50 years, despite technological advances. Most
Ethical considerations
forms of transport are now comfortable, efficient and
when evaluating new and
safe but the environmental impact is still a current emerging technologies
and future concern.
• Global warming (climate change) is probably caused
by the emission of greenhouse gases, especially Who will it benefit? Who was it made by?

FT
from burning fossil fuels. Possible solutions are
new energies, new low-carbon and zero-carbon
technologies and ensuring sustainable development.
• Communication is now cheap, quick, global and
easy because of the internet, but designers should
• New technologies can create
cheaper, widely available, higher
quality products for all
• Using new technologies could
benefit the consumer, for example
by making their life easier
• Manufacturing new products can
• Hiring low-paid workers in
developing countries has led to
exploitation such as child labour
• The rights of workers should be a
high priority
• Check health and safety rules and
building regulations in factory
A
not assume that the target audience has access to create jobs location
hardware, software, infrastructure and power sources,
now or in the future. Figure 1.2.4 Ethical considerations
R
Ethical perspectives on new and emerging
technologies Exam-style question
Companies that trade ethically are not totally driven by Explain two methods that a company could use to
D

profit. They consider their products’ wider implications relocate its manufacturing operation to a developing
to act fairly and honestly, and not exploit workers or country. (6 marks)
suppliers, or damage the environment.

Exam tip
Key terms
To get full marks on this type of question, do not
Global warming: an increase in the temperature of repeat yourself – you must give two different reasons.
the Earth’s atmosphere, caused by greenhouse gases.
Ethics: balancing behaviour with moral principles
when carrying out an activity. Environmental perspectives on new and
emerging technologies
Any deterioration in the environment threatens
Apply it natural resources such as food, energy and clean water.
Identify ten companies that use the Fairtrade Companies must examine their production techniques,
Foundation Mark. What types of items are identified materials use, energy consumption and emissions in
as Fairtrade? order to protect the environment.

13
1 Core content
Use of materials Manufacture and transportation: energy usage
Designers should select fewer materials and ensure and consumption
they are recyclable, lighter and less toxic. They should The extraction, transportation and emissions of fossil
consider the way metals are mined, for example, the fuels harm the environment. Even renewables impact
energy needed to convert ore into metal or the use of on habitats and water use, and cause visual and noise
pollution. Transporting goods burns petroleum, so
oil for plastics. Oil is a finite resource that can pollute
companies could use energy-efficient vehicles to
when refined and does not decompose.
distribute products. Making energy cleaner tends to cost
more but reduces the cost to the environment.
Apply it
Look around your home and identify five materials Life-cycle analysis
that have been used to manufacture household A life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a systematic inventory of
products. Identify the raw materials that were used. environmental impacts at every stage of a product’s life,
including:
Carbon footprint • raw material extraction and processing
Companies should always be looking for ways to reduce • product / part manufacture and assembly

FT
their carbon footprint, for example by: • product / part transportation and distribution
• maximising energy efficiency • product / consumer use
• analysing their supply chain • product disposal or recovery at the end of its useful life.
• recycling Governments are moving towards requiring businesses to
• using renewable energy carry out LCAs so that they can identify opportunities for
A
• identifying carbon offsetting methods that will reduce environmental improvements in the life cycle.
the overall amount of emissions.
Exam-style question
R
Explain the steps involved in carrying out an LCA.
(4 marks)

Raw material
D

extraction

TRAN
SPO
RT
End Material
of life processing
Figure 1.2.5 Your carbon footprint involves all indirect and
TRAN

direct activities in a day

SPORT
T RA NSPORT

Key terms
Carbon footprint: the amount of CO2 emissions
that can be directly or indirectly attributed to an
Product Part
individual’s or company’s activities. The larger the manufacturing
use
TR

T
carbon footprint, the greater the environmental
AN
OR SP SP
ORT
RAN
impact. T

Life-cycle analysis: an analysis of all the

environmental impacts related to a product from the Assembly
extraction of the raw material to its use and disposal.
Figure 1.2.6 Key elements of a life-cycle analysis

14
 1.3 Energy: generation, storage and choosing appropriate sources

1.3 Energy: generation, storage and choosing appropriate sources

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• methods of generating energy
• how energy is stored and made available for use
• what factors need to be considered when selecting a power source
• how to discriminate between energy sources and to select appropriately.

Sources, generation and storage of energy Link it up

Non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels that were formed from the
remains of animals and plants that lived millions of years ago. They cannot be For more on oil see 4.2 Sources and
replenished quickly and will eventually run out. properties (pages 162–63).

Coal

FT
Source How it is converted into energy
• Heat energy and hot gases convert water
into steam which powers a turbine to
create high-voltage electricity
• Smaller amounts used as a domestic heat
Advantages

high-power electricity
generation
• Relatively cheap to
Disadvantages
• Stable, large-scale and • Coal power plants emit pollution
such as carbon dioxide, sulfur,
mercury, selenium and arsenic
• Technologies to reduce coal power
A
source extract and convert plant emissions are expensive
• Reliable • Coal mining impacts significantly
on the landscape
R
Oil • Processed and split into petroleum • Stable, large-scale and • Oil power plants are highly
products such as petrol, paraffin and high-power electricity polluting
diesel generation • Oil exploration impacts on the
• In power plants oil is burnt to heat water • Relatively cheap to landscape
D

and produce steam, which propels turbine extract and convert • Oil extraction risks environmental
blades to produce electricity disasters
Gas • Burning gas can power turbines, with the • Stable, large-scale and • Burning gases are highly polluting
waste heat powering a steam turbine high-power electricity
• Natural gas is used in homes for heating generation
or cooking • Relatively cheap to
• It has lower emissions than other fossil convert and extract as
fuels – its combustion emits carbon ready-made fuel
dioxide at half the rate of coal • Cleaner than coal or oil
Table 1.3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of using fossil fuels

Apply it
Exam-style question
Fossil fuels are finite. Find out when it is estimated
Explain two reasons why coal is classed as a non- non-renewable energy sources are likely to run out if
renewable energy source. (4 marks) current usage continues.

15
1 Core content
Renewable energy sources use natural energy to make
Key term
electricity. Renewable energy sources produce 20 per
cent of the UK’s electricity and are important for reducing Photovoltaics: using solar cells to generate electrical
carbon emissions. power by converting energy from the sun.

Source What it is and how it is converted into Advantages Disadvantages

energy
Biomass • Organic matter derived from organisms, • Waste from plants • Large areas needed to
such as wood, crops, rubbish, landfill gas and farming can be cultivate crops
and alcohol fuels used • Emits fumes that add to
• Can be used directly via combustion global warming
(of wood or biodegradable wastes) to
produce heat, or converted to electricity
Biodiesel • Made from natural elements such as • Uses waste from • Large areas needed to
plants, vegetables and fermented waste plants and farming cultivate crops
cooking oil • Does not give off
• Can be used in diesel-powered vehicles harmful chemicals

Tidal

FT
without modifying the engine
• Turbines generate electricity from the
movement of tidal water
• Artificial tidal barrages are constructed
across tidal rivers, bays and estuaries, for
example – the water is trapped and then
• No emissions
• Powerful
• Tides are predictable
and stable
• Lower energy output than
fossil fuels
• Large barrages may have
an ecological impact
• Expensive to build
A
• Barrages can have a
released through turbines as the water
secondary purpose • Only available in coastal
levels change
such as a bridge areas
Wind • Wind turbines use propeller blades, • Freely available • Could restrict shipping traffic
R
which spin a shaft to create electricity • Can be used in when placed in the sea
through a generator remote areas • Wind can be unpredictable
• No emissions • Wind farms are often
regarded as unsightly
D

• Expensive to set up
Solar • Solar (photovoltaic) panels convert • Reliable source of • Could change ecology
sunlight into electricity power in warmer when large solar farms
• Solar thermal power plants use the sun’s countries replace traditional farms
rays to heat a fluid that is circulated • Homes can have • Expensive to set up
through pipes, transferring heat to water their own electricity • Effectiveness of power
and producing steam supply generation depends on
• Steam is converted into mechanical • More electricity is geographical location
energy in a turbine, which powers a produced in stronger
generator to produce electricity sunshine
Hydroelectric • A dam traps water that flows through • Large amount of low- • Expensive to set up
tunnels and turns turbines to make cost power • Construction may damage
electricity • Can have secondary the environment
purpose such as a
water reserve
Table 1.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of using renewable energy sources

16
 1.3 Energy: generation, storage and choosing appropriate sources

Storage of energy Exam-style question

On a national grid level the supply of electricity must be
Evaluate the use of using a wind system for generating
equal to demand and power companies are continually
electricity in remote countryside. (9 marks)
making adjustments to the supply based on predictable
changes such as the timings of the working day, as well as
unexpected changes from equipment overloads and storms. Apply it
Any electricity not used when created must be stored so
that there is more flexible and reliable use. This can be in a Compare the environmental impact of renewable energy
number of forms that are then used to power systems. sources and non-renewable energy sources. Consider
the extraction, conversion, use and geography.
Power systems
A power system is a network of components that supply,
transfer and use electric power. These include batteries Examples of
and cells, solar cells, wind power and mains electricity. power systems

Batteries and cells Solar cells Mains electricity Wind power

FT
Use chemical energy to make electricity. Electronic device that can turn sunlight Supplied from power stations through Converts the movement of the wind into
Two terminals, one positive (+) and one directly into electricity. the National Grid. mechanical power or electricity.
negative (-). A chemical reaction produces Contain two layers Alternating current (AC) A wind turbine consists of a bladed rotor
electrons that collect at the negative of silicon treated to allow electrons that drives a rotating shaft in a generator
terminal and when connected in a . other at a rate of 50 times a second. to create electricity.
. Provide free energy once initial costs Electricity enters a home at 230 volts and A group of wind turbines can produce
Expensive source of electricity that can are recovered. is ready to be used. .
lead to chemicals leaching into water and Non-polluting. Items need to be plugged into Less useful on a smaller scale but small
A
soil if not disposed of correctly. Unsightly. Solar farms change the the mains to be powered. versions can be built at home.
look of the landscape. Can be harmful and is produced by A group of wind turbines can produce
dirty energy (nuclear, fossil fuels). significant amounts of electricity but is
Example: cylindrical cell dependent on the strength of the wind.
D, C, AA, AAA and AAAA sizes.
R
These are easy to manufacture, small
and inexpensive, have good mechanical Example: solar panels (photovoltaic cells) Example: household equipment,
stability and long life. They are found in on houses to provide local electricity. e.g. kettle, television, fridge, hairdryer.
medical implants, watches, hearing aids,
car keys and memory backup.
D

Example: prismatic cell. Example: small, thin low-

These are flexible, but can be more voltage cells can be used
expensive to manufacture. They are cheaply for project work.
easy to recharge, but tend to have
a shorter life than cylindrical batteries.
They are found in mobile phones, Figure 1.3.1 Types of
tablets and low-profile laptops.
power systems Solar cells used as a power source for a model racing car

Apply it Choosing appropriate energy sources for

How many types of battery can you identify around
products and power systems
your home? Explain why each type is particularly Here are some examples of factors that designers may need
suited for its purpose. to consider.
• Portability of the power source: remote working requires
access to devices (computers, phones, medical aids) with a
Exam-style question power source that does not need to be plugged into mains
Explain one reason why solar cells are more environmentally electricity. Such devices can be portable and compact as
friendly than rechargeable cells. (2 marks) they do not need power converters.

17
1 Core content
Battery
• Environmental impact: no entirely ‘clean’ energy source exists. The
impact may be active, like fossil fuel emissions or the destruction of
habitats through extraction. Passive impacts include the sound of
generators or the appearance of wind farms. Other environmental
factors include the impact of transportation or waste disposal. Wire

• Power output: a generator’s output may vary according to

conditions at the power plant, fuel costs or the electric power grid
operator. Many renewables do not produce electricity predictably
or consistently; for example the output of solar panels relies on the
strength of the sunshine, which depends on the time of day and Switch (off) Bulb
cloud cover. Renewables are therefore often backed up by other Figure 1.3.2 A simple circuit
forms of electricity generation. A designer must select an electricity
supply capable of reliably delivering the required power.
Link it up
• Circuit/system connections: when considering alternative power See Table 1.3.2 for more about how energy
sources, a designer will need to consider how the circuit or system will sources can impact the environment.
be connected to it, for example the use of available plugs, connectors

FT
and terminals.
Exam-style question
• Cost: the choice of the energy supply, for example batteries or a
mains electricity power pack, will impact the running costs of the Explain two factors that determine the
product and so the costs of alternative power supplies must be most appropriate energy source for
considered carefully by a designer. powering a bedroom desk lamp. (4 marks)
A
Summary
Key points to remember:
R
• Critically assess new and emerging technologies to be used in manufacturing or the products themselves.
• Consider current and future ethical and environmental factors.
• Life-cycle analyses identify opportunities for environmental improvements during a product’s life.
D

• Energy comes from a range of renewable and non-renewable sources.

• Systems can be powered in different ways and need to be selected appropriately.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Explain what is meant by ‘carbon footprint’.
S2 Describe two environmental disadvantages of using oil as an energy source.
S3 Explain three ways in which companies can help reduce global warming.
S4 Explain two reasons for using solar power instead of coal.
S5 Draw a simple circuit diagram that will power a motor.
Challenge
C1 Work out your carbon footprint for a 24-hour period and describe how you could reduce it.
C2 Explain how a life-cycle analysis may be carried out on a kitchen appliance.
C3 Justify why we still use fossil fuels when the evidence suggests that renewable sources of energy are better for
the environment.
C4 Explain the benefits to a customer of batteries that can be recharged after use.
18
 1.4 Smart and composite materials, and technical textiles

1.4 Smart and composite materials, and technical textiles

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know the characteristics, applications, advantages and disadvantages of:
• modern and smart materials
• composites
• technical textiles.

Modern and smart materials

Modern materials do not occur naturally, but are input such as temperature, light, moisture, force or
existing materials that have been altered to improve electrical current. They sense and respond to conditions
their properties. in their environment and some can return to their
Smart materials are existing or modern materials with original state when the conditions change.

FT
physical properties that can be varied by an external Table 1.4.1 gives some examples.

Material Description Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Shape-memory alloys • Can be plastically • Glasses frames • Lengthen life of • Expensive
(SMAs) deformed (have • Greenhouse window product • Continuous use
their shape changed, openers • Reduced overall size, can cause metal
A
stretched or crumpled) less complexity fatigue
and will return to their
• Medical stents
original shape when • Tweezers and hooks
heated or a current is • Orthodontic wires
applied
R
• Examples include
nickel-titanium (nitinol),
gold-cadmium and iron-
nickel-cobalt-titanium
D

Nanomaterials • Made of tiny • Fire-retardant • Larger relative surface • Unusual physical

components less materials area can improve their and chemical
than 100 nanometres • Sunscreen strength, elasticity, properties – may
(nm; a millionth of a magnetic, electrical, need specialist
millimetre) in at least
• Tennis rackets
thermal conductivity risk assessment
one direction • Motorcycle helmets and absorbent relating to
• May be particles, • Car bumpers properties health and the
nanowires, nanotubes • Can combine environment
or thin films and properties, e.g.
surface coatings lightweight but robust
and scratch-resistant
Photochromic glass • Darkens when • Sunglasses • Adapts easily to • May be slow to
exposed to light and • Plane cockpit windows changing conditions react
reverses in the dark • Can undergo • User cannot
• Tiny particles of silver thousands of control reaction
halide are added to cycles without
glass; these react performance change
with ultraviolet light,
causing a chemical
reaction that changes
the glass’s colour
Table 1.4.1 Examples of modern and smart materials Cont...
19
1 Core content

Material Description Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Reactive glass • Uses electrochromatic • Welding masks and • Retains heat, so • Expensive
technology to change goggles reduces energy bills • Requires
from transparent to • Windows • Instant privacy electricity source
opaque by applying without permanent
voltage while allowing blocking of light
light to pass through
from both sides
Piezoelectric materials • Generate a small • Generating energy • Sustainable • Wear out
electric charge when • Sensors: burglar alarms, • Low maintenance • Has temperature,
compressed (sensors) keyless car entry, seat load and voltage
• Compact size
• Can work in reverse, belt sensors, keypads, especially useful in limitations
generating movement microphones micro-electronics
when an electric • Actuators: for precise • In actuators, high
charge is applied position control, response speed and
(actuators) e.g. digital cameras, can create a large
fast-acting valves and force

FT
nozzles
Temperature-responsive • Can change • Can deliver drugs, cells • Useful in biomedical • Still being
polymers, e.g. poly N- physical properties or proteins to patients applications researched
isopropylacrylamide with a change in in a controlled way so wider
(PNIPAM) temperature, so they when mixed with liquid application may
are useful in many polymer take time
scientific applications • When injected into
A
a patient, a gel
deposit forms; the
drug is released in a
controlled way when the
R
temperature is increased
• Can be used as sensors
and gel activators
D

Conductive inks • Contain pigments that • Drawing working • Easy to use • Silver is
allow small currents circuits on polyester, • Lighter and more expensive
to flow through even polycarbonates and economical than • Difficult to get
when dry paper traditional circuit circuits right
• Made with silver, • Improvising or boards
carbon, graphite or repairing circuits on • Low waste
other precious metal- printed circuit boards
• Ink can be folded,
coated base material • Printing RFID tags for so you can draw a
• Used in a pen on any tickets etc. circuit, fold the paper
suitable material and unfold it to find
the circuit still works

Table 1.4.1 Examples of modern and smart materials

Exam tip
This is an ‘explain’ question. You must give a reason for
Exam-style question your answer – do not just give an advantage without
Explain one advantage of conductive inks. (2 marks) an explanation.

20
 1.4 Smart and composite materials, and technical textiles

Composites
A composite consists of reinforcing material(s) and a Most composites have excellent strength-to-weight ratios –
bonding agent called the ‘matrix’. The new material has they are stronger than other materials of the same weight
enhanced properties than the original material(s). or mass. Table 1.4.2 gives some examples.

Composite Description Examples Disadvantages

Concrete • Made of coarse aggregate (gravel between 14 and • Mainly used for construction but it • Can be
40 mm); aggregate (sand); cement; water can be used for smaller products damaged by
• Proportions depend on the use such as park benches and bins corrosion of
reinforcement
• Hardens over time to gain excellent compressive
bars, fire or
strength, but tensile strength is low
radiant heat
• Relatively cheap and freezing
• Can last 100 years. Additives can prevent attack trapped water
from seawater or acids
• The tensile strength can be improved by
embedding steel rods to form reinforced concrete
Plywood • Manufactured board of wood veneers bonded • Graded for exterior or interior use • Although
with glue to produce a flat sheet depending upon the glue’s water plywood is

FT
• Always has an odd number of layers (at least resistance strong and
three) as they balance the stresses around the • Sheds, cladding, flooring, furniture stable, some
central core, making it stable in all directions plywood will
come apart
• The veneers’ grain direction runs at 90° to the if the layers
sheets above and below it, which also increases
become wet
the stability
A
Fibre/ • Plastic can be reinforced with fine glass or • Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) is • Breathing
carbon/ carbon fibres to make a higher strength-to- easily formed into shapes – it is best in the fibres
glass weight ratio than its component parts suited to large structural items, such can cause
• Loose or woven fibres form a flexible fabric, and as boat hulls, pond liners, car bodies, respiratory
are built up in layers with polyester resin baths or showers problems
R
• Reinforced plastic can be sanded for a smooth • Carbon fibre reinforced plastic
finish and painted or colour added at the start of (CFRP) is more expensive than glass
the process fibre but is much stronger – it is used
in structural parts such as propeller
D

blades, body armour and golf clubs

Reinforced • Phenolic resins are combined with cotton fabrics • Non-metallic engineering • Can be
polymers to make inflammable laminated plastic sheets, components like gears and bearings expensive
rods and tubes • Substitute for exterior timber
• Grades depend on fibre coarseness – all are because they are weatherproof and
about half the weight of aluminium, strong, do not need further treatment
tough and with insulating properties at high
temperatures
Robotic • Materials that couple sensing, activation • Vehicles or uniforms that change • Expensive and
materials (movement), computation and communication colour to match their surroundings complex
and can react to their surroundings • Prosthetics with a sense of touch
autonomously.
• Plane wings that change shape
depending on wind conditions

Table 1.4.2 Examples of composite

materials
Key terms
Compressive strength: the ability of a material to resist squashing.
Tensile strength: the ability of a material to resist stretching.
Veneers: slices of wood that are 3 mm or less, used to build up
manufactured boards or to protectively coat other woods.

21
1 Core content

Exam-style question
Give three properties of
plywood sheeting. (3 marks)

Apply it
Find three uses for plywood.
Why do you think it has been
used for these purposes?

Prosthetics that can ‘feel’

Composite Benefits of composite materials

Concrete • Excellent compressive strength

FT
• Good heat and sound insulator
• Can be moulded into complex shapes with a variety of surface finishes, so has many
applications
• Can be manufactured on site, so reduces transport issues
• Durable, fire-resistant
A
• Will last for a long time
Plywood • High strength-to-weight ratio and strong in all directions
• High impact resistance, so not easily damaged
R
• Versatile – can be used inside and outside
• Economical use of wood as less wastage and available in large sheets
D

Fibre/carbon/glass • Low maintenance, durable and good resistance to ultraviolet (UV) light and most
chemicals
• Able to be formed into most 3D shapes, with added surface texture
• Lightweight with an excellent strength-to-weight ratio
Reinforced • Strong with good wear resistance and excellent machining qualities (will not blunt tools
polymers as much as metals)
• Good insulator of heat and electricity with low water absorption
• Available in a range of forms
• Good dimensional stability (does not change shape in heat or moisture-rich
environments)
Robotic materials • Can react to surroundings without connection to a computer
• Can react quickly and appropriately by themselves
• Can change colour, shape and the load they can carry
Table 1.4.3 Benefits of composite materials

22
 1.4 Smart and composite materials, and technical textiles

Technical textiles
Technical textiles are developed for their functions rather than appearance.
They can be strong, lightweight, waterproof, tough, breathable, biodegradable
and versatile and are increasingly economical. Table 1.4.4 gives some examples.

Material Description Examples Advantages Disadvantages

Agrotextiles • Improve or increase • Shading • Durable • Could change
agricultural • Thermal insulation • Reduces the ecosystems by
production need for weed altering natural
• Netting
• May be made from killers and circulation of
• Wind-breaks water, carbon
nylon, polyester, pesticides
polyethene, • Weed suppression and other
• Can be cheap
polypropene or nutrients
natural materials like
jute and wool
• Often biodegradable

FT
and offer solar and
ultraviolet protection
Construction • Developed to • Structures: waterproof • Strong and light • May be
textiles improve construction membrane, concrete • Resistant to expensive or
appearance and reinforcement degradation hard to source
longevity • During construction: by chemicals, • May degrade
A
hoardings nets, sunlight and over time
awnings, tarpaulins, acids
canopies • Stable in
R
different heat
conditions
Geotextiles • Used in civil • Non-woven or woven • Do not rot • Easily blocked by
D

engineering where mats for reinforcing • Deal well with sediments and
soil, rock or other banks or draining flat water organic matter
geotechnical land • Ineffective if
• Cost effective
material needs to be damaged
stabilised, filtered,
drained or reinforced
• Retain their structure
in the ground
Domestic • Used domestically, • Cleaning wipes • Hardwearing • Can be
textiles even if developed for • Furnishings • Stain resistant expensive
other purposes • Fire risk for
• Wadding • Absorbent
• Linings some textiles
• Carpets • Can be difficult
to clean
• Flooring
Table 1.4.4 Examples of technical textiles Cont...

23
1 Core content

Material Description Examples Advantages Disadvantages

Environmentally • Use organically • Geotextiles • Processed • Can be
friendly textiles grown fibres such • Agrotextiles with fewer expensive
as hemp, wool, • Fashion chemicals and
cotton or bamboo or naturally more
recycled materials resistant to
mould and
pests
Protective • Provide protection • Clothing: heat and • Can be • Expensive
textiles against heat, harmful radiation protection resistant to • Not
chemicals, gases, for firefighters, molten many external environmentally
pesticides and even metal protection for inputs but still friendly
bullets welders breathable and
• Tents for severe light
weather

FT
• Parachutes and
mountain safety ropes
• Disposable chemical
protection overalls
Sports textiles • Combine function • Running shoes • Can improve • Expensive
with comfort for high • Cycling shorts athletic • Not
A
performance performance environmentally
• Rugby tops
• Can be lightweight friendly
• Swimsuits
• Streamlined and
R
breathable
• Remove moisture
• Sense heart rate
D

• Control bacteria
• Block UVA/UVB rays
• Resist impact

Table 1.4.4 Examples of technical textiles

Apply it
Why would you want to use a
memory foam or a wipe-clean
fabric at home?

Exam-style question
Explain one benefit of using
environmentally friendly textiles
to make a pair of school trousers.
Membrane being laid before a road surface (2 marks)

24
 1.5 Mechanical devices used to produce movement

1.5 Mechanical devices used to produce movement

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the performance, principles, applications and influence of mechanical devices on product design
• how mechanisms change movement and increase the mechanical advantage for the user
• how different components can be used within mechanisms.

Mechanisms are devices that can change one form of force into another. They
Apply it
range from simple mechanisms such as a door handle, scissors or a hole punch
Identify ten objects that use to complex car engines, bicycles and manufacturing machinery.
rotary motion.
Types of movement

FT
Oscillation Linear
Exam-style question Motion that swings backwards and forwards Moving in a straight line in one direction
in an arc from a central point Example: train travelling along a track
State the type of movement of a Example: child on a swing or a pendulum
car travelling along a motorway.
(1 mark)
A
The four basic types
of movement
R

Rotary Reciprocation
D

Motion around a central point Moving backwards and forwards in a straight line
Example: fan blade or bicycle wheel Example: sewing machine needle or car piston

Figure 1.5.1 Types of movement

Key terms
Lever: a fixed rigid beam
requiring a fulcrum, load and
Classification of levers
effort to provide mechanical Levers are simple mechanisms that create mechanical advantage, for example
advantage. when moving large objects. Levers have three parts:
Force: a push or pull upon an • effort: the amount of force put in by the user (input)
object that, when unopposed, • fulcrum: the point at which the lever pivots
will change the object’s motion.
• load: the force exerted by the load (output).

25
1 Core content
Class 1, 2 and 3 levers
All levers can be classified into one of three types.
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Reason for A large input movement A large input movement can Limited; the force applied by
mechanical can produce a small output produce a smaller output the user is greater than the
advantage movement but with greater force movement with greater force, output force
but the fulcrum is at one end
Example Pliers or crowbar Wheelbarrow or nutcracker Tweezers or spade
Effort Effort Effort
Load Load
Load
Fulcrum

Fulcrum

Class 1 lever Fulcrum Class 3 lever

Class 2 lever
Fulcrum
L F E L
E

FT
L E
Pivot E L
Pliers E
L
nutcracker Tweezers

Table 1.5.1 Classes of levers

Mechanical advantage
Mechanical advantage (MA) allows a large force to be exerted with small
Apply it
A
effort. It is calculated by comparing the weight of the load and the effort
Count the levers in your home. required to move it.
Identify which class of lever In a class 2 lever, such as a wheelbarrow, a 50 newton effort is needed to lift
they are, and explain your a 300 newton load. The lever has a mechanical advantage of 6. The larger the
R
reasoning for your choice. number, the greater the mechanical advantage and the less effort to move
the load. MA = load/effort = 300N/50N = 6

Velocity ratio
D

This is the ratio of the distance the effort has to move compared to the load,
in a given time. The MA allows you to lift heavier loads.

Maths in practice 1
Calculating velocity ratio of a wheelbarrow
• In the same class 2 lever, the wheelbarrow handles are lifted 800 mm
Load raised: 100 mm while the load is only raised by 100 mm. What is the velocity ratio?
50N 800 8
Effort raised: 800 mm E The wheelbarrow has a velocity ratio of 100 = 1 = 8, which means you are
lifting the handle eight times as far as the load is raised.
300N
You often need to rearrange the formula in three ways to be able to work
out the load, effort or velocity ratio. For example:
Distance moved by effort
VR = Distance moved by load
can also be written as
Distance moved by effort
L Distance moved by load = VR
Fulcrum
or
Figure 1.5.2 Class 2 lever
Distance moved by effort = Distance moved by load × VR

26
 1.5 Mechanical devices used to produce movement

Efficiency
No mechanism is 100 per cent efficient as other factors, such as friction, will
have an impact. Efficiency is the relationship between the input force and
movement, and the output force and movement.

Maths in practice 2
Calculating efficiency of the wheelbarrow
Calculate the efficiency of the wheelbarrow.
MA 6
Efficiency = × 100% = × 100% = 75%
VR 8
The wheelbarrow is 75% efficient.

Linkages
Linkages are levers that allow forces and motion to be transmitted in a certain
way, for example by reversing the movement or changing its direction. The

FT
Fixed pivot same rules on mechanical advantage apply to linkages – they still have an
input, a fulcrum and an output that can be adjusted for the desired result.

Bell crank
This is a class 1 lever that can transmit the motion through 90 degrees to
Moving pivots allow an input force to be transmitted around a corner. You can see them on
bicycle brakes or a sack barrow.
A
Figure 1.5.3 A bell crank
Apply it
Draw a diagram to explain how the bell crank system works on a
R
Moving pivot mechanism on a bicycle.

Reverse motion linkage

D

Fixed pivot This is also based on a class 1 lever but it reverses the motion of the input,
such as on windscreen wipers or a gear lever in a car.

Exam-style question
Moving pivot
Explain how you can create a larger output movement from the reverse
Figure 1.5.4 Reverse motion linkage motion linkage shown to the left. (2 marks)

Cams
Key terms Cams convert rotary motion into reciprocating and oscillating motion.
Cam: a mechanism for converting Cams with different shapes or profiles are attached to a rotating shaft to
rotary motion into reciprocation provide different outputs that are transmitted to a follower held against it.
or oscillating (up and down/back There can be three stages of movement:
and forth) motion. • rise (moves the follower up)
Follower: a device that follows • fall (moves the follower down)
the movement of a cam profile • dwell (the follower remains stationary).
to provide a desired output in a
Common cam profiles include drop (snail), pear or circular and each is used for
connecting part.
specific purposes.

27
1 Core content

Pear-shaped Eccentric/circular Drop (Snail)

Effect of shape • Motionless (dwells) for • Circular to give a • Gives a slow rise
about half the cycle smooth continuous with a spiral cross-
• During the second movement as the section and then a
half it rises and falls follower rises or falls sudden fall
Example • Opens and closes • In a fuel pump or in • Used in hammers/
valves in a car steam engines punches or machines
engine needing a sudden
drop

Apply it
FT Table 1.5.2 Shapes of cam

Followers
A
Different followers are used for specific purposes, but all slide or roll on the
Draw the profile of a cam that
external profile of the cam.
would create a uniform rise and
a sudden fall in a cam follower. Roller Knife edge Flat
What is its name?
R
D

Roller Knife edge

follower Flat follower
follower

Exam-style question
Explain the movement of a • Used when higher • Used when accuracy is • Used when higher
follower while the cam is at the speeds are required, required, such as in an load bearing
dwell stage of its rotation. such as in engines embroidery machine, capabilities are
(2 marks) • Rolling motion as the cam’s profile is required, such as in a
reduces friction so it followed closely steam engine
will wear better • Suffers from a rapid • Has reduced forces
Key term • Has separate parts in rate of wear and pushing it, but suffers
the roller mechanism contends with forces from increased friction
Friction: the resistance to pushing them to the
and contends with • The larger surface area
movement between two surfaces forces pushing them side means it could rotate,
that are trying to slide against to the side but has larger load
each other. Friction generates carrying abilities
heat.
Table 1.5.3 Types of follower
28
 1.5 Mechanical devices used to produce movement

Motor Pulleys and belts

Pulleys and belts transmit rotary
motion from a driver shaft to a driven
shaft and are a drive mechanism for
tools such as a pillar drill. A pulley is
a wheel with a shaped groove and
Driver pulley
wheel the belt fits in the groove, connecting
Figure 1.5.6 Graphic symbol of a pulley
Belt two pulleys. Motion is transferred
system
by friction. In this configuration, the
Driven pulley driver pulley and driven pulley rotate in the same direction.
Rope wheel
V-belt
Figure 1.5.5 Example of winch using V-belts are shaped to increase the force that can be transferred. The V-shape
simple pulley system increases the gripping area by having sloping sides. This increases efficiency
by reducing any slipping and it also tightens the drive surfaces as it runs, as it
wedges into the pulley wheel.

FT
Velocity ratio
Apply it When using pulley wheels of different sizes, the smaller one will spin faster. By
Identify the machines in your comparing the size of the two pulleys we can calculate the velocity ratio (VR).
school workshop that have
a pulley system as the drive Maths in practice 3
mechanism. What are the Calculating velocity ratio in a pulley system
A
advantages of using pulleys? Calculate the velocity ratio of the pulley system shown below.
How can different speeds be Driven pulley diameter
VR =
achieved? Driver pulley diameter
60mm diameter
R
driver
D

Figure 1.5.7 driven

20mm diameter
Pulley system
For one turn of the driver pulley, the driven pulley will rotate three times.
20 1
= = 1:3
60 3
Input and output speeds
Pulleys are usually connected to a motor or another power source. The input
speed is known and the output speed of the pulley system can be calculated.

Maths in practice 4
Calculating output speed of a pulley system
In the pulley system above, the input speed is 1800 revolutions per minute (rpm).
Calculate the output speed of the pulley system.
Input speed 1800
Output speed = = = 5400 rpm
Velocity ratio 1/3
The driven pulley is rotating at 1800 rpm and the output speed is 5400 rpm.

29
1 Core content

Apply it Cranks and sliders

These mechanisms convert the rotary motion in a crank to reciprocating motion
Investigate how a steam engine in a slider. The distance the slider moves depends on the size of the crank arm.
converts energy from steam into The crank arm can be used as the driving force, such as in the crankshaft and
motion. pistons of a car or to compress air in the cylinder of a compressor.
Slider Crank The slider can also operate as the driver and turn the crank, for example in steam
engines, where the wheels are driven by the pressure of the steam pushing the slider.
The distance moved by the slider is twice the radius of movement of the crank arm.

Gear types
A gear is a toothed wheel fixed to a shaft that connects (meshes) with other
gears to change the speed or direction of rotation of a driving mechanism.
Gears have an advantage over pulley systems, because the meshing
Cranks and sliders Connecting rod
prevents slippage so that greater forces can be applied.

Exam-style question Simple gear trains

A simple gear train is when two spur gears are meshed and fixed on parallel
Calculate the length of the crank shafts. Simple gear trains reverse the driver gear’s direction of the rotation
arm used in a crank and slider and the driven gear will turn in the opposite direction. When the gears
mechanism if the slider has a
maximum movement of 30 mm.
(3 marks)
FT
Driver gear
are different sizes (with more or fewer teeth) speeds can be increased or
decreased. The amount of change in speed is called the velocity ratio.

Maths in practice 5
Calculating velocity ratio of a simple gear system
Figure 1.5.8 shows a driver gear with 32 teeth and a driven
A
Driven gear with 16 teeth.
gear
Driver gear Calculate the velocity ratio of the gear system.
Number of teeth on driven gear 16 1
VR = Number of teeth on driver gear = = = 1:2
32 2
R
For every revolution of the driver gear, the driven gear will
16 teeth rotate two times.
32 teeth
Graphic symbol
Compound gear trains
D

Figure 1.5.8 Simple gear train

With simple gear trains, the speed change is limited to the
number of teeth on the two gears. A large difference is
impractical because, for larger speed changes, several pairs of
Gear train meshing gears can be combined for a higher velocity ratio. A
C 32 teeth compound gear train has more than one gear on a shaft.
D
This time, the VR is calculated by working out the combined
B
VR of both pairs of gears. Figure 1.5.9 shows a compound gear
8 teeth 8 teeth train where gear A is driving gear B (simple gear train 1). Gear
A 16 teeth B is connected to gear C and spins at the same speed. Gear C
Graphic symbol then drives gear D (simple gear train 2).
Figure 1.5.9 Compound gear train
Maths in practice 6
Calculating velocity ratio of a compound gear system
Figure 1.5.9 shows a compound gear train. Gear A drives gear B. Gear B is
connected to gear C and spins at the same speed. Gear C drives gear D.
Calculate the velocity ratio of the gear system.
Total VR = VR of gear train 1 (A to B) × VR of gear train 2 (C to D)
= 1:2 × 1:4 = 1 : 8 = 8
For every revolution of the driver gear, the driven gear will rotate eight times.
Further gears can create a significant speed change.

30
 1.5 Mechanical devices used to produce movement

Idler gears
Idler gear
In a simple gear train of two meshed
spur gears, the driver gear and the driven
gear rotate in opposite directions. The
driver and driven gears rotate in the same
direction. It does not have any impact on
idler gear 8 teeth
the output speed.
The velocity ratio is still based on the driven gear driver gear 32 teeth 32 teeth
Graphic symbol
driver and driven gears.
Figure 1.5.10 Idler gears
Revolutions per minute calculations
Revolutions per minute (rpm) is the number of times a device, such as a gear Exam-style question
or wheel, rotates around a fixed axis in 1 minute. The driver gear and driven
gears rotate at different speeds, if they are different sizes. This is dependent on A designer needs to have an
the velocity ratio (often called gear ratio in relation to gears). input speed of 800 rpm and
output speed of 3200 rpm in a
Maths in practice 7 simple gear system. If the driven
Calculating output of a gear system

FT
gear has 20 teeth, calculate how
A driver gear rotating at 100 rpm is connected to a gear system with a many teeth does the driver gear
gear ratio of 1 : 18. Calculate the output speed of the gear system.
need to have? (3 marks)
Output speed = input speed = 100 = 100 × 18 = 1800 rpm
gear ratio 1/18
The output speed is 18 times faster than the input speed, but the torque Key term
has been reduced.
A
Torque: a measure of a system’s
Bevel gears turning power.
These specialist gears can transmit rotary motion through 90 degrees. An
example is a hand drill. Bevel gears vary in size to achieve different gear ratios
R
and output speeds. Figure 1.5.11 has a gear ratio of 1 : 3. Two same-sized gears
are called mitre gears; they still turn through 90 degrees but the output and
Bevel gears
input speeds are equal.
D

12 teeth
Driven gear

36 teeth Apply it
Identify another gear mechanism
that transfers motion through
90° and find an example of
Figure 1.5.11 Graphic symbol where it may be used.
Bevel gears Driver gear

Rack and pinion

Rack and pinion
This system uses a gear wheel and
a rack to change rotary motion to 16 teeth
linear motion or vice versa. Examples
are a pillar drill or a car steering
system. The rack’s movement is 200 teeth
determined by the number of teeth
on the pinion gear and the number
of teeth per metre (TPM) on the rack. Figure 1.5.12 Rack and pinion Graphic symbol

31
1 Core content

Maths in practice 8 Exam-style question

Calculating output movement of a rack and pinion
A pinion gear has 60 teeth and it is meshed with a rack that has A compound gear train in Figure
200 teeth per metre. Calculate how far the rack will move for one 1.5.9 earlier in this topic has two
revolution of the pinion gear. pairs of meshed spur gears. The
Number of teeth on pinion 60 3 driver gear is rotating at 3000 rpm.
× 1 metre = = metre = 300 mm
Number of teeth on rack per metre 200 10 What is the output speed of gear D?
(1 mark)

Summary

FT
Key points to remember:
• Modern and smart materials can react to their • Cams and followers convert reciprocating
surroundings. movement into linear movement.
• Composite materials combine two or more • Pulleys can be used in drive mechanisms in a range
materials to improve their properties. of products.
• The four types of movement are linear, • Cranks and sliders convert reciprocating movement
A
reciprocation, rotary and oscillation. into linear movement and vice versa.
• Class 1, 2 or 3 levers change mechanical advantage. • Gears systems can be modified to influence speed
• Linkages transmit force over a distance. and movement.
R

Checkpoint
Strengthen
D

S1 Evaluate the use of carbon fibre over glass fibre in making a car body.
S2 Describe three ways that agrotextiles are used in farming.
S3 Explain the purpose of an idler gear in a gear mechanism.
S4 Name the four types of movement.
S5 Draw a class 3 lever and label its load, effort and fulcrum.
Challenge
C1 Sketch a compound gear system with a gear ratio of 50 : 1 using only the following gears: 100T (teeth), 60T, 50T, 40T,
30T, 10T.
C2 Investigate the drive system used on a bicycle and explain why it is used instead of a pulley or gear system.
C3 Evaluate the advantages of a smart material such as a shape-memory alloy over an electronic sensor system in an
automatic window opener.
C4 Identify ways that a decathlon competitor could improve their performance by wearing specialist sports textiles.

32
 1.6 Electronic systems

1.6 Electronic systems

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how an electronic system can make a product function
• the role of control devices and components
• some of the input devices and output devices that can be used to make an electronic system.

Electronic systems can have singular or multiple input Key terms

and output devices, and sometimes they have a
controller between them. The system reads the input Input device: something that can give an input
signal to the system.
signals and controls the output signals according to the
instructions in the program it has Output device: something that responds to an
instruction of change in control elements.
been given:
Input signal: information given to the system by an
INPUT DEVICE → CONTROL → OUTPUT DEVICE input device.

FT
For example, when you use a computer you move a Output signal: an instruction the system gives to
mouse or press buttons on a keyboard. These are input an output device.
devices that give information to the computer. The Program: a set of instructions the system controller
computer controller reads the inputs, and its program has been given to make the electronic system do
tells it what to do. The output devices could be the what it is supposed to do. If a transistor (see page
34) is used, there is no program, just a simple
screen, a printer, a laser cutter, or a very complicated
A
switching action due to the rise in voltage on the
robot in a huge factory.
base of the transistor above 0.6 volts.
To design an electronic system you need to know about Resistance: an electrical quantity that is a measure
the input devices and output devices you could use. of how the device or wire reduces the electric current
R
flow through it.

Sensors Thermistor
A sensor is affected by the conditions around it. Sensors
D

A thermistor is a temperature-dependent resistor. Its

are good input devices because they can give an input resistance changes with temperature.
signal to an electronic system.
• When it is hot, the resistance is low.
• When it is cold, the resistance is higher.
Some electronic thermometers use a thermistor. As
Figure 1.6.1 The circuit symbol
the temperature changes, the system measures the
used for LDR
resistance of the thermistor and turns it into a number
to display on a screen.
Light-dependent resistor
When light falls on the sensing area of a light- Figure 1.6.2 The circuit symbol
used for a thermistor
dependent resistor (LDR) its resistance changes:
• In the light resistance is low, so electricity flows.
Apply it
• In the dark resistance is high, so not much
electricity flows. A thermistor can be used in the thermostat of a
central heating system. Describe how you think the
electronic system that controls central heating keeps
a room at the right temperature.

33
1 Core content
Control devices and components transistor to build into your own circuits. Transistors can
As well as sensors, there are some other components be made extremely small by etching them onto silicon
that can be used to give an input signal to an wafers known as silicon chips.
collector
electronic circuit.
Figure 1.6.5 The circuit symbol used base
Single-throw switch for a transistor emitter
A single-throw switch has a button that switches
between on and off. It is a simple control device that the Device Advantages Disadvantages
user can operate to turn a circuit on or off. LDRs Inexpensive Need to be
Figure 1.6.3 The circuit symbol
positioned
used for a single-throw switch Thermistors Low cost Need careful
placement to be
Resistors effective
A resistor is a component that can be added to a circuit Switches Wide variety May fail mechanically
to change its resistance. This means it can limit the flow available after high usage
of electricity through part of the circuit. Resistors can be Transistors Easily improve Can be destroyed by

FT
used to: the sensitivity heat when soldering
• protect delicate components by stopping too much of sensing
electricity flowing through them circuits
• help control the flow of electricity around a circuit. Resistors Available in a A circuit will not work
wide range of if the wrong value
Figure 1.6.4 The circuit values is selected due to
A
symbol used for a resistor incorrect reading of
Transistor the colour code
A transistor acts like a tiny electronic switch. It has three Table 1.6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of input devices
R
connections. A small voltage at the base connection
turns it on and lets a larger current flow into the collector Outputs
and out of the emitter. Transistors are useful in sensing In an electronic system, output devices are controlled
D

circuits to amplify (make bigger) the small current you by the system. They can be simple things like lights that
get from some sensors. A transistor is a semi-conductor are turned on and off or complex things like computer
that acts like an electronic switch depending upon the screens that output a lot of information.
voltage across the base and emitter. You can get a single
Buzzer
Key terms A buzzer makes a sound. Buzzers can be useful in a
sensing device to give people a warning that something
Component: an individual piece of a circuit.
needs their attention.
Circuit: individual components are joined up with a
conductive material so electricity can flow through Figure 1.6.6 The circuit symbol used for
them and perform a task. a buzzer

Voltage: the amount of potential electrical force

Light-emitting diodes
available that could make electricity flow.
A light-emitting diode (LED) gives out light when
Current: the amount of electricity that is flowing
electricity is passed through it. LEDs can be small
through a circuit.
coloured indicator lights or bright enough to light up a
Semi-conductor: a material that allows electricity room in a house.
to flow under certain conditions. It can behave as an
Figure 1.6.7 The circuit symbol used
insulator or conductor.
for an LED

34
 1.7 Programmable components

Summary
Key points to remember:
• An electronic system has a control program that uses inputs to make outputs happen.
• Light-dependent resistors and thermistors are sensors that make good input devices because their resistance
changes as light or temperature change.
• Resistors can be used to help control the current around a circuit.
• Output devices are controlled by the system and have clear functions, like lights and buzzers.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What are the three main parts of an electronic system?
S2 Name two possible input devices.
S3 Name two possible output devices.
Challenge

FT
C1 Draw a block diagram for a computer, showing some of its input devices and output devices.
C2 Find out the units of resistance and explain how resistance is marked on a resistor.

1.7 Programmable components

A
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know: Start
R
• how flowcharts can be used to create a program
• how to switch outputs on and off in relation to inputs
and decisions A rectangular box is an
instruction, so it tells the
• what analogue inputs are and how they can be used
D

program to do something. no
• what delays and loops can be used for in a circuit.
A diamond-shaped
Programmable components are used in a variety of box is a question, so
applications, for example alarm systems. In school they allow Is it dark?
the program can decide
you to add intelligence to your projects. There are many types something.
of PIC (Programmable Interface Controllers) micro-controllers yes
available, for example the GENIE range. These are programmed
and tested by software that makes use of flowcharts. Turn the light on

How to make use of flowcharts

A computer program is usually a set of questions with a yes or no
answer. A flowchart is a way of planning a program in an easy to End
read diagram.
Figure 1.7.1 A flowchart for a simple outside light that
Apply it comes on in the dark. The light is off to start with, comes on
How could you change the program so the light goes off when it gets dark and just stays on forever
again when it gets light?

35
1 Core content

Key terms Inputs and decisions: switching outputs on or off

An electronic system uses the questions in its program to make decisions.
Analogue: a signal that can vary
These decisions tell its output devices what to do. When the control
up and down through a range of
program detects an input, it moves to the next part of the program, and
values.
follows the instructions to make an output happen. It is important for a
Feedback loop: a loop in a designer to know exactly what they want a product to do, and then break it
program that goes back to an down into a set of simple steps that can be put into a flowchart.
earlier point to keep repeating
that part of the program. How to process and respond to analogue inputs
Some sensors give out an analogue signal. This means they can give
a range of values. LDRs and thermistors are analogue devices. Their
resistance goes up and down as levels or temperatures change. This means
a system can be programmed to respond to different levels. The outside
light has a variable resistor that lets you change the light level at which
the light turns on.

How to use simple routines to control outputs

FT There are some simple routines that can be added to a program to change
what happens:
• Time delay. A program instruction that says ‘wait 10’ means the program
will wait 10 seconds then go on to the next instruction. You could use this to
make a light flash on and off as quickly or slowly as you want.
A
• Count. A program can be told to count how many times it gets an input,
and perhaps give an output every ten pushes of a button.
• Feedback loop. This sends the program back to an earlier point to do the
R
same thing repeatedly. This is how a system monitors a sensor – it goes
around in a loop asking the same question until the answer changes. The
flowchart below shows a second feedback loop added to
D

the circuit. Now the light comes on in the

dark and goes off when it gets light. Start

Turn the light off

Feedback
loop 1

Is it dark?
no
Feedback
Figure 1.7.2 When it is not loop 2 yes
dark the program goes around
loop 1. When it gets dark,
the answer changes to yes so Turn the light on
it turns the light on. Then it
goes around loop 2 until it is
not dark any more. Finally, it
goes back to loop 1 and turns
the light off End

36
 1.8 Categorisation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Summary
Key points to remember:
• A flowchart is a good way to plan a computer program.
• A flowchart uses instructions and yes/no questions to create a program.
• Analogue inputs give a range of values to the controller.
• Time delays and counts are useful in a program.
• Feedback loops allow a program to monitor a sensor.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What do the rectangle- and diamond-shaped boxes in a flowchart mean?
S2 Give two examples of analogue sensors.
S3 What does a feedback loop do?
Challenge

FT
C1 Write a flowchart for a light with a motion sensor that makes the light come on for 60 seconds when someone
walks past. (Hint: start by thinking which yes/no questions to ask.)
C2 Write a flowchart for a heating system that keeps a room at a steady temperature.
A
1.8 Categorisation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals
R

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
D

• the types, properties, structure and uses of some common metals.

Ferrous metals Apply it

Ferrous metals contain iron (ferrite), so most have magnetic
Mild steel can be cut with a hacksaw or drilled.
properties. Small amounts of other metals or elements may
Why are other types of steel able to cut through
provide other properties. Ferrous metals are vulnerable to
mild steel?
rust when exposed to moisture, except for stainless steel
and wrought iron.

37
1 Core content

Type Properties Composition Melting point Example uses

Mild steel Tough, ductile, malleable, Iron + 1400°C Screws, nails,
magnetic, high tensile 0.1–0.3% carbon bolts, girders, car
strength, easily joined, poor body panels
corrosion resistance
Stainless steel • Corrosion resistant, hard, Alloy: 1400°C Kitchenware,
tough, sometimes magnetic, Carbon steel + sinks, cutlery,
resists wear, difficult to cut 10.5–18% chromium medical
• Specific properties can equipment
8% nickel
be altered by varying the
8% manganese
alloyed metals
Cast iron Hard skin, brittle, soft core, Iron + > 1200°C Machine parts,
good in compression, self- 2–6% carbon vices, brake discs,
lubricating, magnetic manhole covers
Table 1.8.1 Some types of ferrous metal

Key term

FT
Alloy: a mixture of two or more metals or elements,
which has improved properties and characteristics.

Non-ferrous metals
Exam-style question
Explain two reasons why stainless steel would be chosen
over mild steel for the bolts on a bicycle. (4 marks)
A
These do not contain iron, so have a higher resistance to rust and corrosion.
They are not magnetic and tend to be more malleable than ferrous metals.
R
Type Properties Composition Melting point Example uses
Aluminium Greyish white: corrosion resistant, Pure metal 660°C Aircraft, foil,
malleable, ductile, easily window frames,
D

machined, good heat/electrical engine parts,

conductor, excellent strength-to- drinks cans
weight ratio, polishes well
Copper Reddy brown: corrosion resistant, Pure metal 1100°C Electrical wire,
malleable, ductile, tough, easily gas and water
machined, good heat/electrical pipes, printed
conductor, good hot or cold circuits, roofing
working, polishes well

Brass Yellow: corrosion resistant, Alloy: 900–940ºC Plumbing fittings,

easily machined, good heat/ 65% copper door fittings,
electrical conductor, casts locks, musical
35% zinc
well, harder than copper, instruments
polishes well

Table 1.8.2 Some types of non-ferrous metal

Exam-style question
Explain two reasons why aluminium would be used
for drinks cans in preference to mild steel. (4 marks)

38
 1.8 Categorisation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Link it up Key terms

For information about advantages and disadvantages Ductility: ability of a material to deform by bending,
of metals go to Metals 2.2. twisting or stretching; ability to be drawn out
without breaking. Ductility in metals increases with
temperature.
Properties
Malleability: ability of a material to be permanently
The mechanical properties of metals define how they deformed in all directions without fracture. It increases
react to forces. A large force will deform metal. A with temperature.
temporary change is called elastic deformation and the
Hardness: ability of a material to resist deformation,
metal will spring back into shape. A permanent change
indentation or penetration. Hard materials can resist
is called plastic deformation and the metal stays in the
abrasion, drilling, impact, scratching, and wear and
new shape. Three properties are ductility, malleability
tear.
and hardness. All ductile materials are malleable but
not all malleable materials are ductile.
Hard materials are often brittle, with a low resistance to
impact, and break easily. This property is important for

FT
cutting tools such as saws, drills and files. Diamond is
the hardest naturally occurring material and is
measured at 10 on the Mohs scale (a scale that
measures hardness). The mineral, talc is 1, aluminium is
2–2.9 and steels are 5–8.5.
A
Apply it
Why is it useful for metals used in the construction
R
industry to have a degree of elasticity when they are Figure 1.8.1 Malleable materials, such as copper, can be
in use? formed into shape by hammering
D

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Metals are categorised as ferrous or non-ferrous.
• A mixture of two or more metals is called an alloy.
• Metals have useful mechanical properties such as ductility, malleability and hardness.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Explain two reasons why copper may be suitable for the roof of a building.
S2 Name the element that is added to iron to make mild steel.
S3 Explain what is meant by the term ‘malleability’.
Challenge
C1 Mild steel has 0.35% carbon content. Describe what will happen if you increase the carbon content.
C2 Summarise what makes a metal an alloy. Identify two further alloys and explain why the ‘new’ metal is suited
to a particular application.

39
1 Core content

1.9 Papers and boards

Learning objective
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the types, properties, structure and uses of paper and boards.

Paper Apply it
Paper consists of fine cellulose fibres, usually from
Paper and card are extremely useful materials that
wood but also hemp, flax, cotton or bamboo, pressed
are processed from wood fibres. They come in many
together with water and then dried. To achieve the
different sizes and forms.
required texture and surface finish, chemicals are added
to the pulp – brightening bleaches, for example. It may • How many paper products have you used today?
also be coated with an agent that fills the minuscule • Why do you think that some boards are laminated
pits between the fibres, for a smooth, flat surface with with other materials such as foil?

FT
better opacity, lustre and colour-absorption. • How many different paper sizes do you know?
In Europe, paper and board is measured in grams per
square metre (gsm), which means the number of grams
a 1 m × 1 m sheet weighs. Paper usually weighs Key term
80–220 gsm. Thicker paper suggests higher quality – Paper: thin, flat material made from natural fibres,
copier sheets are often 80 gsm, whereas writing paper weighing less than 220 gsm.
A
is typically 120 gsm. Table 1.9.1 gives some examples of
types of paper.
R
Type Description Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Copier paper Thin, lightweight, cheap, bright Writing, printing, Takes colour well, Can be prone to
80 gsm white paper, with a smooth, drawing good surface for jamming printer
D

bleached, uncoated surface pencils, pens and feed mechanisms

markers, cheap,
readily available
and in a range of
colours
Cartridge paper Creamy, thick heavyweight paper General drawing Accepts most Costs more than
120–150 gsm and printing, drawing media, copier paper
can be used with opaque
watercolour paints
without buckling

Tracing paper Thin, smooth and translucent, Art, making copies, Strong, Can be expensive,
60–90 gsm made by beating to remove air envelope windows, translucent limited ink
and processing to make a dense, overlays on absorption and
strong paper, usually 60–90 gsm working drawings longer drying time
Table 1.9.1 Properties and structure of examples of paper

40
 1.9 Papers and boards

Board Key term

Papers weighing more than 220 gsm are generally classified as boards. Their
Board: thick paper or layers of
thickness is measured in microns (μm) which is 1/1000 of a millimetre.
paper more than 220 gsm.
A two-ply (layer) board is 200 microns thick. Table 1.9.2 gives some examples
of types of board.

Type Description Uses Advantages Disadvantages

Folding Stiff layers consisting of: • Cereal boxes, food • Excellent for • Lower strength
boxboard 1 A printable bleached virgin and health care scoring and than solid white
pulp top surface packaging, cartons bending without board
splitting
2 Unbleached yellowish centre
layers • Accepts print well
3 A bleached inside layer • Inexpensive
Corrugated • Two or more layers of fluted • Protective • Impact • Brown finish does
board paper sandwiched between two packaging, for resistant, not convey quality
paper liners example boxes for inexpensive, • Can deform under

FT
• Available in different electrical products recyclable pressure
thicknesses and CD sleeves • Not water resistant
• Strong and lightweight
Solid white • Strong, rigid board made from • Book covers, food, • Strong, rigid, • Can be expensive
board pure, bleached wood pulp cosmetics and accepts print
A
• Excellent printing surface medicine packaging well

Table 1.9.2 Properties and structure of

Apply it examples of board
R
Collect examples of packaging using the boards in Table 1.9.2.
Photograph them and annotate each photograph explaining why you
think that material has been chosen for the product.
D

Properties

Property Description
Flexibility • Amount material bends when a force is applied (stiffness), determined by its thickness and
weight
• Flexural stiffness is resistance to an external bending force
• Handling stiffness is the ability to support its own weight
Printability • Ability to accept a printed image onto its surface (porosity)
• Affected by surface properties, such as smoothness or finish, and structural properties,
such as bulk or thickness
• Not the same as print quality, which is determined by other factors such as alignment of
plates on the machinery
Biodegradability • Ability to be broken down by bacteria or other biological means
• Most uncoated paper products are biodegradable because they are made from wood pulp
• Compostable means that a material can biodegrade in less than 12 weeks
Table 1.9.3 Some working properties of paper and boards

41
1 Core content

Apply it
Carry out a printing test on tracing paper, cartridge paper and copier paper. Stamp each one with an ink stamp.
Smudge them after 30 seconds and then after a minute. Record your results in the table below.

Smudged after… Tracing paper Cartridge paper Copier paper

30 seconds Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

60 seconds Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

Table 1.9.4 Ink drying times

Look at the ink under a magnifying glass. How crisp is each print?

FT
Exam-style questions
The box in the image is used to package CDs to send
to supermarkets.
a. Explain one reason why this material is suitable for
the box. (2 marks)
A
b. Explain one disadvantage of this material. (2 marks)
R

Summary
D

Key points to remember:

• Different paper and board products have different structures and properties.
• Physical properties such as flexibility may affect the quality of the finished product.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name three different types of paper.
S2 State an advantage of using folding boxboard.
S3 Explain why printability might affect the quality of a finished product.
Challenge
C1 Describe and compare the properties of two different boards. Evaluate which one would be best for a new
perfume package.

42
 1.10 Thermoforming and thermosetting polymers

1.10 Thermoforming and thermosetting polymers

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know about:
• the types, properties, structure and uses of thermoforming polymers
• the types, properties, structure and uses of thermosetting polymers.

Polymers have a wide variety of uses in everyday life. A synthetic polymer

is usually made from oil-based petrochemicals, but coal and gas can also
be used. The crude oil is refined and mixed with other chemicals and can be
used to produce many types of polymer.
A wide variety of polymers is available, with engineers continuing
to develop the range to meet the requirements of designers and

FT
manufacturers. There are two main categories of polymer that you will need
to know about: thermoforming polymers and thermosetting polymers.

Apply it Key terms

How many items can you think of that are made from a polymer? Of Synthetic polymer: a synthetic
A
these, how many polymers can you name? Do you know why polymers material made mostly from oil;
have been used to make these items? normally referred to as plastic.
Thermoforming polymer: a
material that can be reshaped
R
Thermoforming polymers
by application of heat. This
Thermoforming polymers are commonly used to make everyday products.
type of material can be recycled
They can offer a wide range of properties that make them suitable for an
and made into other products.
D

extensive array of uses. One of the biggest advantages of thermoforming

Thermosetting polymer:
polymers is that they can be recycled, which offers huge benefits to a material that cannot be
the manufacturer in reducing waste, as well as being attractive to the reshaped by reheating. This type
consumer because it helps to conserve non-renewable resources and of material cannot be recycled.
prevents more waste going to landfill.
HIPS: high-impact polystyrene: a
The list of thermoforming polymers available is extensive. You will need to thermoplastic commonly used for
know more about: vacuum forming.
• acrylic
• high-impact polystyrene (HIPS)
• biodegradable polymers – Biopol®.
You can find out more about these polymers and their uses in Table 1.10.1 on
page 44.

43
1 Core content

Thermoforming Form Properties Common uses Advantages/

polymer Disadvantages
Acrylic (PMMA: • Sheets, rods and • Tough, easily • Shop signs, rear • Widely available
polymethyl tubes finished, easily car lights, baths, • Common in the school
methacrylate) • Available in a wide cleaned, food safe fish tanks and environment as it is
range of opaque and can be easily menu holders easy to cut and finish
and translucent scratched to a high standard
colours • Can be shaped using
• Also available in a heat
wide range of sizes • Does not need painting
• Breaks easily if
dropped
High-impact • Sheets, rods and • Lightweight, • Toys, television • Commonly used for
polystyrene tubes high stiffness, parts and vacuum forming, but
(HIPS) • Available in a wide impact resistant refrigerator can be formed using

FT
range of opaque but can be easily linings many techniques
and translucent scratched • Compared to other
colours polymers it has a low
• Also available in a melting point
wide range of sizes • Becomes brittle when
exposed to UV light
A
Biopol® • Fibre, granules • Lightweight, • Disposable cups, • Degrades in soil and
and sheets good electrical razors, cutlery and can be disposed of at
insulator, other packaging landfill sites
degrades over products, surgical • Can be injection
R
time when in stitches and pins moulded and vacuum
contact with soil, formed
so can safely be • Expensive to produce
D

disposed of at
• Has low resistance
landfill sites
to impact (e.g. being
dropped or having
something dropped
onto it)
Table 1.10.1 A summary of the different types of thermoforming polymers

Thermosetting polymers
Thermosetting polymers set hard once heated and cooled. Unlike
thermoforming plastic, a thermosetting plastic shape, once formed, cannot
be altered through reheating. These plastics cannot be recycled and are often
used in applications where they will be subjected to heat, chemicals or solvents.
The molecule chains in thermosetting polymers set differently once heated
and cooled, with cross-linking of the chains preventing further forming and
recycling. The types of thermosetting polymers you need to know about are:
• polyester resin
• urea formaldehyde.

44
 1.10 Thermoforming and thermosetting polymers

cross link

Thermoforming polymers Thermosetting polymers

Key term
Figure 1.10.1 Structure of thermoforming and thermosetting polymers.
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP):
Consider how cross-linking of molecule chains prevents the recycling of
thermosetting polymers
a composite material made from
polyester resin and glass fibres.
Thermosetting polymers are widely used to make products that come into Moulds can be laid up by hand
contact with heat or electricity. Some examples can be found in Table 1.10.2. or using a spray-on technique.

Thermosetting
polymer
Polyester resin
Form

FT
• Thick liquid for
casting and layup
Properties

• Rigid, brittle,
(unless
Common uses

• Boat hulls and

sports car bodies
Advantages/
Disadvantages
• Can be used
with glass fibres
A
• Usually used laminated) good • Normally formed (glass reinforced
with a catalyst to electrical and in conjunction plastic) to create
harden resin heat insulation, with glass fibre lightweight
good chemical and very strong
R
• Can be coloured • Can also be cast
resistance products
through use of to form decorative
pigments objects • Can be polished to
a high finish
D

• Can chip if
dropped
Urea formaldehyde • Powder, granules, • Rigid, hard, • Electrical fittings – • Can be coloured
preforms brittle, heat plugs, sockets and using pigments
resistant, switches • Can break if
excellent • Used as an dropped
electrical adhesive in man-
insulation made boards
Table 1.10.2 A summary of the different types of thermosetting polymers

Apply it Exam-style questions

There are many products in the home that a. Explain the difference in structure of thermoforming and
are made from plastic. Make a list of a range of thermosetting polymers. (2 marks)
these. What properties ensure the product is b. Explain one reason why some children’s toys are made
successful? from high-impact polystyrene (HIPS). (2 marks)

45
1 Core content

Key terms Properties of polymers

Insulator: a material with Insulator of heat
low conductivity preventing Most polymers are excellent insulators of heat. They are commonly used to
electrical current or heat to flow. increase the safety of products. For instance, expanded polystyrene cups offer
PVC (polyvinyl chloride): the user’s hand protection from hot drinks, while they also help to keep the
a thermoplastic containing drink hot for longer. Polymers are also used for handles on saucepans, kettles,
chlorine and carbon. hairdryers and electric heaters as other parts of the products can be extremely
hot and cause injury.
Insulator of electricity
Most polymers are excellent insulators of electricity and are commonly used
in products that contain electrical components. For instance, televisions,
computers and electric toothbrushes all use mains electricity for power
and charging of batteries but, without adequate insulation around their
exterior, could cause serious injury to the user. All electrical products that are
connected to mains electricity will have cables shielded by PVC and the plug is

FT
likely to be made from urea formaldehyde.
Toughness
Apply it
Most polymers are tough. They can withstand rough handling, making them
Research the system used to
suitable for a wide range of products in the home, industry, agriculture and
identify which polymers can
school. For instance, wheelie bins, buckets, watering cans, classroom chairs, car
be recycled. Identify a range of
A
wheel trims and car bumpers all have to withstand impact, bumps and scrapes
polymers that can be recycled
but continue to perform everyday tasks. Some polymers will fatigue and fail to
using this system.
perform following excessive wear.
R
Summary
Key points to remember:
D

• Thermoforming polymers can be recycled.

• Thermosetting polymers cannot be recycled.
• Most synthetic polymers are made from crude oil.
• Polymers include the following materials: acrylic and high-impact polystyrene.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name two polymers that are good thermal insulators.
S2 List three things often made from thermoforming polymers.
S3 Sketch the structure of a thermosetting polymer.
Challenge
C1 Why is it not possible to recycle all polymer-based food packaging?

46
 1.11 The categorisation of fibres, and textiles

1.11 The categorisation of fibres, and textiles

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the types, properties, structure and uses of different types of fibres and textiles.

‘Textiles’ refers to all flexible fabrics created from fibres, which are fine, Key terms
hair-like structures that can be made into fabrics by weaving, knitting or
felting. Fibres are either natural or synthetic. Fibres: thread-like elements that can
be formed into yarns and fabrics.
Natural fibres Fabric: a length of flexible material
Natural fibres from plant sources include cotton, flax, hemp, sisal, jute constructed from fibres.
and coconut. Fibres from animal sources include silk, wool and mohair. Staple: the length of a fibre.

Example:
Animal –
structure

FT
Properties/characteristics/

• From an animal’s fleece

• Made of protein molecules
Example applications

• Coats, jumpers, suits,

blankets, carpets,
upholstery
Advantages

• Warm, absorbent,
breathable, durable,
repels rain, hangs
Disadvantages

• Dries slowly,
susceptible to
moth attack,
A
wool • Produces a short fibre or
• Grey Faced Dartmoor well, creases drop can feel itchy,
staple with a crimp or kink
wool is suitable out washes poorly,
which, with the scales on
for carpet and rug can shrink,
the fibre, traps air, creating
R
making while Merino heavy when
warmth
wool is suitable for wet
• May be soft or coarse,
fine knitted jumpers
depending on sheep breed
D

Example: • ‘Bolls’, the fruit cotton plant’s • Towels, denim, • Cool, absorbent, • Creases easily,
Plant – fruit, are machine-harvested socks, underwear, soft, resists abrasion, burns, shrinks,
cotton • Saw teeth remove waste from T-shirts, bedding withstands frequent dries slowly
the seed pod and the resulting • Shorter fibres make washing at high
fibre is called lint bandages and temperature, good
insulation drape, durable, does
• Cellulose makes the fibre
not stain easily,
strong, durable and absorbent
static and cling
• Twenty to 30 layers of cellulose
resistant, available in
are coiled in natural springs
various weights, can
• As the cotton fibres dry they be ironed at high
form interlocking flat, twisted, temperatures, good
ribbon-like shapes, ideal for colour retention
spinning
Table 1.11.1 Summary of the properties of examples of natural fibres

47
1 Core content

Synthetic fibres
Artificial fibres are usually made using coal, oil and other petrol-based
chemicals. Examples include polyester, acrylic, polyamide (nylon), elastane
(Lycra) and Kevlar®.

Properties/characteristics/ Example applications Advantages Disadvantages

structure
Example: • Simple chemical • Raincoats, fleece • Strong when • Damaged by acids,
Polyester molecules (monomers) jackets, children’s wet or dry, dries low warmth, poor
are joined to nightwear, medical quickly, resistant absorbency, does
form polymers by textiles, working to abrasion, not breathe, not
polymerisation clothes soft, hangs well, environmentally
• The polymer chains are durable, crease friendly
spun into a yarn and stain resistant,
easy care, can be

FT
recycled, resists
bacteria
Example: • Formed by polymerisation • Imitation • Warm, dries quickly, • Poor absorbency,
Acrylic of at least 85% wool knitwear, good drape, feels stiff, can
acrylonitrile or upholstery fabrics, durable, crease irritate skin
A
vinyl cyanide sportswear, fleece resistant,
• The double bond between jackets, blankets easy care
the first two carbon
atoms is broken and the
R
molecules join in a chain
D

Table 1.11.2 Summary of the properties of examples of synthetic fibres

Key term Apply it

Monomer: a molecule that can 1 Test for durability: Cut a 100 mm square of fabric into four equal
be bonded to similar molecules pieces. Wash one at 60°, one at 40° and one at 95° five times. Keep
to form long chains. one piece unwashed. Compare the fabrics.
2 Testing for elasticity: Cut three different fabrics into 300 mm by
300 mm strips. Stitch a heavy metal nut to the bottom of each. Pin
onto a board so that the top edges are level. Mark the starting level
of the bottom edge. Leave the board upright overnight then compare
the new level with the previous one.

48
 1.11 The categorisation of fibres, and textiles

Woven textiles
Weaving turns yarns into a fabric on a loom, which has an arrangement
of warp (vertical) threads held under tension. The edges where the weft
(horizontal) threads loop back form a non-fraying edge (selvedge).

Properties/characteristics/ Example Advantages Disadvantages

structure applications
Example: • A simple cotton cloth • Shirts, bags, • Strong, • Firm, varied
Plain weave – • The warp and weft pass bedding, textile hardwearing, quality
calico over and under each crafts hangs well, same
other, forming a criss- both sides, cheap
cross pattern that looks to make, good
the same on both sides background for
printing and
• Calico (muslin) is
applied surface

FT
naturally grey
designs
• It may be soft or coarse

Example: • The weft yarn goes over • Jeans, jackets, • Hardwearing, • Frays, thickness
Twill weave – two or more warp threads, curtains, blankets, strong, hangs well, makes it hard to
repeated on the row soft furnishings less stiff and more use
A
denim
but steps over one warp interesting to
thread on the next rows to look at than plain
make a diagonal pattern weave
R
• Denim is blue in the warp
and white in the weft

Table 1.11.3 Summary of the properties of examples of woven textiles

D

Exam-style questions Apply it

1 Explain one benefit of using wool felt for constructing the hat What are the advantages and
shown in the image below. (2 marks) disadvantages of a polyester
2 Explain one disadvantage of using wool felt in a hat. (2 marks) football shirt over a cotton one?

49
1 Core content

Non-woven textiles
Fibres are layered at different angles to form a web, joined by either felting
or bonding. Bonding joins the fibres with heat, solvents or adhesives, so is
cheap to produce but not as strong as woven or knitted fabrics.

Properties/ Example Advantages Disadvantages

characteristics/ applications
structure
Example: • Scaly fibres of wool or • Pool table • Resists chemicals and • Expensive,
Felted wool hair become tangled surfaces, hats, fire, does not unravel or no drape, not
as they are rubbed bags, coats, fray, can be repeatedly stretchy, deforms
fabric
together when wet slippers, compressed and when wet
• Heat and pressure are appliqué quilts, released without
applied to join them wall hangings deforming, excellent
sound insulator,
environmentally

FT
friendly
Example: • Does not fray • Fusible • Does not fray, cheap to • Not very strong,
Bonded • Weaker when wet interfacing, produce, stable and so does not drape,
fibres/webs wet wipes, retains shape sometimes weaker
• Can be produced in a
disposable when wet
range of weights
overalls
• Not very strong
A
Table 1.11.4 Summary of the properties of examples of non-woven textiles
R
Knitted textiles
Knitted textiles are constructed from interlocking loops of yarn and are
either warp or weft.
D

Properties/ Example Advantages Disadvantages

characteristics/structure applications
Example: • Formed by vertical loops • Swimwear, • Fairly stretchy, • Can lose shape,
Warp-knitted like a series of chains geotextiles, lace, retains heat, does curls at the edges
fabric • Can only be produced on nets and fleece not unravel
a machine
Example: • A single yarn creates • T-shirts, jumpers, • Stretchy, • Ladders easily
Weft-knitted interlocking loops across tops, socks comfortable, fast
the fabric production
fabric
• If a loop breaks, a hole
forms and ladders
• Made by hand or machine

Table 1.11.5 Summary of the properties of examples of knitted textiles

50
 1.11 The categorisation of fibres, and textiles

Properties of fibres and textiles

Elasticity: amount of stretch Resilience: resistance to being
deformed or compressed
• Tested by gradually increasing the force on the
fibres until breaking point. • Fibres should spring back vigorously when pressure
• At low loads the fibres obey Hooke’s law – stretch has been applied.
is proportional to the load and the fibres will return • Loft (compressional resiliency) is the ability to return
to their original size. to original thickness after being compressed or
• Clothes made from fibres that recover will maintain squashed, or to resist creasing.
their shape and not keep creases.

Properties

FT Durability: ability to resist wear

Depends on the choice of fibres and fabrics, and
the user’s activities and size.
Link it up
See Table 1.11.2, 1.11.3 and
1.11.4 for more advantages and
disadvantages of fibres.
A
Figure 1.11.1 Properties of fibres and textiles

Summary
R

Key points to remember:

• Natural fibres come from plants and animals.
D

• Synthetic fibres are artificially made from chemicals.

• The two main types of weave are plain and twill.
• Non-woven fabrics are made by either felting or bonding.
• Knitted fabrics are either warp or weft knitted.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of cotton.
S2 Explain how felt is made.
Challenge
C1 Devise a test for the resilience of different textiles.
C2 Explain why a test for elasticity would be important when choosing fabrics for swimwear.

51
1 Core content

1.12 Natural and manufactured timbers

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the types, properties, structure and uses of the main natural and manufactured timbers.

Timber is wood that has come from tree trunks and Apply it
been dried and cut into planks. Timber has been used
as a building material for thousands of years to make Make a list of wooden things you have used. Discuss
homes, furniture and tools. Timber is still used a lot as why you think wood is a good material to make
trees grow naturally, their wood is easy to work with and things from.
it is relatively strong and lightweight.

Natural timbers: hardwoods Key terms

A hardwood comes from a broad-leaved tree whose Hardwood: comes from a tree with broad leaves.

FT
seeds are enclosed in a fruit, such as an acorn. Grain: fibres run the length of a tree trunk, which
Hardwood trees grow quite slowly, often taking more give it its strength and make the distinctive patterns
than 100 years to be big enough to use for timber. you see on timber.
This means hardwoods are rarely planted and they are
increasingly rare and expensive.
A
Type Description Advantages Disadvantages Common uses
Oak • Strong and durable • Expensive • Used a lot for building
• Has an attractive • Becoming rarer houses and boats in the past
R
grain when well • Harder to work with than • Now used for high-end
finished some woods furniture and wine and
whisky barrels
• Corrodes iron and steel
D

Mahogany • Has a very • Expensive • High-quality furniture,

attractive finish • Environmental problems jewellery boxes, windows
• Quite easy to work with sourcing from tropical
forests
• Oils in the wood can give
some people a skin rash or
breathing problems
Beech • A tough wood • Expensive • Toys, cooking implements,
• Does not crack or • Not very resistant to solid and laminated
splinter easily moisture furniture
• Hard • Not suitable for exterior use
Balsa • Very lightweight • Much too soft and weak for • Model making, primary
• Easy to cut most products school projects, surf board
cores
• Used for rafts in ancient
times
Table 1.12.1 Properties of hardwoods

52
 1.12 Natural and manufactured timbers

Natural timbers: softwoods Key terms

A softwood comes from a tree with needle-like leaves and seeds in a cone.
Softwood: a tree with needle-
Most softwood trees are evergreen, meaning they have leaves all year.
like leaves and seeds in a cone.
Softwood trees grow quite quickly, and can be used for timber after about
Evergreen: a tree that keeps its
30 years. This means they can be grown commercially, which is why softwood
leaves all year round.
timber is a lot cheaper than hardwood timber.

Type Description Advantages Disadvantages Common uses

Pine • Very durable • Can warp, crack and • House construction,
• Easy to work splinter more than for roof joists and
some other woods floorboards
• Quite cheap as it grows quickly
enough to be forested • Furniture, doors,
interior woodwork
• Reasonably strong, lightweight
and easy to work with
Cedar • Natural oils make it resistant to • More expensive • Outdoor furniture,

FT water and fungal growth

Table 1.12.2 Properties of softwoods

than pine and not as
strong
fences, sheds, boats
A
Key term
Manufactured timbers
Veneer: a thin slice of wood,
R
Natural timber is a useful material, but because of the size of a tree trunk, about 1 mm thick. Used as a
it is only available in fairly narrow planks. If you want a large, thin sheet of decorative surface and to make
wooden material, you need a manufactured board. Manufactured boards use plywood.
timber to make a board that has different properties to plain timber.
D

Type Description Advantages Disadvantages Common uses

Plywood • A tree trunk is sliced into • Flat and structurally • Quite expensive • Building and
thin layers called veneer strong • Edges can look furniture panels
• These layers are glued • Surface looks like rather rough that need some
together with the grain wood • Susceptible to strength
lines going in alternate • Resistant to warping, water damage if
directions cracking and twisting wrong grade is
used
Medium • Wood dust and fibres are • Cheap (made from • Does not look good, • Cheap flat-pack
density mixed with a glue and waste wood) so needs coating furniture, wall
fibreboard pressed into flat sheets • Smooth ungrained • Weak compared panels, display
(MDF) under extreme heat and surface is good for cabinets, storage
to real wood or
pressure painting or staining plywood units
• Easy to machine • Tools blunt quickly
due to the glue
Table 1.12.3 Properties of manufactured woods

53
1 Core content

Key terms Properties

It is important to know the correct meaning of the words that describe a
Hard: how well materials resist
material’s properties. Comparing materials helps to define each material’s
deformation, indentation or
properties. For example, do not say oak is hard, because there are lots of
penetration. Hard materials can
harder materials. Say: oak is harder than pine.
resist abrasion, drilling, impact,
scratching, and wear and tear. Hardness
Tough: how well a material Hardness is the ability of a material to withstand cutting and scratching.
withstands being hit. Timber is generally quite a soft material. It can easily be scratched and cut
Durable: how well a material with metal tools, which are much harder than wood. Oak is quite hard for
lasts. a wood. Balsa is very soft for a wood. This should not be confused with the
classification of trees as hardwoods and softwoods.
Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to withstand being hit. A tough material
can be quite soft, and might bend or deform when hit, but not break. Timber is
quite a tough material. If you hit it with a hammer it may dent, but not break.

FT Durability
Durability is the ability of a material to last a long time. Timber that has
been dried out and is kept dry is durable. Oak beams in old buildings can be
hundreds of years old. However, wood that is left wet can rot quite quickly and
won’t then be very durable. Some timbers contain natural oils that make them
A
more durable outside. Timber can be treated with preservatives to make it
more durable for outside use.
R
Summary
Key points to remember:
• A biological classification divides trees into hardwoods and softwoods.
D

• There are many different types of trees, and the timber from them has different properties. It is important to
know their properties to choose the best timber for a product.
• Manufactured boards are made from wood that has been processed to make it into a large flat sheet.
• Hard, tough and durable are terms that describe the properties of materials.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What is the difference between a hardwood and a softwood?
S2 What type of timber would you make a coffee table from? Give reasons why you think it is a good choice.
Challenge
C1 What kind of things were often made from oak?
C2 Why is beech a good wood to use for a child’s toy?
C3 Suggest a positive and a negative quality of MDF.

54
 1.13 All design and technological practice takes place within contexts which inform outcomes

1.13 All design and technological practice takes place

within contexts which inform outcomes
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• performance characteristics of a wide range of materials, components and manufacturing processes
• how to discriminate between them and select appropriately.

Selecting the correct materials for a product is a complex process. Designers Key terms
use a detailed understanding of the properties of materials, and how those Mechanical properties:
materials can be manipulated, to inform their design decisions. elements of a material that
resist deformation from
Using materials, components and processes to inform outcomes
external forces or loads.

FT
Properties of materials and components Physical properties: elements
When choosing materials or components for a design, manufacturers must of a material that can be
consider the mechanical or physical properties required to ensure that the defined and measured, such as
materials will perform the task. colour, size or weight.

Mechanical properties Physical properties

A
Strength Ability to withstand force, e.g. by resisting Density Compactness of a material, defined
squashing (compression) or stretching as mass per unit volume
(tension)
R
Elasticity Ability to return to original shape once Electrical Ability to conduct electricity
deforming force is removed conductivity
Plasticity Ability to permanently deform without Thermal Ability to conduct heat
D

breaking when subjected to a force conductivity

Malleability Ability to be permanently deformed in all Size Dimensions of the material
directions without fracture
Ductility Ability to be deformed by bending, twisting Corrosion Metal is eaten away as it reacts with
or stretching oxygen and water in the air. Rust is
formed through the corrosion of iron
or steel
Hardness Ability to resist deformation, indentation or Aesthetics Appearance of a material, e.g. grain
penetration
Toughness Ability to withstand sudden stress or shocks Optical Ability to absorb or reflect light
Brittleness Inability to withstand sudden stress or Joining Ability to be joined to other materials
shocks
Durability Ability to withstand deterioration over time Magnetism Attraction to magnetic material
Stability Ability to resist changes in shape over time
Stiffness Ability to resist bending

Table 1.13.1 Mechanical and physical properties

55
1 Core content
The pictures below are examples of products made from mixed materials.
Link it up
This section provides an overview Rigid polystyrene is
Folding boxboard makes an
of performance characteristics lightweight, water
excellent printing surface
resistant and rigid
of materials and manufacturing
processes. Further detail can be
found in each material category.

Rigid polystyrene can

be easily vacuum
formed into shape

Folding boxboard has

excellent creasing
abilities to create
rigid box shape

FT Figure 1.13.1: Example 1, chocolate box made from folding boxboard and rigid
polystyrene
A
Synthetic polyester can Synthetic polyester
be coloured and is is strong and
stain resistant weatherproof
R

Beech is tough so the

Beech is hard so chair can withstand
rough use
D

the chair will

resist scratching

Mild steel is strong and

will withstand the tensile
forces in the brace
Beech is not suitable
for outside use

Exam tip
It is vital that you apply your Figure 1.13.2: Example 2, director’s chair made from beech, mild steel and
knowledge and understanding synthetic polyester
of materials when answering
questions about designing
products and you should always
Exam-style question
be able to justify your choices, Give one property of stainless steel that makes it an appropriate material for
where appropriate. cutlery. (1 mark)

56
 1.13 All design and technological practice takes place within contexts which inform outcomes

Advantages and disadvantages of materials, components and

manufacturing processes

Available forms in which the Mechanical and physical

materials and components properties of the materials
are supplied

Quantities, cost and availability Availability of tools,

of the materials equipment and processes

Elements that
are analysed

Energy demands in the

Scale of production
construction process
Apply it
Many components or materials

FT
you will use in your chosen
Level of waste Ease of the materials to process
material category are only
available in certain sizes
(standard forms). Why do some
Figure 1.13.3 Before selecting a suitable material, component or process,
suppliers only use standard sizes?
manufacturers consider a range of elements, as shown above
A
Justifying materials, components and manufacturing processes Key term
The manufacturer can justify why it chose its materials and manufacturing
Prototype: a full-size, three-
R
processes in several ways. Below are some examples. This is also covered in
dimensional model of the finished
section 1.14.
design, created for testing before
• Producing test pieces to prove that the materials have the desired physical production is started.
D

and mechanical properties.

• Producing prototypes using manufacturing processes that could be used
for the final product to show how it could be made.
• Producing a full economic case for the product, considering factors such as
the cost of materials and processing, and hidden costs of manufacturing
such as labour, lighting, waste and transportation.
• Evaluating the materials and production methods in relation to the
environment and society.

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Designers need to understand the key physical and mechanical properties of materials to inform design
decisions.
• Manufacturers need to match materials to appropriate manufacturing methods.
• Businesses need to justify their selection of materials and processes before manufacturing begins.

57
1 Core content

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Disposable cutlery is made from high-impact polystyrene (HIPS). Give five properties of HIPS and explain why
these properties are required in this product.
S2 Explain two factors that companies may consider when choosing a manufacturing process.
S3 Explain two ways a company could justify their choice of manufacturing process.
Challenge
C1 Identify ten products in your home. Use the list of mechanical properties in Table 1.13.1 to identify which
properties are important to those products, and why.
C2 Identify the manufacturing processes involved in the construction of these ten products and justify why these
manufacturing processes were used.

1.14 Challenges that influence the processes of design

and making
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• environmental challenges
FT
A
• social challenges
• economic challenges
• that designers have to take into consideration in the design and development of new products.
R
All manufactured items we use have been designed. Designers work to a design
brief or a specification, but they must take many other factors into consideration.
D

Respect for different social, ethnic and economic groups

Social groups

Share a common social aspect, such as education level, age or gender. Designs
should incorporate specific needs and desires. Example: phones designed for
young people that enable easy access to social media.

What types of groups

should designers consider?

Economic groups Ethnic groups

Share similar incomes and may be divided by class. Different Share a common cultural background, such as ancestry, homeland,
economic groups have different purchasing power and may be dialect or cultural heritage. Products should be sympathetic to
driven by cost, quality or brand. Example: kettles ranging from that culture and not offend. Example: care should be taken
cheap and basic to expensive and sophisticated. when using certain symbols, clothing or labels.

Figure 1.14.1 Designers must understand and respect the preferences of different
groups so that they can target their products appropriately

58
 1.14 Challenges that influence the processes of design and making

Environmental, social and economic issues • Product disassembly enables a product to be

relating to the design and manufacture recycled, or the parts reused. It also means that
products can last longer because they can be
of products repaired or upgraded. When designing products,
It is everyone’s responsibility to ensure that we live companies could consider reducing the number
in harmony with our world, within our means. Several of parts, examining how parts fit together and
bodies and initiatives help to encourage sustainability. labelling the parts by material for easy separation
Here are some examples: and recycling.
• The Fairtrade Foundation tackles poverty and
• Disposal of waste is governed by laws at
injustice across the world. It looks after the interests
international, European, national and local levels to
of farmers and producers in developing countries by
ensure that the collection, transportation, recovery
ensuring they are paid a fair price for their goods. It
and disposal of waste has the least impact on the
also looks at working conditions and tries to prevent
environment.
child or enforced labour and discrimination by
gender.
Consideration of ‘green designs’
• Carbon offsetting schemes allow companies or
Global warming and rising energy costs have led to

FT
individuals to try to reduce their carbon footprint
designers thinking about environmental factors when
or become carbon neutral, for example by planting
designing products without compromising on function,
trees, adopting renewable energy resources or
quality and performance of a design.
encouraging staff to walk or cycle to work.
A
in the use of the product
R
D

Reducing waste or using Using more non-toxic recyclable

less materials Promoting green materials or reusable materials
designs and components

Using renewable energy

Using biodegradable materials
energy resources

Figure 1.14.2 Examples of green design considerations

59
1 Core content
Recycling and reusing materials and products
If waste from the construction, use and disposal of a product cannot
be eliminated, products should be designed to be recycled or reused.
Recycling means that the materials from the product can be reprocessed
and used again in a different product. Reusing could mean that a product
is refilled, such as printer cartridges or jam jars, or simply used again, like
shopping bags.

Potential advantages of recycling and reuse Potential disadvantages of recycling and reuse
Less waste material to go to landfill The recycling process can be complex when
separating materials
Reduces the demand for new raw materials Not always cost efficient, as a lot of energy is
needed to transport, process and reassemble
recyclable materials
Helps reduce global warming caused by emissions The recycling process may produce waste and

FT
from processing raw materials pollutants, creating more environmental problems
Can reduce the need for transportation and mining Jobs created in recycling industry may be low quality
Jobs can be created in the recycling industry The quality of the recycled material may be inferior
Money is saved as the materials are used for a
second time
A
Table 1.14.1 Advantages and disadvantages of recycling and reuse

Human capability
R
Exam-style question
For a design to be successful, it has to meet the needs of the user and
Explain two ways that human
operate within their capabilities. Any product that stretches the capabilities
capability would be considered
of the user is likely to be unsafe. For example, if the controls on an electric
when designing a kitchen radio.
D

heater are unclear, there is a risk of accident. Often, simple design changes
(4 marks)
can improve a product and reduce accidents.

Cost of materials
This is not just the initial cost of the raw material but also the ongoing
costs of maintenance, transportation, recycling and disposal of the material
at the end of its life.
The environmental cost also needs to be considered, such as the production
of raw materials and the costs to recycle, reuse or dispose of the material.
This cost could be damage to the landscape, emissions from conversion
processes or the amount of energy required in the production process.

Manufacturing capability
The easier a product is to construct, the lower the manufacturing costs.
Factors include the materials used, the required quality or tolerances,
the required finish and whether the product can be manufactured using
existing processes. Designers can then design for manufacture (DFM) by:

60
 1.14 Challenges that influence the processes of design and making

• using standardised parts and reducing the amount of specialised parts

Key term
• simplifying or using repeatable processes
Modular: a design featuring parts
• reducing the complexity of the design or making it modular
of standard sizes so they can be
• designing simple quality control tests
constructed in different ways.
• reducing the tolerance in parts where possible
• designing for disassembly for servicing and repair.

Environmental impact – 18.5 kg 6.3 kg 4.3 kg 1 kg 0.4 kg

life-cycle analysis Plastics Steel Aluminium
Rubber

A life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a systematic e.g. polystyrene

inventory that assesses environmental
impacts relating to every stage of Paper
a product’s life. Designers need
Injection moulding Extrusion casting Moulding
to calculate all the environmental
costs of a product, from extraction,
transportation and processing of

FT
Assembly
the raw materials, to manufacture,
transportation and distribution of the
product, use of the product by the
1,400 kWh
consumer and its disposal or recovery electricity
at the end of its life. The LCA makes Use
it easier to identify what areas can
A
be changed to reduce the costs and
environmental impact.

Apply it Waste
R
Make an inventory of all the environmental Figure 1.14.3 An example of an LCA for different weights of materials
impacts in an LCA of a product of your choice. such as paper, plastics and metals
D

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Designers must respect different social, ethnic and economic groups.
• Designers need to consider the environmental costs of the design.
• The capabilities of humans and manufacturing methods need to be understood when designing.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Describe four ways that manufacturers could improve their manufacturing capability.
S2 Describe four ways that a company could use a ‘green design’ strategy for manufacturing its products.
S3 Explain the term ‘life-cycle analysis’.
S4 Describe three ways for an individual to offset their carbon footprint.
Challenge
C1 Summarise how a manufacturer will use ‘design for manufacture’ in the design of a new product.
C2 Justify why it is important for councils to run a recycling scheme.

61
1 Core content

1.15 Investigate and analyse the work of professionals

and companies to inform design
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• strategies, techniques and approaches for investigating and analysing the work of others
• how to analyse existing products to help you establish specification criteria
• the influence of leading design companies and professionals.

When developing new designs, you must consider how • key parts
previous designs were tackled. This information can help • how they fulfil the design brief and specification.
inform current design decisions.
This helps you to understand the design decisions made
and why the final product looks, or works, as it does.
Analysing a product to specification criteria

FT
A good product analysis will examine a product under
You should evaluate all aspects of a product’s design certain criteria. In Table 1.15.1 a domestic kettle is used as
to establish: an example.

Criteria Definition Description Considerations for a kettle’s

design
A
Form A product’s shape, Related to product’s physical space Shape, colour, how much space it
appearance and (size), proportion, weight, colour, will take up, comfort to use
aesthetics of a texture and tone
product
R
Function What a product is How well a product performs for the Ease of adding water, ability
intended to do user to know water is at desired
level, ability to filter impurities,
D

connection to power source, how

well the kettle pours
User How the product will • Need to know who the end user Weight, colour, portability, safety,
requirements fulfil the wants and is, for example, person with e.g. automatic switch-off at
needs of users disabilities, child boiling point
• May need to ask users their
preferences
Performance A product’s ability • Product is tested and evaluated to Capacity, time to reach boiling
requirements to complete a given ensure it meets relevant standards point, length of extension cord,
task to a measurable • Examples of standards are speed, carbon output
standard size, distance, quality, quantity,
accuracy
• Could be a selling point, such as
miles per gallon or the sound
output of a speaker

Table 1.15.1 Specification criteria for a kettle cont...

62
 1.15 Investigate and analyse the work of professionals and companies to inform design

Criteria Definition Description Considerations for a kettle’s

design
Materials and Best materials for • Depend on the purpose of a Heat insulation, ability to
components/ making the product product, end user and type or scale meet strength requirements,
systems of manufacture cleanability, ability to withstand
• Choice of materials also depends corrosion, fit to standard UK plug
on cost, aesthetics, availability
and mechanical properties, such
as strength, hardness, weight or
resistance to heat or chemicals
• Can include standardised
components such as screws, bolts or
circuit boards
Scale of Relationship • Need to identify number of units Materials and processes used,
production between quantity and production method (for production method, appropriate
and cost produced and example, one-off, batch, mass or quality, ideal price, suitability for

FT
per-unit fixed continuous) based on potential assembly line manufacture, ability
costs, to ensure an demand to be broken into components
acceptable price • Cost will vary due to economies of
and quality for the scale: cost per unit is often less if
customer more units are made
• Bulk buying materials or using
A
continuous production can save costs
Sustainability Environmental • A product’s whole-life impact can be Environmental impact of
impact of a product identified by completing a life-cycle extraction/processing of raw
from manufacture to assessment (LCA; see page 61) materials, manufacturing
R
end of use • Strict rules encourage products to methods, lifetime power
be sustainable, for example plastic consumption, end-of-life
recycling codes or approval by the disassembly and recyclability
D

Forest Stewardship Council

Aesthetics How we interpret Related to the way we see, touch, hear, • The use of pleasing colours
a product as being smell or taste an object • Smooth to touch
attractive or pleasing
• Clear lines with rounded surfaces
Marketability The ability of a Related to how easily a product will • Correct pricing for quality
product to be sold sell in relation to its competitors • Extra functionality
• Fits with current trends
Consideration How a company will How the boundaries of technology • Improved materials (lighter,
of innovation look at new ideas are used to improve the design, stronger)
and methods in the manufacture, features and • Advanced manufacturing
design of products functionality of products. methods
• Exciting new features

Table 1.15.1 Specification criteria for a kettle

Key term
Sustainability: meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

63
1 Core content

Exam-style question Apply it

Explain two reasons why mass-produced products Choose any product and describe how it fulfils its
can be made more cheaply than one-off products. specification under the criteria in Table 1.15.1.
(4 marks)

The work of past and present designers and companies

Influential designs are adopted and adapted by other designers. Here are some examples.

Name Who are they? Known for Why they are influential
Alessi Company, established • Designer and mass producer • Uses famous designers, such as
in Italy in 1921 of functional but visually Philippe Starck, to create iconic
appealing homeware and kitchen products, such as the
kitchen products spider-like Juicy Salif lemon
squeezer and retro kettles, setting
a standard for other homeware
companies

FT
Apple Company, established • Producer of consumer • Ground-breaking design: products
in the USA in 1976 electronics and software using looked completely different to
cutting-edge technologies, anything before
e.g. iPad, iWatch, iPod, iPhone, • Breaking with tradition and legacy,
iTunes Apple’s iPod made digital music
mainstream
A
• A loyal customer base
Heatherwick Design studio, • Around 200 designers, architects • Stretches the boundaries of
Studio established in the UK and makers have worked on materials, craftsmanship and artistic
R
in 1994 projects from perfume bottles thinking, showing that products
to Routemaster buses and and buildings can be unusual,
Singapore University buildings experimental and interesting
D

Joe Casely- Fashion designer, born • Noted for his original but wearable • Sets standards for British tailoring
Hayford 1956 designs that push barriers of that combines style with character
conformity, made by master and is popular with celebrities
craftspeople using traditional
English tailoring methods
Pixar Animation studio, • Among the first to develop • Uses new techniques and
established in the USA computer-animated feature technologies to make popular
in 1979 films and successful films, including Toy
Story and Finding Nemo
Raymond Industrial designer • ‘The father of modern design’ • Introduced the idea that if two
Loewy (1893–1986) • Emphasised the importance products have the same price,
of combining simplicity with function and quality, the products
functionality, working with more with better aesthetics will be more
than 200 companies on designs popular
ranging from refrigerators to • His designs are recognisable
planes, trains and spacecraft today, including the Coca-Cola
bottle, Le Creuset Coquelle dish
and logos for Shell and BP
Table 1.15.2 Examples of influential designers and companies cont...
64
 1.15 Investigate and analyse the work of professionals and companies to inform design

Name Who are they? Known for Why they are influential
Tesla, Inc. Automotive and energy • Produces electric cars that • Leads electric car design and
storage company, don’t compromise on power or technology, including the Tesla
established in the USA quality, have zero emissions, are Model X SUV (2016)
in 2008 affordable and can be charged
at home
Zaha Hadid Architect (1950–2016) • Integrated geometric forms • Overcame racial and gender
with expressive, sweeping fluid barriers to establish an
forms architecture practice that has
• Promoted architecture as a designed more than 1000 iconic
visual art form, with buildings buildings worldwide
intended to give aesthetic
pleasure
Table 1.15.2 Examples of influential designers and companies

Apply it

FT
Research other products that have been influenced by Raymond
Loewy’s streamlined design. Explain how they fit into the ‘streamlined’
philosophy.
A
Summary
Key points to remember:
R
• Products can be evaluated under certain specification criteria.
• Many designers have made significant contributions to design and
continue to influence today’s designers. Philippe Starck’s Juicy Salif lemon
D

squeezer: form over function?

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Explain why it is important that companies design sustainable products.
S2 Describe two design philosophies at the core of Zaha Hadid Architects’ design style.
S3 Name the designer whose designs follow the traditions of English tailored clothing but push the barriers of
conformity.
Challenge
C1 Describe how form could follow function in the design of modern products.
C2 Investigate the development of an Apple product and identify technological advances that have improved the
product over time. Explain why you think Apple is such an influential company.

65
1 Core content

1.16 Use of different design strategies

Learning objective
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how to approach and generate different design ideas.

It is easy to see only one design solution to a problem, but allowing

Apply it
yourself to think like this will mean you miss endless other ideas that
Investigate how designers or could prove to be more successful. Try to keep an open mind especially
design companies come up with in the early stage of designing and enjoy the surprise of stumbling
design ideas. across potentially great ideas. Design ideas can be created through
different strategies, techniques and approaches; consider the following
throughout your designing.

Collaboration

FT
In design companies, it is very rare for only one person to be responsible
for the whole of the design process. It is more common for the design
process to be a collaborative process, because together people look at
problems from different perspectives and generate many more ideas.
This means you need to talk to other users or designers and allow them
to spark off your imagination in generating your own design ideas.
A
You could use a design process known as SCAMPER. It was first introduced
by Alex Osborn, an advertising executive, in 1953 and developed by Bob
Eberle in 1971.
R
• Substitute – could you consider different materials, components or
sources of energy?
• Combine – could you take successful parts from other ideas to form
D

new ideas?
• Adapt – could you incorporate a different function or make use of a
different technology?
• Modify – could you change the aesthetics, shrink or expand it?
• Put to another use – could your design have a second or third
function?
• Eliminate – could you take away part of your design? Have you over-
thought it?
• Reverse – could you look at your design completely differently, think
about it inside out/upside down, could you move parts around?

Apply it
Find five images of products that have different functions. Swap these
pictures with someone else in your class. Challenge yourself to use these
products as inspiration to generate design solutions for your design
problem. Are you surprised at the ideas that you have created?

66
 1.16 Use of different design strategies

User-centred design
User-centred design revolves around putting your users’ needs at the centre
of every decision that is made throughout the whole designing process. This
ensures that the users’ opinions are considered at every stage so that the
design cannot go off at a tangent or get lost in the design process.
Many web design companies use the ‘user-centred design’ approach for
creating websites, apps and programs. Imagine navigating through a new app
that you may have downloaded. Was it easy to understand and get to grips
with? If the answer is no, then you have probably deleted it or forgotten that
you downloaded it! When designing a new app, a web design company would
constantly refer to their users and ask for feedback at every stage, such as for
the use of a symbol, a location of a button, a colour chosen or a drop-down
menu. This feedback is crucial to the designers to ensure that their app feels
natural and predictable for their users to navigate and interact with.
In your classroom, you need to put your user at the heart of your design
decisions at every stage of the design process, particularly in the generation

FT
of your own design ideas. This could be done by:
• having your user requirements as a starting point for your design ideas
• asking your user to draw out some ideas or making a simple model for you
and using these as a starting point to generate more design ideas
• modelling your ideas in 3D to gain user feedback to aid your development
Key term
Anthropometric data:
A
measurements of the human body.
• using anthropometric data from your user to influence your design ideas.

Systems thinking
Systems thinking is used by designers to solve complex problems, and find
R
solutions. It is an effective way to think about the functions and how users
interact with other products and systems. Systems thinking looks at a whole
system or product and its individual elements or parts. It looks carefully at
D

how each part or stage contributes and feeds back into the system.
The simplest way is to create a flowchart but start backwards:
1. What do you want your product to do or achieve (the output)? Link it up
2. How is it going to achieve that function (the process)?
For more information on how to
3. What inputs or energies would it need to do that (inputs)?
create systems diagrams, look
Figure 1.16.1 is an example of a design of a drinks vending machine. at page 75. Feedback loops were
explained in section 1.7. How
could you modify Figure 1.16.1
Make your selection Put your coins in Drink dispensed
using feedback loops?
Figure 1.16.1 Using a vending machine

This could then be converted into INPUTS: PROCESSES: OUTPUT:

a systems diagram using the titles 1. Make your selection Coins are counted Drink is dispensed
‘inputs’, ‘processes’ and ‘outputs’ 2. Put your coins in
alongside the signals for each one. Signal Signal Signal Signal
Money Electricity Electricity Drink
Take note of the addition during the
process of coins being counted. Figure 1.16.2 Inputs, processes and outputs based on using a vending machine

67
1 Core content
Product designers and engineers commonly use systems thinking in
generating their design ideas for products such as mobile phones, baby
monitors, kitchen timers and car alarms. Systems thinking helps designers
to think about their product/system in a logical manner and stick to the
problem that they are solving, especially when the design problem might
not be something that they can easily relate to.
Use systems thinking by:
• breaking down the use of the product or system into simple stages
• considering the different options available at each of these stages
• asking your user to describe the stages they would go through when using
a particular product or system and asking yourself whether this correlates
with your own thoughts.

Apply it
Create a flowchart for making a cup of tea, then develop it into a systems

FT diagram including inputs, processes, outputs and signals.

Exam-style question
Discuss which design strategies a design company might use when
A
designing a pair of headphones. (6 marks)

Exam tip
R

To gain a higher mark on this type of question, the discussion should be

well balanced and have a judgement, based on the factors discussed in
your answer.
D

1.17 Using communication techniques to present

design ideas
Learning objective
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how to creatively and effectively communicate your design ideas.

Generating and developing design ideas does not have to be simply

putting pencil to paper and drawing. There are numerous ways in which to
communicate your ideas; you will need to use the knowledge of your design
problems, the facilities that your school has and your personal strengths to
decide on the most suitable range of methods to present your ideas.

68
 1.17 Using communication techniques to present design ideas

Freehand sketching
Freehand sketching is often used by designers in the
generation of their initial design ideas. For example, in
the fashion industry, designers may sit down together
and start sketching ideas for the new season based
on the findings of their trends research. Freehand
sketching is an effective way of quickly getting your
ideas either in 2D or 3D from your head onto paper.
Further along the design process, the freehand
sketches can be developed in more depth, often with a
different communication technique.
Consider the following in your freehand sketching:
• different mediums, for example pencils, ball point Dress detail
pens, fine liners, markers or coloured pencils,
depending on which you feel more comfortable
working with

scale to your product

FT
• grid paper or templates, for example, a human
figure outline can sometimes be useful to create

• the use of arrows: an effective way to show

movement within design ideas, for example lids
A
opening and closing or pieces of clothing buttoned
or zipped. Figure 1.17.1 Example of freehand
sketching
Apply it
R
The year is 2099, the season is winter, the trends are bold patterns and
zips. Communicate five different design ideas using freehand sketching
for either a watch or a winter coat.
D

Digital photography/media
Graphic designers often use digital photography or media to create and
develop their design ideas. Their ideas are often so complex or futuristic
that it is easier to create their vision through edited photos and media.
Examples could be billboards advertising the releases of films.
Product designers also use photos or images to help create design ideas.
One way of doing this would be to use a photograph, place tracing paper
over the top and then adapt the image into a product.

Cut and paste techniques

Product designers and fashion designers often use photos/images to help
create and inspire their own design ideas. They sometimes copy and paste
parts of photographs, existing product images or replications of their own
design work to then edit and develop. One way of doing this would be to
use a photograph, place tracing paper over the top and then adapt the
image into a product/outfit.
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1 Core content

Key terms 3D models

Sometimes drawings are hard for designers to portray and for their users
Styrofoam: a modelling foam
to visualise; this is where 3D models or prototypes can help to represent
commonly shaped with a hot wire
designers’ ideas as something physical. Prototypes could be full size or a
cutter.
smaller-scale version depending on the size and complexity of the idea
Stripboard/breadboard: being developed.
electronics prototyping board.
Prototyping could be through a variety of materials; choose the medium
Computer modelling: using that suits your ideas:
computer-aided design (CAD)
• traditional materials, such as paper, fabric, cardboard, Styrofoam or HIPS
software like ProDesktop to
visualise your idea. • small plastic building bricks
Simulation: a computer model • system modelling, for example stripboards or breadboards
that represents how something
• computer modelling, for example 3D printer models and simulations.
would work in real life, such as
how the screw on an adjustable
spanner could be altered so that it

FT
would allow different nut sizes to
be tightened or loosened.
A
A prototype made
from breadboard.
R
There are problems
with this prototype –
can you identify them?

3D drawing
D

3D drawings allow designers to be able to represent their designs more

realistically and encourage designers to think about every angle of their
design. Design development naturally occurs when designers move from 2D
drawings to 3D drawings, as they often find the opportunity to add parts or
features and consider in greater depth how the product would actually be
used. Think about the sides of your mobile phone and the buttons, sockets
and charging points that you find on it, alongside feedback from users
(user-centred design). 3D drawing will have helped the designers to think
about where each of these is placed.

Perspective Isometric Oblique One-point Two-point

perspective perspective
Figure 1.17.2 There are a range of 3D techniques that you could use: have a go at
all four and decide which one feels most comfortable for you

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 1.17 Using communication techniques to present design ideas

Oblique and isometric projections

Both isometric and oblique projections are commonly used by engineers in
technical drawings and illustrations and sometimes by architects. Early video
games such as SimCity used isometric, or oblique, projection before 3D
games were introduced.

Key term
Construction lines: faint sketched
lines that help you to build up the
rough shape of a product before

FT
creating your design within them.
They should not be rubbed out.

SimCity released its first 3D game using isometric projection in 2000 after the 2D
version was first released in 1989
1 2
Oblique
A
Oblique projection is the simplest method of creating 3D designs based on
45-degree lines. For support, use oblique grid paper to guide your angles: 45°
1 Draw the front view in 2D.
R
2 From each corner, draw construction lines projecting out at 45 degrees. 3 4

3 On the construction lines, measure half the true length.

4 Draw the back of the product to complete the product.
D

Isometric
Isometric drawings look more realistic than oblique ones and are based on Figure 1.17.3 Example of oblique
30-degree lines. For support, use isometric grid paper to guide your angles: projection
1 Instead of drawing the 2D front view in oblique, you begin with an edge
of the product – draw this as a vertical straight line. 1 2

2 From this line, create construction lines going off at 30 degrees.

3 Fill in the next vertical lines.
4 From these vertical lines, draw your next construction lines going off at
30 degrees (repeat steps 3 and 4 depending on the complexity of 30°
3 4
your drawing).
5 Within these construction lines, draw your product.

Apply it
Using construction lines, sketch your mobile phone using either the
Figure 1.17.4 Example of isometric
isometric or oblique technique. projection

71
1 Core content

Perspective drawing
Perspective drawings tend to look more realistic than both oblique and
isometric techniques, as they visualise objects in a very similar way to our
own eyes.
There are two types of perspective drawing: one-point perspective and two-
point perspective.

One-point perspective
One-point perspective is often used in interior design, as it quickly creates
an image with a good sense of depth that enables the customer to rapidly
visualise the designer’s idea. This then allows the designer and customer
to work together to develop and adjust the idea to suit the customer’s
requirements.
This London underground platform
appears to get narrower in the distance, One-point perspective is the easier type of perspective drawing.
yet the platform is a consistent width 1 Just like oblique drawing, start by drawing the front view in 2D.

FT
throughout the station 2 From each corner, create construction lines to a point in the distance
called a single vanishing point.
3 Draw your next vertical lines between your construction lines.
4 Join up your vertical lines with horizontal lines (keep these faint).
5 Draw your product within these lines.
Key term Vanishing
A
point
Vanishing point: a point in the
distance where the construction
lines project to. It can be 1 2
R
positioned to the right or left,
above or below, depending on
how you would like your image
to appear.
D

3 4

Apply it
Draw the entrance hall to
your school using one-point Figure 1.17.5 Example of one-point perspective drawing
perspective. Try to place your
vanishing point at a different Two-point perspective
point to the other people on
Two-point perspective is often used by architects when developing their
your table and, once complete,
ideas in 3D, as it gives a speedy realistic interpretation. Like interior
compare the differences in how
designers, the architects can work alongside their customer to develop their
the images appear.
ideas to the customer’s requirements.

72
 1.17 Using communication techniques to present design ideas

1
Two-point perspective uses two
vanishing points either side of the
object to produce a more realistic Vanishing Vanishing
representation of the product. point point
1 Just like isometric drawing,
2
you begin with an edge of the
product – draw this as a vertical
straight line.
2 From each corner, create
construction lines to two
vanishing points. 3

3 Draw in your next vertical lines

between the construction lines.
4 From these vertical lines, draw
construction lines going off to
4
the vanishing points.
5 Draw in your product between
your construction lines.

Orthographic and exploded views FT

Designers tend to use both orthographic and exploded views during design Figure 1.17.6 Example of two-point
A
development or final concept drawings, as they show the product in greater perspective drawing
detail than an initial idea. They not only help the designer to get their head
around how exactly the design will be made and what materials it will use, but
also allow others looking at their designs to fully understand them without
R
the need to ask the designer for clarification. This is crucial for manufacture.

Orthographic views
D

Orthographic projection is used to show the detail and measurements of

the product clearly from a range of angles so that a stranger could use
the drawing to work out the shape FRONT RIGHT SIDE TOP
and dimensions for manufacture. A
furniture designer would be a perfect
DEPTH Related view
example of someone who may use Vertical
2 Equal
orthographic projection. parallel
Central view Projection line projectors
To create an orthographic projection,
1
you draw the front view, side view
Equal
and plan view of your product in 2D.
You can either draw them out by Related view 2
2
hand or generate the views using 1 1
various CAD programs from your
CAD model. You can use first angle TOP FRONT RIGHT SIDE
projection or third angle projection – Horizontal parallel projectors

although the views may appear the 1st angle projection 3rd angle projection
same, the order that they are laid Figure 1.17.7 First and third angle projections for orthographic projection
out differ. showing all sides of the product

73
1 Core content

Key terms Exploded views

Exploded views are an effective way of demonstrating what is inside
Disassemble: to take apart a
a product. These enable designers to think about the materials, the
product so that you can identify
components and the way that the product is assembled. Exploded views
the parts that it consists of.
show how the product would look if it were to be disassembled. You often
Patent: a licence that is applied find exploded views in the drawings that make up a patent.
for to protect the way that a
design works. Once a product
Assembly drawings
has been patented, no one else
Assembly drawings are used by designers to inform manufacturers
can use that exact design for a
and customers about how to assemble their product correctly. Ikea
similar product.
uses assembly drawings in its instructions for flat-pack furniture
so that customers can assemble items by themselves at home.
The assembly drawings show how parts fit together and which
component goes where. You will often find them labelled with a
key to the parts or components. Each part is numbered and named.
There are usually several sheets with dimensioned detail drawings

FT
for each part. Each part can then be made and assembled by looking
at the assembly drawing.

Systems and schematic diagrams

As described earlier, systems diagrams tend to be used for electronics
projects, showing how the system will function with regard to inputs,
A
processes and outputs. This is an effective way to create design ideas
before moving to schematic diagrams, which show the detail of how
they will actually function. Schematic diagrams tend to be drawn by
R
engineers to show exactly what components will be in the circuit,
alongside how they will be connected. A successful schematic diagram
Figure 1.17.8 An exploded diagram
will clearly show component names and values and provide labels to
of a shoe, showing the layers of
explain the intended purpose. They may be either hand drawn or drawn
D

fabrics and materials that make up a

finished shoe to make it ergonomically using a computer program such as SmartDraw.
comfortable
INPUTS: PROCESSES: OUTPUT:
Switches – PIC Microcontroller LED
Push/toggle/slide/tilt Comparators Buzzer
Timers Motor
Sensors – Counters
LDR Logic gates
Signal Signal Signal Signal
Thermistor

Figure 1.17.9 Use this systems diagram to help you consider the options at the
input/processes/output stages when you are designing your product, before moving
on to the schematic diagrams

Apply it
Choose a product from your classroom and have a go at drawing it using
either an exploded diagram or an orthographic projection.

74
 1.17 Using communication techniques to present design ideas

220k
BC 557 0.082mH
1R4

1k
1N4004

47k
330P
+ + 100k
1.2v

56DR
solar LED
panal
BC 547
– photo 100n
resistor BC 547

SOLAR GARDEN LIGHT − 2

Figure 1.17.10 A hand drawn and computer drawn schematic diagram Key terms
showing the required electronic components
CAM: computer-aided
manufacture, such as using a laser

FT
Computer-aided design and specialist drawing
programs
Computer-aided design (CAD) is now commonly used by designers
in a variety of ways. CAD can be used to create design ideas, develop
designs and to model and test something to be later made in CAM. CAD
cutter or 3D printer.
CNC: computer numerically
controlled, for example using a
CNC router.
A
is often preferred by designers because the design looks realistic and
professional to present to users or investors. Some of the ways designers
use CAD include:
• CAD freehand sketching: programs such as Adobe Photoshop, 2D
R
Design and Pro Sketch are commonly used by graphic and product
designers to either draw out their design ideas from scratch or
enhance some of their sketches.
D

• 2D modelling: graphic and product designers commonly use

programs such as 2D Design or Adobe Illustrator to create 2D designs
that can be sent to the laser cutter (CAM) to produce either a model or
part of a product.
• 3D modelling: product designers and engineers commonly use
programs such as ProDesktop to create 3D designs that can then be
turned into models, actual parts or even whole products through 3D
printers or CNC routers.
• System design: electrical engineers commonly use programs such
as Yenka Technology and PCB Wizard to build and test a system. This
Figure 1.17.11 CAD freehand
allows ideas for components and layout to be changed electronically, sketching using Photoshop to build up
rather than wasting components during testing. professional looking design ideas

75
1 Core content
CAD can be used to build a system as well as to test it. This allows ideas for
components and layout to be changed electronically, rather than wasting
components in testing. For example, in textile design, Pro Sketch may be used
to create concepts for an outfit.

Record and justify design ideas clearly

Annotated sketches
Designers from all areas and backgrounds commonly use annotations
alongside each of the communication techniques above. The annotations help
them to explain their ideas and enable anyone looking at their work to be able
to understand their ideas without the need to speak to them directly. This is
really important in the design process, as designs will need to be passed on to
other people who would also need to be able to read them.
For example, a fashion designer would sketch out their final concepts for a new
season’s coat with annotations detailing the types of materials to be used. That
would then get passed to the manufacturing team who would be specialists in

FT
tooling and machinery but are unlikely to be specialists in fabric, making the
annotations crucial.
Annotations vary at different stages of the design process but tend to refer to
the following:
• Design justifications:
A
o user and design requirements
o positives and negatives of each design
o ergonomics – would your user be able to use/operate/wear the item
R
comfortably?
o sustainability considerations.
• Manufacturing details:
D

o materials and components

o dimensions
o manufacturing process and techniques
o sources of energy, for example batteries, mains, solar or wind-up.

Exam tip Exam-style questions

For question (a), remember to give a. Explain one reason why annotations are important when a designer
a linked justification to back up passes their concepts to a manufacturer. (2 marks)
the reason you choose. b. Explain one benefit and one drawback of freehand sketching versus
CAD modelling. (4 marks)

76
 1.17 Using communication techniques to present design ideas

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Decide on suitable design strategies for your design problem or scenario.
• Choose a range of suitable communication techniques for your design problem or scenario.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name two different design strategies that designers sometimes use.
S2 List five things that a designer might annotate on their designs.
S3 Choose a suitable communication technique and sketch out a product that you might find in your design and
technology classroom.
Challenge
C1 Consider the advantages and disadvantages of collaborative designing.

FT
C2 Discuss the potential differences in communication techniques for the following products:
a) pop-up children’s book
b) interior of a wedding venue
c) clothing for a triathlon athlete
d) system for an Amazon locker.
A
R
D

77
Preparing for your exam 1

Exam strategy
What to expect in the exam
The examination is designed to test your knowledge and understanding of
the core content and the material category you have chosen. Throughout the
course you will need to practise exam-style questions in all areas. Preparing
carefully for your exams is important in order to get as many marks as you can.
The paper consists of two sections: Section A assesses your knowledge on the
core content and Section B assesses your knowledge on your material category.

Section A: Core (1DT0)

Section A is worth 40 marks and contains a mixture of different question styles,
including open-response, graphical, calculation and extended-open-response
questions. There are 10 marks allocated to calculation questions.
You should know about:

FT
• the impact of new and emerging technologies
• how the critical evaluation of new and emerging technologies informs
design decisions
• how energy is generated and stored in order to choose and use appropriate
sources to make products and power systems
A
• developments in modern and smart materials, composite materials and
technical textiles
• mechanical devices that produce movement and change forces
R
• how electronic systems provide functionality to products and processes
• programmable components and flowcharts
• categorisation of the types and properties of:
D

o ferrous and non-ferrous metals

o papers and boards
o thermoforming and thermosetting polymers
o natural, synthetic, blended and mixed fibres, and woven, non-woven and
knitted textiles
o natural and manufactured timbers
• contexts in which design and technological practice takes place
• environmental, social and economic challenges of designing
• the work of certain past and present designers
• using different design strategies to generate ideas
• how to develop, communicate, record and justify design ideas.

Section B: Material categories

This section is worth 60 marks and contains a mixture of different question
styles, including open-response, graphical, calculation and extended-open-
response questions. Topics 2–7 in this Student Book cover the different
material categories covered in Section B of the exam.

78
Preparing for your exam 1
There are 5 marks allocated to calculation questions in Section B. The material
Exam tip
categories are divided into:
Sample answers for questions given
• 1DT0/1A – Metals • 1DT0/1D – Systems
in Section B of the exam can be
• 1DT0/1B – Papers and boards • 1DT0/1E – Textiles found on the following pages:
• 1DT0/1C – Polymers • 1DT0/1F – Timbers • Metals: pages 125–127
Whatever the material category, you should know about: • Papers and boards: pages 157–161
• Polymers: pages 199–201
• its design contexts
• Systems: pages 235–239
• its sources, origins, physical and working properties and the materials’ social
and ecological footprints • Textiles: pages 271–275
• the way in which the selection of the material is influenced • Timbers: pages 308–311
• the impact of forces and stresses and how the materials can be reinforced
and stiffened
• stock forms, types and sizes in order to calculate and determine the quantity
of the materials required

FT
• alternative processes that can be used to manufacture the materials to a
different scale of production
• specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes that can be used to
shape, fabricate, construct and assemble a high-quality prototype
• appropriate surface treatments and finishes that can be applied to the materials.
A
Revision tips
• Ensure you start revising in plenty of time. You will find it easier to remember
facts you have revised several times over a few weeks than those you have
R
tried to memorise at the last minute.
• Make clear and well-ordered notes about all the sections.
• Work through all sample assessment materials, past papers and textbook
questions available from Pearson.
D

• Identify the areas where you are likely to get mathematical questions and
practise arithmetic and numerical computation, handling data, graphs,
geometry and trigonometry.
• Discuss the course with your teacher and peers as it will help your understanding.
• Use online or other resources to extend your understanding of the design and
technology context.

Exam tips
• The total time for your paper is 1 hour 45 minutes. This works out at about
1 mark per minute (about 40 minutes on Section A and 60 minutes on
Section B), with 5 minutes left over to check your answers. You could plan to
have more time at the end but try not to rush through the questions, as you
are more likely to make a mistake.
• You must answer all the questions. If you are stuck on one, leave it and come
back at the end.
• The number of marks awarded for each question will tell you how many
separate points you need to make in your answer.

79
Preparing for your exam 1
Understanding the questions
The questions will use command words that require a certain type of answer.
Familiarise yourself with common command words and read the question
carefully before answering it.

Command word Instruction

Calculate Work out a numerical problem using mathematical processes or formulae,
You may get points for using correct formulae, using correct stages of
calculation (by showing your workings) and getting the correct outcome.
Discuss Identify, explore and investigate the issue, situation, problem, concept or
argument within the question, using reasoning.
This type of question does not require a conclusion.
Evaluate Measure the value or success of something and provide a substantiated
judgement or conclusion.

FT
Review information and bring it together, drawing on evidence such as
strengths, weaknesses, alternatives and relevant data.
Give/State/Name Recall and write down one or more pieces of information.
Explain Provide an answer and reason(s) qualifying the answer, such as why
something can be considered to fulfil a need, provide a purpose or
A
communicate an intention.
Your answer must contain some reasoning or justification, and it may
support a statement.
R
Use notes and/or sketches Using graphical depiction with annotation, give an account of a process,
to show showing its stages in the correct order, or give an account of something,
showing a series of features, points or trends. The number of points and the
depth of answer required will be indicated by the mark allocation.
D

Table 1.1 Common command words

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Preparing for your exam 1

Sample answers with comments

The following questions give some examples of how to interpret the different command words.

Question 1: Calculation question

A nutcracker is going to be used to crack open a nut, with an applied load of 12N, as shown in
Figure PE1.1.

Load 12N

FT PE1.1
5 cm 10 cm
A
Exam tip
Calculate the effort required to crack open the nut
R
You will need to use your maths skills in the exam.
in this example of a lever. (3 marks)
The formula you need may be given in the question
but it helps to be familiar with formulae that are
likely to come up.
D

Student answer Verdict

Force (E) × distance of effort Although the student used the correct calculation,
= force (L) × distance of load and recognised that the load was 5 cm away from
the fulcrum, they incorrectly assumed that the effort
Force (E) × 10 = 12 × 5 was only 10 cm away from the fulcrum. The correct
12 × 5 substitution into the formula should have been
Force (E) =
10 Force (E) × 15 = 12 × 5, which would make the
Force (E) = 6 N force (E) 4 N.

81
Preparing for your exam 1

Question 2: ‘Discuss’ question Exam tip

Discuss the effects of a manufacturing company ‘Discuss’ answers need to be fairly detailed, exploring
investing in video conferencing in their aspects of the situation by reasoning or argument.
global operation. (6 marks)

2. Decisions which could take a long time to make

Student answer via email could be made much quicker during
a video conference. Also, physical examples of
1. There are many advantages of using video products or parts can be shown in real time.
conferencing – for example, managers of a 3. However, there are also disadvantages. There
company can save time by speaking to staff may be set-up costs linked to video conferencing,
abroad without having to travel. There are also and time zones may make meetings
no travel costs, making it cheaper to contact staff. inconvenient for some staff.

Verdict
FT
The student has given six good answers that
explore aspects of the concept. Care needs to be
time lost through travelling and the second relates to
the speed the decision can be made, so the answers
A
taken not to repeat answers. In this case, although the are different.
answer discusses time twice, the first point relates to
R
Question 3: ‘Evaluate’ question Exam tip
Evaluate the use of wind-generated electricity as ‘Evaluate’ answers need to look at the strengths
an alternative to fossil-fuelled power stations.
D

and weaknesses of a proposition and then draw a

(9 marks) conclusion.

Student answer
Wind power is a clean technology that does friendly, it will be available in the future and the
not produce harmful emissions like fossil fuels electricity is more easily distributed from where it
when burnt. Wind is a renewable form of is created.
energy so it will not run out, unlike fossil fuels.
The power from wind farms can be connected
directly into the electricity from where the
Verdict
energy is generated, while fossil fuels need to This is a good answer. The student has made several well-
be transported to where they will be used. In balanced evaluations of the two concepts and drawn a
conclusion, wind energy is more environmentally reasoned conclusion on the benefits of wind power.

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Preparing for your exam 1

Question 4: 2. Explain two benefits of using thermosetting

‘Give’/‘Explain’ questions polymers. (4 marks)
The light switch on the
right is made from a
Exam tip
thermosetting polymer.
This is a combination of a ‘give’ question and an
1. Give the name of a ‘explain’ question. You do not need to get the first
suitable thermosetting part right to gain marks in the second part. ‘Explain’
polymer from which to questions require you to give reasons why you have
manufacture the switch. chosen your answers.
(1 mark)

Student answer Verdict

1. Urea formaldehyde
2. (a) Heat resistant
(b) Hard FT In part 1, the student correctly identified a suitable thermosetting polymer.
In part 2, the student does not give the full justification required. They
could have written the answer in the following way.
2. a) Thermosetting polymers are heat resistant and so will not be
affected by the heat of the electricity or melt in a fire.
A
b) They are also hard meaning they are resistant to scratching when
used so will look good for longer.
R

Question 5: ‘Explain’ question Exam tip

The materials that products are made from are This type of question requires one benefit. However,
D

chosen because of their characteristics. The picture this needs to be explained: why is this a benefit?
below is a child’s toy train.
Explain one benefit of using beech to manufacture
the toy train. (2 marks)
Student answer
Beech is a good material to use because it does
not splinter easily, which means it would be
safe for small children to play with without
hurting themselves.

Verdict
The student answered the question as required.

83
Preparing for your exam 1

Question 6: ‘Give’/‘name’
Key
(short answer question)
End of life
Figure PE1.2 shows a graph of the carbon Use Manufacturing
emissions based on a life-cycle analysis Transportation Materials production
(LCA) of two hand drying options. 6000

Climate change score (kg CO2 equivalent)

a) Name the hand dryer that has additional
carbon emissions during materials 5000
production. (1 mark)
4000
b) Give one reason why dryer B has
additional carbon emissions after
3000
materials production. (1 mark)

2000

FT PE1.2
1000

0
(A)
Electric hand dryer
(B)
Paper towel dispenser
A
Exam tip
Student answer
R
This type of question requires you to draw
conclusions from key information displayed in a 1. Paper towel dispenser.
certain format.
D

2. Paper towels need to be supplied to the dispenser

throughout its life and not just in the construction
Verdict of the dispenser.
The student has answered this question well.

84
Preparing for your exam 1

Question 7: ‘Use notes and/or sketches Exam tip

to show’ question It is important to annotate (label) sketches as the
Use notes and/or sketches to show the structure detail is not always clear in a sketch and the marks
of plywood. (2 marks) awarded can come from written or the drawn
information.

Student answer Verdict

Laminate This is a good answer. The
annotation states what is not
Thin laminates bonded with adhesive clear from the sketch – that glue
90° alternate layers and thin laminates are used.
Odd number of layers The sketch shows the grain

FT
directions at 90 degrees to each
other and that there is an odd
number of layers.

Pearson Education Ltd accepts no responsibility whatsoever for the accuracy or method of working in the answers given.
A
R
D

85
2 Metals

FT
A
R
D

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 2.2 Metals sources, properties, social and ecological footprints

2.1 Design contexts

Getting started
How many different metals can you name?
Find an item of metal jewellery, a bolt and a saucepan. Do you know which metals they are made of, and why?
Do you know where metals come from and what ecological issues are related to their use?

Metals offer many design opportunities, from small components to

decorative items and large, functional products. It is useful to know how
metals differ, the properties that make them suitable for different uses and
the different manufacturing processes.

2.2 Metals sources, properties, social and ecological footprints

FT
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the advantages, disadvantages and applications of different metals
• how physical and working characteristics influence the selection of individual metals
• the origins of different metals and the implications of extracting and processing them.
A
Ferrous metals
Table 2.2.1 describes the properties of high-carbon steel and
R
tungsten steel.

Material Properties Composition Melting point Uses

D

High- Very hard, difficult to cut, less ductile, Iron + 1800°C Chisels, plane blades,
carbon can be hardened and tempered, good 0.8–1.5% saws, drill bits, hammers,
steel conductivity, magnetic, dense, tough carbon screwdrivers

Tungsten Good strength, resistant to corrosion, Iron + 1650–3695°C Nozzles in rocket engines,
steel not magnetic, tough, stable at high 1–18% high-speed cutting tools,
temperatures, good conductivity, dense tungsten light filaments

Table 2.2.1 Examples of ferrous metals

Link it up Key term

See pages 37–39 for more information about ferrous Ductile: something that can be deformed by bending,
and non-ferrous metals. twisting or stretching. Ductility in metals increases with
temperature but heating may weaken them.

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2 Metals
Non-ferrous metals
Table 2.2.2 describes the properties of tin, 7000 series aluminium alloys
and titanium.

Type Properties Composition Melting point Uses

Tin Soft, ductile, malleable, Pure metal 232°C Food packaging, solder
high corrosion resistance,
low melting point, weak
7000 series High strength, poor Aluminium (main metal) 660°C Aircraft frames, bicycle
aluminium corrosion resistance, heat with various quantities frames, car wheels,
alloys treatable of zinc, magnesium and climbing equipment
copper
Titanium Corrosion resistant, strong, Pure metal 1668°C Small gears, coatings,
tough, stiff, low density replacement human joints

Table 2.2.2 Examples of non-ferrous metals

FT Key term
Malleable: something that is able to be permanently deformed in all
directions without fracture. It increases with temperature.
A
Apply it
Research the new materials introduced in Tables 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 (high-
R
carbon steel, tungsten steel, tin, 7000 series aluminium alloys and
titanium) and find a specific example of the use of each one, other than
the examples given above.
D

Exam-style question
Explain two reasons why tin would be a suitable metal for lining the
inside of food cans. (6 marks)

Sources and origins

Metal Ore-bearing rock Main sources
Iron Magnetite, haematite USA, Russia, Sweden
Steel Iron ore China (also main manufacturer/processor)
Aluminium Bauxite USA, France, Australia
Copper Chalcopyrite USA, Chile, Zambia, Russia
Tin Cassiterite Indonesia, China
Table 2.2.3 Where the ferrous and non-ferrous metals are resourced or manufactured and their geographical origin

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 2.2 Metals sources, properties, social and ecological footprints

The physical characteristics of ferrous and Conductivity • The ability to allow

non-ferrous metals the flow of electricity,
All metals have some properties that can be measured against other or the rate that heat
materials (see Table 2.2.4). can pass through
a material
Working properties of ferrous and Magnetism • The ability to repel
non-ferrous metals or attract other
The working properties define how a material will behave or respond to magnetic materials
external influences: Density • Weight in grams per
• durability: withstanding deterioration over time cubic centimetre
• toughness: withstanding sudden stress or shocks or kilograms per
cubic metre.
• elasticity: bending without fracture when subjected to a force
• Density is the
• strength: withstanding forces which can be compressive or tensile
compactness of a
o tensile: resisting pulling forces without stretching substance or material.
o compressive: resisting pushing forces without being crushed. • Things feel ‘heavier’

Social footprint
Trend forecasting
FT
Identifying trends in the metals industry ensures that supply fulfils
demand and relies on the availability of existing metals and new alloys.
if they have a
higher density
Table 2.2.4 Physical characteristics of
metals
A
It also looks to the ability of metals to be recycled and monitors the finding
of new sources. Steel is likely to be the most important metal due to its
low cost and customisable properties, but new aluminium alloys are
gaining popularity.
R

Impact of extraction and material production on communities

and wildlife
D

Large communities often grow where significant ore reserves have been
discovered. Mining and processing operations bring employment to the
area. This, however, has an impact on the landscape with the loss of habitats
for wildlife and plants, through deforestation and the destruction of
countryside.

Recycling and disposal

The process of extracting metals from ores is complicated, high in energy
costs and produces substantial waste. Although bauxite (aluminium ore)
is the most widely available ore it requires several refining processes that
add to the cost of production. Steel is currently the most processed metal,
as the ore is widely available and the conversion process is relatively
straightforward. All metals can be recycled, which should reduce the demand
on raw materials and reduce raw ore processing costs.

Ecological footprint
The extraction and processing of metal ore is having a significant impact on
the world’s natural resources (see Table 2.2.5 on page 90).

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2 Metals
Sustainability • Although 25% of the Earth’s crust is made up of metal ores, ores are a finite resource and can run out.
• Metals need to be recycled wherever possible.
Extraction and • Clearing areas for open-pit and underground mining damages the landscape.
erosion of the • Loss of habitats.
landscape • Deforestation of cleared areas can lead to soil erosion.
Processing • Processing ores requires vast energy inputs.
• Relatively small amounts of metal are produced from large amounts of ore.
Transportation • Transportation links are required to get to the raw materials and to process them.
• New road links are also needed to transport materials from the processing sites and the heavy
goods vehicles are energy hungry (they use a lot of pollutant as fuel, such as diesel).
Wastage • Processing ore into metal creates significant waste material that needs to be disposed of.
• Waste materials also need to be treated to remove any impurities.
Pollution • Release of toxins and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through processing contributes to
global warming.
• Release of contaminants into the water course or into the soil.

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• Noise and vibration from heavy machinery and mining processes.
Table 2.2.5 Ecological impacts of metal ore extraction

Summary
A
Key points to remember:
• Ferrous and non-ferrous metals have different properties.
• The working properties of both include ductility, malleability, hardness, durability, toughness, elasticity and
R
strength (both tensile and compressive).
• Understand that the ecological impacts of metal ore extraction are important.
D

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What are the properties of high carbon steel?
Challenge
C1 Explain four different ecological impacts of metal ore extraction.

2.3 The way in which the selection of metals is influenced

Learning objective
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how different factors will influence the choice of materials for a specific application.

Choosing the right metal for a product involves analysing factors beyond just
processing the metal to include aesthetic (how it looks) and external factors
such as the environment, economics, availability and social implications.

90
 2.3 The way in which the selection of metals is influenced

• Form • Colour • Texture

˚ Shape ˚ Natural/added ˚ Rough
˚ Size ˚ Finish ˚ Smooth
˚ Proportion ˚ Light/dark

• • Sustainability
production
Aesthetic ˚ Waste generation and
˚ Increased employment disposal
for specialist skills Demand on natural
• Built-in obsolescence ˚
˚ Unemployment due to resources
automation ˚ Predictable life span Transportation
˚ • Pollution
˚ Declining/increasing pay ˚ Poorer build quality ˚ Processing
˚ Air, CO2 emissions
˚ Ability to be repaired ˚ Material separation
˚ Land and water
contamination
• The consumer society
Cultural and ethical Environmental
˚ Need for new products
˚ Increase in waste products • Energy consumption in

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the production of steel
• • Corrosion and decay ˚ Processing
• Suitability for intended Not from sensitive areas Contamination into
market ˚ ˚ ˚ Transportation
of the world water or soil ˚ Running manufacturing
˚ Within price range ˚ Fair trade ˚ Failure of structure operation
˚ Safety
Examples of factors that
A
of metals for a

• Use of stock materials

• Popularity • Trends
˚ Forms
˚ More units sold ˚ Fashion
R
˚ Types
˚ Environmental/ethical ˚ Cost ˚ Cost
trends
˚ Short-lived • Use of specialist
materials
Social Availability
D

˚ Specialist alloys
• ˚ Smart metals (react
groups to changes in their
• Impact of market price environment)
˚ Education level, age, on world consumption
gender, race and demand
˚ Functionality
˚ Supply
˚ Purchasing power
˚ Demand
Cost ˚ Rarity

• Cost of recycling • Commodity price on the • Manufacturing processes • Quality of materials

London Metal Exchange
˚ Processing cost ˚ Scale of production ˚ Quality comes at a cost
(world centre for industrial
˚ ˚ Time ˚ Higher grades of material
metals trading)
˚ Reduce, reuse, recycle ˚ Simplify or use repeatable often take longer to process
˚ Fluctuations over time processes
˚ ˚ Simplify the design
˚ ˚ Podular design/standard
parts
Figure 2.3.1 Selecting metals for applications

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2 Metals

Exam-style question Apply it

Explain two ways a designer might be influenced Identify what would have influenced the choice of
when selecting materials for a metal spice rack to be metals used in a common household product of
sold at a craft fair. (4 marks) your choice.

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Metals have specific physical and working properties.
• There are social and ecological implications in the extraction and processing of metals.
• The choice of metals for different purposes is influenced by many external factors.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1
S2
S3
S4 FT
Explain two reasons why titanium would be used for a replacement hip joint.
State two metals that are commonly used to alloy with aluminium to improve its properties.
Explain two ways that a manufacturer could make a product more sustainable.
Explain three aesthetic factors that might influence a designer’s choice of materials.
Challenge
A
C1 Explain the effects on a community of a mining operation moving into the area.
C2 Investigate the reasons why recycled metal may be cheaper than using new metals.
C3 Summarise the key factors that will influence the choice of metals for a product and explain which factors
R
would be most important to a car manufacturer.

2.4 The impact of forces and stresses on metals and how

D

they can be reinforced and stiffened

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how forces and stresses affect metals
• ways to strengthen the metals mechanically or physically.

Forces and stresses Compression Tension Shear

Metals are useful because of their ability to resist static (still) or dynamic
(moving) external forces or loads, such as compression, tension, shear or
electrical or magnetic forces.

Figure 2.4.1 Types of force and stress

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 2.4 The impact of forces and stresses on metals and how they can be reinforced and stiffened

Force/stress Definition Example of item subjected

to this force/stress
Compression A force that tends to squash Chair or table legs, the
or shorten columns in a building
Tension A force that tends to Cables in a suspension
stretch or lengthen bridge, wire in a crane
Shear A force that acts in opposite Paper or blades of grass cut
directions by scissors or garden shears
Electrical Ability to conduct Electrical cables (copper,
electricity and allow the steel), contacts in circuits, Apply it
flow of electrons battery parts
Investigate the principles of a
Magnetic Metals that contain iron are Motor parts, speakers, motor and explain how a magnet
attracted to magnets electro-magnetic locks, and electrical energy are used to

FT
lathe chucks create the movement.

Table 2.4.1 Types of force and stress on metals

Reinforcement/stiffening techniques
Reinforcing or stiffening metal by hardening, tempering or changing its
A
carbon content or physical form will maximise its structural properties.

Technique Description
R
Hardening • Some steel (with a certain percentage of carbon) can
be hardened by heating and quenching in water (see
Section 2.6, page 102) but it increases brittleness
D

Tempering • Reduces steel’s brittleness and increases its toughness

once it has been hardened (see Section 2.6, page 102)

The effect of • Changing the amount of carbon in steel can

carbon content significantly change its hardness and toughness
• Mild steel has 0.15–0.35% carbon – it is a tough metal
used in construction or furniture frames
• High-carbon steel has 0.8–1.5% carbon – it is very hard
but more brittle and is used for cutting tools

Work • When metals are bent, rolled or hammered, their

hardening crystal structure becomes distorted
(work hardened)
• This makes it more difficult to work and it becomes
brittle and may crack (see Section 2.6, page 102)

Table 2.4.2 Examples of reinforcement/stiffening techniques

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2 Metals

Key terms I, U, T and C beams

Beams are used in construction for carrying large loads across a gap.
Flange: horizontal section of
Designers often try to maximise their load-carrying capabilities and
a beam.
minimise their weight by using certain cross-sectional shapes. Horizontal
Web: vertical section of a beam. parts are called flanges and vertical parts are called webs.
Cantilever: projecting beam
fixed at only one end.
Beam type

I Most common and efficient form with large

supporting flanges to spread load over larger area

U Has twice the supporting load-carrying capability

provided by the two webs

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T Weaker than ‘I’ beam due to the single flange
but often used inverted with reinforced
concrete flooring to support the blocks

C Used when a single flat face is needed but the

cantilever reduces load-carrying efficiency
A
Table 2.4.2 Load-carrying beams
R
Exam-style question
Explain one reason why an ‘I’ beam might be used in preference to a
‘T’ beam. (2 marks)
D

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Metals react to external forces and stresses acting on them.
• Metals can be reinforced or stiffened to improve their ability to carry loads.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Explain the effect of increasing the carbon content from 0.15–0.8% in steel.
S2 Explain why a ‘C’ beam has reduced load-carrying capabilities.
Challenge
C1 Draw a diagram to show how a ‘T’ beam could be used to support a concrete floor in a building.
C2 A beam supported at either end will be subjected to compressive and tensile forces. Draw a diagram to show
where these two forces will be located.

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 2.5 Stock forms, types and sizes to calculate and determine the quantity of metals required

2.5 Stock forms, types and sizes to calculate and determine

the quantity of metals required
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• about stock forms, types and sizes of metals
• how to select appropriate stock forms and types
• how metals are graded into different sizes.

Designers and manufacturers need to understand the advantages, disadvantages

and applications of using stock forms of metals for their products.

Stock forms/types
Metals used in the workshop and industry are generally available in standard

Bar
FT
forms, a practice which is cost effective and gives designers ready-made shapes
to incorporate into their designs.

Form Description

• Has a solid cross-section

Use

• General purpose
Diagram
A
• Available in different shapes construction work
including square, round, half
round, hexagonal, flat, angle and
R
channel

Sheet • Comes as flat sheets ranging in • Washing machine

thickness from 0.6–3 mm casing, radiators
D

Plate • Sheet metal more than • Heavy-duty work,

3 mm thick ship hulls

Pipe/tube • Has a hollow section • Water pipes, general

• Shapes include square, construction work
rectangular, round and hexagonal where reduced
weight is important

Table 2.5.1 Stock form types Contd…

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2 Metals
Form Description Use Diagram
Castings • Liquid metal is poured into a • G-clamps, workshop
mould and sets into shape vices, anvils

Extrusions • A metal billet (small bar) is • Complex cross-

pushed through a die to make the sectional shapes,
desired cross-sectional shape window frames Extrusion
Billet Die

Wire

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• A strand of metal is drawn
through a plate to make the
desired cross-sectional shape
• Electrical wire, brake
cables
Drawn wire
Draw plate

Undrawn wire
A
R
Powder • Powdered metal is heated at just • Bearings, gears
metallurgy below its melting temperature
and compacted into specified
shapes
D

Table 2.5.1 Stock form types

number typically ranges from 1 to 30 and as the number

Exam-style question
increases, the material thickness decreases.
Explain two reasons why a company might prefer
to use stock forms of metal when manufacturing a
washing machine. (4 marks) Gauge Thickness (approximate)
5 5.4 mm
Sizes 10 3.25 mm
Metals are available in a range of sizes to suit
different applications. 15 1.8 mm
20 0.91 mm
Gauge
25 0.5 mm
Sheet metal comes in a range of thicknesses that can
be graded by a number called its gauge. The gauge Table 2.5.2 Gauge numbers for different metal thicknesses

96
 2.5 Stock forms, types and sizes to calculate and determine the quantity of metals required

Cross-sectional area Diameter

Calculating the cross-sectional area of a metal Solid tubes come in different
enables you to calculate the weight and design in stock forms that are measured
adjustments. The cross-sectional area is found by by the diameter (Ø) of the
cutting a section through the metal and measuring cross-section. Diameter
Figure 2.5.2 Measuring diameter
the solid shape.
Wall thickness of tubes
Maths in practice 1 Tubes have an internal and external diameter. It is
Cross-sectional areas important to know both diameters and the gauge
Use these formulas to work out cross-sectional areas. when designing with tube. By subtracting the internal
Note that the radius is half of the diameter. diameter from the external diameter, you can calculate
• Area of a square or rectangle = length × width the wall thickness. This will also be its gauge.
• Area of a circle = πr 2 (i.e.
3.142 × radius × radius)
Wall
• Area of a triangle = half External A Internal B C thickness
A

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the length of the base × diameter diameter
(gauge)
perpendicular height
Hint: break irregular shapes B
into squares, rectangles, C Figure 2.5.3 Calculating tube wall thickness
triangles
or circles D Exam-style question
A
• What is the area of this Calculate the cross-sectional area of the three metal
irregular shape? Each grid forms in Figure 2.5.4. (5 marks)
a)a) b)b) c)c)
square represents 40mm
Figure 2.5.1 40mm
3030 mm
R
10 cm × 10 cm. a)a) b)b) mm c)c)
40mm
40mm
Irregular shape 30mm
30mm 40mm
40mm
Area = area of square A + 15mm
15mm
3030mm
mm
40mm
40mm
area of rectangle B + area of 30mm
30mm
15mm
15mm
triangle C + area
a) of rectangle D b) c)
D

30mm
a) 40mm
= 30 × 30 + 10 × 20 + ½ × 10 × 10 + 40 × 10 b) c)
30 mm 30mm
24mm
40mm 40mm
= 900 + 200 + 50 + 400
30mm 30 mm 24mm
40mm 15mm
= 1550 cm2 30mm 15mm
Figure 2.5.4 Cross-sectional areas

Summary
Key points to remember:
there are different uses for the different forms of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Give a short description of extrusions, and the uses of them.
Challenge
C1 How are metals graded into different sizes?

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2 Metals

2.6 Alternative processes that can be used to manufacture

metal products to different scales of production

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how metals are processed for specific purposes
• how scales and methods of production will vary depending on demand.

Metals can be joined and shaped in several ways depending on the required
scale of production. The choice of processing method will have an impact on
profits as machinery and equipment can be very expensive.

Processes
Forging

FT
Forging involves heating metal to soften it and then hammering it
into shape. It can be completed on a small scale, such as the work of
a blacksmith, or by applying greater forces (drop forging) using large
machinery for a greater output.
A
Forged metal is stronger than cast metal as the hammering creates a tight
grain structure. It is also tougher and has good wear resistance.
R

Ram
D

Punch

Workpiece
Flash
Die

Anvil

Figure 2.6.1 Drop forging

Stages in The metal is heated up to The metal is hammered or The heating/cooling cycle
forging metal the desired temperature drop-forged into shape is repeated as necessary

Figure 2.6.2 Forging metal

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 2.6 Alternative processes that can be used to manufacture metal products to different scales of production

Casting
Stages in making
When casting, the metal is heated to a molten state and then poured into a a sand casting
mould to create the desired shape using either sand casting or die casting.

Sand casting
The quality of finish depends on the quality of the mould and the type of sand A split pattern is created. Half of
used. Sand casting is generally used for larger objects such as tank tracks, the pattern is placed in the moulding
box (drag), with powder dusted over
vices or G-clamps, where the quality of finish is not the highest priority. It is
the pattern to help release it
usually completed in small quantities as the mould has to be re-made after
each casting.

Strickling off Sand is packed around the pattern

1 2 and smoothed off
Spruce pins Cope
Sand Drag

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The drag is turned over and the cope,
Sand the runner and riser (sprue pins) are put
on top and the mould with the second
half of the pattern is powder dusted
Pouring basin

Sand
3 4
Sand
A
Sand is packed around the
pattern, smoothed off and pouring
basin created
R
Sand Sand

The pattern, runner and riser are

removed, and channels and vents
Molten metal
Riser
D

Vents Vents

5 6
The metal is poured into the hole left
by the runner until it appears in the riser
Mould hole, it is then left to cool, the casting

Figure 2.6.4 Stages of sand casting

Sand Sand

Figure 2.6.3 Sand casting

Die
Goose neck

Plunger Ejection pins

Die casting
This is generally used for smaller products such as toy cars
Chamber Mould cavity
or small parts in household machinery as the process is
repeatable at a high quality in large quantities. A die is a Nozzle

shaped piece of metal, often with a hole in it that uniquely Molten metal
matches the shape of the product to be cast. Figure 2.6.5 Die casting

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2 Metals
Powder metallurgy (sintering)
Stages in making Stages in the powder
a die casting metallurgy process This is the process of forming powdered metal into
specified shapes at just below its melting temperature.
The mix of metal powders can contain additives to
The metal powder is mixed
improve the properties of finished products, such as
A die is produced to create bearings and engine parts.
with additives such as lubricant
the desired shape
wax, carbon, copper or nickel

Stamping
Stamping is used to cold-form a metal sheet into a three-
Molten metal is collected The powder is put into a former dimensional shape. It is commonly used to manufacture
in the chamber and pressed into shape car body panels or for casing on kitchen appliances.

A plunger forces the molten metal The compressed powder is then

into the cavity in the die and pressure heated to just below its melting
is maintained to allow for shrinkage temperature (sintered) Upper

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mould

The die is opened, the casting

The mould is opened and
removed and allowed to cool, Lower
the part removed
and waste is removed mould
Sheet metal
A
Figure 2.6.6 Die casting Figure 2.6.7 Powder
process metallurgy process Figure 2.6.8 Stamping
R
Stages in the
Extrusion Stages in the extrusion
process
stamping process Extrusion is the process of producing a
defined cross-sectional shape with a good
finish. The shape is achieved by pushing the
D

metal billet through a die. Extrusion often has

A two-part mould is created from A die is created with an opening
complicated cross-sections that are used in in the desired shape
steel for the shape to be stamped
many applications, such as aluminium window
frames or metal tubes. Extrusion can be done
when the metal is hot or cold depending on
the relative softness of the metal. The metal is brought to the die
The sheet metal is placed between (and may need heating to
the upper and lower moulds Pressure pad a softening temperature)
Container

The upper mould is brought

The billet is pushed through the
down onto the lower mould Die holder die with great force
at high pressure
Ram

The sheet is stamped and The extrusion is fed along a

any waste is removed Billet lead-out table, chopped to the
Die desired length and cooled.

Figure 2.6.9 Stamping process Figure 2.6.10 Extrusion Figure 2.6.11 Extrusion stages

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 2.6 Alternative processes that can be used to manufacture metal products to different scales of production

Welding Stages in the arc (electrical)

Welding fuses two metals by melting them together. The joint produced welding process
is as strong as the parent material. The most common techniques are arc
(electrical) and oxy fuel (acetylene) welding.
Materials to be welded
In industry, robots carry out many welding processes and, to reduce costs, are brought together
parts may be spot welded (welded at a number of separate points) to
give a line of localised welds that will provide sufficient strength, e.g. to
join car body panels. A metal electrode is attached, creating low
Current conductor Solid wire electrode
Shielding gas voltage but high current of 10–120 amps

Travel Power is applied and the arc produced from the electrode to
the torch creates heat, resulting in a pool of molten metal

Wire guide and contact tube Nozzle

Shielding gas Arc
More joining material is applied,

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if required, via a filler rod
Base metal

Molten weld metal

Figure 2.6.12 Arc welding
The user moves the heat source and filler rod
along until they have created a full join
Exam-style question
A
Use notes and/or sketches to show the process of sand casting. (4 marks) Figure 2.6.13 Arc (electrical) welding
process
R
Stages in the oxy fuel (acetylene)
welding process

Filler rod Acetylene gas in

D

Materials to be welded
are brought together Welding torch

Primary
Acetylene torch is lit and adjusted for combustion
maximum heat (around 1200°C)

Oxygen gas in

The heat melts the metals to be joined and

a pool of molten metal is created Travel

Shielding gas
More joining material is applied,
Metal droplet
if required, via a filler rod Solidified
weld metal
Base metal

The user moves the heat source and filler rod along to
weld a strip until they have created a full join
Molten weld metal
Figure 2.6.14 Oxy fuel welding stages Figure 2.6.15 Oxy fuel welding

101
2 Metals
Stages in the process Hardening
of hardening steel The properties of metals can be changed by heating and cooling in a defined
way (hardening and tempering). Metals can also harden after being worked and
will need to be annealed (reformed) to reduce internal stresses. Case hardening
is a third method of hardening metal but this only affects the outer surface.
The steel is heated to a defined temperature, which
rearranges the carbon atoms within the structure The hardness of steel also varies depending on its carbon content with mild
steel having approximately 0.1–0.3 per cent carbon content and high-carbon
steels having approximately 0.55–0.95 per cent carbon content.

The steel is then quenched in water which results Tempering

in a much harder but brittle material. Hardening steel by heating and quenching in water rearranges the carbon atoms
Figure 2.6.16 Hardening stages within the steel structure and locks the steel to a new structure. The material is
much harder but brittle. It is therefore important to temper the steel to reduce
Stages in the process brittleness and increase toughness.
of tempering steel
Work hardening and annealing Apply it
When metals are bent, rolled Research the advantages and

FT
or hammered, their crystal disadvantages of each of these
The steel is cleaned with an emery
cloth so the oxide colours can be seen structure becomes distorted processes. Consider:
and the metals become work • the cost of equipment
hardened. This makes the • which types of metal they suit and
The steel is heated to a defined temperature, which material harder to work and it do not suit
is indicated by the colour of the steel
becomes brittle and may crack. • the amount of waste and energy
A
To prevent this, the metal needs consumption
to be annealed to release the • relative accuracy and speed
When the correct temperature is reached, the steel is quenched • the size of production runs.
in water to reduce brittleness and increase toughness internal stresses.
R
Figure 2.6.17 Tempering stages
Temperature Colour of heated Examples
(°F) (°C) carbon steel
Stages in the process of annealing 600 316 Scrapers,
copper and silver
D

spokeshaves
560 293 Screwdrivers,
springs, gears
The copper or silver is cleaned with an emery 540 282 Cold chisels,
centre punches
cloth so you can see the colour
520 271 Taps ≤ 1/4
inch
500 260 Axes, wood
The copper or silver is heated chisels, drifts,
until it is bright red Taps ≥ 1/4 inch,
nut taps, thread dies
480 249 Twist drills, large taps,
knurls
It is soaked at this temperature 460 238 Dies, punches, bits,
until the crystal structure reforms reamers
450 232 Twist drills for hard
use
440 227 Lathe tools, scrapers,
The copper or silver is allowed to milling, cutters,
cool very slowly in the air reamers
430 221 Reamers Table 2.6.1 The tempering
Figure 2.6.18 Annealing copper and
420 216 Knives, hammers colours of steel
silver
102
 2.6 Alternative processes that can be used to manufacture metal products to different scales of production

Case hardening
Stages in the process Case hardening is the hardening of
of case hardening steels mild steels by increasing the carbon
content on the outer surface. This will
increase the hardness of the surface
and improve the steel’s wear. Examples
The steel is heated to around 950°C of this are bearing, gear or cam
surfaces where the wear only occurs
Mild steel on the outer surfaces, or for tools that
heated to may need sharpening so the depth of
950°C
The steel is placed in a carbon-rich hardness needs to be greater.
environment, like a bath of
powdered carbon
Scales of production
The choice of manufacturing
End or repeat until the surface has absorbed process will depend on many
Powdered
the desired carbon content, depending on carbon factors. The scale of production,

FT
the depth of hardness required based on demand, is important
and will have a large impact on
Figure 2.6.19 Case the cost effectiveness of the
hardening steels Figure 2.6.20 Case hardening manufacturing process.

Scale of Potential advantages Potential disadvantages

A
production
One-off • Each product is unique • Expensive
e.g. a • Workers tend to be highly skilled • Higher cost of materials
R
custom • Products often higher quality • Production times are longer as they are
motorcycle labour intensive
• Client-led
D

Batch • Set number of products manufactured, so suited • Storage of the batches

e.g. metal to products that are made in limited quantities • Repetitive work
hinges and • Workers are more flexible to respond to demand • Time and money lost in changing
locks • Can allow more customer choice production set-up
• Cheaper, as relatively more units are made

Mass • Large quantity of products at low unit cost • Repetitive work for remaining workforce
e.g. cars • Often automated, so fewer workers needed • High initial tooling and set-up costs
and car • Costs are lower due to the economies of scale • Breaks in production are expensive
parts
Continuous • Production lines run 24 hours a day, seven days a • Repetitive work for remaining workforce
e.g. week, so there is less down time as they are just ‘minding’ machinery
continuous • Thousands of identical products are manufactured • Initial tooling and set-up costs are high
casting of with minimum input
steel • Meets high level of demand and highly automated
• Materials can be bought more cheaply due to
economies of scale
Table 2.6.2 Scales of production

103
2 Metals
Techniques for high-volume production
Exam-style question
When manufacturing in metal it is important to look
Give one method of production that is most suitable for ways to improve accuracy and the level of output so
for manufacturing a large quantity of metal furniture that products are made more efficiently and at a higher
at low cost. (1 mark) quality. This can be achieved by adopting a number of
key manufacturing methods.

Apply it Marking-out methods

Make a list of all the areas where a company will save To mark out outlines on metal you need to use different
costs if they choose mass production, compared to methods to accurately scratch the surface. This may not
batch production. give a clear mark so engineers often use a quick drying
spirit liquid that is blue in colour, known as ‘marking
blue’. With all marking out, you need to decide on a
Link it up datum face, which is where all subsequent marks can be
For more information about marking out, see page 226. measured from.

Tool
Scriber
Uses

FT
Used for marking lines
Details
A
Odd leg Used to mark a parallel line to an edge
calipers
R

Engineer’s Used with a scriber to mark lines at 900 to scriber

D

square the edge The square is pushed up against the scriber

then the mark is made across the work

square

Centre Used to create an indent for the exact

punch centre of a hole for drilling, or a series of
‘dots’ along a curve to indicate where a line
is to be cut

Table 2.6.3 Tools used in different marking-out methods Cont…

104
 2.6 Alternative processes that can be used to manufacture metal products to different scales of production

Tool Uses Details

Dividers Used to mark out arcs or circles

Surface plate Vee block

Made from cast iron with a flat surface to allow accurate Used to hold round metal objects so that they can be
marking with a variety of tools marked accurately – often used in conjunction with a
surface plate

square scriber

FT
A
surface plate

Table 2.6.3 Tools used in different marking-out methods

R
Ensuring quality when producing in quantity Patterns
Patterns are replicas of the product to be cast, which are
Jigs used in the sand-casting process. They are often slightly
A jig is a device for holding work in place that helps
D

larger to cater for shrinkage. The quality of the pattern

when carrying out repetitive manufacturing methods. is directly related to the quality of the casting made – it
The jig holds the work in the same position and then the can be made from cheaper material that is easier to
cutting tool is guided to the correct place, such as a jig work and can be used many times.
for drilling accurate holes in a metal bar.
Moulds
Fixtures When casting (sand or die), the mould is the hollow
Fixtures are similar to jigs, but they are fixed in position container that the molten metal is poured into. This
to line up with the tools being used. An example of can be sand, in the case of sand casting, and once the
this would be a vice clamped to the table of a milling metal has been poured into the mould, it will then cool,
machine or pillar drill. harden and be removed from the mould, having taken
the shape of the original pattern. In die casting, the
Templates mould/die will be machined from a steel block.
Templates are used if you need to mark out the same
points, or shape, onto metal a number of times. The Sub-assembly
template is made to the exact size of the shape to be Sub-assemblies are a number of components that have
cut or the location of holes. It can then be fixed to the been assembled and used as an individual component in
metal surface each time. a larger product. This means that the sub-assembly is built
to a uniform specification, quality tested in its own right

105
2 Metals
and can be replaced in its entirety. An example of this could be a standard DVD
module that is inserted into a variety of different desktop computers.

Computer-aided manufacture (CAM)

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) uses a computer to guide the cutters
on a computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine. CAM allows for
repeatable processes on machines, such as milling machines or lathes, to be
carried out quickly, accurately and safely. CAM will ultimately increase the
number of products made and reduce human error.

Quality control
Quality control is the systematic checking of parts or products to ensure
that they are the correct standard. It is impractical to check all parts
and products, as it would be too expensive and time consuming, so
manufacturers look at key areas of production and introduce sampling in
order to maximise the checks made in relation to cost.

Working within tolerance

FT
Tolerance is the level of accuracy that a manufacturer sets on any product
made. It is important to set a tolerance, so that parts will fit together and
work. Tolerances on some products will be extremely high, such as in the
manufacture of engines, but other products may have a wider tolerance
without affecting quality, such as the frame of a swing.
A
Minimising waste
Materials tend to come in standard sizes and manufacturers need to ensure
that they plan the cutting of the material to suit stock sizes and maximise
the available material. If a manufacturer is cutting a number of pieces from a
R
sheet of steel, large savings can be made if parts are cut efficiently.

Maths in practice 2 50 mm

Calculating waste
D

A manufacturer needs to cut out four ‘L’ Waste from method A

shaped pieces of steel from a strip that is 50 mm
50 mm wide. 30 mm
• Calculate how much metal will be saved Waste from method B
if the manufacture changes the cutting
25 mm
method from A to B.
Method A
Area of one ‘L’ shape = 50 × 50 – 30 × 25 =
1750 mm2
Area of four ‘L’ shapes = 4 × 1750 = 7000 mm2 50 mm
Method A
Area of strip used = 4 × 50 × 50 = 10,000 mm2
Method B Method B
Area of strip used = 2 × (50 + 25) × 50 =
7500 mm2
Amount of metal saved = 10,000 – 7500 = 50 mm
2500 mm2
Figure 2.6.21

106
 2.7 Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Processed metals come in a range of shapes, sizes and forms.
• Metals can be processed by forging, casting, stamping, welding, extrusion and powder metallurgy.
• The hardness of metals can be changed, depending on the type of metal and strength properties needed.
• The scale of production should match the quality and quantity required.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 State the maximum thickness of sheet steel.
S2 Describe how you would calculate the wall thickness of aluminium tube.
S3 Explain what is meant by the term ‘gauge’ when referring to sheet metal.

FT
S4 Explain two reasons why die casting would be used in preference to sand casting for manufacturing a toy car.
S5 Explain what is meant by mass production.
Challenge
C1 Examine the design of a set of crutches, and justify why it is important for a manufacturer to have considered
the internal and external dimensions of the tube.
A
C2 Summarise the process of turning metal into a wire.
R
2.7 Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes
that can be used to shape, fabricate, construct and assemble
D

a high-quality metal prototype

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how to select the process for shaping materials
• how to fabricate metals by reshaping or joining them
• how to assemble component parts using temporary methods.

The ways metals are processed depend on the scale of production, levels of
accuracy required and skills of the workforce. Designers need to choose the
most appropriate manufacturing methods based on the advantages and
disadvantages of the tools and processes available.

107
2 Metals
Tools and equipment
A wide variety of tools and equipment is available to shape, fabricate,
construct and assemble ferrous and non-ferrous metals into prototypes.

Description Examples Advantages Disadvantages

Hand tools Held in the hand, do not Saws, tin snips, Relatively cheap, easy Only as accurate
need an external power (see page 111) to source, do not need as the user, time
source files, twist drills, an energy source consuming, not
hammers as safe as other
methods, more highly
skilled users required
Machinery Has complex mechanism Bandsaw, More accurate than Higher cost,
and usually requires power powered hacksaw, hand tools, provides increased potential
guillotine, pipe greater mechanical for serious injury
benders, pillar advantage to perform

FT
drill the task, saves time
Digital Tools connected to a CNC lathe (see Very accurate, saves Expensive, loss of
design and computer system that can page 75), milling time and can operate skill level
manufacture make calculations, process machine, drilling 24/7, repeatable
data and provide real-time machine process from program,
feedback to the user high levels of safety
A
Table 2.7.1 Types of tools and equipment

Apply it
R
Explain why using a CNC machine is likely to be safer than doing the work
by hand. Then, describe four advantages of using CNC machines in the
manufacture of washers for a bicycle wheel.
D

Shaping
Shaping metals into the form required to build a prototype will involve
several processes that can cut, deform or reform the metal.

Filing
Files are made from high-carbon steel and are used to remove small
amounts of metal. Files are characterised by their length, shape and cut.

The cut relates to the type of work that is to be carried out. Files are
classified into grades:

• Rough or bastard are used for coarse work and softer metals.
• Second is a general purpose file.
• Smooth or dead smooth are for fine work and finishing.
• Dreadnought has curved teeth for rapid removal of soft metals, such as
aluminium and copper.
• Needle files are smaller and are used for precision work.

108
 2.7 Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes

Tang
Length of file in millimetres

Plastic or hardwood
Needle file Soft
Hard temper
Safe edge
Flat file

Enlarged cross-section of file

Half-round file

file
Direction of stroke
Knife file
Curved Material
tooth file
Apply just enough pressure
Three square file to make the file cut

FT
Single
cut file file
Square file

Material
Double
Round file cut file Teeth cut on the forward stroke only
A
Figure 2.7.1 Types of file Files are generally used in two ways.

1 Cross filing removes larger amounts of waste by filing diagonally down

R
the length of the material.
2 Draw filing is a finishing method after cross filing by filing along the
length of the material.
D

Cross filing

Draw filing

Figure 2.7.2 Cross and draw filing

109
2 Metals
Cutting
Cutting (sawing) uses the teeth on the saw blade to drive a wedge into the
metal to force the waste material to split off. The teeth will cut a groove
wider than the blade (kerf) so that the blade does not jam. The pitch is the
number of teeth per section of the blade.
Hacksaw

Kerf created
by the set
Direction of cut

Pitch = number of teeth per inch or 25 mm

Set
Figure 2.7.3 Pitch and kerf

Saw type Description Details

Hacksaw

FT
• A replaceable blade is held in tension
• Teeth face forward and cut on
forward stroke
• The blade can be angled
Handle
Adjusting screw Frame
A
Blade Stud
Wing nut
Stud adjuster
R

24 TPI
D

Junior Like a hacksaw but with fine teeth for

hacksaw cutting thin material

Piercing Thin blade with fine teeth for cutting

saw curves in thin metal

Abrafile Toothed circular blade that fits into a

hacksaw frame for cutting curves

Table 2.7.2 Types of hand saws for cutting metal

110
 2.7 Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes

Metal saws can also be powered, for example: Drilling

Drills make holes by using a wedge action to cut away
• Jig saws are used for cutting some sheet metals.
the material. In a workshop, drilling is normally carried
• Powered hacksaws can cut steel up to 15 mm. out on a hand drill, portable power drill or a drilling
• Bandsaws are fitted with metal-cutting blades. machine called a pillar drill. When drilling metal, larger
Shearing drills need to run at slower speeds so they do not have
Shearing metal uses two cutting edges that come reduced cutting ability and overheat.
together and pass by each other in a shearing action,
like a pair of scissors. There are two methods of
shearing, depending on the thickness of the material.

Type Uses Details

Tin snips • Hand tool for cutting thin sheet metal

• Can cut intricate shapes

Guillotine

FT
Used for cutting thicker sheet material in
straight lines
A
R
D

Table 2.7.3 Types of tools for shearing metal

Drill type Twist drills Machine countersink Counter bore

Uses Cutting straight holes Has a 90° angle to create a Cutting flat bottomed holes to
seating for the screw head recess bolt heads

Features
Shank

Flute

Counter bore Counter bore

Pilot Pilot
Point hole hole
Cutting edge
Spur

Table 2.7.4 Types of drills bits for metal

111
2 Metals

Key terms Turning

Centre lathes ‘turn’ cylindrical metal bars to reduce their thickness or to
Chuck: is a clamp that will hold shape them. Work is held in a chuck (clamp) that is rotated while the tool is
cylindrical items, such as drills or held firmly in a tool post. As the work rotates against the cutting tool, the
mills or a rotating work piece on ‘wedge’ action cuts away the material. The tools are made from high-speed
a centre lathe. steel (special steel with high wear resistance) or may have replaceable
Tungsten carbide: a type of tungsten carbide tips. Rotation speeds are set depending on the thickness
metal made up from tungsten and of the bar and the speed of rotation. A lubricant eases the cutting process,
cobalt, which results in a tool that cools the metal and flushes away the swarf (waste).
has greater shock resistance. Centre lathes can have CNC capability.

Facing Parallel turning Taper turning

Parting
FT Drilling Knurling
A
R
D

Figure 2.7.4 The six main operations of turning to produce desired cuts

Exam-style question
Use note and/or sketches to show the process of turning the aluminium
drawer handle shown in the diagram below on a centre lathe. (4 marks)
20 mm 30 mm

12 mm 30 mm
5 mm diameter hole

Figure 2.7.5 Aluminium drawer handle

112
 2.7 Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes

Vertical milling Vertical milling

Cross travel Long travel

Vertical milling

FT
Vertical travel
(depth of cut)
A
Horizontal milling
R
D

Horizontal milling

Milling machine

Figure 2.7.6 Milling machine and operation

Milling
Horizontal milling
Milling shaves off waste from a block’s surface to form a desired shape.
Although there are many shapes of cutters there are only two types of
milling operation, horizontal and vertical. Both operations can cut specific
shapes into solid metals.

Milling machines can be computer numerically controlled (CNC).

113
2 Metals

Link it up Bending
Metals can be bent by:
You have already looked at
forging, presswork, stamping and • forging
annealing in Section 2.6, pages • sheet metalwork
98–102. • tube bending
• presswork/stamping.

Beaten metalwork
Beaten metalwork is the term for curved malleable metals such as dishes, bowls
and trophies. The metal can be beaten into shape with mallets and hammers.
During this process the metals will work harden and need to be annealed.

Process Description Details

Hollowing Stretches sheet material into a bowl shape

FT
with a bossing mallet and hollows the
metal into a sand-filled leather bag

Sinking Stretches the material, giving a defined

edge, which is put against a block and
A
forced into the desired shape
R

Raising Creates tall-sided shapes

D

The action increases the thickness of the

metal, which needs to be hit above the
stake to force it to thicken

Planishing A finishing process that evens out the Square flat face
Planishing
surface by removing blemishes. Planishing hammer
hammers are polished to give a high- Circular domed
quality finish face

Mushroom
stake
Even-weighted
overlapping hammer
blows producing even faces

Table 2.7.5 Examples of bending processes

114
 2.7 Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes
Tube

Piece of wood Sheet metalwork

Sheet metalwork creates a more defined shape from sheet materials
on a small scale by forcing the metal around folding bars or by using
Hammer
a vice. On a larger scale it works by using a folding machine to make
straight lines or rollers to create curves.
Tube bending Power-driven
Folding bars rollers
Tube bending uses shaped formers or rollers to bend tubes into
curved shapes without the material buckling.

Tube Stationary bend die Tube

Figure 2.7.7 Sheet metalwork

Movable pressure die

Link it up
The processes for reforming
metals were covered in Section
2.6 on page 102. For more
information on welding and
FT Power-driven
rollers

Abrading/grinding
Abrading tools remove
Stationary bend die small amounts of
Clamping block

Figure 2.7.8 Two tube-bending methods

waste by filing or using abrasive

Tube
A
papers or grind wheels. Abrasive powders are either bonded to a backing or
casting, see pages 101 and 105.
formed into a specific shape.

Type of Description Details

Figure 2.7.19 Two tube bending methods
R
abrasive Movable pressure die
Wet and • Made with silicon carbide
dry paper • When wet the waste is washed away
D

Clamping block
and it also acts as a lubricant
• Has very fine to medium grade

Emery cloth • Made with aluminium oxide, flexible

cloth-backed abrasive in medium to
coarse grit

Disc/angle • Electric or pneumatic, with a disc

grinder made from an abrasive powder, such
as aluminium oxide, silicon carbide or
ceramic grains

Table 2.7.6 Common abrasive/grinding methods for metal

115
2 Metals
Fabricating/constructing Soldering (hard)
Fabricating or constructing metals involves processes Hard soldering joins metals with low melting
such as bending, joining or reforming to change them temperatures, such as brass or copper. The process is the
into the desired structures. same as brazing, but the hard solders are in the melting
range of 625–800°C, enabling several joints to be made
Brazing on a complex product that needs to be assembled in
Brazing permanently joins metal using an alloy with a stages.
lower melting point. Brazing is a strong method of joining
metals by using a different alloy and is ideal for steel. Punching
Punching produces
identical shapes, such Punch
as chain links or washers
out of sheet metal. The
A
process requires short-
term large forces. The
punching process can

FT
be carried out in two Die
ways: piercing (when the
Figure 2.7.9 Brazing shape punched out is
wastage) and blanking
(when the shape B
Stages in the
brazing process punched out is kept).
A
Figure 2.7.11 Punching

Stages in the
The steel to be joined is cleaned with
R
punching process
abrasive paper to remove oxides
D

Flux (borax) is spread around the A punch and a matching

joint to prevent oxidation and die hole are produced

Metals are held in place with The sheet metal is fed through
wire as the torch and heat could the die and punch
make them move

The punch is forced through the strip

Joint is heated to the correct of metal and the metal is sheared on
temperature (875°C) the edges of the die

Filler rod (copper–zinc alloy)

The process is repeated to
is melted and allowed to
make more shapes

Figure 2.7.10 Brazing process Figure 2.7.12 Punching process

116
 2.7 Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes

Riveting: snap and pop

Stages in the
snap-riveting process Riveting is a quick method of joining sheet materials. The choice of rivet (metal
pin) is important and depends on the strength required in the joint, the metals
being joined and the ability to access both sides of the parts being joined.

Snap rivets are made from aluminium, copper or soft mild steel and can be
A hole is drilled between
two sheets of metal countersunk, flat or round head.

Pop rivets are ideal when you have access to only one side of the joint and
are quicker to insert. However, the rivet is hollow and is not as strong as a
The rivet is placed in the hole and the snap rivet.
underside is supported in the ‘snap’
or ‘dolly’ in a vice

Rivet gun
A ball pein hammer spreads
the rivet from the top side

Another rivet snap forms the

completed shape, or it is fitted
flush to the countersink

Figure 2.7.13 Snap-riveting process

FT Steel pin Pin breaks off
A
Hollow rivet
body completed
Stages in the rivet
R
pop-riveting process
D

A connecting hole is drilled

between two sheets of metal
Enlarged pop rivet

Figure 2.7.15 Pop riveting

A rivet is placed in the rivet gun
and pushed into the hole
Exam-style question
Use notes and/or sketches to show the process of riveting two sheets of
3 mm sheet metal. (4 marks)
Trigger pulls the steel pin
through the hole
Exam tip
Remember that marks will be awarded for understanding of design and
technology, not how well you can draw.
Pressure is applied until
the pin breaks off

Figure 2.7.14 Pop-riveting stages

117
2 Metals
Wastage
Stages in the
Many metal processes, such as sawing, piercing, stamping, tapping process
drilling or turning, involve the removal of material. Waste
should be reused or recycled where possible.

Addition A hole is drilled to the correct

diameter to match the tap, which
Metal fabrication often involves adding component
is smaller than the intended screw
parts to create a product. Manufacturers need to look
at the most effective method based on cost, strength
and process. Additional processes include riveting,
adhesives, welding and brazing, which can be carried The hole needs to be deeper than
required to allow the swarf (waste)
out in the factory or, for large structures, parts are made to have somewhere to fall
separately and added on site.

Link it up
The taper tap is placed in the wrench
For more information on other fabricating and and turned halfway to start cutting

FT
constructing methods, such as welding and stamping,
see pages 100 and 101. For sheet metalwork see
page 115.
Turn a quarter turn back
to cut the swarf
Assembling
A
Joining metal using standard components can make the
product cheaper, and easier to assemble and dismantle
in the future.
This is continued until you reach the required depth
R
and then repeat with plug and bottoming taps
Tapping/threading
Screw cutting is the process of either putting a thread in Figure 2.7.17 Tapping process
a hole (tapping) or putting a thread on a bar (threading).
D

Both processes will require lubrication to produce

accurate and smooth threads. Rotation

Set of taps
Tapping cuts an internal (female) thread using a tap wrench
and a sequence of taps called taper, plug and bottoming.

Tap

Cross-section Workpiece
Tap wrench through tap

Cutting
edge

Flutes to
remove swart Taper Plug Bottoming

Figure 2.7.16 Tapping

118
 2.7 Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes

Threading cuts an external (male) thread using a die

stock and a suitable die. Stages in the
threading process
‘Drunken’ thread:
‘Drunken’ the the
thread: die die
is not square
is not squaretotothe
the axis
axis ofofthe
therod
rod

The split die is placed in the

die stock and adjusted using
the three screws

The written information on

the die must be visible so that
it is the correct way around

The end of the bar is chamfered

Figure 2.7.18 Threading to allow an easier start

FT
Fastening
Nuts, bolts and washers are all classed as temporary
fastenings as they can be easily undone to allow items The die is placed on the end of
to be dismantled. They are all standard components that the bar and cutting is started
match the ISO (metric) screw threads.

Apply it
A
This continues down the bar making
Investigate other areas of design and technology that one clockwise turn and a quarter
turn back to cut the swarf
are affected by the ISO (metric) system and find out
why the standard is important.
R

Nuts The thread must be checked to ensure it is square,

A nut fits onto a threaded bar or bolt and will have a adjust screws and repeat if necessary
D

matching thread form. Nuts come in a range of types for

specific purposes. Figure 2.7.19 Threading process

Type of nut Features Details

Standard • General purpose
hexagonal • Six sides, needs tools to be tightened but
nut can loosen with vibrations
Wing nut Can be fastened without tools but will
loosen with vibrations

Nylon Prevents the nut loosening through

locking nut vibrations as it has a plastic insert, but
(nyloc) needs tools to be tightened

Table 2.7.7 Types of nut

119
2 Metals
Bolts
Bolts are strong and generally made from high-tensile steel. They have square or
hexagonal heads and are classified by length in addition to the ISO metric sizes.
Washers
These protect surfaces when the bolt rotates when tightened. They also
spread the load over a wider surface and some washers, such as lock washers,
will prevent parts from coming loose through vibration.

Machine screws Bolts are strong and generally made

Machine or set screws are another temporary fitting, but are smaller than from high tensile steel
bolts and come in a range of diameters with threads in the ISO metric sizing.
The thread goes up to the head, and the shape of the head varies to fit a
range of tools.
Hexagon
The screws
Cheese Counter-
are mainly made from steel or brass.
headed
Hexagon head
Cheese sunk
Counter- Pan-head
screw screw head PoziDriv® Grub Socket head Cap screw
headed head sunk screw
Pan-head
screw Csk head®
PoziDriv screw screwhead
screw screw head screw Grub Socket Cap screw
screw Csk head screw screw

FT
Different types of washers (spring and
plain washers)

Exam-style question
Figure 2.7.20 Types of screw Give one mechanical fittings that
could prevent a nut from working
A
Use of adhesives loose on a bicycle wheel. (1 mark)
Adhesives are used for gluing two surfaces together. Two types of glue can
be used for bonding metal in specific ways.
R
Type of adhesive Features Application Example uses
Contact adhesive Joins dissimilar materials, joins Applied to both surfaces to be Sticking laminates
on contact so no repositioning, joined, left to dry and then brought to surfaces
economical into contact
D

Epoxy resin Two parts, joins dissimilar materials, Equal amounts of hardener and resin Setting stones
(e.g. Araldite®) expensive in quantities, takes a long mixed together, applied to parts to be in jewellery
time to fully cure (1–2 days), brittle, glued, hardening (chemical reaction)
water resistant, good gap filling begins immediately
Table 2.7.8 Types of adhesive

Summary
Key points to remember:
• the way metals are processed depends on three things: the scale of production, levels of accuracy required
and skills of the workforce.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Identify tools that are suitable for shaping, fabricating or assembling.
Challenge
C1 Explain the tapping process in detail.

120
 2.8 Appropriate surface treatments and finishes

2.8 Appropriate surface treatments and finishes

that can be applied to metals for functional and
aesthetic purposes
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how to apply finishing techniques to ferrous and non-ferrous metals
• about the advantages and disadvantages of different finishing techniques.

Surface finishes and treatments

Surface finishes and treatments are used to enhance the aesthetics of
metals (appearance) or, in the case of steel, to form a protective layer to
prevent degradation through rusting.

Finish FT
Description
All metals first need to be chemically cleaned or degreased using white spirit
or paraffin to allow the finish to adhere to the surface.

How applied Advantages Disadvantages

A
Paint • Creates a coloured • Brush, roller or spray • Quick, easy and • Needs regular
barrier on the • For best finishes, cheap maintenance
surface of metals
a zinc chromate or • Requires no • Waste paint can be
• Specialist paints can
red-oxide primer, specialist difficult to dispose
R
provide additional
properties, such as undercoat and top equipment or of
heat resistance coat are also applied skills
D

Dip coating • Provides a relatively • The powdered • Little waste • Equipment can be
thick layer of plastic plastic has air blown • Even coating expensive
into it
• Often used on • Not suitable for
• The metal is heated
handles for tools delicate work
to above the melting
such as pliers, or point of the plastic
racks and crates (230°C) and then
dipped into the
powder
• The plastic melts
and as the metal
cools it solidifies
into an even coating

Table 2.8.1 Examples of surface finishes and treatments Cont…

121
2 Metals
Finish Description How applied Advantages Disadvantages

Electroplating • Covers the base metal • This electromechanical • Gives base • Equipment can
with a thin layer of other process allows ions from metals be expensive
metals such as gold, one metal to attach to the lustre • Solution is not
silver, tin, chromium, base metal without the environmentally
copper and zinc, taking • The metal is suspended in cost friendly
on their colours a solution of metallic salts • Corrosion • Hard to get an
• Suitable for decorative and is negatively charged resistant even layer
purposes (cathode), while the metal
to be deposited is positively
charged (anode)

Anodising • Improves or thickens • Metal is placed in a sulphuric Durable Limited colour

the natural oxide acid, sodium sulphate and and low selection
barrier of some metals, water solution maintenance
such as aluminium • The metal is the positive

FT
• Different dyes can be electrode (anode) and lead
used to change the plates are negatively charged
colour (cathode)
• Uses include cameras, • The electric current builds up
sports gear and a tough oxide layer, which is
window frames fixed in boiling water
A
Galvanising • A zinc protective layer Steel is dipped in molten zinc, Durable • Equipment can
on steel that is not which is heated to 450–460°C and low be expensive
affected by scratching, and solidifies in a thin layer maintenance • Limited to a few
because the zinc on the surface of the metal
R
base metals
corrodes quicker than
the exposed steel, so
reforms
D

• Often used as the

primary layer on car
panels

Powder • A thick, even protective • The powder is positively • Little waste Difficult to apply a
coating paint layer charged and sprayed onto • Even thin layer
• Most white electrical the negatively charged metal coating
goods (e.g. fridges and • The powder sticks to the • Wide range
freezers) are powder metal and is baked to melt of colours
coated the powder to form an even available
finish

Table 2.8.1 Examples of surface finishes and treatments Cont…

122
 2.8 Appropriate surface treatments and finishes

Finish Description How applied Advantages Disadvantages

Lacquering • A clear cellulose or Brush, roller or spray • Keeps • May not be

varnish that will prevent original durable
tarnishing, rusting or colour • Requires several
oxidising, allowing the • Can be coats
natural colour of the attractive
metal to show
• Particularly suitable for
decorative products
such as jewellery

Polishing Improves the finish of the Using different compounds that Easy, with Requires a
metal and removes surface have fine grits embedded in several secondary process,
marks from finishing them depending on the material methods such as lacquering,
processes or finish required, the metal can available to maintain the
then be buffed with a cloth or on finish

FT a machine buffing wheel or mop

Table 2.8.1 Examples of surface finishes and treatments

Apply it
A
Find objects in your home that each demonstrate one of the finishing
processes in Table 2.8.1 and explain why each finish was chosen.
R
Summary
Key points to remember:
D

• metals can be processed by shaping

• metals can be fabricated by heat processes and by deforming
• metals can be assembled using machine screws, nuts, bolts, washers and adhesives
• surface finishes can improve the appearance of the metal and protect it.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Describe the process of tapping a hole in aluminium.
S2 Explain two differences between welding and brazing.
S3 Describe the process of electroplating a steel door.
S4 State the finish you would apply to a metal if you still want to see its colour.
Challenge
C1 Examine the processes of stamping and punching and write down how they differ from each other.
C2 Describe all the stages of smoothing the edge of a metal bar that has just been cut with a hacksaw.

123
Preparing for your exam 2

Exam strategy
What to expect in the exam
The examination is designed to test your knowledge and understanding of
metals. Throughout the course you will need to practise exam-style questions
that will challenge you in all areas. Preparing carefully for your exams is
important if you are to fulfil all of the criteria the examiners will be looking for.

Section B: Material categories – Metals

This section is worth 60 marks and contains a mixture of different question styles,
including open-response, graphical, calculation and extended-open-response
questions. Five marks are allocated to calculation questions in this section.

For metals, you should know about:

• Design contexts

FT
• The sources, origins, physical and working properties of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals and their social and ecological footprints
• The way in which the selection of ferrous and non-ferrous metals is influenced
• The impact of forces and stresses on ferrous and non-ferrous metals and how
they can be reinforced and stiffened
• Stock forms, types and sizes in order to calculate and determine the quantity
A
of ferrous and non-ferrous metals required
• Alternative processes that can be used to manufacture ferrous and non-ferrous
metal products to different scales of production
R
• Specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes that can be used to
shape, fabricate, construct and assemble a high-quality ferrous and/or non-
ferrous metal prototype
D

• Appropriate surface treatments and finishes that can be applied to ferrous and
non-ferrous metals for functional and aesthetic purposes.

Revision tips
• Ensure you start revising in plenty of time before your exam. You will find it
easier to remember facts you have revised several times over a few weeks than
those you have tried to memorise at the last minute.
• Make clear and well-ordered notes about your chosen material category.
• Work through all sample assessment materials, past papers and textbook
questions available from Pearson.
• Identify the areas in which you are likely to get mathematical questions and
practise the sections on arithmetic and numerical computation, handling data,
graphs, geometry and trigonometry.
• Discuss the course with your teacher and peers as it will help your understanding.
• Use online or other resources to extend your understanding of the design and
technology context.

124
Preparing for your exam 2

Sample answers with comments

The following questions give some examples of how to interpret the different command words.

Question 1: Calculation question 2 mm

A student is going to manufacture a pencil
holder. It will be a cylinder made
from one strip of aluminium and a base
made from a circular disc of aluminium. 120 mm
Both pieces of aluminium are 2 mm thick,
as shown in Figure PE2.1.
Calculate the area of the aluminium sheet
required for the pencil holder. (5 marks)

Student answer FT D = 70 mm

PE2.1

Verdict
Pencil holder
A
Area of base = π × r2 = 3.14 × 352 = 3846.5 mm2
Area of curved strip = 120mm × circumference of The student correctly separated the problem into
the component parts to find the area of the strip
base (π × D) = 120 × 3.14 × 70 = 26,376 mm2
R
and the circular base and then added the two
Total area = 26,376 + 3846.5 = 30,222.5mm2 answers together to get the total.
D

Question 2: ‘Explain’ question Student answer

This image shows a The kitchen stool is comfortable because it has a
kitchen stool made curved shape at the back that fits the shape of the
from aluminium. The user, and also a curved shape on the seat that fits the
kitchen stool must be shape of the person sitting on the stool.
comfortable to use.
Analyse the kitchen Verdict
stool. Explain two
ways in which the The candidate gave two answers but they were similar
kitchen stool meets and focused on one aspect of comfort – the curved
shape. The answer would be improved by including a
or fails to meet the
second/different way that comfort would be achieved,
criterion of being
such as the use of a cross rail which supports the feet.
comfortable to use.
(4 marks) Exam tip
When analysing a product, imagine the product in
use and how you might use it.

125
Preparing for your exam 2
Question 3: ‘Evaluate’ question
The mild steel bracket to support the hanging basket
Student answer
shown in Question 7 is to be sold in the United The material is extracted as iron ore and the mining of
Kingdom. This table shows information about the mild the ore is very damaging to the landscape. The ore has
steel bracket: to be processed into mild steel and this uses up a large
amount of energy. It will also create a large amount of
Raw material Iron ore
greenhouse gases and pollution. Both the source of the
Material Mild steel
material and where it is processed are in China, which
Source of material China could save on transportation costs. Transporting the
Processed China finished mild steel to France will use up more fuel, such
Product manufactured in France as diesel. The mild steel will then have to be moved again
Analyse the information in the table. Evaluate the mild to the UK after the bracket has been manufactured.
steel bracket with reference to its ecological footprint. If the bracket was manufactured in the UK, it could
(9 marks) reduce the transportation costs. Overall the extraction of
Verdict materials, processing and transportation of the product to
the end user causes a high amount of ecological damage.
The candidate’s answer is at level 3 because it The manufacturer could try to offset this by planting trees,

FT
interrogates and deconstructs information and by using more environmentally friendly transportation
provides sustained connections and logical chains methods, or by removing the extra stage in France.
of reasoning. The answer shows a well-balanced
appraisal of the information/issues, containing Exam tip
judgements that show a thorough awareness of the When answering an ‘evaluate’ question, you must
inter-relationships between factors and competing look at the positives and also the negative sides of
A
arguments. A conclusion is presented that is fully the argument and come to an overall judgement.
supported by relevant judgements.

Question 4: ‘Explain’ question

Student answer
R
Explain two environmental effects of producing
steel. (6 marks)
1. The extraction of the iron from the ground in the form
of an ore will cause environmental damage due to the
Verdict
D

cutting down of forests and loss of habitats.

The first two points are valid as they focus on the 2. The transportation of the ore to the processing plant will
extraction and transportation of the raw material require a large amount of energy to run the lorries and
to make the steel. Answer 3 is not valid as the pollution in the form of exhaust fumes is created.
student focused on the manufacturing of products 3. Steel is very difficult to cut and large machinery is needed
after the steel had already been processed, so it to manufacture products which will use a lot of energy.
did not answer the question.

Question 5: Give/state/name
(short answer question) Student answer
1. Nyloc nut.
2. These are used to prevent the fixing from coming loose.

Give the name of the fixing shown above.

(1 mark)
Verdict
State one reason why this fixing could be used on This is a good answer to the question. No explanation is
a bicycle axle. (1 mark) needed as each part is only worth 1 mark.
126
Preparing for your exam 2
Question 6: Identify (short answer question)
Aluminium is extracted from bauxite. The graph represents the amount in tonnes that has already
been extracted and a prediction for future extraction.
Bauxite extraction
55000 Student answer
Bauxite extraction (tonnes)

50000
45000
1. 2040–2050
40000 Key
35000 2. a) Have a better system for
30000 Amount extracted recycling aluminium so that
25000 Amount left less raw material is used.
20000
15000
b) Develop alternative materials
10000 that can replace the use of
5000 aluminium in products.
0

2150
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
PE2.2 Year

Verdict
1. Identify the decade during which the amount extracted
exceeds the reserves that are left. (1 mark)
2. Describe two ways that aluminium extraction could be
slowed down. (2 marks)

Question 7: ‘Use notes and/or sketches to

FT This is a good answer. The student correctly identified
the crossover was before 2050, and gave two ways in
which the current supplies could be extended.

Student answer
A
show’ question
The diagram below shows a design solution and some additional
information for a mild steel bracket to support a hanging basket. extra support to
R
prevent sideways
Chain loop for
hanging basket movement
Mild steel
bracket Chain loop
fits in hook
250 mm so it does
D

extra brace for not fall off

added strength

Basket hangs
from cantilever
Hanging basket
Verdict
Wooden The candidate gave three good improvements to the
fixing post
design. The first is a hook shape to hold the chain
The mild steel bracket needs to be improved to include the specification loop of the basket in place without easily coming
points listed below. out. The bracket has also been made stronger by the
To support a hanging basket, the bracket must: addition of the triangulated brace. Finally, the back
• hold the chain loop and prevent it from sliding off the bracket plate has been widened so the mounting screws can
• hold the increased weight of the basket when full of plants and water be positioned side by side to increase stability.
• eliminate any sideways movement when mounted on the wooden post.
Use notes and/or sketches to show how the mild steel bracket could be Exam tip
modified to include these three specification points. You will be marked When answering a design question, try and identify
on how you apply your understanding of design and technology, not your the simplest solution and do not over-complicate
graphical skills. Use the outline of the original design solution to show the answer. Make sure you label your design clearly.
your modifications. (6 marks)
127
3 Papers and boards Thermoforming and thermosetting polymers

FT
A
R
D

128
 3.2 The sources, origins and properties of papers and boards and their footprints

3.1 Design contexts

Getting started
We are surrounded by printed materials: from cereal packets to fast food flyers, letters and posters. How many
different paper and board products do you have at home?

While you are designing and developing or modifying graphic products, you
will have certain materials in mind. To make the right choices you need to
understand that the following factors affect the performance, look and cost
of the finished product.
• Physical characteristics: what does it look like?
How does it behave?
• Manufacturing processes: for example, should it be printed, die cut
and finished?

FT
• Performance requirements: for example, how many forces will the
product be subjected to?
• The social and environmental impact: does producing the material
damage the environment or cause problems for nearby communities?

3.2 The sources, origins and properties of papers and boards

A
and their footprints
Learning objectives
R
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the origins of some papers and boards
• the properties of a larger range of paper and board products
D

• that the papers and boards you choose have social and ecological footprints.

Paper, board and packaging laminate

As we saw in Section 1.9, paper and board is measured in grams per square metre (gsm),
and board is paper that is more than 220 gsm. Its thickness is measured in microns.

Maths in practice 1
Calculating the weight of paper
To calculate the weight of paper, you need to divide the weight of the Link it up
paper by the area. Copier, cartridge and tracing paper,
and folding boxboard, corrugated
• A sheet of a newly developed paper is 2 m2 and a mass of 100 g.
board and solid white board were
Calculate its weight in gsm, showing your working.
covered in the core content (Section
mass of sheet 100 g 1.9) of this book. To remind yourself,
Weight = = = 50 gsm look at pages 40–41.
area of sheet 2 m2

129
3 Papers and boards

Material Description Advantages Disadvantages

Bond paper • High quality, durable writing and • Good quality and • More expensive
50–100 gsm printer paper range of colours than copier paper
• Stronger but rougher than copier paper
• Not bonded with glue – the name
comes from having originally been
used for important documents such as
government bonds

Heat transfer • Used for coloured printing with • Produces full colour, • Expensive
printing sublimation inks good- quality
(sublimation) paper • Not too absorbent printed images
70–140 gsm
• Dye particles in the ink stay on top of
the coating while the water is absorbed

FT
into the paper

Foil-lined board • Laminated board consisting of a layer • Strong • Expensive

1000–3000 microns of foil (usually aluminium) and a layer • Foil provides an
of board excellent moisture
• Used in food packaging barrier
• Aluminium does not
A
react with food

Packaging laminate, • A laminate consisting of six layers, four • Maintains • Expensive

e.g. Tetra Pak® of which are polyethylene, interspersed nutritional value • Not recyclable in
R
220–300 gsm with paperboard and aluminium foil and flavours of some areas
(properties found below) food in ambient
• Combines the properties of the temperatures
D

constituent materials to package long-

life food

Packaging laminate, • Strong paper-based material generally • Stable, strong, • Absorbs water
e.g. paperboard thicker than paper smooth printing
224+ gsm • Used for packaging, book and surface
magazine covers and postcards

Packaging laminate, • A common, flexible plastic layered • Excellent moisture • Does not
e.g. polyethylene with foil or other plastics, particularly barrier, enables the biodegrade quickly
3.5–500 microns in food packaging, to prevent paperboard to stick • Plastic layer often
preservative gas escaping to the aluminium foil from oil

Packaging laminate, • The aluminium in packaging laminates • Protects against • Making aluminium
e.g. aluminium foil is processed from the ore bauxite to oxygen and light is an energy-
6.35–15 microns create flexible packaging, particularly hungry process
for food

Table 3.2.1 Properties and structure of examples of paper, board and packaging laminate

130
 3.2 The sources, origins and properties of papers and boards and their footprints

Layer 1: food-grade , low-density

polyethylene (LDPE) seals in the liquid. Exam-style question
Layer 2: polyethylene promotes
bonding of layers 1 and 3. Study the picture of the milk
Layer 3: aluminium foil provides a barrier container.
against the harmful effects of air and light.
Layer 4: polyethylene promotes
bonding of layers 3 and 5.
Layer 5: paperboard layer
provides stiffness and shape.
Layer 6: polyethylene provides
protection against outside moisture.

Outside Inside
package package

Figure 3.2.1 The six layers of Tetra Pak® are made from paperboard, polyethylene
and aluminium foil

FT
Apply it
Collect examples of printed products made using the materials in Table 3.2.1.
Label each one to explain why those materials were used for that purpose. a Give one method of making
the drinks container stronger.
(1 mark)
Sources and origins of paper and boards b Explain two reasons why
A
Materials Origin these materials used to make
up the drinks container are
Pulp, paper and cardboard China, USA, Japan, Germany, Canada, Finland
suitable for storing drinks.
R
Rice paper Eastern Asia (primarily China and Vietnam) (4 marks)

Table 3.2.2 Origins of different paper and boards

D

Physical characteristics of paper and board

The main physical characteristics of paper and board are their density,
transparency and texture.

Paper density is its mass divided by its volume. Paper density ranges from
tissue paper at 250 kg/m3 to 1500 kg/m3 for some speciality papers. Copier Key terms
paper is about 800 kg/m3. Density: weight in grams per
cubic centimetre or kilograms
Transparency or opacity describes the amount of light transmitted through
per cubic metre. Density is the
a material. Highly opaque paper does not allow much light to pass through,
compactness of a substance or
unlike translucent paper, such as tracing paper. This can be important when
material.
printing on both sides of a page, as low-opacity paper will allow the reverse
side printing to show through. Transparency: the amount of
light transmitted through a
Texture is a paper’s finish and feel, and ranges from smooth to heavily textured material.
or ‘laid’. Examples are smooth wove paper for writing on and linen paper, Texture: tactile quality of
which looks and feels like fine linen fabric with its subtle embossed texture in a material; how it feels, for
a crosshatch pattern. Watercolour papers are heavily textured to absorb the example coarse, smooth, silky.
water from the paint and create an illusion of depth in paintings.

131
3 Papers and boards

Working properties of paper and boards

Link it up
The working properties of flexibility, printability and biodegradability were
covered in the core content (Section 1.9) of this book. To remind yourself,
look at page 41.

Property Description
Weight Expressed in grams per square metre (gsm): the higher the number the heavier the paper

Surface finish The smoothness or roughness of the paper or board surface – for example, papers for printing
photographs onto are very smooth and glossy to give a crisp, sharp image
Absorbency The amount of water absorbed by the surface of paper and boards, which can influence the
printability and the setting rate of water-based adhesives

FT
Printability The ability to accept a printed image onto its surface (porosity). It is affected by structural factors such
as thickness or bulk, and surface properties like absorbency or smoothness. This is not the same as
print quality, which is determined by other factors such as alignment of plates on the machinery
Table 3.2.3 Working properties of paper and boards

Apply it
A
Collect 10 cm by 10 cm samples of a range of papers and boards. Observe them under a microscope. Bend them
and assess their ability to flex from excellent to poor.
Put a sample over a beaker and secure it with an elastic band. Use a pipette to drop 5 ml of water onto the surface.
R
Wait for 1 minute. Observe how much water has been absorbed.
Using a soft pencil, draw a line on each paper and board. Look at the quality of the line. A broken and shaky line
would indicate a rough surface finish. Assess the finished surface from rough to very smooth.
D

Complete Table 3.2.4 to show the working properties of folding boxboard. Then complete the properties for five
more types of paper and board.

Material Flexibility Printability Biodegradability Weight (gsm) Surface finish Absorbency

Folding boxboard Excellent 225–350

Table 3.2.4 Working properties of popular papers and boards

Social footprint
Trend forecasting
Designers need to know what customers will buy months or even years ahead.
• Trend forecasters compile mood boards and colour palettes of emerging trends
for packaging and interiors, and many brands subscribe to trend forecasting
websites to gain information about what might be trending in the future.
• Trade shows showcase new developments in packaging and printing
technologies or advances in production or finishing techniques.

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 3.2 The sources, origins and properties of papers and boards and their footprints

Impact of logging and material production on communities and wildlife Key term
• Paper and board are made from hardwood and softwood fibres.
Harvesting trees can threaten biodiversity, destroy wildlife habitats and Biodiversity: the variety of plant
cause soil erosion so crops cannot be grown, and create water pollution. and animal life in a habitat.
• Transporting timber to the processing plant can generate carbon dioxide
emissions and air pollution.
• Processing pulp can lead to noise pollution from heavy machinery and air
pollution from dust. This can cause respiratory problems in those living
near the plant.
• The manufacturing process requires a lot of water, so rivers are sometimes
diverted, affecting ecosystems and communities. Waste water effluent can
pollute water courses.
• Excess waste wood fibre needs to be disposed of via landfill or incineration.

Recycling and disposal

A huge amount of paper and board is used in the UK: more than 12.5 million

FT
tonnes every year. The average person uses 38 kg of newspapers per annum.
However, two-thirds of paper in the UK is recycled, making it one of the most
recycled materials. Recycled paper produces 73 per cent less air pollution than
if it was made from raw materials. Recycled paper reduces energy consumption
by 28–70 per cent compared to using virgin pulp, as most of the energy used
in papermaking is to turn wood into paper. Recycled paper produces fewer
Apply it
A
polluting emissions to air and water; oxygen, rather than chlorine, is generally
used to bleach recycled papers (if bleaching is necessary), which reduces the Find out how many disposable
amount of chlorinated compounds released into the environment. coffee cups are used a year in
the UK:
R
Paper and board can generally only be recycled seven times before the
• What proportion of used cups
fibres become too short to be useful and need to be mixed with new wood
are recycled?
fibres, so we have an ethical responsibility to reduce our paper use.
• What could be done to improve
D

Paper-based items also contribute to the litter on Britain’s streets, despite the recycling rate of these cups
the increase of recycling bins in town and city centres in the last few years. or reduce the number wasted?
The UK is often cited as being one of the worst countries in Europe for litter.

Reduction of packaging materials

The increase in online shopping has created a huge demand for cardboard
packaging, and the amount of material used is often far more than is
necessary to protect the product inside. It’s also less efficient for many
companies because of the excess space large boxes take up in warehouses.
Many companies are committed to reducing the amount of materials used
for packaging while still keeping the products inside safe. Marks & Spencer
devised Plan A which, among other ecological commitments, aimed to
reduce non-glass packaging by 25 per cent. This reduction in packaging
reduces energy use and waste.

Brand identity
A brand identity is the way that a company wants customers to perceive it. This
may include its logo, marketing messages, customer service and reputation.

133
3 Papers and boards
One element of this is how a company deals with consumerism. Businesses
Key term
are dependent on customers for their income, so they want customers to
Consumerism: how a business have the best experience of them and their products. However, consumerism
protects or promotes the can also relate to unnecessary consumption of products, so is associated
interests of its customers and/or with waste and greed. Companies need to balance these ideas within their
those who use its products. brand identity. For example, they can promote changes to their packaging,
as reducing waste and responding to customer requests could make
customers more likely to buy their products.
The changing packaging of products over time

FT
A
R
Figure 3.2.2 McDonald’s packaging has changed over the past 60 years

Product packaging evolves over time, responding to developments in new

Apply it
materials, processes and consumer demands. The evolution of McDonald’s
Describe the changes in styles
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packaging, as shown in Figure 3.2.2, is partly related to available materials.

of the packaging shown in Originally only paper packaging was used but the development of plastic
Figure 3.2.2. How have the suitable for moulding allowed the first push-on lids. McDonald’s is committed
products evolved? Investigate the to using as many recycled materials as possible and is working towards
packaging evolution of: 100 per cent sustainable, renewable and recyclable materials by 2020. It
• OXO cubes already uses wood fibre from forests certified as sustainable by the Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for Endorsement of Forest
• Kellogg’s breakfast cereals.
Certification (PEFC).
Produce a report detailing the
changes over time to the brand Ecological footprint
identity and packaging.
Human activities consume resources and produce waste. Sustainable
development usually includes considering environmental, social and
economic factors.

Sustainability
It is important to consider whether paper is a sustainable material in terms
of these environmental, social and economic factors.

134
 3.2 The sources, origins and properties of papers and boards and their footprints

The environmental impact of producing and using paper and board is

Link it up
considerable. Factors such as the modern printing press and the mechanised
harvesting of wood have led to paper and boards becoming very cheap Many of these issues also apply to
materials, with associated high levels of consumption and waste. The pulp timber. For more information, see
and paper industry is attempting to take a more sustainable approach to Section 7.2, page 281.
production methods, but demand remains unsustainably high.
Harvesting and erosion
Key terms
Most paper comes from forest trees, which can result in large areas being
cleared at once (deforestation). A more responsible way to manage forests Deforestation: removal of trees
can be seen in some parts of the USA, where paper is often made from small so that land can be put to other
trees thinned from forests at intervals of around 15 years. Thinning improves uses.
overall forest health by preventing infestations of pests, such as beetles, and Monoculture: production of a
decreasing fire risk. single type of crop.
Our demand for paper products has risen by 400 per cent in the past 40
years, with 35 per cent of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture.

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Plantation forests can be a monoculture, which means that trees of only one
species grow there. This can lead to a reduction in the range of wildlife living in
those forests. Such practices also affect people who depend directly on forests,
as it depletes resources such as food.
We tend to think of deforestation as a problem only in developing countries
but wood chipping to produce paper pulp is a sensitive environmental issue
A
in Australasia. In New Zealand the government stopped the export of
woodchips from native forests after environmentalists campaigned to preserve
natural habitats.
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Processing
Processing wood into fibres can cause noise pollution and damage, as well as
emitting dust particles into the environment. It can even redirect watercourses.
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However, processing plants provide employment for the local community.

Transportation, wastage and pollution

Transporting raw materials to the processing plant can cause increased CO2
emissions, due to fossil fuel use. This gas contributes to global warming.
Toxic chemicals are used in paper making, particularly chlorine compounds for
bleaching the paper and solvents for softening the wood fibres. Fossil fuels
used in the production of paper pulp, and in operating the mills used to press
the paper, can result in CO2 emissions and other air pollutants. Waste effluent
from a paper processing plant contains solids, nutrients and dissolved organic
matter which, when present in high levels, pollute water.

Water pollutants from paper production can include:

• toxic chlorine compounds like dioxins
• organic materials that consume oxygen during decomposition
• sulphur dioxide that contributes to lake acidification
• air-polluting nitrogen compounds
• phosphates that boost algae growth.

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3 Papers and boards

3.3 Selection of papers and boards

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• that there are various factors affecting the selection of materials, including aesthetics, environmental issues
and availability.

Many factors need to be considered when selecting materials for a

specific application.

Aesthetic factors

Form: the thickness, physical properties Colour: varies depending on the use of
and size of the stock forms. the product and appeal to target customer.
E.g. rigid but pliable high-quality board E.g. in this chocolate box, muted tonal
has been chosen for the complex net. colours suggest quality.

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A
Surface graphics: the material’s ability to Texture:
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accept surface graphics will be crucial to placing of the product.
E.g. the matt, slightly textured surface of the
E.g. a test piece would have ensured a crisp, board helps to convey the sense of a
clean print quality with no colour seepage. high-quality product.
D

Figure 3.3.1 Aesthetic factors in This box is also die cut.

material selection

Environmental factors
Sustainability
When designing products, designers should
research the range of possible materials to
ensure that the environmental impact of the
processing, material production, product
production, use and disposal of the chosen
material have the smallest environmental
impact possible. Materials made from plants
are generally considered more sustainable
than those derived from crude oil, as their
source can be regrown. The image on the left
shows a compostable cup made by British
company Vegware from biodegradable
A compostable disposable coffee cup polymers that have been derived from plants.

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 3.3 Selection of papers and boards

Pollution • Decorative techniques: this includes die cutting (see

The designer should choose the product that creates page 147), embossing and hot foil blocking, which will
the least pollution when constructing and disposing of all add to the unit costs.
the product. • Manufacturing processes: these can also influence
the cost. For example, laser printing is cost effective
Genetic engineering for short runs of posters and leaflets but for larger
The yield of usable wood fibre from trees can be volumes a process such as offset lithography
increased by genetically modifying their levels of lignin produces higher-quality products that are cheaper
to reduce pulping costs. Chemically modifying the lignin
per unit. The number of colours also affects the cost
makes it easier to break down without affecting the
as one-colour prints are cheaper than full colour.
material’s strength.
Other manufacturing processes that add costs include
cutting, folding and assembly.
Availability factors
• Commodity price: this is the cost of the paper or
Use of stock materials board used in the product. It will be bought in bulk,
These are easy to order, widely available and are ready for making it cheaper than smaller amounts. The cost of
immediate use – saving time and costs. Manufacturers delivery would also need to be factored into this price.

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can guarantee a good-quality finish because they know • Cost of recycling: the cost of using recycled materials
how the materials will accept print, fold and join, and fit in comparison to the cost of production from raw
their machines as their properties, sizes and quality are materials should be considered. Recycling paper saves
consistent. both energy and resources, but the costs of specialist
Stock finishes are gloss, dull and matt. Gloss papers are materials, transport and equipment may be higher.
coated to give them a lustrous appearance, are less opaque,
A
have less bulk and are cheaper than other finishes. Most Social factors
magazines and flyers are printed on gloss paper. Dull Different materials appeal to different social groups
papers are low in gloss, while matt paper is flat-looking to and depend on their use and perception. For example,
give a publication an elegant feel – they are normally more
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lower-quality materials would be used as a flyer for a
expensive. club night than for a wedding invitation.
Specialist materials For some products, the packaging is as important a
D

Designers need to research how specialist material symbol of the product’s brand identity as the product
could, for example, fold, accept print and join. Their itself. For example, much research was undertaken to
thickness or finish may not fit in standard machinery, so a develop Apple’s distinctive iPhone packaging. Boxes for
bespoke setting may need to be applied. An example of a perfume bottles are also often distinctive and attractive,
specialist material would be a gold foil-flecked handmade for example Issey Miyake’s diamond-shaped box. These
paper for a limited edition book insert. The impacts of become attractive and collectible in themselves.
using specialist materials could include inflated costs;
however, they could also suggest better quality. Certain paper products can become popular such as
Pokémon and football cards and stickers. This impacts
Cost factors upon demand.
Every process has an associated cost. Here are
Key terms
some examples.
Lignin: the naturally-occurring polymer that makes
• Quality of materials: the higher the quality of the cell walls of usable wood fibre.
the materials, the higher the cost of producing Laser printing: a type of printing popular in offices
the product and these costs are passed on to the that uses toner (dry powder) instead of ink.
customer. The cheapest material may not be the best
Offset lithography: a method of printing used for
option in the end if the print quality is poor because
high volumes, such as magazines and newspapers.
of the paper or board stock.

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3 Papers and boards

Cultural and ethical factors Built-in product obsolescence

By its nature, food packaging is only required for a short
Avoiding offence time; however, the materials used can be too robust
Printed material can sometimes be designed to provoke and not break down easily. Some coffee shops are
a reaction, such as controversial campaign posters. encouraging the use of reusable ceramic mugs, which
However, generally designers need to research carefully have a longer lifespan, to reduce the use of unrecyclable
the cultures that their products will be placed in so as paper cups. Electronic media means that short-lived
not to unnecessarily cause offence through the misuse posters and flyers are less common than they once were.
of colour, meaning or imagery.
Apply it
Suitability for intended market
Would you be more attracted to a product if its
The market should be researched early on, considering
packaging was ethically responsible? Carry out research
the wants, needs and priorities of those likely to buy the
product. Some customers may prioritise sustainability into materials used by Vegware to give you an idea.
while others are motivated by cost.

Use of colour and language Exam-style question

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Different colours have different associations in the
world, for example, red is considered lucky in China but
is the colour of mourning in South Africa. Language on
printed materials should be carefully checked for both
accuracy and meaning, and to ensure it is appropriate.
Look at the image of the disposable coffee cup.
A
The consumer society
Many customers want products quickly and easily,
and often have little regard for the effects of waste
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on the environment. For example, large quantities
of convenience food packaging for supermarket
sandwiches and ready meals is often unnecessary.
D

The effects of mass production a Name the type of materials used for the body of
Mass production is often the most cost-effective the coffee cup. (2 marks)
way to produce many identical products. It makes b Explain one reason why the properties of these
products available at cheaper prices, making them materials make them suitable for this product.
more accessible. Disadvantages include cheap products (2 marks)
leading to a throwaway society, resulting in depletion
c Explain two benefits of using papers and boards
of resources and increased habitat destruction.
to manufacture disposable coffee cups, rather
Unskilled jobs are also harder to find due to automated
than polymers. (4 marks)
production methods.

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Different types of papers and boards have different working characteristics and physical properties that
influence their use.
• Designers and manufacturers must balance the social, cultural and environmental impact of the materials in
their products with customer requirements.

138
 3.4 Forces and stresses

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Compare the properties of Tetra Pak® with bonded paper.
S2 Describe the structure of foil-lined board.
S3 Explain why businesses care about reducing packaging materials.
S4 Explain how a paper mill affects local communities.
Challenge
C1 Evaluate the impact of harvesting trees for wood pulp on neighbouring communities.
C2 Investigate genetic engineering of paper materials. Why are some people opposed to it?

3.4 Forces and stresses

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:

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• that materials will undergo forces when processed and used
• that different techniques can be used to reinforce materials.

Papers and boards are subjected to many forces when used in products. Their ability to withstand these forces
determines if it is a successful choice.
A
Force/stress Definition Application to paper and boards
Bending A force that moves the • The ability to bend is important when paper has to be fed into machinery.
material into a curve or an • For boards, stiffness prevents cartons from bulging when full, enables
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angle them to be stacked and protects the contents. Flimsy paper could cause
feeding problems in larger sheet presses. A sheet that is too stiff will
cause problems in copier machines, as it will be unable to bend around
feed rollers.
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• Stiffness is measured in mNm (millinewton metre). It is the force required

to move the free end of a 38 mm wide vertically clamped sample 15°
from its centre line when load is applied 50 mm away from the clamp. The
higher the value of the force needed, the stiffer the paper or board.
Torsion A force that twists the • Papers and boards can be tested for their resistance to torsion.
material (torque) Cardboard boxes will undergo twisting when moved. They need to be
resistant to tearing to protect the contents.
Shear A force that acts in opposite • Tearing paper exerts a shearing force. The tearing strength is the force
directions needed to continue to rip an existing tear. After several tests, the average
is taken. Tear strength can be improved by blending in fibres resilient
to tearing or by improving the construction of the product to alleviate
weak spots. Longer paper fibres make it more resilient to tearing. Tearing
resistance is measured in mN (millinewtons). Papers can be given a tear
index value.
Compression A force that tries to squash • A paper’s ability to change its surface contour and to conform to and
or shorten by decreasing the make contact with the printing plate or blanket during printing is
thickness of a material by important. The paper or board’s ability to ‘bounce back’ or recover is
increasing the force applied to it called resilience.
Table 3.4.1 Types of force and stress on paper and boards

139
3 Papers and boards

Exam-style question F
F F
Name the type of force that F
relates to twisting a material.
(1 mark)
F
F
F
F

F
Bending: A force that Torsion: A force that Shear: A force that Compression: A force that tries to
moves the material into twists the material. acts in opposite squash or shorten by decreasing
a curve or an angle. directions. the thickness of a material as a
result of an increase in pressure.
Figure 3.4.1 Types of force and stress

Apply it

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The picture below shows a child’s cardboard chair and footstool. Sketch a
side view and indicate using arrows where forces will act when the child
sits down.
A
R
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A chair and footstool made from cardboard

Reinforcement techniques
Reinforcement means to strengthen or enhance the stiffness of a material.
Different techniques can be used to strengthen card and paper structures.
These include adding overlapping or double layers, particularly on corners
or sides of boxes, bracing structures using triangular pieces (or ribs) and
adding bracing.

140
 3.4 Forces and stresses

• Laminating builds up material by adding layers. Paper and card

Key terms
are often already laminated with layers of fibre and can be further
laminated with plastic film, foil or other types of paper. This will Laminating: to make a material
improve the qualities and strength of the base material, making it more by bonding layers together.
resistant to shear forces. Encapsulation: to contain an
• Encapsulation is to contain paper within two layers of plastic with a object in another material.
sealed edge. This makes the item strong and waterproof, making it last Sandwich construction:
longer. Examples of encapsulated sheets include maps and menus. composite materials made by
• Corrugated board consists of a fluted inner board sandwiched attaching two thin, stiff outer
between two smooth unbleached containerboard sheets. They can be pieces to a lightweight but
constructed of a single fluted layer with one or two sides or doubled or thick core.
tripled to make thicker, stronger boards that will resist compression.
• Corrugated card is an example of sandwich construction. Another Apply it
is foam board, which consists of an inner layer of polystyrene or Look at a drinks carton and
polyurethane foam clad on each side with white clay-coated paper. It
delaminate it into its constituent
is a strong and lightweight material that is easily cut with a sharp craft
layers.

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knife or picture framing mat cutter. It is used for mounting prints and
photographs or for interior design and architectural models.
Single face
• Packaging laminates are used for different purposes, for example:
o Tetra Pak® provides hygienic packaging for food. It consists of a Single wall
multi-layered board that takes on the properties of the contributing
Double wall
layers (see also page 128).
A
o Portabio® is a cellulose-based metallised film applied to a base Triple wall
board. It is more sustainable than other films and is easily recycled
and biodegraded.
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20
o Metallic and holographic finishes to board or paper are used on PAP
packaging for high-quality products such as perfumes.
Containerboard sheet
o One type of laminate layer is designed to convert microwave
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Fluted layer
energy into radiant heat to promote browning and crisping of
microwaved food. Figure 3.4.2 Corrugation

Summary
Key points to remember:
• The types of force and stress on paper and boards are bending, torsion, shear and compression.
• Reinforcement means to strengthen or enhance the stiffness of a material.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 State the difference between tension and shear forces.
S2 Name three reinforcing techniques.
Challenge
C1 Evaluate the flexibility of three papers and boards and suggest a use for each.

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3 Papers and boards

3.5 Stock forms, types and sizes: calculating quantities required

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• that materials are produced in set sizes, called stock sizes, such as A4
• that there are B and C series of stock sizes too.

Stock forms/types Sizes

Weights Common A sizes
Paper is sold by weight, but the buyer also needs to The metric system of paper and card sizing, defined by
know the size of the paper or number of sheets so ISO 216, is shown in Figure 3.5.1. All ‘A’ sizes are half the
that they can calculate how many products will be previous size, with A0 being the largest, with an area of
produced using the quantity they buy. The basis weight 1 m2. The International Organization for Standardization
determines the area of paper the buyer gets for a given sets out the common paper sizes used and 161 countries
weight. When the basis weight is expressed as ream adhere to this standard.

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weight (weight per 500 sheets), the buyers know how
841 mm
much paper they are getting for a given weight.
52 mm 105 mm 210 mm 420 mm

Grade gsm A8
A6
Newsprint 40–50
74 mm

A7

279.4 mm
Tissue paper 22–25 A4
A
355.6 mm
Bond paper 50–100
148 mm

A5
Paperboard 220–300 A2
Letter
Table 3.5.1 Typical values of paper grades (accepted trade
R
tolerance ±5 per cent) Legal
215.9 mm
297 mm

The main advantage of standard weights is that paper A3

suppliers and printers all use the same system. It can,
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however, be quite tricky to work out how much paper

you need to complete a job if you only know the area of
A0
1189 mm

the work.

Laminates
The thinnest common laminate is 0.04 mm, followed by
0.08 mm, 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm. The thickness will affect
the rigidity of the finished product. Paper and thin card
also come in rolls (webs) that allow printing of longer
objects, such as banners and products that need to be
594 mm

A1
printed quickly in high quantities, such as newspapers.
Bond paper
Bond paper is commonly used for letterhead, business
forms, writing, typing and copying. It is durable, with
a high surface strength to withstand writing and
corrections. It is stiffer than copier papers and can be
produced with or without a watermark. The highest-
quality bond papers have a high cotton content. Figure 3.5.1 Comparative A sizes of paper

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 3.5 Stock forms, types and sizes: calculating quantities required

1000 mm 917 mm
62 mm 125 mm 250 mm 500 mm 57 mm 114 mm 229 mm 458 mm

B8 C8
B6 C6
88 mm

81 mm
B7 C7
B4 C4
176 mm

162 mm
B5 C5
B2 C2
353 mm

324 mm
B3 C3

B0 C0
1414 mm

1297 mm

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707 mm

648 mm

B1 C1
A
R

Figure 3.5.2 Comparative B sizes of paper Figure 3.5.3 Comparative C sizes of envelope
D

B series Foolscap
The sizes of B series paper are also defined by ISO 216 Foolscap is 203 × 330 mm and was the traditional
and are shown in Figure 3.5.2. The B series sizes are paper size used in the British Commonwealth before
halfway between the A series sizes. The printing industry ISO 216 standard A sizes. It is not used now so you
uses B sizes to set printing presses. would only normally come across it in archives of
historical documents.
C series (envelopes)
Envelope sizes are called the C series and are defined in Letter size
ISO 269. The area of C series sheets is the geometric mean Letter, 216 × 279 mm, is an American paper size
of the areas of the A and B series sheets of the same also adopted by Canada and Mexico. You will see it
number. This means that C4 is slightly larger than A4, and as an option in software when setting document
slightly smaller than B4. A letter written on A4 paper fits paper sizes.
inside a C4 envelope.

The advantages of using standard sizes are that they are

widely available, they fit in printers and they are understood
internationally. However, it limits creativity and bespoke
work, and the sizes are not adopted by all countries.

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3 Papers and boards

Exam-style question Calculating area and diameter

A student wants to create a Maths in practice 2
cylindrical box with a base Calculating area and diameter
diameter of 50 mm. Calculate the Use these formulas to work out the sizes of paper and board you need.
length of a strip of card required. Area of a square or rectangle = length × width
(3 marks) Example: length 1000 mm × width 2000 mm = 2,000,000 mm2
Diameter is the measurement through the centre of a circle from edge
to edge. To calculate the diameter of a circle from the radius, multiply its
radius (distance to its centre) by 2.
Exam tip Diameter = radius × 2
Remember to use the formula: In Figure 3.5.4

m
m
Diameter = 2 × 40 = 80 mm

80
Circumference = 2πr or πd

er
• Calculate the diameter of a circle with Radius 40 mm

et
am
Di
a radius of 250 mm.
D=2×r
Exam-style question

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D = 2 × 250 mm = 500 mm
If the strip is 50 mm high, calculate D=rx2
The area of a circle is calculated D = 40 x 2
the area of the rectangle.
using the formula D = 80 mm
(3 marks)
A = πr 2 (i.e. 3.142 × radius × radius).
Figure 3.5.4 Calculating the
The area of the circle in Figure 3.5.4 is:
diameter of a circle
3.142 × 40 × 40 = 5027.2 mm2
A
Exam tip To calculate the circumference of a circle
(distance around its outside) use either
Remember to use the formula 2πr or πD.
for calculating area of a
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• Calculate the area of a circle with a radius of 50 mm.
rectangle, which is length
A = π × 50 mm × 50 mm
multiplied by width.
A = 3.142 × 2500 mm²
A = 7855 mm²
D

Now you try:

Calculate the circumference of a circle with a radius of 70 mm.

Summary
Key points to remember:
• A paper or board’s ability to withstand stress and forces determines if it is a successful choice.
• Products can be reinforced to withstand these forces.
• Papers and boards come in stock forms, weights and sizes.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Explain one advantage of using a stock form of paper.
Challenge
C1 Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using the different grades of paper.

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 3.6 Alternative manufacturing processes for different scales of production

3.6 Alternative manufacturing processes for different scales

of production
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• that there are seven different techniques for printing onto materials
• that there are different scales of production from one-off to continuous
• that there are methods of ensuring quality products are produced.

Deciding on the best manufacturing process for paper Letterpress

and card will depend on the quality required, as well as Raised metal letters locked into rigid frames are covered
the scale of production. in printing ink then pressed onto paper in printing presses.
Letterpress used to be the standard printing process but
Printing is now only used on low-volume production of books and
The type of printing method you choose influences the stationery. Letterpresses give high-quality, crisp prints, but

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final quality of your project. Table 3.6.1, on page 147, shows are less flexible, slower and more expensive than other
some of the manufacturing processes you could use. methods and the plates need maintenance.

Digital printing
Printing from a PC to a laser or inkjet printer is often the
easiest option for small-scale document production at
home, at school or in the office. Digital printing is quick,
A
straightforward and immediate, but not economical as
long print runs and the inks, or toner, are expensive.
R
Photocopying
Photocopiers are commonly used to produce multiple
copies. A photocopier uses a six-stage process:
1 A cylinder inside the machine is electrostatically
D

charged, then a beam of light travels across the

document. The white areas reflect the light back.
2 The areas on the drum that correspond to the white
areas become conductive (allowing electricity to run
through them), whereas the black areas of the image
Example of letterpress printing
remain negatively charged.
3 The photocopier has a positively charged fine powder Offset printing (offset lithography)
called toner, which is attracted to the negatively Offset lithography works on the principle that oil and water
charged areas. do not mix. A four-stage process is used.
4 An image made of powder is formed on the drum. 1 The print design is transferred using an oil-based
5 The image is transferred onto paper and fused by heat. emulsion to a printing plate made of flexible aluminium,
6 The drum is cleaned off and the process repeats for or a polymer, fixed to a plate cylinder in the press.
more copies. 2 Rollers apply water to the cylinder. It is repelled by the
Photocopiers can produce multiple copies quickly, and emulsion but attracted to the blank areas of the cylinder.
can automatically staple and collate documents. They 3 Ink is applied that only sticks to areas covered in emulsion.
are also commonly available. However, the electrostatic 4 A rubber blanket cylinder transfers the ink from the
image fades over time and photocopiers are not cost printing plate to the paper. The paper does not come into
effective for long print runs. contact with the metal plates.

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3 Papers and boards
The design can be built up using individual print units or a different plate
for each of the four process colours: cyan, magenta, yellow and the key
colour, black (often abbreviated to CMYK).
Offset machines can feed cut sheets or rolls of paper known as web
fed. Web offset is where a continuous roll of paper is fed through the
printing press. Pages are separated and cut to size after they have
been printed. It is used for high-volume publications such as books,
magazines, newspapers, catalogues and brochures. Offset printing is
fast, flexible and provides good-quality material, but it has high set-up
costs and can only be used for printing on flat surfaces.

Flexography
Flexography is similar to letterpress printing but uses cylindrical plates.
The cylinders rotate and the raised design picks up quick-drying, semi-
liquid ink from a roller that prints onto the fed paper. It can be used on
corrugated cardboard, cellophane, plastic, label stock, fabric and metallic

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film. It is suitable for printing continuous patterns, such as for gift wrap
and wallpaper, onto webs or rolls of paper.

Using rolls of material allows large orders to run with few interruptions
for reloading. However, flexographic printers cannot print fine detail and
Impression roll there are high set-up costs.
Paper
A
Gravure
Printed side The image is engraved onto a copper plate, which is mounted on a
of paper cylinder. The metal plate rotates into a bath of ink, which collects in
R
Doctor
blade
the sunken sections and is transferred to the paper. It is used for large
Gravure runs for such items as directories and magazines. The finished result is
cylinder
Ink
high quality and the ink is fast drying. However, the cost of producing
fountain the plates makes the overall costs significantly higher than other
D

printing methods.
Figure 3.6.1 Gravure process
Screen printing
Screen printing can be used to print small quantities of items such
as posters, display boards, fabrics, wallpaper, and control panels of
electronic products. To produce the screen, fine mesh is stretched over
a wooden frame and stapled into place. A stencil is made from either
paper or, more commonly, chemicals using a photographic method. The
printing ink is placed at the bottom of the screen and moved over the
mesh with a squeegee to force it through onto the paper below. It is
possible to make multiple prints with the same screen, but you need a
Apply it separate screen for each colour, so multi-coloured patterns are costly.
Investigate the printing options Screen printing cannot produce fine high-quality images.
for making a flyer for a club night.
If you are going to produce 500
copies, which printing method
would be the most cost effective?

146
 Alternative manufacturing processes for different scales of production

Other processes

Process Application Advantages Disadvantages

Cutting by • Paper and board can be cut and scored • Easy to use, readily • Can be inaccurate and
hand using scissors, scalpels and craft knives available equipment slow
• A cutting mat and safety ruler should be
utilised when using knives

Cutting with • Laser cutters and die cutters accurately • Accurate cutting, • Laser cutting gives a
machinery cut paper and board repeatable burnt edge
• Lasers require a suitable software • Die cutters vary in cost
package to design the shape to be cut
• Die cutters (or dies) are steel outlines
that are pressed into the paper or board
to stamp out shapes

Intermediate
modelling

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• Used for mocking up ideas for paper and
card packaging prototypes
• Can quickly and
cheaply give
an idea of the
finished product’s
proportions
• Can be flimsy
• Needs to be to scale to
get the correct effect
A
Frame • Paper is rolled into tubes and • Quick and easy to do • The tubes need to
modelling constructed into strong structures be cut accurately
• Bridge designs can be constructed and to create accurate
R
tested using weights parallel structures
• The Japanese architect Shigeru Ban • Cardboard tubes can
uses cardboard tubes to design fully be tough to cut
D

functioning buildings

Test • Test models are used to try out ideas • Can quickly and • Can be flimsy
modelling and tested for performance cheaply give • Needs to be to scale to
an idea of the get the correct effect
finished product’s
proportions

Table 3.6.1 Types of product manufacturing processes using paper and/or board

Apply it
Investigate the work of Shigeru Ban. Make a fact file
on his career and most famous works. Describe how
he has exploited the properties of paper and board
in his work.

147
3 Papers and boards

Scales of production Link it up

Table 3.6.2 summarises four methods as they apply to Scales of production were covered in the core content
paper and board. (Section 1) of this book. To remind yourself, look at
pages 9–10.

Definition/Application Advantages Disadvantages

One-off • A high-quality, expensive item • High-quality, exclusive • Expensive to make and buy
made once for a specialist market items • Needs highly trained,
or clientele, e.g. bespoke birthday specialist workforce
card, hand-painted artwork, mono • Labour intensive
print
Batch • Produces up to 20,000 identical • Cheaper production • Needs design, pattern
products before production costs making and sampling skills
moves to a different product, • Repetitive tasks
e.g. limited edition screen prints • Requires training

FT
• Lost time changing
production line after each run
Mass • Produces a high volume of • Materials bought • Expensive to set up
production identical products, usually on a cheaply in bulk keeps • Needs a large storage area
production line, e.g. cereal boxes costs low • Jobs taken by machines
• Can be automated,
A
requiring only a small
semi-skilled or unskilled
workforce
R
Continuous • Constantly produces a high • Low unit costs • Expensive to set up and
volume of identical products, • Only small workforce is restart production if
e.g. toilet paper needed something goes wrong
• Only suitable for simple
D

products with few

components
Table 3.6.2 Scales of production using paper and board

Techniques for quantity production

Larger quantities of products can be made by hand or using a larger-scale
manufacturing process. Photocopying is one example – see page 145.

Technique Description Advantages Disadvantages

Marking-out • Paper and board can be marked • Immediate, quite quick to • Requires some skill and
methods out by hand using a pencil, ruler do accuracy
and set square
• A metre rule and bow compass
are also useful to mark reference
points and lines
• French curves are templates for
curved shapes
Table 3.6.3 Techniques for quantity production Cont…
148
 3.6 Alternative manufacturing processes for different scales of production

Technique Description Advantages Disadvantages

Fixtures • A rigid mechanical device that • Fast, accurate cutting of • Only cost effective for
clamps the work against cutting consistent quality, with no more than about 200
tools need to mark out each time units
• Interchangeable
Jigs for • A type of fixture that can also • Fast, accurate folding of • Only cost effective for
folding guide the tool consistent quality, with more than about 200
no need to mark out each units
time
• Interchangeable
Templates • Pre-cut shapes to draw around, • Easy, saves time spent • Not as fast as some
and patterns e.g. box nets marking out other methods
• Packaging templates can be
downloaded and adapted in
software packages

FT
Stencils • Made from thin card, vinyl or • Repeatable design • Stencil sometimes slips,
plastic with shapes cut out spray paint can get
• Can draw, spray paint or stipple underneath the stencil
paint through a lettering stencil if not adhered properly
to the material
• Can be bought in or made
especially • Webs are needed on
A
some shapes to stop
them falling out, e.g.
the centre of the A
Computer- • A programmable machine • Accurate • Equipment is expensive
R
aided attached to a computer, e.g. digital • Can operate 24/7 • Training needed to
manufacture printers, dye sublimation printers learn how to use
• Easy to make changes
(CAM) and laser cutting in schools, and software
D

computerised plotters and cutters,

• Jobs taken by machines
large-scale digital printers and
large-scale laser cutting machines
in industry
Quality • A system of quality checks during • Produces high-quality • Extra time taken
control manufacturing, e.g. checking products • Cost of quality control
registration marks, crop marks • Results in less material staff
and colour bars wastage and happier • Wastage if pieces are
• A ‘proof’ copy is initially made with customers due to rejected
the desired colour saturation levels improved quality and
• The proof is approved by the reliability of the products
client and subsequent prints are purchased
compared to the proof to make
sure that all the colours are set to
the right level
• If prints differ, the machines are
adjusted
Table 3.6.3 Techniques for quantity production Cont…

149
3 Papers and boards

Technique Description Advantages Disadvantages

Working • A measure of accuracy – how • Accurate sizing • Takes care and skill
within much larger or smaller you can • Wastage if badly cut
tolerance cut within a tolerance of + or – pieces are rejected
a set number of mm
Efficient • Carefully planning the placement • Minimises waste • Takes time and
cutting of templates or dies so that they consideration
touch without overlapping by
rotating or flipping shapes
Table 3.6.3 Techniques for quantity production

Key terms Maths in practice 3

Registration mark: a circle with Minimising waste
a cross through it on the edge of • How many 60mm equilateral triangles can be cut from an A3 piece of paper?
printed material. Printed using all (Remember: an A3 piece of paper is 297 × 420 mm).

FT
four colours, it should look black. Number of triangles in each ‘odd’ row = 420 ÷ 60 = 7
If any colours are slightly offset
Number of triangles in each ‘even’ row = 6
(out of register) then the mark
will look blurred and the machine Number in each pair of rows = 7 + 6 = 13
needs to be reset. Height of each triangle = 52 mm (draw a 60 mm equilateral triangle
Crop marks: small lines to measure its height)
A
that show exactly where the Number of pairs of rows = 297 ÷ 52 = 5.71...
finished page will be cut during
There are 5 full pairs of rows, so:
the finishing process. Also
5 × 13 = 65 of the 60 mm equilateral
known as a trim mark.
R
triangles on one A3 sheet.
Colour bars: a strip of the four
CMYK colours printed outside
the trim area, used for colour
D

quality control. Figure 3.6.2 Equilateral triangles

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Choosing a print method has cost and quality implications.
• Different processes can be used to manufacture paper and board products to different scales of production.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name four different types of printing.
S2 Name a printed product that would be made using continuous production.
S3 Explain why colour bars are used when printing.
Challenge
C1 Describe what a blurred registration mark would mean to the quality of the finished product.
C2 Give examples of where working to strict tolerances would be necessary and explain why.

150
 3.7 Specialist techniques used for high-quality paper and board prototypes

3.7 Specialist techniques used for high-quality paper and

board prototypes
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• that a range of hand and machine processes can be used to create high quality products
• the difference between serif and sans serif letter forms.

Tools and equipment products, which are downloaded to a digital machine.

It is important to choose the right techniques, tools, That can be as simple as an inkjet printer or as complex
equipment and processes to shape, fabricate, construct as a laser cutter or a large-format printer and knife
and assemble your high-quality prototypes. cutter. All require training on appropriate software and
how to set up the machinery. The outcome is accurate
Hand tools and high quality but the machinery can be expensive,
Hand tools are generally cheap and easy to buy and and cutter plotters and lasers need to be risk assessed.
have immediate results, if used with skill. As with all
Shaping

FT
tools, they should be used with care as they can be
dangerous and are only as accurate as the user. Paper and board need to be shaped to fit their purpose.
The methods depend on the end use.
Pens
Dies Pencils Shaping, folding and manipulation
Paper and board can be formed by creasing
and scoring using low-cost, easily available
A
Templates Markers tools. Scoring uses a knife, or straight edge,
lightly along a fold line to make a cut that
does not go all the way through. The paper
or board will fold away from the score with a
R
Hand tools and
crisp edge.
equipment for
Laser cutters Scissors
cutting and
Creasing is using a blunt tool to compress the
marking out
paper or card along a fold line to aid folding.
D

Packaging dies use a combination of cutting

bars with a sharp ‘v’ edge and creasing bars
Paper trimmers Scalpels with a rounded top to make fold lines. Formers,
bending jigs and scoring aids can also be
bought. You can fold paper against a straight
Safety rulers Craft knives edge, such as a ruler, to achieve a crisp finish or
Cutting mats use a bone folder, which is a creasing tool. Paper
and card can also be manipulated into shape by
Figure 3.7.1 Types of hand tools for paper and board scoring, curling and pressing.
Machinery Notching
Using machinery achieves professional results more This is cutting out a slot in sheet material or a piece in
quickly and accurately. However, machinery may tubing. It can be used to reduce bulk at corners and aid
be expensive, and users need training to operate it
folding or to make slot-together components.
effectively and safely. Machinery that can be used
for prototypes includes drills, small-scale die cutting
machines and scroll saws.
Modelling
When designing your product, you will progress through
Digital design and manufacture a range of modelling techniques from initial sketch
Specialised software can design patterns or whole models to working high-quality prototypes.

151
3 Papers and boards

Fabricating/assembling/constructing may want to be able to undo the pieces or design

When making paper and board structures, you need an object that can move freely. Remember to use
to consider how you will join the various elements marking-out tools to plan the assembly, as it may
and how to choose the best method. Sometimes they be difficult to take the model apart if you make
will be permanently fixed in place with glue, but you a mistake. See Table 3.63, on page 148 for further
information.

Temporary or removable Application Advantages Disadvantages

components
Split pins • Creating a fixed or moving pivot on Easy to apply, Requires some
pop-up mechanisms or moving shop cheap, reusable pre-planning
displays to ensure the
mechanism works

Mapping pins • Modelling card mechanisms in Easy to apply, Can be fiddly and
conjunction with a cork board cheap, reusable fall out

FT
• Can temporarily hold card in place to
check for fit

Stapling • A U-shaped, sharp-ended thin wire Easy to source and Needs some force
that is driven into paper or card with a use to get through
stapler, which bends the legs thick materials
A
• Attaches papers or joins corners of
cardboard boxes

Taping • Used to join paper and card Easy to source and Difficult to
R
• Many different types of tape use remove except
available: masking, parcel, clear sticky from masking
tape, brown paper tape and double- tape which is
D

sided tape designed to be

low tack
• They are a film of paper or plastic film
with adhesive on one side or both

Adhesives • Liquid to stick components Easy to source and Need to ensure

• Options include PVA (polyvinyl use the correct type
acetate), glue sticks (acrylic polymer), is used for the
hot glue materials

Paper engineering • Manipulating paper, ultimately to make Looks very effective Requires skill and
3D pop-up scenes in books and cards if done right practice

Table 3.7.1 Types of assembling components

Apply it You can strengthen the model by layering materials,

adding ribs or laminating other materials to
Find out about the children’s pop-up book artists and
the paper and board. See section 3.4 for more
paper engineers Robert Sabuda and Jan Pieńkowski.
information.
Try out some ideas for pop-up cards.

152
 3.7 Specialist techniques used for high-quality paper and board prototypes

Dissimilar materials Kerning is the space in between the letters. This can be
Another element to consider is how you can use dissimilar reduced or enlarged to give different effects or to fit more
materials to paper and board, such as adding acetate words on a line to avoid awkward line breaks.
windows to packaging, vacuum-formed inserts, stickers Binding
and temporary components. They may have different
Documents or mock-ups of books need to be bound so
properties and not bend or fix in the same way as the
the pages do not fall out. Hand-stitching is easy if pilot
other materials in the product.
holes are made in the paper or card with a sharp tool.
Lamination Comb binding machines and combs are readily available
Similarly, you could use lamination to apply different in most offices and create a book that opens fully with
coatings to paper and board, for example: pages that turn easily. For a more professional finish
you could ask a specialist book binding service to apply
• aluminium is used for insulation and as a bacterial
thermal tape for you. Case binding is used to produce
barrier
hardback books. The pages are stitched in a complex
• plastic film or wax for waterproofing arrangement and then glued to a hard outer cover.
• greaseproof paper for containing products that can be
baked.
Lettering

unprofessional and dated.

FT
Typography is about letter style and design. The type
of font, font spacing and colour that you choose can
determine whether a product looks sleek and modern or

There are three types of letterform:

• Serif typefaces have ‘feet’; an example is Times New
Hard cover Saddle stitch Comb
A
Roman. They are seen as traditional typefaces.
• Sans serif are plain typefaces, without embellishment; Coil Side stitches
an example is Helvetica. These are seen as more Thermal tape Two on margin Upper left
R
modern, partly because they are easier to read on screen Figure 3.7.2 Types of binding
which has increased their popularity over the last two
decades. Apply it
• Script fonts look handwritten and flow such as the one
D

Collect different typefaces from publications such as

in the Coca-Cola logo. magazines, free font websites and local papers. Sort
Text size is measured in points. One point is 1/72 of an inch, them into serif and sans serif typefaces. Consider
which is about 0.35 mm. A 50 pt letter is about 17.5 mm high. which types of product each would be appropriate for.

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Specialist tools such as hand tools and machinery are used to shape, fabricate and construct prototypes.
• It is important to consider the best method of joining together all the different elements of the prototype.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name an example of a sans serif typeface.
Challenge
C1 Describe and compare the different ways of cutting paper and board.

153
3 Papers and boards

3.8 Surface treatments and finishes for papers and boards

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the types of finishing techniques and surface treatments that can be applied to paper and board.

Surface finishes and treatments

Before or after the product is assembled, it may need to be decorated
or finished. Here are some common techniques.

Material Description Advantages Disadvantages

Varnishing/UV • Varnish is a clear ink with a gloss, satin • Conveys a sense of • Adds cost to the
varnishes or matt finish quality process
• A flood varnish covers the entire • Flood finish may • UV varnishes are

FT
printed page improve the difficult to apply
• A spot varnish allows you to highlight product’s longevity in non-commercial
specific areas settings
• Ultra-violet (UV) flood or spot coatings
are dried using UV light
Hot foil blocking • Pre-glued metal foil is stamped onto • A cost-effective • Adds cost to the
A
the surface using heat and pressure way to add metallic process
• Holograms can be applied in this colour to part
way for security printings such as on of the printed
R
banknotes and music event tickets product
Edge staining • Dye is applied to the trimmed edges • Unusual finish • Adds cost to the
of a book, on all three unbound edges, • Conveys a sense of process
D

only on the side edge, or only on the quality

top edge
• Edge stains in a spatter pattern are
known as sprinkled edges
Embossing • Raising the surface of the paper, often • High-quality, tactile • Adds cost to the
using steel dies finish process
Packaging • Laminate films can be PET • Can reduce • Difficult to recycle
laminates and films (PolyEthylene Terephthalate), LDPE or packaging as they have to be
PP (Polypropylene) materials by separated
• They accept high-definition prints and making the
are combined with papers and boards package stronger
to create robust full-colour packaging
• They provide practical advantages such
as puncture resistance, barrier capabilities
and qualities suitable for frozen foods or
use in ovens and microwaves
Table 3.8.1 Types of surface finish

154
 3.8 Surface treatments and finishes for papers and boards

Exam-style question
A student wants to make the box below in thin card in school.

FT
Name the tools required to make the box. (2 marks)
b Use notes and sketches to give a step-by-step guide to making from
printed net to finished box. (4 marks)
A
Summary
Key points to remember:
R
• Surface treatments and finishes are applied to papers and boards for decorative purposes or to change their
properties.
• These treatments may be physical or chemical.
D

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name four different types of finish.
S2 Explain why embossing would increase the cost of a product.
Challenge
C1 Investigate different ways of binding documents.

155
Preparing for your exam 3

Exam strategy
What to expect in the exam
The examination is designed to test your knowledge and understanding of
papers and boards. Throughout the course you will need to practise exam-style
questions in all areas. Preparing carefully for your exams is important to get as
many marks as you can.

Section B: Material categories – Papers and boards

This section is worth 60 marks and contains a mixture of different question styles,
including open-response, graphical, calculation and extended-open-response
questions. Five marks are allocated to calculation questions in Section B.

For papers and boards, you should know about:

• design contexts

FT
• the sources, origins, physical and working properties of papers and boards,
and their social and ecological footprints
• the way in which the selection of papers and boards is influenced
• the impact of forces and stresses on papers and boards and how they can be
reinforced and stiffened
• typical stock forms, types and sizes used in order to calculate and determine
A
the required quantity of papers and boards
• alternative processes that can be used to manufacture papers and boards to
different scales of production
R
• specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes that can be used to
shape, fabricate, construct and assemble a high quality paper and
board prototype
D

• appropriate surface treatments and finishes that can be applied to papers

and boards for functional and aesthetic purposes.

Revision tips
• Ensure you start revising in plenty of time. You will find it easier to
remember facts you have revised several times over a few weeks than those
you have tried to memorise at the last minute.
• Make clear and well-ordered notes about all the sections.
• Work through all sample assessment materials, past papers and textbook
questions available from Pearson.
• Identify the areas where you are likely to get mathematical questions and
practise arithmetic and numerical computation, handling data, graphs,
geometry and trigonometry.
• Discuss the course with your teacher and peers, as it will help your
understanding.
• Use online or other resources to extend your understanding of the design
and technology context.

156
Preparing for your exam 3

Sample answers with comments PIC COR

The following questions give some examples of how to interpret the different command words.

Question 1: Net of a CD sleeve

Calculation question
Figure PE3.1 shows a net of a CD
sleeve made from card. Calculate

100 mm
m
the area of card wasted each time 5 m
r2
a sleeve is cut out. Give your
answer in mm2. (5 marks)

300 mm
Student answer

FT
Figure PE3.1
Exam tip
a) Area of a circle = π × r²
You will need to use your maths skills in the exam. The
r = 25 mm π = 3.14
formula you need may be given in the question, but
Area = 3.14 × 25 mm × 25 mm
it helps to be familiar with formulas that are likely to
= 3.14 × 625 mm²
A
come up.
= 1962.5 mm²
Area of card wasted each time = 1962.5 mm²
Verdict
R
The student has the correct answer, but they have not
explained in their working that they have concluded
that they needed two semi-circles, which is the same as
D

calculating the area of one full circle. Make sure that you read
questions carefully as they may give further instructions as
to the units the answer would need to be expressed in, e.g.
mm², cm² or m², and to how many decimal places.

Question 2: ‘Explain’ question Exam tip

Explain two benefits to the manufacturer of a die-
‘Explain’ answers need to be fairly detailed, exploring
cut and printed card of carrying out quality control aspects of the situation by reasoning or argument.
checks during manufacture. (4 marks)

Student answer Verdict

1. Consistent quality of product would be achieved The student has given two good answers that
by eliminating inferior products during the explore aspects of the quality control and its impact
checking stages. on the manufacturer. The student could expand on
2. Less waste would be produced meaning the answers given, by adding in examples.
potentially increased profits for the company.

157
Preparing for your exam 3
Question 3: ‘Evaluate’ question
The birthday card pictured has been designed
to be sold by a large high street store. Analyse
the table below. Exam tip
‘Evaluate’ answers need
Country of origin: China to look at the strengths
Added feature: ribbon trim and weaknesses of a
Printing method: offset lithography proposition and then
draw a conclusion.
Made from: non-FSC managed timber
Evaluate the card with reference to its
ecological footprint. (9 marks)

Student answer
Offset machines provide a full colour, high Most ships and road transport use fossil fuels further

FT
quality result. They can be fed using either increasing the environmental impact of this card.
cut sheets or rolls of paper known as web fed. Lastly the card is produced from timber which is not
The advantages of using this system are that FSC certified. This means that the timber has come
it produces good quality images quickly. The from a forest that is potentially not well managed and
disadvantages are that there are quite high maybe has not been replanted at all. This could lead
set-up costs as a different plate for each of the
A
to soil erosion and loss of wildlife habitats.
four printing colours, cyan, magenta, yellow Overall, I think that the ecological footprint of the
and black would need to be set up as this card is quite high. This could be reduced by producing
card is a full colour print. The energy needed it locally and by using printing inks and solvents that
R
to run four separate machines would be high are not harmful to the environment. On a positive
compared to a simpler process. This could have note the card is made from a sustainable material
environmental implications depending on where that can be recycled.
D

the manufacturer sources their energy from for

example from renewables or from burning fossil
fuels. Harmful solvents may also be used to clean Verdict
the plates of the machinery.
This is a good answer. The student has raised ethical issues
The card is produced in China which means it has
relating to transportation of the card from its country of
to be packaged and transported a great distance
manufacture to its retail outlet, the source of the materials
before further distribution to the high street store. used and energy consumption of the printing process.

Question 4: ‘Name’ or ‘Explain’ question

The pop-up book pictured has complex paper
structures. Name two methods that could be
used to cut out the shapes of the book. For
each method explain one advantage to the
manufacturer. (6 marks)

158
Preparing for your exam 3

Exam tip
This is a combination of a ‘Give’ question Student answer
and an ‘Explain’ question. ‘Explain’ questions 1. Die cutting or by hand using a scalpel and
require you to give reasons why you have cutting board.
chosen your answers.
2. Die cutting is accurate and repeatable. Hand
cutting would produce a unique one-off piece.
Verdict
In part 1, the student correctly identified two Die cutting is capable of mass producing accurate,
suitable methods. complex shapes that are stamped out of card using a
In part 2, the student does not give the full sharp steel blade that has been bent into shape. There
justification required. They could have written the are a number of varying heights for the cutters resulting
answer in the following way: in cuts and folds.

FT
Question 5: ‘Give/name’ (short answer
question)
A local nightclub wants to start a teen night. It
is going to print the leaflet in Figure PE3.2. Give
a suitable method of printing a flyer for a club
A
night like the one on the right. (1 mark)
R
Exam tip
This type of question requires specific
information but it does not need to be
clarified further.
D

Student answer
Offset lithography

Verdict
The student answered the question as required.

Figure PE3.2

159
Preparing for your exam 3
Question 6: Identify (short answer question)
Figure PE3.3 shows a design of a seed packet that needs to be
improved to include the following specification points.
The seed packaging must:
• appeal to children to encourage them to grow and eat vegetables
• be easy to open
• be re-sealable if not all the seeds are used in one go.
Use notes and/or sketches to show how the design could be modified to
include these points (6 marks)

Student answer
LET’S GROW
CARROTS

FT easy tear strip Figure PE3.3

Verdict
The student has answered
A
child friendly this question well. Each of the
design specified criteria have been
sticker for covered to good effect.
R
re-sealing
packet
D

Question 7: ‘Use notes and/or sketches’ Exam tip

to show question
It is important to annotate (label) sketches as the
Use notes and/or sketches to show the difference detail is not always clear in a sketch and the marks
between serif and sans serif typefaces. (4 marks) awarded can come from written or the drawn
information.
Student answer
Serif font Sans serif font
Plain Verdict
Serifs Thick and Strokes have a
thin strokes more even width This is a good answer. The
annotation clearly states the
attributes of each typeface.

Century old style Futura book

Figure PE3.4
160
Preparing for your exam 3

Question 8: ‘Explain’ question

Describe one working property of Tetra Pak® that makes it
suitable for a milk carton. (3 marks)

Student answer Verdict

Tetra Pak maintains the nutritional value and The answer is correct, as the properties
flavours of the food in the package in ambient described relate to the use of Tetra Pak®
temperatures by acting as an impermeable barrier. laminate in relation to a milk carton. You
could also explain what each material
contributes to the laminate, such as foil
providing a barrier against air and light.

FT
Pearson Education Ltd accepts no responsibility whatsoever for the accuracy or method of working in the answers given.
A
R
D

161
4 Polymers

FT
A
R
D

162
 4.1 Design contexts

4.1 Design contexts

Getting started
As already mentioned in Topic 1.10, polymers have a wide variety of uses in everyday life. Think about the home
environment and consider the following questions.
• How many of your personal possessions are made from polymers?
• Of these, how many polymers can you name?
• Do you know the properties of some of these polymers?
Count how many items made from polymers you can identify in your home. Select one and complete a detailed
product analysis. Consider how the item has been made.

Learning objective
By the end of this section, you should know:

FT
• a range of contexts where polymers are essential to the success of a product.

Most synthetic polymers are made from oil-based petrochemicals. However,

alternatives that use natural and sustainable sources are becoming
increasingly available. Designers and engineers use a wide variety of polymers
every day to make commonplace products we take for granted: toothbrushes,
A
toothpaste tubes, shower gel containers, hair brushes and hairdryers.
There are two main categories of polymer that you need to know about:
thermoforming polymers and thermosetting polymers. You will also need to
R
learn more about biodegradable alternatives.

Design contexts Key terms

The first polymer ‘Bakelite’ (a phenol-formaldehyde resin) was invented in
D

Bakelite: a thermosetting
1907. It was mostly used to case electrical components in radios and other
phenol-formaldehyde resin.
electrical devices, but it was also used to manufacture toys and jewellery.
Bakelite was non-recyclable and this concerned environmentalists. Over Non-renewable resource:
the last 100 years, the list of polymers has expanded. At first, products natural resources, such as crude
made from polymers only used a limited range of manufacturing processes, oil, that take millions of years
but the number of techniques available today makes it possible to make to form and are used up more
complex products. quickly than they can be replaced.

Polymers are now used in:

Apply it
• medicine: for artificial limbs, tablet coatings, blister packs, syringes and Do some research to find out
heart valves how consumers can responsibly
• household goods: kitchenware, laptops and personal music players dispose of products that are made
• building materials: including home insulation. of polymers.

The list is endless. With crude oil being a non-renewable resource, it is

becoming increasingly important for polymers to be recycled and cause less
impact on the environment in which we live.

163
4 Polymers

Summary
Key things to remember:
• There are two main categories of polymer: thermoforming polymers and thermosetting polymers.
• When they were first invented, polymers were non-recyclable. Now, however, polymers made from renewable
resources are being used so they do not cause as much environmental damage.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name two products that are made of polymers.
S2 Describe the benefits of using polymers compared to more traditional materials.
Challenge
C1 Why have polymers become more popular for the production of products?

4.2 Sources and properties

Learning objectives FT
By the end of this section, you should know:
A
• the types, properties and structure of thermoforming polymers and thermosetting polymers not considered in
Topic 1.10
• the components and manufacturing processes associated with polymers
R
• the advantages and disadvantages of using polymers for different applications
• the social and ecological footprints of polymers.
D

Link it up
Thermoforming polymers were covered in the core content section of this
book. To remind yourself, look at pages 43–46.

Thermoforming polymers are used in many different products. When designing

a product, the designer will need to select the most appropriate polymer for
the task. Designers will need to factor in many design constraints such as cost,
manufacturing methods and material properties. In this section you will learn
about other polymers that are commonly used in everyday products.

Key term
Design constraint: limitation on the design and manufacture of
the product.

164
 4.2 Sources and properties

Thermoforming polymers
Thermoforming Form Properties Common uses Advantages/disadvantages
polymer
Polyvinyl Powder, Chemical and Window frames, • Can be formed using a wide range
chloride (PVC) granules weather resistant cable insulation, of techniques
and sheet pencil cases and • Needs UV stabilisers to stop
drainage pipes material fading in sunlight
Acrylonitrile- Granules, High impact Computer casings, • Excellent impact strength
butadiene- tube and strength, mobile phones, • Can be formed using a wide range
styrene (ABS) sheet lightweight, hard safety helmets and of techniques
and durable car bumpers
• Can be coloured using pigments
• More expensive than alternative
materials
Polyethylene Granules Lightweight, Food packaging, • Excellent visual clarity
terephthalate and sheets strong and food bottles, electronic

FT
• Can be coloured using pigments
(PET) safe component coatings
Urethane/ Liquid, High-load Bags, varnish, • Can be made into very thin sheets
polyurethane sheet, resistance, high- wheels and to produce carrier bags
foam and wear resistance, furniture foam • Governments have imposed a
granules flexible and good charge for carrier bags to reduce
electrical resistance landfill and promote reuse
A
Fluoroelastomer Sheet and Heat, chemical Heat shrink tubing, • Can be used to tie wiring looms
tube and solvent car hoses, chemical- together
resistant resistant gloves, • Differently sized material is
R
gaskets required depending on amount of
shrink fit required
Rigid Granules Lightweight, Food packaging, • Can be recycled at school where
D

polystyrene and sheets food safe, heat such as coffee cups equipment available
(high-density in a wide resistant • Difficult to recycle if
polystyrene) range of contaminated by food
colours
Expanded Beads, Lightweight, Packaging, • Can be vacuum formed
polystyrene sheets and buoyant, tough swimming floats, • Excellent thermal properties that
blocks but breaks easily cups, sound are useful in drinking cups
insulation, heat
• Difficult to recycle if
insulation, beads in
contaminated with food
bean bags
StyrofoamTM Sheets Lightweight, Fast-food • Can be easily formed using school
(extruded buoyant, heat packaging, workshop tools and equipment
polystyrene – insulation and can packaging of audio- • Cutting by hot wire requires good
EPS) be easily shaped visual equipment, ventilation due to fumes
using workshop silk flower holders
tools to make
models
Table 4.2.1 A summary of the different types of thermoforming polymers

165
4 Polymers

What are the advantages or disadvantages of StyrofoamTM?

Apply it

FT
The properties of acrylic make it an ideal material for rear car light covers,
but unsuitable for lights on the front of a car. Analyse the parts made from
polymers on a family member or relative’s car. Consider the properties of
polymers that make them suitable for each part.

Thermosetting polymers
A
Link it up
Thermosetting polymers were covered in the core content section of this
R
book. To remind yourself, look at pages 44–45.

Thermosetting polymers are commonly used as a resin glue to bond

D

Key term particles and sheets of timber together in manufactured boards. Polyester
Composite material: a material resin is also combined with glass fibres to form glass reinforced plastic
made from a combination of two (GRP), a composite material. The glass fibre strands are fixed in place
or more materials. once the polyester resin is hardened and toughened. GRP is very strong
and lightweight. The direction of the glass strands is random and this is
what provides GRP with uniform strength. GRP is commonly used in low-
production products such as sport cars and boats as it can be formed
into many shapes. A polyester gel coat resin is used to give the GRP a
smooth finish. The gel coat layer can also be coloured using pigments. Urea
formaldehyde is used in the moulding of products, such as an electrical wall
socket. It is also used as an adhesive in manufactured boards.

Sources and origins of polymers

Most synthetic polymers are made from crude oil. Oil is a non-renewable
resource, most of which is found deep in the ground. Oil rigs are used to
drill for oil in the rock below the sea. On land, pumps are used to extract oil
from wells. The largest oil-producing nations are Russia, Saudi Arabia and
the United States.

166
 4.2 Sources and properties

Oil contains many hydrocarbons that need to be cracked into smaller particles
to make polymers. This process is carried out at oil refineries throughout the
world. Crude oil is transported by pipeline, or large ships, to refineries where
polymers are made. In the UK, most oil refineries can be found close to the coast
where ships can unload and pipelines from oil rigs come ashore.

Russia 77.4
12.9%
Canada 32.1
4.2%
Kazakhstan 39.8
2.1%
USA 30.9 Iraq 115.0
8.7% 3.1% 137.0 Iran
5.2%

FT
101.5 Kuwait
Libya 46.4 3.1%
2.0%

97.8 UAE
3.3%

Venezuela 211.2
3.2% 264.5
Nigeria 37.2 12.0% Saudi
A
2.9% Arabia
R
0.0 Oil reserves in billions of barrels
0.0% Oil production (current global market share)

Figure 4.2.1 The world’s biggest oil

reserves. Why is oil referred to as
D

black gold?

Exam-style question
Explain one reason why oil refineries are often found near the sea.
(2 marks)

Exam tip
Focus on the command word ‘Explain’. Consider the transport of oil to
the refinery from the source of extraction.

The physical characteristics of polymers Key terms

When choosing materials to make different products you will need to Hydrocarbon: a compound
consider what properties are required. When selecting a polymer where consisting of hydrogen and carbon.
the product needs to float, the density needs to be less than 1 g/cm3. The Qualitative: measuring results
durability of polymers is more difficult to calculate. Tests that replicate wear by quality.
are used to make qualitative comparisons.

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4 Polymers
Type of polymer Density (g/cm3)

Acrylic 1.20
High-impact polystyrene (HIPS) 1.03–1.06
Polystyrene (PS) 0.96–1.04
StyrofoamTM 0.05
Biopol® 1.06
Polyvinyl chloride 1.47
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 1.0–1.05
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 1.38
Urethane/polyurethane 1.20
Fluoroelastomer 1.8
Polyester resin 1.3–1.7

FT
Urea formaldehyde 1.5–1.6 g/cm3
Table 4.2.2 The density of thermoforming and thermosetting polymers

Products designed to last more than a year, such as home appliances, motorbikes
Key term
and computers, need to be made from durable materials. Polymers are often
Durable: how well a material used, as they resist corrosion and stand up to everyday wear and tear.
A
lasts.
The working properties of polymers
When selecting materials, designers need to consider how they will need
to perform in daily life. For example, StyrofoamTM is a suitable material for
R
modelling prototypes in a school workshop, but it would not be suitable for
a product that needs a hard surface and can resist scratching. High-impact
polystyrene is harder than StyrofoamTM and offers good plasticity in that it can
D

be easily shaped to make different forms. StyrofoamTM is tough: it can resist

impact and absorb energy without fracturing. ABS is also used in products
that need to be tough. For example, a car bumper made of ABS needs to
withstand small knocks without deforming and causing damage to other
parts of the car. ABS is also strong in tension and compression, and is used
in chairs to create rigid structures that withstand the weight of those sitting
on the chair as well as misuse through swinging on two legs. The plasticity
of polymers also makes them easy to shape. See Table 4.2.1 on page 165 for
further properties of polymers.

Exam-style question
Explain two reasons why polymers are an appropriate material for the
manufacture of products that need to float. (6 marks)

Link it up
Other working properties of polymers are covered in Section 1.10 in
Topic 1, see page 47.

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 4.2 Sources and properties

The social footprint of polymers Key terms

Trend forecasting Flexible packaging: pouches,
Between 2011 and 2016 there was a 1.3 per cent increase in the use of flexible bags and films.
packaging and a 2.3 per cent rise in the use of rigid packaging (source: PIRA) Rigid packaging: pots, tubs,
worldwide. During this period, there was a higher demand for bioplastics trays and bottles.
due to consumer demand for greener products, government initiatives, new Bioplastics: a type of plastic
production capabilities, an increase in oil prices and the development of that is made from biological
material properties. Flexible polymer packaging alternatives are replacing substances, not petroleum.
the need for glass and metal packaging. Flexible packaging is lighter in
weight, easier to transport and considered more cost effective to produce.
Asia currently has the highest growing market for polymer-based packaging.
There has been an increase in the use of PET for packaging of soft drinks,
food and personal care products. The wall thickness of polymer packaging
has decreased significantly during the last 20 years, with drinks bottles being
some 27 per cent lighter in weight. It is expected that there will be continued
growth in the use of polymers in southern and central America, Africa and
South Europe.

FT
The global polymer industry for car manufacture is expected to exceed a
value of $22 billion by 2019 (source: Research and Markets). There is an
increased demand for lighter and stronger materials that meet government
legislation and will improve fuel efficiency. With a growing demand for
A
vehicles in emerging and developing countries, the demand for polymers is
very likely to increase.
This expected trend means that there will be a need for materials that can
be recycled, as well as lighter alternatives and increased use of bioplastics,
R
which reduce reliance on oil. As the price of oil is volatile, manufacturers may
look at alternatives to a purely synthetic-based material.
D

The impact of extraction and material production on the

environment
The building of oil rigs, drilling sites on land and refineries can lead to
deforestation or disturbance of the environment in the sea. This can make
animals and sea life seek out other habitats as their homes and food
supplies have been destroyed.
The extraction of oil from the seabed and land can cause significant damage
to the environment. On land, it can lead to deforestation. Where legislation
is not strict, waste products can be disposed of in rivers – lead, cadmium and
mercury are just a few of the chemicals released. Such pollution can cause
health problems for people living near oil drilling fields and oil distribution
pipes can leak if not maintained, having a devastating impact on local
wildlife. The impact of drilling for oil and deforestation can also lead to an
increase in CO2 into the atmosphere.
Drilling at sea also risks damage to the environment, as any leaks can affect
sea and bird life. Pipes that lie at the bottom of the seabed are more difficult
to repair when damaged and leaks can often go undetected.

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4 Polymers
The impact of extraction and material production on wildlife
Oil leaks from pipes or spills from ships can have a devastating impact on
wildlife: birds, fish and sea mammals. The oil covers the body of the animal
in a thick layer, which in birds can affect flight. It can even break down the
waterproofing or insulating properties needed in feathers or fur, causing
hypothermia. Other sea life can die due to dehydration or starvation as the oil
prevents them from feeding in their normal habitats. Oil can also wash up on
beaches, killing animals that feed in these areas. It can also destroy nesting areas
for turtles and cause poisoning of animals higher up the food chain.

Ease and difficulty of recycling and disposal

It is possible to recycle most thermoforming polymers, but thermosetting
polymers need to be disposed of at landfill sites. Where polymers are used to
package food, the containers will need to be thoroughly cleaned before being
sent for recycling to avoid contaminating the process. Most households in the
UK will have access to a means of disposing of polymer-based products.

devastating effect on wildlife

FT
A bird covered in oil: oil spills can have a
Most recycling plants can separate and recycle polymer, metal and card-
based products. Polymers disposed of at landfill sites can take more than
500 years to decompose, whereas it is also possible to use some polymer
waste that cannot be recycled as fuel.

Exam tip
A
Exam-style question
Evaluate the ecological footprint When answering ‘Evaluate’ questions, you are advised to plan your
of a plastic disposable cup. answers. Consider your main points, give examples, explain each and
(9 marks) make links to the question. You can remember this using the acronym
R
PEEL:
Point
Evidence/Example
D

Explain
Link

1 2 3 4
PETE HDPE V LDPE

5 6 7
PP PS OTHER
Figure 4.2.2 Symbols used for identifying and recycling of polymers: how many of these do you recognise?

170
 4.2 Sources and properties

The ecological footprint of polymers As oil reserves run out there is a need to drill deeper or in
At its simplest, the ecological footprint is the amount more hazardous conditions, such as ice and snow.
of the environment required to produce the goods and This increases the risks of endangering workers and
services necessary to support a particular lifestyle. causing oil leaks.

Sustainability
Synthetic polymers are not naturally a sustainable Link it up
material. As polymers are made from oil, they contribute For more information on the potential effects of oil
to the depletion of non-renewable materials. For a leaks on wildlife, see page 170.
polymer to be considered sustainable, it must be able
to be recycled or reused forever. Some polymers are not
recyclable, while those that are need to be disposed of Processing
responsibly if they are to be made into other products. Oil is processed in a petroleum refinery. Here
In the UK only 29 per cent of polymers are currently hydrocarbons are separated into components that
recycled, but this is to increase to 57 per cent by 2020 to can be used for fuels and polymers as well as other
meet a government target. materials. Long hydrocarbon chains are cracked to
make monomers, which are then polymerised to make

FT
Oil exploration and extraction polymer resins. These are then further processed with
It is the job of geologists to find sources of oil reserves. additives and dyes ready for moulding.
This is an expensive process and can be costly if drilling
for oil is unsuccessful. Survey ships are used to find
oil below the sea, using compressed air to send shock Transportation
waves into the bed rock. The waves are reflected back to Rail cars
A
sensors dragged behind the ship and the results of the Pipelines
reflected waves allow geologists to plot the seabed and Barges
Trucks
identify oil reserves. A similar system can be used on
R
land, but instead of compressed air it uses vibrations
to send shock waves into the ground.
Storage
1994 1996 1999 2000 2002 2004 2007 2009 2010 Crude tank farm
D

Crude tank blend

0
Maximum operational depth of offshore fields (km)

Processing
0.5
Cold preheat train
Desalter
1.0
Hot preheat train
1.5 Heater
Crude unit
2.0 Other refinery processes

2.5

3.0 Finished products

Figure 4.2.3 Maximum drilling depths at sea: with resources depleting, it has Figure 4.2.4 The process of making
become necessary to drill deeper for oil products from oil: consider which aspect
of this process is the largest contributor
to damaging the environment

171
4 Polymers

Apply it Transportation
Oil is transported to refineries by oil tankers or by pipes that run under and
Discuss the impact of transportation
over ground. Polymers are transported from refineries as pellets or resins
and suitability on land usage. ready for forming. The pellets are usually transported by lorry or train to
factories that use forming techniques to make products or stock material.

FT
Polymer resin pellets: pellets are heated
and formed into products

Wastage
Flash material removed after forming products can be recycled if products
are made of thermoforming polymers. The waste is ground and chipped into
pellets that can be mixed with new polymer material. Vacuum-formed waste
A
material can also be recycled.
Flash material removed from products made from thermosetting materials
cannot be recycled. This material will usually end up at landfill.
R
Pollution
Pollution from oil can have a devastating effect on the sea, wildlife and
people’s livelihoods. The world’s largest accidental oil spill happened in 2010
D

when an explosion on a deep-water rig released 210 million gallons of oil

into the sea and killed 11 workers. The leak lasted for three months, having
a devastating effect on wildlife in the area. The oil company tried to prevent
the spread of the damage, but the leak is believed to have killed wildlife in
a zone of 80 square miles surrounding the rig. The company that owned the
rig faced the largest fine for pollution in US history.
It is estimated that more than 8 million tonnes of plastic are dumped in
our oceans every year. Such waste can be seen in large slicks referred to as
plastic soup or is broken down into tiny pieces that are then eaten by fish
and other wildlife, particularly birds. This causes fish to become ill, with
the consequences eventually passing up the food chain. Larger items can
become entangled around marine animals.
Key term Microbeads found in cosmetic products such as exfoliators are often also
Flash material: excess material made from polymers. They are too small to be removed when water is
left on the product after treated at sewerage works, so eventually end up in the sea. Microbeads are
forming. toxic when ingested by sea life. Countries including the UK and the USA are
introducing bans on microbeads.

172
 4.2 SourcesDesign
and properties
contexts

When crude oil is extracted, toxins can be released and Where oil is drilled on land, areas are cleared for new
oil disposed of. This can have an impact on local wildlife. roads and drill camps.

FT
Pollution is created by refining oil into plastic through
the burning of fossil fuels to power the plant.

Figure 4.2.5 Impact diagram of making plastics

Where oil is shipped or transported by pipelines, there can be leaks
into the environment, which pollute waterways and kill wildlife.
A
Summary
Key points to remember:
R
• Oil is extracted from the ground through use of drilling rigs and pumping stations.
• Oil is transported to refineries through pipelines and tankers.
• Flexible polymer packaging is replacing traditional packaging alternatives.
D

• There is demand for lighter and stronger polymers.

• Oil leaks can have a devastating impact on the environment, wildlife and people.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name three available forms of polymer.
S2 Describe the trend forecast for use of polymers.
S3 Discuss the implications of having to drill deeper for oil at sea.
S4 Explain the impact of plastic waste in the sea.
Challenge
C1 Consider the issues associated with having a universal system for identifying products made from polymers
that can be recycled.
C2 What strategies could the UK government employ to meet its goal for recycling polymers by 2020?

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4 Polymers
4.3 Selecting polymers
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the influences upon the selection of thermoforming polymers and thermosetting polymers
• how aesthetic considerations, environmental factors, availability factors, cost factors and social factors influence
the selection of polymers.

Aesthetic factors Texture

Polymers can be formed into many complicated or The texture of polymers can be altered to suit their use.
simple shapes. Different manufacturing processes Through different forming techniques, texture can be
require the polymer to be supplied in a variety of stock applied to add grip, improve appearance and make
shapes and sizes. The manufacturing method, stock products easier to clean. For example, if using a torch, the
shape and size can all influence the aesthetic qualities of user will want the grip to be textured so that it doesn’t
the manufactured product. Some polymers are naturally slip out of the hand. If purchasing a radio, you may want a

FT
dull in finish while others are glossy. textured handle for grip, but another texture to improve
the appearance of the product over alternatives. When
Form
purchasing kitchenware, you will want items that have a
The shape of products depends mainly on the forming
smooth finish and are easy to clean.
technique chosen. Vacuum-formed products can be
identified through designs that have an internal and external
shape that follows the same form. Other manufacturing Exam-style question
A
techniques offer more intricate detail and complexity. Explain two ways in which the aesthetic properties of
Injection moulding is used where products require different polymers are affected by user requirements. (4 marks)
internal and external forms. Products made using this
R
technique may also have fixing points or over mouldings,
Environmental factors
like those on toothbrushes. Polymers can be used in sheet
form to create shop window signage, or can be used in thin When deciding on which polymer to use for a product,
sheets to form carrier bags or wrapping products. Some designers need to consider the life cycle of the product.
D

thermoforming polymers have what is known as a plastic If it will be used only once, then a material that is readily
memory and when heated will return to their original shape. available and easy to recycle should be used. Where
products are to be used for longer periods, a designer may
Colour be able to justify the choice of material based on other
Polymers are available in many colours. It is possible to factors such as physical properties and cost.
specify a colour to match the exact customer requirements,
as long as enough of the material is ordered. Polymers Sustainability
such as acrylic are available in transparent, clear, frosted, Crude oil is a non-renewable resource, and it is
pearlescent, opal, fluorescent and sparkle finishes, and in important for designers to consider the life cycle of
a variety of different colours. The polymers are coloured products when choosing materials. Where possible
during manufacture using pigments. This results in the thermoforming polymers should be used as these can
material being coloured throughout, not just a surface. be recycled, but where this is not possible and other
Using this technique makes it more difficult to see scratches properties are required, the designer may have no
and defects on the material’s surface. choice but to use a thermosetting polymer. Certain
It is possible to use special ‘smart’ pigments to enhance groups of consumers will demand that the products
the colour properties of polymers. Phosphorescent and they buy are more sustainable. There is a growth in
thermochromic pigments can be used where applications the market for products to be made from recycled
require items to glow in the dark or change colour with materials, even though the cost of such items is likely
temperature, such as baby feeding spoons. to be more expensive.
174
 Thermoforming and thermosetting
4.3 Selecting polymers

Apply it
Research what impact the government scheme to reduce plastic bag usage
has had on the amount of waste going to landfill.

Pollution
Pollution from polymers is a major concern. Spillages of oil and polymer
waste have a detrimental effect on wildlife in oceans with loss of life due to Exam-style question
contamination of food sources and drowning. There is another significant
Explain one advantage and one
problem on land as a large proportion of polymer products are disposed
disadvantage of using Biopol®
of at landfill sites. In 2014, 7.6 billion single use plastic bags were disposed
instead of oil-based polymers.
of in England. Customers are now encouraged to use long-life alternatives,
(4 marks)
such as cotton or jute, or pay for bags which were once free.

Biodegradable polymers – Biopol®

Biopol® is an environmentally friendly alternative to other synthetic polymers. Exam tip
It is made from plant and vegetable extracts using fermentation. The process
Consider the amount of time

FT
of fermentation is slower than making polymers from crude oil, but as it
needed to make Biopol® and
naturally breaks down in soil producing no toxins, it is highly suited to short-
how it can be disposed of.
life disposable items. It is more expensive than polymers made from crude oil,
has limited resistance to impact and is unsuitable for holding chemicals.

Availability factors
A
There are many stockists of polymer materials. They are usually cut to a
size that is convenient to aid delivery and storage of materials. Most non-
specialist materials can be ordered and delivered a few days later.
R
Use of stock materials
Polymers are available in many forms. Thermoforming polymers are available
as powders, granules, sheets, rods, bars and tubes. A designer may choose
D

to use a stock material such as sheet acrylic to manufacture products if the

volume to be made does not justify the use of moulding techniques and the
use of other available stock forms of the material. The stock forms and sizes
available restrict the way in which a designer can design and make products. Link it up
For example, if a product requires an acrylic sheet of thickness 3.5 mm and For more information about
this is not available, it would need to be manufactured at a very high cost. available stock forms and sizes,
Instead, the designer may have to redesign the product to match the stock look at page 182.
sizes available and in this case, it would be acrylic 3 mm in thickness.

Use of specialist materials

Where a specialist finish or size of material is required, small batches of the
material can be manufactured at a higher cost. The cost of the material could
be extremely high and result in a designer changing their plans but, where
there is no choice, a specialist material may be required. Specialist materials
can include those whose size is not of normal stock availability, but also include
specific textured and coloured finishes. Materials that include thermochromic
or phosphorescent pigments, or other, will need to be made to customer
requirements. Recycled polymers can also be made into sheet material for
specialist use.

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4 Polymers

Apply it Effect of global oil supply and price

The cost of oil is measured in dollars per barrel. Its cost depends on several
The cost of crude oil has increased
factors including political influences, conflicts, supply and demand. The cost of
from $53.89 to $61.30 per barrel extracting oil is also dependent on the amount of money invested in finding
between 2005 and 2015. Consider a suitable site, the time spent drilling, and the cost of energy and equipment.
why the cost of oil changes and The cost of transporting oil to refineries also should be considered.
why at one point in the last 10
years it cost $132 per barrel. A shortage in oil can cause the cost to rise as communities compete to buy
what is available. Oil is essential as fuel for transport, heating and electricity
as well as making polymers. Without it we wouldn’t be able to run cars,
make products or power our factories. When supply is high, the cost of oil
falls as there is surplus stock available. Conflicts and disputes between
countries can also make it harder to transport oil, reducing supply and
ultimately increasing costs. Labour supply can also have an effect on the
availability of oil. If oil refinery workers go on strike to protest about wages
or working conditions, this will limit the amount of oil to leave fuel depots
and refineries.

FT Being a non-renewable resource, the trend is for the cost of oil to increase as
supplies will eventually run out.

Cost factors
The final cost of a product made from polymer will depend on many factors.
A
Polymers are not priced equally due to the difference in properties, cost of
production and demand.
R
Quality of material
The quality of material is judged on how well it compares with other
materials depending on how it performs its role. For example, if a designer
were to compare the use of HIPS and ABS for a casing on an electronic
D

gadget they would need to consider the circumstances under which the
product would be used. If it is likely to be dropped or knocked repeatedly,
then the designer may opt for the more expensive ABS material, but if the
product was to be kept safe on a desk, HIPS may be sufficient. In selecting
the best material, the designer will need to balance cost against quality.
The designer may be aiming the product at a higher end of the market, or
making the product more widely available.

Manufacturing processes
Key term
The cost of tools and complexities for making products is dependent on
Tooling: machinery used for a number of factors. If only making a few items, there is not a need for
shaping materials, usually by expensive tooling, but in doing so the skill level and time making such
cutting, drilling, shearing, and products could be extremely high. For example, polystyrene can be formed
moulding. using a wide range of processes, such as vacuum forming and injection
moulding, whereas urea formaldehyde is unsuitable for vacuum forming but
can be formed using injection or compression moulding.

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 4.3 Selecting polymers

Materials/processes Vacuum Injection Extrusion Compression Rotational Blow

forming moulding moulding moulding moulding

Acrylic Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Polystyrene Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
PVC Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
ABS Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
PET Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Urea formaldehyde No Yes Yes Yes Possible No
Table 4.3.1 The manufacturing processes available for different polymers

Polymer treatments
Adding treatments or additives to polymers can improve processing during
manufacture, make them safer to use, increase strength, make them degrade

Additive/treatment
Fire proofing
FT
quicker, improve aesthetics and improve durability. There are a wide range of
treatments and additives available of which some are described in Table 4.3.2.

Function
Flame retardants are used to prevent ignition or prevent spread of flames
A
Anti-static Prevents build-up of static electricity on a surface
Biodegradable plasticisers Help the product to degrade quicker in soil
R
Blowing agents Used to create foams by putting gases in the material
Fillers Natural materials used to improve strength and add bulk to the material
Light stabilisers Reduce degradation caused by UV light
D

Plasticisers Help to make the material more flexible and softer

Pigments Used to add colour to the polymer
Reinforcement fibres Used to add strength and stiffness
Table 4.3.2 The function of additives to polymers

Link it up
For more information on oil commodity price, look at page 176.

Social factors
When we purchase and use products, we often need to consider what
influences our decisions. Social influences such as religion, family and wealth
may contribute to the decisions we make.

Use for different social groups

The groups that we belong to may influence the products we purchase.
You have probably bought similar items to your friends or have had to buy

177
4 Polymers
a certain piece of sports equipment that has been Cultural and ethical factors
recommended by your coach. To compete at a higher
level in sport, or to achieve a higher grade on a musical
Avoiding offence
instrument, it is likely that you will require better and It is important not to offend customers. If a company
more expensive equipment to remain competitive. does offend customers, they will be unlikely to buy
These items will be made more accurately and of higher- a particular product, and it may lead to none of a
quality materials. company’s products being allowed in a particular
region or country. It is important to understand
Trends and fashion different cultures and religions so that unintentional
The home in the 1970s was very different to that of today. offence can be avoided.
Everyday chores took much longer to complete and not Sometimes, a company could cause offence
every household could afford the luxury of a freezer or unintentionally. Dropping litter can have a negative
even a telephone. The development of plastics helped to effect on companies where branding is displayed
change this and by the end of the 1970s such products on packaging.
became more widely available as technology improved
and manufacturing became more efficient. Sales of Suitability for intended market
plastic toys like Action Man and Barbie hit record heights. Understanding the intended market for a new product

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Tupperware was sold in high volume as a better method is very important; if it’s unsuitable, it won’t sell or
of food storage and a means of preventing waste. At the could even cause injury. For example, if a designer has
time televisions were seen as a piece of furniture and not fully considered how a child may use a plastic toy
were packaged in a wooden box, but as plastics were differently to how it was intended, it could lead to
further introduced into the design, different-shaped safety issues.
and coloured products became available. PVC was widely
Use of colour and language
A
used as an alternative covering for furniture and became
Research shows that colour can be used to express
fashionable in clothing design, but plastics were later
many meanings. Blue can be used to express wealth
seen as cheap alternatives for higher-quality materials.
and security, whereas grey is often used to indicate
R
Popularity strength and success. Researchers have found that
Today plastics are commonly used in a wide range of there are similarities across cultures in the way in
applications. PET is mostly used to make soft drink and which people interpret the use of colour. Most consider
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water bottles and is now much more widely used than blue to mean high quality, while red can be associated
glass because it is easy to manufacture, lightweight with love. However, there is less uniformity in the
and is able to withstand knocks. HDPE has also become meaning attached to purple. In Japan and South Korea
more popular and has replaced alternative methods of it is considered to represent luxury and expensive
packaging. HDPE is suitable for the safe storage of food items, whereas in the United States it is considered to
and drinks and so is used in milk bottles and ice cream represent cheaper products. Black is the only colour
tubs. It is also used to package liquids such as shampoos that is considered to represent expensive products
and detergents. PVC is also commonly used to produce across cultures.
window frames, pencil cases and shoe soles, but is less
The consumer society
popular where the user wants quality items, such as
The development of computer and communications
wooden window frames and leather-soled shoes. Some
technology has made it much easier for consumers
mobile phone manufacturers choose not to use plastics
to research, compare and buy products. Consumers’
as they consider the material not to have the aesthetic
expectations of getting things fast and efficiently have
and sensory qualities of alternatives.
meant that it is difficult for some companies to keep up
Key term with demand, resulting in customers going elsewhere
to buy their products. Companies now try to forecast
HDPE (high-density polyethylene): a
sales to meet demands – when a large sporting event is
thermoplastic with high impact resistance.
to be broadcast on television, for example, TV, alcoholic

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 4.3 Selecting polymers

drink and snack food sales increase. Similarly, when weather forecasters
Apply it
indicate hot weather is on the way, sales of barbecues, ice cream and sun
tan lotion peak. Research how many times a razor
is used before it needs to be
The effects of mass production replaced. Is it more cost effective
Mass production has enabled consumer goods to become much cheaper, to buy a long-life razor or a
making them accessible to groups who would not have been able to disposable item?
afford them in the past. However, mass production does not require as
many unskilled workers, leading to loss of employment and a reduction in
disposable income in the groups that used to be able to buy the cheaper
mass-produced goods.

Built-in production obsolescence Key term

When purchasing a product, you may not consider how long something
will last before it needs to be replaced, but it is likely that this decision has Planned obsolescence: a
already been made for you. Why do products only have limited guarantees strategy of designing a product
or warranties? Products are designed to have a limited life so that they will with a limited life, so it will

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need to be replaced. This is called planned obsolescence. Without this, become outdated or fail after a
companies would not sell enough items to stay in business. period of time.
Have you ever heard of a toothbrush that will last a lifetime or of a pair of
running shoes that never wear out? The reason for this is that designers may
make small adjustments to a design to increase renewed sales, or they will
bring out a product where the technology supersedes existing products,
A
making them redundant. The lifespan of a toothbrush is approximately 3–4
months as the bristles eventually wear out and become ineffective in cleaning
teeth. Sports companies recommend renewing running shoes every 450 miles
R
as they can lose grip and support. The technology in mobile phones soon
becomes outdated as new operating systems require larger memory, more
powerful batteries and faster transfer of data. When you purchase a new
mobile phone, there is already another phone being developed to replace it.
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Summary
Key thing to remember:
• aesthetic considerations, environmental factors, availability factors, cost factors and social factors influence the
selection of polymers.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name an organisation that campaigns to reduce polymer waste.
S2 Describe how Biopol® is made.
S3 Describe how aesthetic properties of polymers can be changed.
Challenge
C1 Consider an application where plastic memory in polymers can be utilised.

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4 Polymers

4.4 Impact of forces and stresses

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the forces and stresses that act on products made from polymers
• contexts in which polymers need to be able to withstand forces and stresses
• how items made from polymers are reinforced and stiffened.

Forces and stresses

Forces and stresses act by pushing or pulling on objects. This can be through
gravity or due to different objects pushing and pulling against one another
or the internal resistance to an applied force.

Apply it Compression
Polymers are used in scenarios that require them to be strong under
Measure the distance between the

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compression. Traditional lead or concrete piping used in building houses
legs on a plastic chair. Ask a friend and sewerage systems has been replaced with polymer-based alternatives,
to sit on the chair and measure which are more cost effective to manufacture, lighter to transport and easier
the distance between the legs to install. The piping will need to withstand the weight of soil or concrete
again. Record your measurements above it and retain its shape to allow water to flow freely. A smaller, more
and consider why they have flexible type of this pipe is now used for underfloor heating systems.
A
changed or stayed the same. A chair made from polymer can be made to withstand the forces applied by
a person’s body weight by creating angled or tubular legs.
Tension
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Polymers are used as material alternatives for traditional products such as
climbing ropes, kite strings and shopping bags. Polymers are high in tensile
strength to prevent products stretching with load, but also offer elasticity
to allow bags to change shape and climbers to have a smoother ride when
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abseiling down a cliff face. Polymers have an elastic limit and, if the load
exceeds this, the polymer will be unable to return to its shape and size. If
the elastic limit load is exceeded, the polymer will stretch until it fails. For
instance, an abseiling rope needs to be high in tensile strength but also offer
some elasticity to prevent shock to the climber on descent of the cliff face.
Shear
Shear forces are unaligned forces pushing against each other in different
directions, such as in scissors or a guillotine. Currency made from polymers
offers an advantage over paper-based alternatives: it can be washed without
it being destroyed, it is more difficult to counterfeit and, most importantly,
it is resistant to shear forces, where previously bank notes could be ripped.
Flexibility
Some polymers are flexible while others are stiff. These properties are
useful when designing different products. An ice cream tub stored in the
freezer needs a strong and stiff material for the container base, but the lid
needs to be flexible so that it can be peeled from the packaging. This type
of packaging needs to resist impact from being dropped and withstand a
metal ice cream scoop being dragged around its edge. PVC-coated electrical
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 4.4 Impact of forces and stresses

cables need to be flexible for packaging purposes and for allowing products
to be placed in different environments around the home or office. Flexible
sheet takes up less space as it can be stored on a roll and plastic carrier bags
can be folded away until they are used again.

Reinforcement and stiffening techniques

Frame structures
Polymer-based products can be strengthened using frame structures. Here Link it up
parts are in tension and compression. For example, if designing and building
a child’s playhouse, a plastic tube construction could be used to make the For information on suitable
item lightweight and easy to assemble. The structure needs to be stiff to fabrication, assembly and
retain its shape but also strong enough to hold the weight of the covering. construction processes, look at
Triangulation page 176. For information on the
use of additives, look at Table
Using triangles to form the basis of structures provides strength, stiffness
4.3.2 on page 177.
and rigidity to products.

Force applied Force applied

Hinged
corners

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A
Gussets (3)

Virtual
R
Force applied Force applied triangle
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Figure 4.4.1 If built of stiff components with hinged corners, the triangle is the only
shape that can retain its form. Other shapes can easily be misshaped unless gussets
(brackets strengthening an angle or structure) or braces are added

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Triangular structures are very strong.
• They can be used to stiffen other shaped structures.
• Frame structures can easily be assembled to provide rigid forms.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name three different forces or stresses that act on products made from polymers.
Challenge
C1 Explain how polymer based products can be strengthened using frame structures.

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4 Polymers
4.5 Calculating quantity
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the range of forms and sizes of polymers available
• how to calculate the cross-sectional area of different forms of polymer
• how to calculate the diameter of materials.

Stock forms, types and sizes

Polymers are available in many forms and sizes. When tube, resin, powder and film. Round and square bars can
designing products, you will need to consider the form be cut to length and machined to make more complex
and sizes available to you, as specifying non-stock items shapes. Sheet material and films can be cut to size and
will be much more expensive, and require a specialist shape using traditional and modern processes, whereas
manufacturer to make the item. Polymers are available granules and resins are used for forming and casting
in round/square bars, mouldings, granules, as a sheet, using moulds.

Stock
form

Bar
Thickness

3 mm, 5 mm,
6 mm, 8 mm,
area
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Cross-sectional Size (common in

For square or
round bar:
school)

1000 mm to
4000 mm in length
Diameter

3 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm,

8 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm,
Advantages and
disadvantages
Applications

• Easy to cut, drill and • Drawer runners

machine and floor glides
A
10 mm, 12 mm, width × thickness 15 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, • Limited range of • Can be cut on a
15 mm, 20 mm, = area mm² 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm colours available lathe or mill to
25 mm, 30 mm, • Long lengths difficult make fittings
40 mm, 50 mm For round bar: to store and transport
Available as
R
π × r² = area mm²
square and
round bars
Sheet 1 mm, 1.5 mm, Width × height = 1000 × 600 mm N/A • Stable or flexible, • Shop and street
2 mm, 3 mm, area mm2 Sheet sizes of allowing rigid signs
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5 mm, 6 mm, 1220 × 2440 mm structures to be • Cladding of

8 mm, 10 mm are available from formed or shape buildings
specialist stockists of structure to be • Used to create
followed vacuum
• Easy to cut and drill mouldings
• Thickness may be
different due to
allowed tolerances
• Large sizes of sheet
difficult to transport
Pipe/tube Wall thickness Outside area – 300 mm, 500 mm 5 mm, 6 mm, 10 mm, • Available in rigid and • Heating and
3 mm inside area and 1000 mm length 15 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, flexible forms plumbing
π × r12 = (x) Longer lengths of 30 mm, 35 mm, 40 mm, • Flexible tube can be piping
π × r22 = (y) tube are available 45 mm, 50 mm, 60 mm, supplied on a reel to
x – y = z mm2 from specialist 70 mm, 80 mm, 90 mm, reduce storage
stockists 100 mm Larger-diameter • Easy to cut and drill
(see the Maths in
tube is available from • Rigid tube length
practice example
specialist stockists makes storage difficult
on page 183)
Table 4.5.1 Stock forms Cont…

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 4.5 Calculating quantity

Stock Thickness Cross-sectional Size (common in Diameter Advantages and Applications

form area school) disadvantages
Mouldings Mouldings Shape dependent N/A N/A • Vast number of • Drain pipes,
come in many mouldings available gutters, window
different to suit different and door
shapes and applications frames, shower
sizes • Specialist item, not and bath trims
available from all
stockists
• Limited range of
colours
Resin Sold by weight N/A N/A N/A • Can be moulded to • Boat hulls,
1 kg, 2.5 kg, create many shapes sports cars and
5 kg and 10 kg and combined with trophies
glass fibres to create
GRP
• Needs a catalyst to
harden resin
• Messy to use

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• Needs to be stored in
flammables cupboard
Granules/ Sold by weight N/A N/A N/A • Can be heated to • Used in
powder 1 kg, 2.5 kg, create different forms injection
5 kg and 10 kg or to coat and finish moulding
other materials applications
• Needs to be heated and for plastic
A
to form shapes or be coating of
used as a finish metals
• Can be messy to store
Film 0.076–7.62 mm Length × width • Roll width N/A • Stored on a roll for • Food wrapping
R
= mm2 available 300 mm easy storage and and vinyl
to 1000 mm application stickers cut on
• Length of • Can be difficult a CNC plotter
roll normally to tear/cut with a cutter
10–100 m straight edge
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Table 4.5.1 Stock forms

Maths in practice
Cross-sectional area
To calculate the cross-sectional area of a tube, the area of the inner Note the tube has a wall thickness
circle must be subtracted from the area of the outer circle. The of 3 mm. This ultimately makes the Radius = 12 mm
equation for calculating the area of a circle is: inside circle 6 mm less in diameter and
πr2 therefore the radius is given as 12 mm.
where: • Use the same equation for the inner
π = 3.14 (to two decimal places) circle to calculate how much material
Diameter = 30 mm
r = Radius needs to be removed to calculate
the area shaded brown.
• Study the diagram opposite illustrating the end of an acrylic
tube. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the tube. The tube has πr 2 = Area of inner circle
an outside diameter of 30 mm and a wall thickness of 3 mm. 3.14 × 12 × 12 = 452.16 mm2
Using the above equation to find the area of the outside circle, • Finally you need to subtract the area of the inner circle from the
area of the outer circle.
the answer is as follows.
Area of outer circle – Area of inner circle = cross-sectional area of tube
πDr 2 = Area of circle
706.5 – 452.16 = 254.34 mm2
r = Diameter ÷ 2 = 15
The cross-sectional area of the acrylic tube surface = 254.34 mm2
3.14 × 15 × 15 = 706.5 mm2
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4 Polymers

4.6 Alternative manufacturing processes

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the processes used to manufacture different polymer products
• the different scales of production
• the techniques used for quantity production
• quality control in production.

Processes
Polymers can be formed into many shapes using a wide range of manufacturing
processes. Most of the techniques used are industrial and require expensive
specialist equipment and moulds. The moulds for forming polymers can cost
more than £10,000, so deciding on which technique to use depends on several

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factors, including complexity and volume of the product to be made.

Key term Blow moulding

Blow moulding is a manufacturing process used to make a variety of complex
Parison: the extruded material hollow shapes, such as bottles for fizzy drinks, tablets or sun cream lotion.
used as a basis on which to start The process is:
the blow moulding process.
A
1 A parison of material is extruded into an open mould.
2 The two halves of the mould close and pinch the parison so no air can
escape.
R
3 Compressed air is blown into the parison until the material fills the shape
Extruder Extruder of the mould.
4 The formed shape drops out of the blow moulding machine when the two
halves of the mould open.
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5 A new parison is extruded ready to start the procedure again.

This is a fast production method, although controlling wall thickness can be
difficult. More expensive bottles use a more complicated technique known
as injection blow moulding. This is a two-process technique where preforms
are initially injection moulded and then blown into a hollow form. You can
Air in
identify the way in which a bottle has been made by looking at its base.
Where the base has a seam line, the bottle has been formed through blow
Figure 4.6.1 Cross-sectional view of
moulding. Where the bottle has a central dimple, it will have been made by
blow moulding process
injection blow moulding.

Exam-style question
Use notes and/or sketches to show the process of manufacturing the
body of a plastic fizzy drinks bottle. (4 marks)

Exam tip
Use diagrams to describe the process. Split your answer into three
different stages of the manufacturing process.

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 4.6 Alternative manufacturing processes

Press moulding Key term

Press moulding is where two halves of a mould come together to compress
the material into the shape of the void left between the two moulds. It Archimedes screw thread:
is cheaper than injection moulding. This technique is usually used for invented, or popularised, by the
thermosetting polymers, it is not suitable for complex mouldings. Typical ancient Greek mathematician
products include electrical wall sockets and plugs. The process is: Archimedes, the screw thread is
turned inside a hollow pipe to
1 Two halves of the mould are heated to a temperature that can soften the
move liquid from one end of the
polymer.
pipe to the other.
2 A preform of the polymer is placed into the void at the bottom of the
mould. The preform’s volume is slightly bigger than that of the void it
needs to fill.
3 The two halves of the mould are forced together using a hydraulic press.
4 The two halves of the mould remain together until cross-linking of
molecules has completed.
5 The two halves of the mould open and the moulded product can be

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removed.

Hydraulic press Hydraulic press

Preform of
A
powdered
plastic Heated Heated
mould mould
Insulating plate Insulating plate
R
Figure 4.6.2 Cross-sectional view of compression moulding

Extrusion Hopper
D

Extrusion is used to create products with Water cooling

a fixed cross-section. This automated Heater
Die
process can produce endless lengths of
the same product. It usually cuts material
to set lengths that fit within the factory
constraints. Different dies are used at
the end of the extrusion chamber to Heater Motor
create shapes of different cross-sections.
Producing new die for a new product line is Hopper
relatively cheap. Molten polymer is pushed Water cooling
through the die using an Archimedes Heater
Die
screw thread. On exiting the die, the
polymer is quickly cooled in a water
chamber so that it can retain the shape.
Extrusion product requires further work, for
example, cutting to length. Typical products Heater Motor
made by this process include UPVC window
frames and plastic pipes used by plumbers. Figure 4.6.3 Cross-sectional view of the extrusion process

185
4 Polymers
Injection moulding
This process is very versatile and can be used to make a range of simple
or complex products (such as very complex 3D shapes). It is used to make
toothbrush handles, laptop casings, computer mice, car interior consoles,
buckets and chairs. The moulds can be highly complicated and include
many moving parts dependent on the item to be made. The moulds are
expensive to manufacture but, where small objects are to be made, they
can normally produce more than one part at a time. Injection moulding is
commonly used to form thermoforming polymers but, if needed, can also
form thermosetting polymers. The process is:

1 Granules of polymer are fed into a hopper. A pigment is added at this

stage if a specific colour is required.
2 The granules are fed forwards towards the mould using an Archimedes
screw.
3 The heat chamber that surrounds the screw gradually melts the polymer

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as it moves towards the mould.
4 The screw moves away from the mould as the volume of molten polymer
builds up next to the mould.
5 A hydraulic system rams the screw towards the mould, pushing the
molten polymer into the mould.
6 The polymer cools quickly in the mould. The two halves of the mould are
A
opened. The ejector pins push the formed object from the mould.
7 The two halves of the mould close and the process starts again.
R
Hopper

Heater Hydraulic system

D

Mould Heater

Motor
Hopper

Heater Hydraulic system

Mould Heater

Motor

Figure 4.6.4 Cross-sectional view of the injection moulding process

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 4.6 Alternative manufacturing processes

Polymer welding Apply it

Polymers can be joined together using a range of techniques. Where the join
Design a toothbrush holder for
is designed to be permanent, a form of welding can be used. It requires skill if
done by hand and it is critical that the heat source is at the correct temperature. a family of four to be made from
sheet acrylic using line bending.
Laser polymer welding can be used to give a high-quality finish joint. Firstly,
Consider how squeezing a tube of
the edges of the two objects to be joined must be prepared by ensuring they
toothpaste has similarities to the
are smooth and clean. Heat is then applied by a high-precision laser while
process of extrusion.
the two objects are pressed together. The heat from the laser softens the
edges of the two objects together, bonding them while they cool.
When joining dissimilar polymer objects, a manufacturer may choose to use an
ultrasonic welding process. This process involves the use of ultrasonic vibrations
to cause friction between two objects held together. The friction creates heat,
which melts the edges of touching objects, bonding the polymers together.
Hot gas welding is another process used for joining polymers. This technique
doesn’t require such specialist equipment and could be achieved in a school

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workshop, with practice. A heat gun with a specially designed nozzle is used to
soften the two edges of the objects to be joined. A filler rod of the same polymer
is also heated and pushed against the two parts to be joined. The quality of the
finish is inferior to that of laser and ultrasonic welding, so it is usually used to
repair broken items or on products such as chemical and water tanks.
A
R
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Figure 4.6.5 Thermoforming plastic welding process using hot gas and filler rod

Line bending
The equipment used for line bending is inexpensive and produces quick results.
It is used to create a bend in sheet material by heating a strip of the material
until it softens enough to form it into another shape. The polymer sheet is
normally marked where the bend is required by the use of a chinagraph pencil.
As the line will be straight, other marking-out tools, such as a try-square or
ruler, are needed. The material is then placed over a heated wire strip at the
point at which the bend is required, until it softens. Where thicker material is
required, both sides of the material will need to be heated to prevent burning
on one side of the material. Once softened and easy to bend, the material is
put up against a former and left to cool. On cooling, the material will retain its
new shape. A jig or former is required for multiples of the same product. Typical Figure 4.6.6 Line bending polymer
products include restaurant menu stands and leaflet holders. sheet using a strip heater and a former

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4 Polymers
Scales of production number depending on the quantity required. Items
The scale of production chosen to make items depends such as biscuits and chocolate selection packs will be
on many factors. made using batch production processes as they are
generally seasonal items and do not require continuous
One-off production throughout the year. Tools and machinery
A product that is made using a one-off scale of production used for batch production are often considered to be
is usually commissioned by an individual client. It can flexible in that they can be used to make batches of
also act as an exhibition piece that can be used to market different products.
the work of the designer or manufacturer. Making one-off
Mass and continuous production
items can be very labour intensive and generally requires
skilled craftsmen. Items that can be made using this scale Mass production produces a high volume of products
of production include shop frontage signage, specialist on a production line that makes use of automated
point-of-sale stands and racing yachts. procedures to cut costs. Mass production often
involves assembly of sub-assemblies. Cars are often
Batch mass produced.
A product made using batch production will be one of
Continuous production produces a very high output
a set of identical items. A batch of products can vary in

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of products that are in very high demand, for example
soft drinks. Continuous production runs 24 hours a day,
Exam-style question often for weeks and months on end.
Name two methods that could be used to mass
There are some similar characteristics between mass
produce chocolate egg boxes. For each method,
and continuous production and these are detailed in
explain one advantage to the manufacturer. (6 marks)
Table 4.6.1.
A
Scale of Characteristics Advantages and disadvantages
production
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One-off • High skill level required • Unique item tailored to individual needs
• Used for individual client needs • Expensive
• Labour intensive and time consuming • Could be difficult to find a skilled person to complete
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• Used for items such as jewellery, wedding the task

dresses and bespoke furniture • Could take a long time to make the product
Batch • Semi-skilled workers • Quick response to meet customer demands at peak
• Flexible manufacturing systems times of year
• Use of jigs and templates to retain • Flexibility in that other items can be made
accuracy • A lot of time could be required to set up production of
different products
Mass and • High initial investment in equipment • Affordable products
continuous • Can involve high maintenance costs to • Quality control is high
keep the production system running • Products are identical
• Can make use of automated computer- • Shift work is often needed to keep the production line
controlled systems in operation
• Runs 24/7 • Very high initial investment
• Equipment not flexible, so is obsolete at the end of
the production run
• Can over-produce items if there is less demand
Table 4.6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different scales of production

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 4.6 Alternative manufacturing processes

Techniques for quantity production

When making items in quantity, manufacturers use a number of techniques
to make the process more efficient and retain accuracy. When designing
and making, it is important to use the least amount of material necessary
to produce the desired outcome. For all the methods listed below, efficient
cutting to minimise waste must be kept in mind: this reduces costs, however,
it does require careful planning.

Marking out
Marking out means drawing a guide on to material that is to be cut, shaped
or bent, to make the process more accurate. It is cheap and relatively quick
to do, but requires skill and mistakes are possible. There are different
marking out tools for different materials. For example, a pencil should be
used when marking out lines on to wood, but a scriber should be used if the
material is made of metal.

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Jigs
Drilling and cutting jigs are used to speed up production and ensure items Apply it
are made to the same standard through easily repeated accurate positioning.
They can help ensure drill holes are accurately placed and that lengths of Design an efficient method to
material are cut to the same dimension. They reduce the time needed for make 100 paper cones measuring
marking out and prevent inaccuracies between different users. They are 100 mm high with a base
A
normally clamped to the material to prevent movement and avoid errors, but diameter of 50 mm. You will need
the jig must be positioned correctly. to mark out and cut the cones
before using sticky tape to fix
Templates them in place. Consider how you
R
Templates can be made from different materials. The simplest of templates will manage accuracy using jigs
can be a shaped piece of card or paper that is drawn around many times and templates.
to nest items onto a sheet of material for cutting or for marking out where
D

holes need to be drilled. They improve accuracy when cutting repetitive

shapes but the template must be accurately produced and protected from
damage. In industry templates are often made from plastics, wood and
timber as these are more durable. They are used to make the process of
marking out more efficient, especially where shapes are complex.

Patterns
Patterns are something from which a copy is made. For example, it could
be a wooden pattern that is used to make a mould for a resin casting. One
pattern can result in multiple accurate replicas, but the template must be
accurately produced, which may be expensive.

Moulds
Moulds are designed for forming the same-shaped item many times. Where
there is a limited production run, low-cost moulds can be made from wood
and used for vacuum forming (plastic sheet) or hand layup of GRP. More
durable materials are required where more parts are to be made and forming
techniques such as injection moulding exert huge forces on the mould.

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4 Polymers
Injection moulding moulds are made of stainless steel, as it can be machined to
a high level of accuracy and finish. Some moulds can cost £10,000 or more but,
once made, can be used for many years and retain the same level of accuracy
and quality. Designing moulds creates its own set of problems as it is not always
possible to manufacture products as the designer has wished. Moulds create an
identical outcome each time but they may be expensive to manufacture.
Computer-aided manufacture
Computer-aided manufacture (CAM) can be used to manufacture products in
quantity and accurately. Computer-aided design (CAD) files are uploaded to
CNC machines that are able to replicate objects with high precision. They are
capable of working 24/7 and produce objects much faster than traditional
methods, but they can be expensive to purchase and maintain with high initial
High-precision injection moulding
costs and training required for programmer. CNC plotter cutters are able to
moulds made from stainless steel
cut card to make packaging nets or vinyl stickers for signage. Laser cutters
use high-powered lasers to cut through materials, such as card and acrylic,
while more specialist machines are needed to cut through metals. Designs

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can be nested together to reduce wastage and maximise efficiency of the
machine. CNC lathes, routers and milling machines are able to cut complex 3D
shapes from a variety of materials. A CNC lathe is capable of machining parts
much faster and to a higher quality than traditional methods. More expensive
machines have multi-turret machine heads that are able to store and change a
range of tools that can perform different tasks.
A
Quality control
When making items in quantity, manufacturers need to have systems in place
to monitor quality. This requires careful planning and implementation. Where
R
few items are produced or where products need higher safety considerations,
manufacturers may choose to inspect every item. In other circumstances,
manufacturers may choose to inspect one in 10 or one in 1000 items, depending
on the type of product being made. It is also usual for manufacturers to check
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the first item as mistakes made at this point could result in other products
carrying similar defects reducing waste and improving likelihood of customer
satisfaction. Visual checks can be made to ensure no parts are missing and that
the finish of the product meets requirements. Objects can be taken from the
production line and measured using calibrated high-precision equipment, or
more simple tests which use Go/No gauges can be used.
Expensive automated cameras, lasers and computer systems are used
to monitor quality control in mass production and continuous flow systems
due to the high number of checks and speed needed to maintain flow rate.

Working within tolerance

Tolerance is the level of accuracy that a manufacturer sets on any product
made. Tolerances on some products will be extremely high, such as in the
manufacture of engines, but other products may have a wider tolerance
without affecting quality. Careful application of tolerances ensures a product
with several components will always fit together and that spare/replacement
parts will fit too. This requires accurate machine set-up and checking systems,
for example go, no-go gauges.

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 4.7 Specialist techniques for making prototypes

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Polymers are available in many forms and sizes.
• Polymers can be formed using a wide range of processes including blow moulding, extrusion, injection
moulding, press moulding and line bending.
• Polymers can be joined together by using welding techniques.
• One-off production is for bespoke items, batch production is used where more than one product is needed
and mass production is used where there is a continuous demand.
• Jigs and templates speed up production.
• Moulds are used to replicate the same form many times.
• Quality control processes ensure products made in quantity are the same.
• Polymers can be efficiently cut or moulded to minimise waste.

Checkpoint
Strengthen

FT
S1 List four industrial processes that can be used for shaping polymers.
S2 List two processes that can be used to weld polymers.
S3 Describe the differences between one-off and batch production.
A
Challenge
C1 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of mass production.
R
4.7 Specialist techniques for making prototypes and products
Learning objectives
D

By the end of this section, you should know:

• the techniques that can be used to shape and cut materials to form high-quality prototypes
• the tools and processes used to file and abrade polymers
• the techniques used to bend polymers
• the vacuum-forming technique used for shaping thermoforming polymers.

Shaping Laser cutting and engraving

Polymers can be used to shape, fabricate and assemble Laser cutting and engraving uses CAM CNC technology
high-quality prototypes. to melt or burn away material. The laser is focused on
the area to be cut, through a series of mirrors and a
Link it up lens. The distance between the lens and the material
For information on the tools and equipment used to surface should be calibrated to ensure a clean cut that
shape and cut polymers, as well as digital design and is able to pass through the material. Drawings are first
manufacture, look at pages 184–87. For advantages and created on a CAD program, with different colour lines
disadvantages, see Tables 2.7.1 and 7.7.3. For types of and fills being used to indicate the type of cut and
hand tools used, see Tables 2.6.2, 7.7.2 and 7.7.3. finish required.

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4 Polymers

Advantages Disadvantages
• High precision and able to repeat • Machine is expensive to purchase
cut parts • Cutting emits gases that need
• Parts can be nested to reduce extraction
wastage • Needs to meet local exhaust
• Can work 24/7 ventilation (LEV) guidelines
• Can be used with a rotary • Laser bounces off mirrored
attachment to cut and engrave finishes
cylindrical objects

Table 4.7.1 Advantages and disadvantages of laser cutting and engraving

Cutting
Sheet, rod and tube polymers can be cut using a range of workshop tools.
When marking out polymers for cutting and drilling you will need to use a

FT
chinagraph pencil, scribe or a fine-tip permanent marker as other methods of
marking out are more difficult to see. Saws can be used to remove unwanted
material. When cutting polymers, you need to ensure you use the correct
saw. Saw blades with a finer tooth pattern are recommended as this helps to
prevent chipping. Junior hacksaws, adjustable hacksaws and coping saws are all
suitable when cutting plastics, but it is also possible to cut material using scroll
A
saws, jigsaws, bandsaws and gerbil cutters. A gerbil cutter is a specialist tool
used to remove unwanted material from vacuum-formed sheets with the use of
an abrasive disc.
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A gerbil cutter removes waste material
from a vacuum-formed object Filing
When finishing polymers, there are two main processes used in the
workshop.
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• Cross filing is used to remove uneven surfaces. The file is placed on the
material and pushed forward with a downwards force. The file is then
lifted and returned to a position where it can be pushed forward, as it
should not be used in a back and forth motion.
• Draw filing is used to finish edges by removing marks left behind from
cross filing. The file is placed at 90 degrees to the edge to be finished and
held at either end with the material in the middle. It is moved back and
forth with downwards pressure until a desired finish is achieved.

Bending
Heat is generally required to bend polymers and for them to retain a new
shape. This can be achieved through the use of a strip heater. Polymers
can also be bent using a hot air gun or oven. When using either of these
techniques, care must be taken to avoid burns. A hot air gun can be used to
bend rods, while an oven is normally used to heat a polymer sheet for drape
Figure 4.7.1 Cross filing and draw forming, press forming and twisting. Time is needed to let the material cool
filing of materials before removing shapes from any moulds.

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 4.7 Specialist techniques for making prototypes

Abrading
A finer finish can be applied to the edge of polymers using abrasive emery
cloth or wet and dry paper. This is usually wrapped around the edge of a file or
sanding block to give a smoother, more even finish. The abrasive cloth/paper is
used in increments to give a better finish. After filing, you should use a low-grade
number paper, gradually working upwards until the desired finish is achieved. The
final process is to apply and buff off a fine abrasive polish using a cloth.

Vacuum forming Draft angle External edge

radiused
A heated sheet of polymer is forced down over the mould by air pressure due 5°
to a temporary vacuum being created beneath the airtight seal around the Internal radius
softened
sheet of polymer. It is used to make items such as yoghurt pots and fast-food
containers. The process can be used to make casings for electronic products
or point-of-sale shop displays. Moulds can be made from wood, metals and
other plastics as long as surfaces are sealed and the materials do not melt
together. The process is: Vent holes to allow air to escape

FT
1 A specially designed mould is placed on the platen of the vacuum-form Figure 4.7.2 A vacuum-form mould
machine and lowered.
2 A sheet of thermoforming polymer is clamped into the machine and then
heated.
3 When softened, compressed air is blown into the chamber, which
stretches the material upwards.
A
4 The platen is raised and a vacuum pump removes air from the chamber,
pulling the pliable sheet onto the mould.
5 The material is cooled and removed from the mould.
R
When designing moulds for vacuum forming, you will need to factor in some
basic design features.
D

• The sides of the mould will need to be tapered (5 degrees) to allow the
formed product to be removed from the mould.
• Corners and edges need to be rounded to prevent webbing and holes.
• Vent holes are required to prevent the material from failing to follow the
shape of the mould.
• No undercuts are allowed in the design, otherwise you will not be able to
remove the material from the mould.

Deforming
Polymers can be deformed using many methods. These include the use of a Apply it
strip heater to bend material in a straight line, or a vacuum former where a Design and make a simple desk
sheet of polymer is heated and then sucked down onto a mould. Blow moulding tidy that can be manufactured
and compression moulding are also used to deform the shape of polymers.
using a laser cutter. Include an
engraved area in your design.
Reforming
Record the colours and settings
Polymers can be reformed using many processes. The polymer is first heated
needed for lines and areas to be
into a viscous liquid before being reshaped using either extrusion, injection
moulding or casting. cut and engraved.

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4 Polymers
Fabrication, constructing and assembling
Products shaped from polymers can be formed so that no further
fixings or fastenings are required. For manufacturing toys, casings for
electronic products and components to be used alongside other materials,
a range of fittings are needed. These are made up of temporary and
permanent fixings.

Tapping and threading

Polymers can be threaded to create temporary fixings that can be removed
to aid recycling and maintenance of components. It is possible to form
threaded components through the process of injection moulding but, at
school, you will need to carry out the process of creating threads by hand.
Tapping is the process of threading a hole using a tap and a tap wrench. A
hole must be drilled slightly smaller than the tap size to be used, as this
allows the tap to sit on top of the hole before being rotated into the hole
to cut a thread. When tapping a hole, it is necessary to use a taper tap,

Apply it
FT followed by a plug and bottom to ensure the thread reaches the bottom
of the hole. Care must be taken not to apply too much pressure and it is
advisable to turn the tapping wrench in reverse for a quarter turn for every
half a turn made clockwise to cut the thread.
Threading is the process of cutting an external round bar to create a screw
A
thread. The screw thread could be designed to fit in the threaded hole or
Thread a small section of a round to manufacture a machine screw or bolt. A die and die stock holder are placed
bar using a split die and die stock on the end section of a round bar. The end of the bar is usually slightly tapered
holder. Record each stage of the to make the process easier to start. The die is held securely in the die stock
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process using sequence drawings. holder and turned clockwise with pressure being exerted onto the bar until
the start of a thread is cut. The die stock holder is turned half a turn clockwise
and then a quarter turn in reverse to allow the cut material to break away.
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Hex Nylon Insert Lock Wing

A six-sided nut. Also referred A nut with a nylon insert A nut with ‘wings’ for
to as a finishing hex nut. hand tightening.
referred to as a nyloc.

Cap Flange Square

A nut with a domed top over A nut with a built-in A four-sided nut
the end of the fastener. washer like a flange.

Figure 4.7.3 A range of nuts

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 4.7 Specialist techniques for making prototypes

Fastening
Other forms of temporary fixings include nuts, bolts and washers. They can
be used to secure parts of a product together, but can also be undone using
spanners, or fingers, to allow for individual parts to be recycled, repaired and
maintained. Nuts are available in different sizes and shapes that match bolts
and threaded bars.
Bolts can be inserted into threaded holes in a part, or placed through a
hole and tightened to a nut. They are mostly made of metal, but polymer
alternatives used in electronic products are also available. They usually have
a hexagonal head and a threaded section. A washer is placed between the
head of the bolt and the part to prevent damage and spread loading. A
washer is also placed over the protruding end of the bolt before tightening
parts together with a nut. Lock washers and spring washers can be used to
stop parts vibrating loose.

Use of adhesives

FT
Adhesives are used where a permanent fixing is required.

• Contact adhesives are used for gluing large surfaces together or where
it is difficult to clamp parts together. The adhesive is applied to both
surfaces and left for 15 minutes until it is touch dry. When dry, the
surfaces are brought together and bond on contact. Contact adhesive can
be used where different materials need to be fastened together.
A
• Epoxy resin is supplied as a two-part adhesive, a resin and a hardener,
that need to be mixed in equal quantities before it is used. It can fix
a wide range of different materials together, but surfaces need to be Link it up
R
clamped into position until fully bonded.
You read about wastage in
• Tensol® cement is used for gluing acrylic. It is clear in appearance and Section 4.2, see page 172.
is usually applied to one surface with a small brush before the two
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objects are held together. Care needs to be taken not to accidentally get
the cement on other areas, as it is difficult to remove and can spoil the
appearance of a product.
• Liquid cement (dichloromethane) is a clear liquid that is applied between
two polymer surfaces using a syringe when they are held together. The
cement seeps between the two surfaces by capillary action and is fast
acting. Any excess cement can cause surface damage to the product.

Addition
Polymers are frequently used in the prototyping of products. Additive
3D printing machines replicate CAD drawings by building prototypes in
very thin layers of polymer and fusing each together until the product is
complete. The CAD drawing is sliced into very thin layers using specialist
software, allowing intricate items to be made. Products are made from the
base up, with the build platform moving one slice lower as each layer is
replicated by extruding polymer in the areas where it is needed.

195
4 Polymers
Summary
Key points to remember:
• Polymers can be shaped using laser cutting and engraving, cutting with workshop tools, filing, bending,
abrading, vacuum forming, deforming and reforming.
• Some polymer-based products do not need fixings or fastenings. However, those that do are often threaded
or tapped.
• Adhesives are used where a permanent fixing is required.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Give one advantage and one disadvantage of laser cutting and engraving.
Challenge
C1 Explain the process of vacuum forming.

4.8 Surface treatments

Learning objectives

FT
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the surface treatments that can be applied to thermoforming and thermosetting polymers
• the surface finishes that can be applied to thermoforming and thermosetting polymers.
A
Link it up Surface finishes and treatments
Polishing
For more information about
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The edges of acrylic can be polished to a high finish. A cut edge requires
filing and abrading, look at pages
finishing where it will be seen or when it is to come into contact with a person.
192–93.
Rough edges can cause injury to the user and need to be finished to a safe
standard. Where a high-quality finish is required, the surface will need to be
D

filed and abraded before a polish can be applied.

A polish is a liquid or paste that contains very fine abrasives. It is applied to the
edge with a cloth and buffed off, greatly improving the product’s appearance.
This is most useful when using transparent acrylic as a light shade, as light is
diffracted (broken up) through the material to enhance the lighting effect on
edges. The edge of acrylic can also be polished using a flame, although this
requires skill and can destroy a product if used without great care. A fine-nozzle
oxy-acetylene torch is passed over the edge of the material, melting the edge
and creating a smooth finish.
Texture of moulds
Moulds are usually highly polished to give a high-standard finish to formed
components, but a mould’s surface can also be textured to change the surface
pattern. Textures are applied to moulds to provide grip on products, define different
parts of an assembly and to improve aesthetics. Texturing the surface of a mould
can reduce the need for any finishing of components. Textures can be applied to a
mould by machining or by etching. Etching is achieved by applying ferric chloride
(iron) or nitric acid to the mould surface. Any parts where a texture isn’t required are
masked off. The mould can also be machined to add embossed text or patterns.

196
 4.8 Surface treatments

Laser engraving Vinyl stickers

Materials such as acrylic can be engraved using a laser A CNC plotter cutter can be used to make vinyl stickers.
cutter, which is faster than using a hand engraving tool. This is an easy method to add colour and text to a
The laser is set up to pass over the work at a high speed product. A roll or sheet of sticky-backed vinyl is fed into
with low power to only engrave the surface. Multi- the machine. A file designed using a CAD program is sent
laminate polymer sheets allow the engraving through to the machine. The force and speed needed to cut the
of one laminate colour to reveal another. This is mostly vinyl away from the backing sheet is programmed into the
used when making small signs and tags. Engraving can machine. When a sticker is made from different colours,
be used to represent text, but can also be used to give a the process will need to be repeated on different-coloured
monochrome effect to the printing of photographs. There vinyl and overlaid to make up the final design. It is also
can be high initial equipment costs for laser engraving. possible to print on vinyl sheet using special inks. These
machines incorporate a printer and CNC cutter in one
unit. Vinyl stickers are used for signage around school or
in shops, as well as creating advertising wrap designs on
buses and cars. Care needs to be taken when positioning
stickers and they may peel off in some circumstances.

FT
GRP pigments
Pigments can be added to polyester resin to colour
products made from glass reinforced plastic (GRP). A small
amount of pigment is mixed with the resin
before adding a catalyst that hardens the resin and bonds
the fibres of glass together. Pigments can be mixed like
A
paint to make new colours, although multiple colours in
the same GRP component are not possible. The coloured
polyester resin gives a durable finish as it is often thicker
R
than painted surfaces and scratched surfaces are often
Laser-engraved acrylic, which has been illuminated less noticeable.

Summary
D

Key points to remember:

• A laser cutter can be used to cut and engrave sheet material.
• Vacuum-formed moulds need to include draft angles, vent holes and rounded edges.
• Different finishes and textures can be applied to plastics to change their appearance.
• Parts can be joined with either temporary or permanent fixings.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 List two techniques used for cutting a thread.
S2 Describe where and why you would use a washer.
S3 Describe the stages needed to finish an acrylic edge cut using a saw.
Challenge
C1 Draw a flow diagram to explain how a CAD file can be cut using a laser cutter.
C2 Use annotated sketches to explain the process of making and applying vinyl stickers to a product.

197
Preparing for your exam 4

Exam strategy • Make clear and well-ordered notes about all the
sections that relate to the core and your chosen
What to expect in the exam material category.
Section B of the examination is designed to test your • Test yourself at the end of each section. Work through
knowledge and understanding of the material category the exam-style questions and complete activities to
studied. You are advised to practise different styles of reinforce your knowledge and understanding.
exam questions that require short and long answers, as • Work through all sample assessment materials and
well as some that require sketching and calculations. past papers available from Pearson.
Throughout the course you will need to practise
• Identify the areas where you are likely to get
exam-style questions that will challenge you across all
mathematical questions and practise the sections on
sections of the polymers category. Preparing carefully
arithmetic and numerical computation, handling data,
for your exams is important if you are to access all
graphs, geometry and trigonometry.
marking criteria.
• Discuss the course with your teacher and peers, as it
Section B: Material category – Polymers will help your understanding.
This section is worth 60 marks and contains a mixture • Work through corrections and identify areas where

FT
of different question styles, including open-response,
graphical, calculation and extended-open-response
questions. This will include 5 marks for calculations.

In this polymer category, you should know about:

• its design contexts
you may need further practice.
• Use online or other resources to extend your
understanding of the design and technology context.

Exam tips
• You should plan to leave 60 minutes for answering
A
• its sources, origins, physical and working properties, questions in Section B.
and their social and ecological footprints • You must answer all the questions. If you are stuck on
• the way in which the selection of the material is one, leave it and come back to it at the end.
R
influenced • Although the questions will be different for each
• the impact of forces and stresses and how the paper you sit, there is information on the page to
material can be reinforced and stiffened help you answer the question. For example, the
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number of marks awarded for each question will tell

• stock forms, types and sizes to calculate and
you the number of separate points that need to be
determine the quantity of the materials required
given in your answer.
• alternative processes that can be used to
• Pay attention to the command words used in
manufacture the material to a different scale of
the question as these will guide you how best to
production
communicate your answers.
• specialist techniques, tools, computer-aided
• Underline or highlight keywords in the question. After
manufacture, equipment and processes that can be
answering the question, read the question again to
used to shape, fabricate, construct and assemble a
ensure you have done what was asked.
high-quality prototype
• If you have time available, plan the structure for long
• appropriate surface treatments and finishes that can
answers and make sure you give good examples
be applied to the material.
where needed.
Revision tips • Check through your answers at the end of the exam.
• Ensure you start revising in plenty of time before Make sure you have included units and shown the
your exam. You will find it easier to remember facts workings for calculations.
you have revised several times over a few weeks than
those you have tried to memorise at the last minute.

198
Preparing for your exam 4

Sample answers with comments

The following questions give some examples of how the different command words should lead to certain answers.

Question 1: ‘Explain’ question

Exam tip
Polymers are made through the extraction and refining of oil.
‘Explain’ questions require an answer and
Oil is a non-renewable resource with its origin being mainly
a reason or set of reasons qualifying the
focused in certain parts of the world. answer, such as reasons why something can be
Explain two reasons why the cost of oil is unstable. (4 marks) considered to fulfil a need, provide a purpose,
or communicate an intention. The answer must
Student answer contain some element of reasoning/justification.
It may be used to support a given statement.
A shortage in oil can cause the cost to rise as communities

FT
compete to buy what is available. When supply is high, the cost
of oil reduces as there is surplus stock available. Conflicts and
disputes between countries can also make it harder to transport
oil, reducing supplies and ultimately increasing costs.
Verdict
This is a detailed answer. The student would
receive full marks for this question.
A
Question 2: ‘Explain’ question
Explain three reasons why StyrofoamTM is suitable for the
Verdict
modelling of prototypes in the school workshop. (6 marks) Answers 1 and 2 are correct, as they both explain
R
how StyrofoamTM is suitable for the modelling
Student answer of prototypes in a school workshop. Answer 3
relates to the weight of the material, which is
not relevant to this question as the prototype
D

1. It can be shaped into complex forms with a hot wire cutter.

may need to be heavy. A better third answer
2. It is available in a range of thicknesses and can be glued
could be ‘Easy to shape using hand tools and
together using PVA to give other thicknesses.
can be sanded to give a smooth finish’.
3. It is lightweight and easy to carry.

Question 3: ‘Explain’ question

Verdict
Explain two reasons for using urea formaldehyde
rather than acrylic in the production of an electrical The answer is correct, as it explains the
plug. (4 marks) main difference in structure between urea
formaldehyde and acrylic. An excellent answer
would also include reference to other material
Student answer properties, such as strength and durability.

Urea formaldehyde is a thermosetting polymer. Thermosetting polymers cannot be reformed once heated due
to cross-linking between the molecular chains, making them safe to use in electrical products that can be
exposed to heat or risk of fire. Acrylic is a thermoforming polymer. Thermoforming polymers have no cross-
linking chains, allowing the polymer to be reshaped when exposed to high temperatures.
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 Preparing for your exam 4
Question 4: ‘Explain’ question Exam tips
Explain two reasons why acrylic is an appropriate Give an account of the main characteristics
material for the manufacture of shop signs. (6 marks) of the material or the steps in a process.
You should develop your answer but you do
Student answer not need to include a justification or reason.

1. Acrylic is available in sheet form and a range of

thicknesses. Different style text can be accurately cut using Verdict
a laser cutter and edges need little or no finishing. It is
Both parts of the answer are correct, as they
available in many different colours, making it possible to
explain a reason why acrylic is a suitable
match the brand image of the shop.
material for the manufacture of shop signs.
2. Acrylic has a high-quality finish and is easy to clean, The first part of the answer refers to material
maintaining the brand image of the shop. Acrylic is thickness, but does not say how this is useful
resistant to weathering and can be illuminated with in the manufacture of shop signs.
back lighting to make the sign visible in the dark.

show’ question

FT
Question 5: ‘Use notes and/or sketches to

Use notes and/or sketches to show the vacuum forming

manufacturing process of the paint palette. (5 marks)
A
Exam tip
Using graphical depiction with annotation, give an
account of a process, showing its steps or stages in the
R
correct order, or give an account of something, showing
a series of features, points or trends. The number
of points and the depth of answer required will be
indicated by the mark allocation.
D

Student answer Rounded

Mould placed on platen
and material clamped in place
Thermoplastic sheet is heated

corner
Draft
angle

The platen is raised A vacuum pump removes

air from the chamber
Vent holes

Verdict
This is an excellent answer. Cross-sectional drawings clearly show each stage
of the vacuum forming process and details of the mould. The annotations
support this and such an answer would receive all marks available. The platen is lowered and
the moulding removed

200
 Preparing for your exam 4
Question 6: Calculation question
Exam tip
Calculate the amount of wastage from cutting three circles
You will need to use your maths skills in the
of 100 mm diameter from a sheet of acrylic measuring
exam. The formula you need may be given
320 mm x 120 mm, as shown in the diagram below. (5 marks) in the question but it helps to be familiar
320 mm with formulae that are likely to come up.

120 mm

Verdict
Each circle 100 mm in diameter This is an excellent answer. The workings of the
calculation are clear. The surface area of the
Student answer acrylic sheet is calculated, from which the area of
the three circles is subtracted.
Total area of acrylic sheet to cut = Width × height
320 mm × 120 mm = 38,400 mm2

FT
Total area of three circles measuring 100 mm diameter = π × r2 × 3
3.14 × 502 × 3 = 23,550 mm2

Question 7: ‘Use notes and/or sketches to show’

question
Exam tip
A
Using graphical depiction with annotation,
Use notes and/or sketches to show how the hand control for give an account of a process, showing its
this games console is manufactured. (5 marks) steps or stages in the correct order, or give
an account of something, showing a series
R
of features, points or trends. The number of
points and the depth of answer required will
be indicated by the mark allocation.
D

a better answer would include additional comments that

refer to each stage of the process.
1 Granules of polymer and a colour pigment are fed
Student answer Hopper
Hydraulic
into a hopper.
system 2 The granules are then fed forwards towards the
Heater
mould using a screw. During this process they are
heated until the granules melt.
3 The screw moves away from the mould as the
volume of molten polymer builds up next to the
Mould mould.
Heater
4 A hydraulic rams pushes the molten polymer into
Motor the mould.
Verdict 5 The two halves of the mould are opened and ejector
The answer includes a detailed diagram and annotation of an pins push the formed object from the mould.
injection moulding machine, but the process is not explained. An excellent answer would also show the mould
The student would receive 4 marks for the answer given, but shaped like the product.

201
5 Systems

FT
A
R
D

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 5.1 Design contexts

5.1 Design contexts

Getting started
Electronic systems have developed a lot, and have become an essential part of our everyday life. Think about
where you live and consider the following questions:
• Write a list of all of the electronic products you can think of.
• If you could only keep one electronic product in your life what would it be and why?
Think of an idea for an electronic product you would like that does not exist at the moment. What would you like
the product to do? Why do you think it would be useful? What sort of people do you think would buy it?

Ever since electricity was first discovered, scientists and Timeline

engineers have been designing new and better ways to
use it to improve our lives. Modern electronic systems 1752 discovery that
lightning is electrical energy
have developed very quickly in quite a short space of

FT
time, and the things they can do now would have seemed 1800 Alessandro Volta invents
the first battery
amazing 100 years ago.
1807 the first electric
The timeline opposite shows some of the important light is developed
developments. 1827 Georg Ohm introduces
the idea of electrical resistance
and Ohm’s law is published
1830 the first electric
A
motors are developed
1876 the first telephone
is invented
R
1920s the first televisions
are developed

1928 the electric

1947 the transistor is invented,
D

refrigerator is invented
which allowed electronics to be
made much smaller and led to
the development of modern
computers 1971 the first computer
microprocessor is developed
1973 the first hand-held
mobile phone is invented
1976 the first personal
home computers are
launched
1989 the World Wide
Summary Web is invented
1990s the 2G phone network
Key point to remember: develops and mobile phones
Electronic systems have developed very rapidly over start to become common
2007 touch-screen mobile
the last 100 years. phones are released

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5 Systems
5.2 Properties and origins of components
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• about a range of sensors, control devices and output devices that can be used to create electronic systems
• where some of the materials used to make electronic products come from.

Sensors
Link it up
A sensor is affected by the conditions around it. A sensor can be used to give
For more information on sensors, an input to an electronic system.
see page 33.
Light-dependent resistors
An LDR is a light-dependent resistor. When light falls on the sensing area of
an LDR, its resistance changes. When it is light the resistance is low. When it is
dark the resistance is higher.

FT Thermistor
A thermistor is a temperature-dependent resistor. Its resistance changes with
temperature. When it is hot the resistance is low. When it is cold the resistance
is higher.

Moisture sensor
A
A moisture sensor can be made by trying to pass electricity between two
metal rods (probes). Water will conduct some electricity, so the more moisture
(water) something contains the more electricity will pass through it. Things
like soil, wood and plaster will not conduct much electricity when they are dry,
R
but the wetter they get the more they will conduct electricity between the
moisture sensor probes.

Piezoelectric sensor
D

The piezoelectric effect converts movement energy into electricity. A

piezoelectric sensor creates a small electrical pulse when a force is put on
it, such as being hit by something, or stood on. The electric pulse can give a
signal to the controller, which decides what to do about it.

Control devices and components

As well as sensors there are some other components that can be used to
give an input or control an electronic circuit.

Single-throw switch
Key terms A single-throw switch has a button that switches between on and off. It is a
simple control device that the user can operate to turn a circuit on or off. A
Conduct: to allow electricity or
single-throw switch has two contacts, and can be on or off. A double-throw
heat to flow through.
switch has three contacts. If you use the middle contact and one end contact
Piezoelectric: pressure put on it works like a single throw, and is on or off. If you use all three contacts you
a crystal causing a small can have output A on one way, flick the switch and change to output B. It is
electrical pulse. also a useful way to make a motor go forwards or backwards.

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 5.2 Properties and origins of components

Resistors Key terms

A resistor is a component that can be added to a circuit to change its
resistance. This means it can limit the flow of electricity through part of the Normally off: the switch is off
circuit. Resistors can be used to: in its normal state, and turns on
when it is activated.
• protect delicate components by stopping too much electricity flowing
through them Normally on: the switch is on in
its normal state, and turns off
• help control the flow of electricity around a circuit.
when it is activated.
Push to make switch
A push to make switch (PTM) has a button that can be pushed to bring
contacts together and allow electricity to flow. Usually the contacts open
again when the button is released. Some push switches ‘latch on’, so they
stay on until pushed again. A push to make switch is normally off, and
comes on when you push the button. You can also get normally on switches
that are on all the time and go off when you push the button.

Micro switch

FT
A micro switch is activated by a small movement of its arm or button. It
is often used as a sensor. The switch is activated when something moves.
For example, a micro switch can ensure that, if a door or guard is open, the
machine will not run.

Reed switch
A
A reed switch is turned on or off by a magnetic field. The reeds are thin
metal strips in a little glass tube that are pulled together (normally off) or
pulled apart (normally on) by a magnet. A reed switch could be used as a
R
sensor in an alarm system. When a door is opened, a magnet would move
away from the reed switch, telling the controller the door was opened. The
controller decides whether to sound the alarm.
D

Variable resistors
A variable resistor has a knob that can be turned to change its resistance.
These can be very useful in a control circuit to change the sensitivity of a
sensor. When paired with an LDR, the variable resistor makes a potential
divider (see Figure 5.2.1 on page 206), which can be used to change the light
level at which the output turns on.

Link it up
You can find out about transistors in the core content (Section 1) Apply it
on page 34. A transistor is made of three layers of differently treated Many outside automatic security
silicon semi-conductor. Most transistors are NPN, meaning a P layer lights have two variable resistors
sandwiched between two N layers. An N layer has extra electrons on them. They let you make
(Negative), while a Player has electrons removed (Positive). Some changes to how the light operates.
transistors are PNP. When using transistors, make sure you know which What things would it be useful to
pin is which on the type you have. change?

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5 Systems

Component Symbol Component Symbol

LDR Resistor

Thermistor Variable resistor

Single-throw switch Battery +

Double-throw switch Power supply 9V

0V

Push to make switch Buzzer

(normally off)

Push to break switch

(normally on)

Reed switch
FT LED

Loudspeaker
A
collector
Transistor Motor
base M
(NPN type)
R
emitter

Table 5.2.1 Circuit symbols

Microprocessor
D

A microprocessor is an integrated circuit (IC) that contains

thousands of tiny components (mostly transistors)
etched onto a piece of silicon semi-conductor material.
+

Microprocessors vary in size and complexity. They can

perform a wide variety of tasks – think about a computer.

Figure 5.2.1 Example of a circuit diagram. The variable resistor

and LDR make a potential divider. This divides the voltage
(potential). As the light level falls, the voltage at the base of the
transistor increases until it turns on the transistor, and the LED
lights up. This method is used a lot to make sensing circuits

Apply it
A microprocessor, showing 28 pins in a DIL (dual in line)
Copy the circuit diagram and label the components. arrangement (right) and 32 pins (left). There are more up
Draw a similar circuit with a thermistor that sounds a to date versions of microprocessors in the market- research
buzzer if the temperature gets too high. these and compare to picture shown here.

206
 5.2 Properties and origins of components
Systems

Microcontrollers Key terms

A microcontroller, or programmable interface controller (PIC), is a chip
Flash memory: a memory that
that has a flash memory. That means a program can be written on a
can store information, then be
computer and loaded onto the chip. This gives the chip a huge range of wiped clean and store different
possible functions because input and output devices can be connected to information repeatedly.
its pins and controlled by the program that has been loaded onto the chip. Progam: a set of instructions
They provide greater flexibility as they can be reprogrammed to change that the controller follows to
function/task. Circuits can also be made smaller by replacing several make the system work.
discrete ICs. A disadvantage is that they are expensive. Semi-conductor: a material that
These come in different sizes and layouts. One example is called a GENIE allows electricity to flow under
certain conditions. It can behave
08 – Figure 5.2.2 is just an example from one company. There are others that
as an insulator or conductor.
do the same thing, but have different pin layouts.

Relay
A relay does a similar job to a transistor – a small current triggers it to 1 8

FT
switch on. A transistor can only manage quite a small current. A relay is
2 7
much bigger and has a mechanism in it that closes a switch, so it can
handle a big current. A relay is used to allow a control circuit to turn on a 3 6
larger output, such as a motor.
4 5
Outputs
A
In an electronic system, output devices are controlled by the system. They 1 Power, +V (or positive)
2 Programming input
can be simple things like lights that are turned on and off or complex
3 Analogue input or digital in/out
things like computer screens that output a lot of information. 4 Digital input
R
5 Analogue input or digital in/out
Buzzers 6 Analogue input or digital in/out
7 Digital output
A buzzer makes a sound. Some buzzers make quite a distinctive buzzing 8 Power, 0V (or negative)
sound as they vibrate. There is a similar device called a piezo-sounder
D

Figure 5.2.2 A GENIE 08

that makes a piercing single note sound. Some piezo-sounders can play
different tones, so the controller could make them play a simple tune.

Light-emitting diodes
A light-emitting diode, LED, gives out light when electricity is passed
through it. Small LEDs are used for things like indicator lights and the bars
in light-up number displays. Modern LEDs are bright enough to light up a
room in a house and, because they are more energy efficient, with a longer
lifetime than other types of bulb, they are becoming increasingly popular.
You can get LEDs in different colours, but it is worth noting that it is the
different semi-conductor materials they are made from that make the
colours, not the colour of the plastic case, although their colour can shift
due to age and temperature.
A typical small LED: the long leg is the
+ side (anode) and the short leg is the
– side (cathode)

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5 Systems

Key terms Loudspeakers

A loudspeaker is an output device that can be used to make sound. The
Electromagnet: a coil of wire controller uses pulses of electricity to send information to the loudspeaker.
wrapped around an iron core The electricity makes an electromagnet move, which vibrates a paper
that becomes magnetic when cone, and these vibrations travel through the air as sound waves. A large
electricity goes through the coil. loudspeaker will need an amplifier to make the signal from the controller
Amplifier: an electronic circuit powerful enough to work the loudspeaker.
that makes a small electrical
signal more powerful, used to Motors
power a loudspeaker. A motor is an output device that turns electricity into rotary motion. The
Ore: rock that contains metals. controller can turn the motor on and off, make it go forwards or backwards
and change the speed it turns at. The rotation of the motor spindle can be
connected to many different types of machinery, wheels and gearboxes to
make things move.

Exam-style question

FT Use notes and/or sketches to produce a circuit diagram that would allow
you to change the direction of the motor.

Exam tip
(4 marks)
A
Always make sure you use the correct circuit symbols in your diagram.

Sources of raw materials used in systems

R
Electronic products need a lot of materials, including several different
metals. Most metals are found as an ore that has to be mined out of the
ground and then processed to extract the metal from the ore.
D

Polymers made from crude oil

Link it up
For more information on polymers, look at page 43.

Plastic is a type of material called a polymer. Some plastics you might use in
school are acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS),
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Most
plastics are made from the chemicals found in crude oil. Crude oil is found in
many places around the world, including the UK, but the main countries that
supply oil are Russia, Saudi Arabia and the United States.

Apply it Silicon
Silicon is the main material used to make silicon chips. A thin slice of it has
Why do you think the amount of
chemical impurities added to it to make it a semi-conductor that partly conducts
silicon we use has increased over
electricity, or conducts electricity sometimes. All our electronic gadgets rely on
the last 30 years?
silicon. Some of the biggest silicon mines are in China, Russia and the USA.

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 5.2 Properties and origins of components

Gold corrosion. It is also used to make nickel cadmium

Gold is a metal that is highly prized for jewellery rechargeable batteries (NiCad), which were common but
because it does not tarnish. It is also one of the best are being replaced in a lot of things by lithium-ion. The
conductors of electricity there is. Gold is sometimes largest nickel mines are in the Philippines, Indonesia,
used to make contacts in sensitive electronic products Russia, Canada and Australia.
because the lack of tarnish makes a good electrical
contact for a long time. Gold is very expensive because Rare earth elements
it is rare. Some of the biggest gold mines are in Rare earth elements (REEs) are metals that can be
Australia, China and Russia. found near the bottom of the periodic table, with
unusual names like lanthanum, praseodymium,
Copper neodymium, promethium and lutetium. These are
Copper is a reddish-brown metal that is a good increasingly being used in modern technology, in things
conductor of electricity. It is used a lot in electrical like electric car batteries, lasers, wind turbines, medical
products, and is often used to make wires for electricity. scanners and additives in specialist alloys. Most rare-
It is quite soft, so it is easy to bend and stretch into earth elements are mined in China, with some also
wires. Copper is found in a lot of countries, but some of coming from Australia and the USA.

FT
the biggest mines are found in Chile, China and Peru.
Historically, the UK was a major producer of copper, Physical characteristics
particularly Cornwall and Wales. But there are currently
no active copper mines in Britain.
Resistor colour codes
A lot of electronic components come in different values.
Lithium An important part of designing a circuit is choosing the
right values for the components. Resistance is measured
A
Lithium is quite an unusual metal. It is very lightweight
in a unit called an ohm, with the symbol Ω. Resistors
and highly reactive. It has been used a lot in recent years
come with many different values of resistance, from tens
to make lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries are
of ohms to millions of ohms, so it is important to have
now the most popular type of rechargeable battery and
R
a way to read the resistance value. Resistors are quite
are widely used in mobile phones, laptops, electric cars
small, so printing numbers on them is difficult. Instead
and power tools. Lithium is mined in Australia, Chile and
of numbers resistors have a colour code on them (see
Argentina.
Figure 5.2.3). Each number from 0 to 9 is assigned a
D

colour. The first two stripes represent numbers, and

Aluminium
the third stripe is a multiplier, or number of zeros. For
Aluminium is a soft, lightweight metal that can be made
example, 2 is red, so red, red, red would represent 2 2
into a strong, lightweight alloy used to make a lot of
(2 zeros) = 2200 Ω.
products such as aeroplane bodies, bicycle frames and
car wheels. It is also used for the high-voltage power
lines between electricity pylons. Most aluminium is Key terms
extracted from an ore called bauxite, which is common Tarnish: a thin film that forms on the surface of a
in rocks all around the world. A lot of aluminium is metal when it reacts with oxygen in the air. It often
produced in China, Russia and Canada. Although there makes the metal look duller in colour.
is a lot of it, it can be quite expensive to extract the Electroplate: a metal object is dipped into a
aluminium from the rocks. solution of the coating metal and electricity is
passed through it. The metal object becomes coated
Nickel with a thin film of the coating metal.
Nickel is a silvery-coloured metal that has a range
Corrosion: the metal is eaten away as it reacts with
of uses. It is used to make several alloys, including
oxygen and water in the air. Rust is formed through
stainless steel, magnets and coins. Nickel is often used
the corrosion of iron or steel.
to electroplate other metals to protect them from

209
5 Systems
Tolerance Apply it
The fourth stripe shows the
1 What coloured stripes would be on a
tolerance. Tolerance is important
resistor with the following values? Answers:
when manufacturing something.
a 1000 Ω ±10% 1 a brown, black, red, silver
A precise value is impossible to
b 27 k Ω ±5% (27 k Ω = 27,000 Ω) b red, violet, orange, gold
achieve; there will always be some
c 68 M Ω ±10% (68 M Ω = 68,000,000 Ω) c blue, grey, blue, silver
inaccuracy. Tolerance says how much
inaccuracy there is allowed to be. 2 What is the value of a resistor with the
following coloured stripes on it?
• With a tolerance of ±10 per cent a
a yellow, violet, red, gold 2 a 4700 Ω ±5%
1000 Ω resistor could actually be
b red, red, brown, red b 220 Ω ±2%
between 900 Ω and 1100 Ω.
c green, blue, orange, silver c 56,000 Ω or 56 kΩ ±10%
• With a tolerance of ±2 per cent a
100 Ω resistor would be between Resistor colour code Tolerance colour code
980 Ω and 1020 Ω. Band colour Value Band colour ±%
The 2 per cent resistor is higher

FT
quality because it is more accurate,
but it is more expensive than the 10
per cent resistor.

Resistors also have a power rating. If

a resistor is overloaded and its power
rating is exceeded it will burn out
A
and could catch fire. The power rating
of a resistor is usually related to its
physical size – the smaller the resistor,
What this means
R
the faster it will heat up and overload.
To identify the power rating of a Band 1
resistor, hold it in your right hand with Band 2
the tolerance band near to that hand, Band 3Number of zeros/multiplier
D

reading the resistor’s colour bands Band 4Tolerance (±%) see below
from left to right. Note that the bands are closer to
one end than the other
Remember:
k = kilo (thousand) = 1000
M = Mega (million) = 1,000,000

Link it up
Resistors are only available in
certain values called the E series. Brown Green Orange Gold Yellow Violet Silver Red
1 5 000 5% 4 7 0.01 2%
See page 219 for information on Resistor is 15,000 Ω or 15k Ω ± 5% 47 x 0.01 = 0.47 Ω ± 2%
the E12 series of resistors.

Key term
Tolerance: sets an upper and Red Red Green Brown Green Red Gold
2 2 00000 20% 1 5 00 5%
lower acceptable limit for a
Resistor is 2,200,000 Ω or 2.2M Ω ± 20% Resistor is 1500 Ω or 1.5k Ω ± 5%
measurement of something.
Figure 5.2.3 How to use the resistor colour code

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 5.2 Properties and origins of components

Material selection for case construction Polymers

The case for an electronic product could be made A polymer is made up of long chain molecules,
from hundreds of different materials: metals and their sometimes thousands of atoms long. A plastic is a man-
alloys, many different plastics, many types of wood made polymer.
and manufactured boards, or modern composites like
carbon fibre. Link it up
None of these materials are perfect. All of them have a For more information on plastics, look at
range of different properties that make them good for pages 163–197.
some things and not for others. The most technically
brilliant material might not be used because a cheaper Plastic can be a good material to use for electronic
alternative is good enough. Some of the factors a products because plastic:
designer needs to consider when choosing a material
• is an insulator, so it will not interfere with the circuit
are:
and it helps protect the user from electric shock
• the purpose of the product
• is cheap and easy to mould into very complex shapes
• how and where the product will be used
• is available in a range of colours and properties.
• how much the product will cost

FT
Plastics have different properties that make them good
• how many will be manufactured.
for different types of products.
This helps to write a specification for the case. Then
• Most plastics are durable and are not damaged
the designer needs to understand the properties of
quickly by water or sunlight.
lots of different materials to work out which one will
be the most suitable, so the product can be strong • Most plastics are not very hard, so they will scratch
easily. Some are more hardwearing than others, so
A
and durable enough, and so it can be manufactured
are better for things that may get a lot of surface
for an acceptable cost. It is also important to choose
abrasion wear.
materials that can be sourced sustainably, processed
and disposed of without causing unacceptable • Some plastics are tough, so they withstand shocks
R
environmental damage. and blows better, which makes them good for
products that may get dropped or battered about in
Working properties normal use.
D

A designer needs to understand the working properties • Some plastics are rigid, while some have more
of materials, so that they can choose a material that will elasticity. A more elastic plastic is good for something
work well for the job it needs to do. that may need to stretch or absorb impact. A soft,
rubbery handle on a product may make it safer and
Conductors and insulators more comfortable to grip.
A material that lets energy travel through it is called
a conductor. A thermal conductor lets heat travel Social footprint
through it while an electrical conductor lets electricity Relying on scarce elements
travel through it. Metals are good thermal and electrical Some of the elements used in specialist electronic
conductors. components are very rare. This means they can be
A material that does not let heat or electricity travel expensive and if they are only found in a small number
through it is called an insulator. Plastics, rubber and
glass are all examples of good insulators.
Key terms
Conductor: lets energy flow through it easily. All
Apply it metals are good electrical conductors.
Electrical wires have a copper core and a plastic sheath Elasticity: how easily the material can stretch and
around the core. Why do you think this is? return to its original shape.

211
5 Systems
of places, any problems with supply can stop production of Ecological footprint
a product. Some examples are shown here.
The ecological footprint of a product is looking at how
• Lithium, which is used in rechargeable batteries. It much effect it has on the natural environment. It includes
is being used in much bigger quantities now it is in the whole product life cycle, from mining and processing
smartphones, laptops and electric cars. If the current materials, to manufacturing, to use of the product, to
mines start to run out, the price of lithium will go up, disposal after use.
and we either need to find more of it or develop new
batteries that do not need lithium. Effects of material extraction and processing of
• Cobalt, which is used in some high-performance elements
alloys that are resistant to heat and temperature. It Most metals are mined by digging ore out of the ground.
is important for turbine blades in jet engines. A lot of The metal needs to be extracted from the ore, which
cobalt comes from a politically unstable part of Africa, can use lots of energy and often creates piles of waste.
and the supply can depend on what is happening in the Some mining and processing creates toxic waste that is
region. Mining there is dangerous and uses child labour harmful if it gets into water supplies. If companies are not
in very poor conditions. well regulated, their waste products can destroy the local
• Tantalum, which is used in electronic components called environment. If the energy comes from fossil fuels it is
capacitors and is important in miniature components contributing to global warming.

FT
used in mobile phones and laptops. Most tantalum comes
from Australia now, but it is rare and some of it has come
from central Africa, especially the Democratic Republic of
Congo. Its sale provided some of the money that bought
guns during a nasty civil war that lasted for many years
and brought about the deaths of many people.
Effects of built-in obsolescence
A product becomes obsolete when technology has moved
on and it is no longer useful or useable, or a part breaks
that cannot be replaced so the whole product can no
longer be used. Built-in obsolescence is designed in by
A
manufacturers by ensuring that new products are no
Effects of using modern systems longer compatible with old ones, or parts wear out or only
Modern electronic systems have made some big changes to last for a certain time. Manufacturers rely on this built-in
the way we live our lives. Computers can store and process obsolescence because they can only make money if people
R
huge amounts of data and information. Vast amounts of keep buying new products. Because obsolete products are
information are quickly and easily available over the internet. no longer any use, they are usually thrown away.
Phone calls can now be made with a video link to the Effects of use
D

other side of the world. Social media has changed the way
Some products have quite an obvious effect on the
people socialise and keep in touch. Games consoles provide
environment, such as motor vehicles that burn a lot of fuel
increasingly complex and vivid gaming experiences.
and pump soot and gases into the air. The effect of using a
The internet provides a lot of convenience. We can buy lot of electrical goods is harder to see, but if the electricity
things, order services, research things, communicate. comes from non-renewable sources like burning fossil fuels
All this connectivity also provides opportunities for then it does have a negative effect on the environment.
criminals. Cybercrime is a huge problem, with people now Disposal of electronic products
finding they have had money stolen over the internet.
Keeping computer networks and data secure is a major When broken or obsolete products are finished with,
problem for all big companies. they are thrown away. Most electronic products are very
hard to recycle because they contain so many different
components made from different materials. Electronics
Apply it
Some people think it is too easy to spend a lot of time
using technology. Playing violent video games is less Key term
healthy than riding a bike or playing football. Using social Product life cycle: the life cycle of a product starts
media rather than going out and socialising face-to-face with obtaining raw materials, manufacturing the
seems easy, but some argue it might not be good for product, selling it, using it and finally disposing of it
people’s happiness in the long term. What do you think? when it is finished with.

212
 5.3 Selection of components
Systems

can be recycled. Products are dismantled and circuit boards are heated
Exam-style question
to extract the precious metals, for example gold. When products are not
recycled they are often disposed of, and go to be buried in a landfill site. Explain two reasons why built-in
Electronic products often contain heavy metals that are toxic and hazardous obsolescence of products could
to humans and wildlife. We have to be careful to make sure that, as these be damaging to the environment.
products degrade, the toxic metals are not washed into the ground, because (4 marks)
they will get into water supplies and poison wildlife and possibly us. Polymers
(plastics) take a long time to break down in the environment, so they will
remain in the ground for a long time. Some polymers also contain toxic
chemicals that are released if they are burnt or degrade in the ground.

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Sensors are a useful input device for a system. They tell the controller something has happened.
• Switches can be manually operated to give an input to a system.
• A range of output devices can be controlled by the system controller.

FT
• The specialist metals used in electronic products come from mines around the world. Some are common, but
some are found in only a small number of places.
• Metals are good conductors, so electricity can flow through them.
• Plastics are good insulators, so electricity cannot flow through them.
A
Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name three output devices a system could have.
R
S2 What does tolerance mean?
S3 What is the ecological footprint of a product?
Challenge
D

C1 Explain how to use the resistor colour code.

C2 Explain why relying on scarce elements could be a problem for manufacturers.

5.3 Selection of components

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the aesthetic factors to consider
• environmental legislation from the RoHS and WEEE directives
• material availability
• factors influencing cost
• social, cultural and ethical factors that can affect a product design.

There are many factors that influence the way a product is designed and the components
that are used to make it. A designer needs to understand these factors to be able to design a
product that will appeal to the consumer, be safe to use and cost effective to manufacture.

213
5 Systems
Aesthetic factors
Aesthetics are about how a product looks.
Form
The form of a product is how the overall shape and structure look. Some products
are made as small as possible, some are designed to look good to the consumer. A
poor appearance of the case for your systems project can lead to people making
incorrect judgments about the quality of the whole project.

Colour
The colour of a product can influence who it appeals to and should be
appropriate to the product. Sometimes bright colours are good, sometimes dull
colours that blend in are preferred. Mobile phone cases are often black because
it looks smart and inoffensive. Some mobile phones have different coloured clip-
on cases, so the consumer can choose more interesting colours.
Texture

FT
Most plastic products are smooth because that is easier to manufacture, but
the surface of a product can be given a texture. A texture could be a pattern of
little bumps or dimples. A different plastic could be used with a softer, rubbery
feel. These textures are particularly good on the handle of a product where you
need to get a good grip, for example a kettle.

Environmental factors
A
Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive
The Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive was developed by
R
the European Union and is now UK law. Its full title is The Restriction of the
Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Regulations. It aims to stop hazardous substances from being used in products
and to keep them from causing damage when they are disposed of.
D

There is a list of banned substances, which includes lead, mercury and

cadmium, that are toxic to fauna. Solder was made from lead and tin so new
lead-free solder had to be developed for mass-produced products. Anyone who
wishes to trade in the EU (regardless of where they are based) must comply
with the RoHS directive, so designers must select their materials carefully.
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive
The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive is about waste
electrical and electronic equipment recycling. WEEE covers products that have
a plug or need a battery. About two million tonnes of WEEE is scrapped in the
UK every year, which needs to be disposed of. The WEEE directive has rules
about toxic substances and how they must be dealt with.

Fridges used to contain a coolant that is very bad for the atmosphere, and was
damaging the ozone layer. This coolant is not used now, but old fridges that
are being scrapped might contain it. It must be removed carefully so none
of it leaks before the rest of the fridge can be disposed of. Fluorescent light
tubes contain mercury, which is highly toxic. All mercury must be removed and
disposed of safely so it cannot get into water supplies.
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 5.3 Selection of components

Availability factors for example a mobile phone with a keypad will appeal
more to one particular group than another.
Use of stock materials
Trends and fashion
Materials are processed and sold in standard sizes, called
stock materials. For example, acrylic sheet is readily If a product becomes fashionable it will sell well for a
available in 3 mm and 5 mm thick pieces. If you are making while, until the fashion changes and a different product
a case, you should design it using a standard thickness becomes more popular. If a manufacturer can make
because if you wanted 4.2 mm thick acrylic you probably their product the one everyone wants to have, they will
would not be able to get it, or it would be very expensive. become the market leader and sell well until the trend
Electronic components like resistors come in stock sizes. A changes and something else takes over. As an example,
designer would always use a stock size to keep costs down. 3D televisions were desirable in recent years and all
major television manufacturers responded by offering
Use of specialist materials 3D sets. However, their popularity has greatly declined
Electronic products often contain specialist materials. This so some manufacturers are no longer making them.
can make manufacturing more difficult, and manufacturers
Popularity
need to find a reliable supply of these materials because
production would have to stop if they ran out. The popularity of a product depends on a lot of factors.
It has to work well, but it also has to look good and
Use of scarce elements

FT
appeal to consumers. Sometimes clever products do not
Electronic products contain a lot of rare earth elements, sell well because their appearance does not appeal to
particularly within some of the components and in intended customers or the product does not have quite
rechargeable batteries. Manufacturers need to find a the right image. But sometimes a product can become
reliable supply of these materials, because production very popular even if it is not the best that is available,
would grind to a halt if they ran out. Some come from simply because it became fashionable – for example
mines in only one or two countries, for example China. celebrities could have been photographed using it.
A
Cost factors
Apply it
Quality of components
What electronic products can you think of that are
When components are made, they will not be perfectly
R
fashionable at the moment? What is it about that
accurate. The manufacturer will state the tolerance of a
particular product’s use of materials or components
component – this is an upper and a lower value that the
that makes it seem desirable?
component will fall between. The higher the tolerance
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needed, the more expensive the component will be,

because the manufacturing processes will need to be Cultural and ethical factors
more accurate. If a lower tolerance is good enough, the
manufacturer will choose it to reduce costs.
Avoiding offence
It is fairly obvious that, if people find your product
Manufacturing processes necessary offensive, they are not going to buy it. It is less obvious
The scale of manufacturing, and the processes needed that people in different parts of the world, or different
to make a product, are big factors in the cost. Highly cultures or religions, might be offended by something
specialised factory equipment can cost a lot of money to that is not offensive to the product designer. It is
set up. If a cheaper process can be used, the cost of the important to understand different cultures and religions
product can be reduced. so that you can avoid accidentally causing offence with
a certain word, symbol or picture.
Social factors
Use for different social groups Suitability for intended market
Groups of people of different ages or interests will have It is important to understand the intended market for
different priorities. If a product designer can create a a product, so you can make sure a product is suitable
product that is appealing to a particular social group, the for it. Different countries can use different technology,
product may sell well to that group of people. However, such as different voltages in their mains electricity, or
it may be less appealing to other groups, so it can be a differently shaped plugs. There is no point trying to sell
difficult balance between different customers’ preferences, a product in France with a British plug on it.

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5 Systems
It is also important that a product designed for a particular age group is
suitable for people of that age. If you are designing a product for teenagers,
you need to understand the kind of things that appeal to them, so the
product may have different features to a model aimed at their grandparents.
Use of colour and language
Colours often have significance to us and designers can use colour to give a
particular feel to a product. However, it is important to remember that not
all cultures give the same colours the same significance. For example, yellow
is reserved for royalty in Malaysia; in China red is considered lucky and white
is associated with death.
Language is important to understand, because the name you gave to your
product in English might have a completely different meaning in another
language. A product could be technically brilliant, but if it has a name people
do not like, it will not sell very well.
The consumer society

FT
In Britain, and much of the richer, developed world, we live in what has been
called a consumer society. We are quite wealthy and products are quite
cheap, so most people can afford to buy a lot of things they do not really
need. There is nothing wrong with people having nice things or useful things
if they are affordable, but some people can get themselves into debt buying
too many consumer items. Also, we risk using up limited resources too
A
quickly and damaging our environment.
The effects of mass production
Mass production has made products a lot cheaper than they used to be.
R
This means they are more affordable and people can buy more things than
they used to be able to. Mass production also means factories are more
automated than before. Lots of people used to have jobs in factories making
the same thing every day on a production line. Now machines do more of
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that work so there are fewer jobs. Instead there are jobs for small numbers
of engineers and computer programmers to run the machinery.
Built-in product obsolescence
A lot of products have only a short lifespan. Manufacturers can withdraw support
for products, making replacement parts unobtainable. This results in new
purchases and increased use or rare resources. Manufacturers also deliberately
make some products with parts that fail after a time and cannot be replaced.
Mobile phones keep improving, so many people want them for only a couple
of years before upgrading to a newer model. A lot of phones now have built-in
batteries, so they cannot be replaced. As the batteries lose power and a charge
does not last as long, the phone becomes useless. People are expected to
throw them away and get a new one, rather than replace the battery.
This process of making products with a short lifespan is called built-in
obsolescence. Manufacturers like it because it means people buy new
products more often. It is not a very environmentally friendly approach,
however, because it means a lot more rubbish is created when people throw
things away rather than mending them or just replacing a part.

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 5.4 The impact of forces and stresses on objects

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Product aesthetics are an important part of customer appeal.
• The RoHS and WEEE directives aim to keep hazardous substances that are used in products out of the
environment.
• Manufacturers prefer to use materials that are easily available and will use stock sizes where possible.
• Different social groups have different needs and interests.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What does the word aesthetics mean?
S2 What is the purpose of the WEEE directive for disposal?
S3 Why is it important for a designer to have some understanding of other cultures?
Challenge

FT
C1 Explain what built-in obsolescence is and the effect you think it might have on the environment.

5.4 The impact of forces and stresses on objects

A
Learning objectives
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By the end of this section, you should know:
• the types of force that can act on a product
• how composite materials combine the properties of different materials.
D

Forces and stresses

There is a range of different forces and stresses that can act on materials.
When designing a product it is important to understand the forces that will
be put on it so you can choose the best materials and make the product
strong enough.

Tension
A pulling force, like tugging on the ends of a rope.

Compression
A squashing force, like standing on something.

Torsion
A twisting or turning force, like turning a bolt with a spanner. Link it up
For a visual representation of
Shear
these forces, see page 140 (Figure
Forces in opposite directions, pushing one side up and the other side down,
3.4.1).
like the cutting action of scissors.

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5 Systems
Reinforcement/stiffening techniques resin that sets hard. Several layers of fibre mat and
Some materials may need strengthening by the addition resin are built up. These composite materials are strong
of extra materials or by shaping. and lightweight, for example fibreglass has been used
for things like canoe hulls because it is strong and
Using composite materials lightweight. Carbon fibre is even stronger and more
lightweight and is used for the body panels of high-
A composite material is two or more different materials
performance cars. A similar material called Kevlar® is
mixed together. Reinforced concrete is a composite
used for police and military equipment such as helmets
material. Steel bars are laid into the concrete and make
and bullet-proof vests.
it stronger. Concrete has poor tensile strength, while
steel has good tensile strength, so the steel works well Ribbing to strengthen case structures
to strengthen the concrete. Manufacturers want to keep costs as low as possible, so the
Some really useful composite materials are fibreglass less material they can use the better. Designers have come
and carbon fibre. These materials take a woven mat up with clever ways to make products strong enough, but
of high-tensile fibres made of either glass or carbon, reduce the amount of material used. Plastic products, such
lay them over a mould and cover them with a plastic as storage boxes, often have ribs added to them, so the
plastic shell can be thinner and still be strong enough.

Summary
Key points to remember: FT
• A product needs to be strong enough to withstand the forces that might be put on it: tension (pulling);
A
compression (squashing); torsion (twisting) or shear (opposite directions).
• Fibreglass and carbon fibre use a fibre mat and resin to make a strong, lightweight composite material.
• Intelligent design can increase strength and use less material.
R

Checkpoint
D

Strengthen
S1 Draw diagrams to show the following forces:
a Tension
b Compression
c Torsion
d Shear
S2 What is fibreglass made from?
Challenge
C1 Explain why carbon fibre is stronger than carbon fibre matting or plastic resin are on their own.

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 5.5 Stock forms of components

5.5 Stock forms of components

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the ways of mounting components onto a circuit board • how to use Ohm’s law
• the units used for important quantities • how to find the resistance of multiple resistors.

Stock forms/types
Tolerances, ratings and values
Many electronic components, such as resistors, are
sold with a range of different values. Not every value of
resistance is available, because there would be millions
of different ones. Manufacturers decide what values to
produce, and a designer will know what these stock sizes

FT
are and design a product to use a stock size. A common
series of resistor values is the E12 standard. In each
interval 1–10, 10–100, 100–1000 etc. the resistors are
made in 12 stock values. For the interval 10–100 these
are 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82. The next
set is 100, 120 and so on. E12 resistors usually have
a tolerance of ±10 per cent. Most values are catered
A
for in the E12 series, especially when tolerances are
considered. However, it is still necessary to use higher Surface-mount components on a printed circuit board (PCB):
tolerance resistors in some instances so extra, more note the soldered joints on top of the board
R
expensive resistors will occasionally be needed.
Most electronic components will also have a maximum Through-hole components
rating that they must not exceed. This might be Through-hole components have wire legs on them that
their maximum power or voltage. It is important go through holes in a circuit board. The components
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to use a component with the correct ratings or it are placed on the plain side of the board, and the legs
could overheat and catch fire. A component in a
go through a hole in the circuit board, where they are
battery-powered circuit may be rated to 12V, while
soldered onto the copper tracks on the other side. This
a component in a mains electricity-powered circuit
is a useful method for making a small number of circuits
needs to be rated to 240V.
by hand in a workshop and is easy to use for small-scale
Surface-mount technology production or hobbyists. However it is easier to insert
Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a way of fixing components incorrectly.
components onto a circuit board. The circuit board has
copper tracks with a thin layer of solder on all of the
connections. The components are all designed with legs
that sit flat on the circuit board. All of the components
are laid into place and the board is put in an oven and
heated to melt the solder, fixing all of the components
in place at the same time. It is faster to manufacture
and no drilling is required for most components, but
faults are harder to trace. This system works well in
manufacturing where robots put the components on Through-hole components on a PCB: the legs go through the
lots of circuits, which then go into the heater. board and are soldered underneath

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5 Systems
Sizes
It is important to know what units to use in calculations. Units are given a
symbol that goes after the number. Units can also have a prefix that is a
multiplier. The table on page 222 shows some common multiplier prefixes.
An amp is a large unit in electronics and a smaller unit called a milliamp
(mA) is used. 1 mA is one thousandth of an amp.

Unit of current
Current is a measure of the flow of electricity through a wire. The unit of
current is the ampere, usually called the amp. It is given the symbol A.

Unit of resistance
Resistance measures how hard or easy it is for electricity to pass along a
wire. The unit of resistance is called the ohm. It is given the symbol Ω (a
Greek letter called omega).

Unit of potential difference

FT
Potential difference is usually called voltage. It is the amount of force
available to make electricity flow. The unit of voltage is called the volt. It is
given the symbol V.

Quantity Symbol in Unit Unit symbol

equation
A
Current I amp A

Resistance R ohm Ω
R

Voltage V volt V
(potential difference)
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Table 5.5.1 Unit symbols

Ohm’s law
There is a relationship between current, resistance and voltage:

V • increase resistance and current decreases, because it is harder for the

electricity to flow
• increase voltage and current increases, because there is more force to

I R
make the electricity flow.
Ohm’s law states that voltage = current × resistance
V=I×R
This is a very important equation in electronics, and you will use it a lot. If
Figure 5.5.1 Ohm’s law. This triangle can
you know two of the quantities you can find the third by rearranging the
be a helpful reminder of the equation.
Cover up the one you want to find and it equation:
shows you whether to multiply or divide • V = IR
the other two. • I = V/R
• R = V/I

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 5.5 Stock forms of components

Maths in practice 1
• You have a 9 V battery connected to a bulb. If 50 mA (0.05 A) is
flowing through the bulb, what is the resistance of the bulb?
So, we know that: V = 9 V and I = 0.05 A
Find the right equation and put the numbers in: R = V/I = 9/0.05 = 180 Ω

Exam tip
Exam-style questions
Write down the facts you know.
1 You have a 9 V battery and you connect it to a 1000 Ω resistor. Find the equation that links
Calculate the current that will flow through the resistor. (3 marks) what you know to what you
2 Mains electricity is 230 V and a lightbulb has 0.5 A flowing through it. want to know.
Calculate the resistance of the lightbulb. (3 marks)
Answers:
1 9 mA
2 460 Ω

Resistors in series

FT
All electronic components have a resistance, so an electronic circuit will have
lots of resistances joined together. It is useful to be able to calculate the
total resistance. The term ‘in series’ means the resistors are joined together
one after the other. As the electricity goes through all of them, one after the
R1 R2

Figure 5.5.2 Resistors in series

R3
A
other, the total resistance is the total of each one added together.
R1
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
R
Resistors in parallel R2
Joining resistors in parallel is more complicated. As the electricity can go
through two or more resistors at the same time the total resistance is
smaller than the individual resistors. You need to add the reciprocals of all R3
D

of the resistors. See calculation on page 222.

Figure 5.5.3 Resistors in parallel
1 1 1 1
R total = R 1 + R 2 + R 3
1

( )
Rtotal = 1 1 1
R1+ R2+ R3
Area
Area is the amount of space inside a flat shape. It is measured in m2, or cm2,
or mm2.

• Rectangle area = length × width Key term

• Triangle area = ½ × width × height Reciprocal: 1 divided by the
• Circle area = π × radius2 π: 3.142 number; 1/x is the reciprocal of x.
Diameter
The diameter, Ø, measures the size of a circle, from one side to the other. It is
double the radius, which goes from the centre to the edge.

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5 Systems
Maths in practice 2 We know that 6=3×2
In systems you need to be able to do some maths. Divide both sides by 2: 62 = 3 ×2 2
2 = 1, so the 2s cancel: 6 = 3 × 2
Units 2 2 2
leaving us with: 62 = 3
Units can have a prefix that is a multiplier. This is just
We know this is also true. If this works with numbers it
a short way of writing lots of zeros. The table below
also works with letters!
shows some common multiplier prefixes.
Worked example
Prefix Multiplier Example We know that: V = I × R
Nano, n 1/1,000,000,000 1 nm = 0.000000001 m Divide both sides by I: VI = I ×I R
1 m = 1,000,000,000 nm = 1, so the Is are cancelled: VI = R
Micro, μ 1/1,000,000 1 μm = 0.000 001 m If V = IR, what does I equal?
1 m = 1,000,000 μm Reciprocals
Milli, m 1/1000 1 mA = 0.00 1 A 1 A = 1000 mA The reciprocal of a number is just 1 divided by it.
So the reciprocal of 2 is 12
Centi, c 1/100 1 cm = 0.01 m 1 m = 100 cm
In the same way, the reciprocal of x is 1x
Kilo, k × 1000 1 kV = 1000 V To add resistors in parallel you need to add the

FT
Mega, M × 1,000,000 1 MW = 1,000,000 W reciprocals R1 = R1 + R1
total 1 2

Giga, G × 1,000,000,000 1 GB = 1,000,000,000 B Worked example

Table 5.5.2 Prefixes and multipliers R1 = 400 Ω and R2 = 200 Ω are connected in parallel,
what is Rtotal
The table shows that 1 km = 1 × 1000 = 1000 m We know R1 = R1 + R1
total 1 2
A
Worked example So 1 = 1 + 1
Rtotal 400 200
1 km = 1000 m So 1 = 0.0025 + 0.005 = 0.0075
Rtotal
So 2 km = 2000 m 1
If = 0.0075 we can work out that
R
Rtotal
3.45 km = 3.450 km = 3450 m See how figures 1
Rtotal = 0.0075 = 133 Ω
move three places
Notice that Rtotal is less than the smallest resistor, which is
to the left?
sensible because the electricity had two paths to follow.
6789 m = 6789.0 m = 6.789 km See how figures
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Questions
move three places • If a circuit has resistors in parallel, work out Rtotal
to the right? with resistances of:
Questions
1000 Ω and 500 Ω
• How many grams (g) 250 Ω and 500 Ω
are the following? Answers 100 Ω, 100 Ω and 100 Ω
1 kg 1 kg = 1000 g The formula for resistors in parallel can be rearranged
1000 mg 1000 mg = 1g to be easier to use.
1 = 1 + 1 = R2 + R1
0.275 kg 0.275 kg = 275 g R R
total
R R ×R1 2 1 2
R1 × R2
Rearranging an equation Rtotal = R1 + R2
If you have an equation, you can rearrange it to help This only works for two resistors, though.
you find the quantity you need.
E.g. Ohm’s law is V = IR. So if you know I and R you can
Answers
find V. 1 = 1 1 = 0.003
R 1000
+ 500 Rtotal = 333.3 Ω
= means equals. Both sides are the same. You can total
1 1 + 1 = 0.006
= 250 Rtotal = 166.7 Ω
rearrange the equation because if you do the same Rtotal 500
thing to both sides, the equation is still true. 1 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.03 R
= 100 total
= 33.3 Ω
Rtotal 100 100

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 5.6 Manufacturing processes

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Surface-mount technology solders components on top of the PCB. Through-hole soldering has the
component legs going through holes where they are soldered onto the back of the PCB.
• The unit of current is the amp (A); resistance is the ohm (Ω); voltage is the volt (V).
• Ohm’s law is V = IR.
• Resistors can be joined in series or in parallel, with different ways to calculate the total resistance.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Does the E12 series of resistors include a resistor of 2700 Ω?
S2 What is the difference between surface-mount and through-hole soldering?
Challenge

FT
Answers:
C1 Calculate Rtotal for the following resistors connected in series:
1 a 600 Ω
a 270 Ω and 330 Ω
b 100 Ω, 200 Ω and 300 Ω b 600 Ω
c 2500 Ω, 500 Ω, 100 Ω and 370 Ω c 3470 Ω
C2 Calculate Rtotal for the following resistors connected in parallel:
2 a 50 Ω
a 100 Ω and 100 Ω
A
b 148.5 Ω
b 270 Ω and 330 Ω

5.6 Manufacturing processes

R

Learning objectives
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By the end of this section, you should know:

• how to make a PCB
• the scales of production of manufacturing processes
• some of the techniques used in mass production.

Processes
Photo etching
Photo etching is a method of producing printed circuit 4 The board now goes into an etch tank, which
boards (PCBs). The board is an insulating plastic resin can contain a solution of warm ferric chloride, or Fine Etch
with a thin film of copper covering one side. The copper Solution, which is disodium peroxodisulphate hexahydrate.
tracks are made by removing the unwanted copper, 5 The areas of copper that were exposed to UV light are eaten
leaving just the tracks. away in the etch tank, until only the areas of copper that
1 A ‘mask’ is printed onto clear film. were covered by the mask are left – creating copper tracks
2 The clear film is placed over photosensitive copper that match the original printed design.
board, placed in a light-box and exposed to ultra- Advantages are that it is suitable for school use and the
violet light. mask can be used many times if stored safely. Disadvantages
3 The exposed photo-board is placed in a developer are that it is a slow process the mask must be correct and
solution that reacts with the unexposed areas etchant becomes saturated with copper and must be treated
of copper. before disposal.

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5 Systems
PCB population
Once the PCB has been made, a hole needs to be drilled on each
copper pad that a component leg will be passed through, ready for
soldering. A small drill bit, usually about 1.0 mm, is used for the holes.
The components are inserted from the blank side and soldered onto the
copper pads. This is suitable for school use, but drilling must be accurate.
All holes must be drilled in one go, otherwise it may be difficult to drill
later once the soldering has commenced and the missing hole is noticed.

Scales of production
Choosing the right scale of production is very important when
manufacturing a product. Investing in an expensive factory makes
the product cheaper, but you need to sell a lot to pay for the factory.
Alternatively, you could contract a supplier to do some of the work in their
factory for you.

FT One-off prototyping
A prototype of a circuit can be made to test the idea to see if it works,
before committing to the time and cost of making a PCB. A breadboard
is the name given to a plastic block that has holes in, which are joined
A
together in short rows. Components can be slotted into the holes to
connect them together. The circuit can be experimented with and
components changed until it is working correctly.
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Batch
A batch is a number of the same thing made at the same time. A simple
A breadboard for one-off
batch production process might use a jig or a template to mark out or
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prototyping of a circuit
cut the same shape several times. Photo etching is a batch production
method. A sheet of board can have several circuits on it, so, say, 20
could be made at the same time. Although it takes a while to set up, it is
quicker than making each one individually. Vacuum forming is another
Key terms
batch production process. Once you have made the mould it can be used
Jig: fits over a piece of material repeatedly to make lots of identical items. The vacuum former can be
to guide accurate cutting or used again with a different mould to make other products.
drilling without needing to mark
out.
Mass production
Template: a cut-out of a shape
Mass production processes make the same product all the time. A
that can be drawn around onto
the material to mark out quickly factory is often set up to mass produce products. A plastic case might be
and easily. injection moulded from plastic. The injection moulding machinery will be
made for a particular part of a product and it will make that part all day
Mould: a 3D block that material
can be formed over or inside. long, day after day. Mass production processes are very expensive to set
up, but once they are set up they can make the product cheaply.

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 5.6 Manufacturing processes

Continuous
Continuous production is a step up from mass production. Continuous
production is used for products for which there is continuing high
demand, so the factory will be highly automated and run 24 hours a day,
seven days a week. Making and filling milk bottles would be continuous
production processes.

Scale Description Advantages Disadvantages

Batch Several copies of the same Jigs, templates and moulds speed Quite labour intensive, so it is
product are made at the up the process and can be kept for quite expensive per product
same time future use – special machinery is not and it takes time to make jigs,
needed, so set-up cost is not high moulds and templates

Mass Factory machinery is Can make a product quickly and Machinery is very expensive to
set up to make lots of cheaply set up, so only worthwhile for

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identical products making a lot of products

Continuous Factory machinery making Makes the product very quickly and Machinery is very expensive to
the same thing 24/7 cheaply set up, so only worthwhile for
making huge quantities of a
product
A
Table 5.6.1 Scales of production
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Exam-style question
Explain one reason why using jigs and templates makes it cheaper to batch
produce products. (2 marks)
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Techniques for quantity production

Pick and place technology
Components need to be placed on a circuit board in the correct places
before soldering. People can do this, but they are slower than machinery.
Automated systems called pick and place technology can pick up all of the
components and place them in exactly the right place on a circuit board.
It costs a lot to set up, but pick and place technology can do this quickly
and accurately 24 hours a day. It works particularly well with surface-mount
technology.

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5 Systems
Surface-mount technology
Originally components went through a hole in the PCB and were soldered on
the back by hand. This is still good for a one-off product. Industry now mostly
uses surface-mount technology because it is better for mass production
techniques, as it is quicker and increases reliability of circuit. The components
are laid onto pre-soldered circuit boards with pick and place technology,
then heated in an oven to melt the solder and fix the components on. The
components need to be heat resistant enough to withstand the ovens used.
This is not as suitable for schools and hobbyists.

Quality control
Quality control is a system for trying to ensure the products being
manufactured are good enough for sale. It reduces waste and should
help customers to receive a more reliable product. At stages through the
manufacturing process a sample of the product is inspected to make sure it
is correct. The more complex a product is, the more sampling is likely to take
place. If the sampling finds a faulty product, the process might be stopped so

FT
it can be corrected before many more faulty ones are made. Disadvantages
include planning and set-up costs of the system.

Marking-out methods
Marking out is transferring measurements onto material before it is cut,
ensuring an accurate outcome. Sometimes manufacturing processes will not
A
need to do marking out if machinery has been set up to process materials
automatically. For one-off or batch production marking out is important.
A reference point, the point on the material you start measuring from is
essential. It could be the bottom left-hand corner, for example, and every
R
measurement is taken from there. It could be any other known point on the
material, as long as everything is correctly measured from that one reference
point. Sometimes a particular line or surface of the material will be used as
the known datum line or point that everything is measured from. This can be
D

time consuming as it requires checks before cutting.

Templates
A template is a cut-out shape that you can draw around to mark out the shape
you want to cut from a piece of material. A template might be made from
paper or card for a single use, or it might be made from a thin sheet of wood
or metal if it is going to be used a lot. A template is really useful in batch
production, because it allows workers to mark out and cut the same shape
quickly and accurately. It also reduces material waste; templates must be
stored safely to prevent damage to its edges.

Patterns
A pattern is used to make an exact copy, for example to make a mould for a
resin casting. This allows multiple copies to be made but the pattern must be
stored safely to avoid damage to its surface.

Sub-assembly
A finished product has lots of parts that need assembly. A complex product will
usually be made up of lots of sub-assemblies. These are parts of the product that

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 5.6 Manufacturing processes

have been put together, often in one factory, then sent to another factory for the
final product to be assembled from all of the sub-assemblies. For example, an
electronic/digital musical keyboard may have a PCB produced in one factory, a
power supply in another, and a case and keyboard in other factories, before all of
these sub-assemblies are finally put together to create the finished product. Only
sub-assemblies are likely to be available for repair purposes. For example, a broken
key will require the replacement of the whole keyboard.

Working within tolerance

Manufactured parts always have a tolerance. It is the range of sizes within which
the part is acceptable. Machining within tolerances ensures a high-quality item
that will always fit other associated parts. The designer will need to specify a
tolerance for a part. If you are cutting telegraph poles to length, a 100 mm error
will not matter. If you are assembling the insides of a smartphone, however, a
1 mm error would be unacceptable. Building blocks are made to a tolerance
±0.04 mm (or +0.08 – 0.00). Manufacturing processes must be able to produce the
right tolerance, and part of quality control is checking the parts are all within the

FT
required tolerance, which involves additional costs. Parts of a product are often
made in different factories so stating the acceptable tolerance for every part is
essential for the parts to fit together.

Efficient cutting to minimise waste

Material costs money, so it is important to use as little as possible when
making products. This includes minimising waste to save money and resources.
A
When cutting out materials, using a template to mark out shapes so they fit as
close together as possible, rotating the template if necessary, can significantly
reduce the amount of waste. This can increase initial costs with regard to the
R
additional time required in the design and planning stages.

Summary
D

Key points to remember:

• A PCB is created using photo etching, by dissolving the unwanted copper to leave copper tracks behind.
• Production can be one-off, batch, mass or continuous.
• The scale of production chosen depends on how many products will be made.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What is a ‘breadboard’ used for?
S2 What is a template?
S3 Why is it important to specify the tolerance needed for a part?
Challenge
C1 If you wanted 50 of the same product what scale of production would probably be best? Why?
C2 If you wanted 10,000 of the same product what scale of production would probably be best? Why?

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5 Systems
5.7 Processes for fabricating a prototype
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the hand tools that can be used to put together a circuit
• some of the machinery that can help with making a circuit or a case prototype.

Tools and equipment the wire in the jaws,

close them to cut the
Hand tools
insulation but not the
copper core, and pull to
Link it up remove the insulation.
There are many hand tools for working wood, metal
and plastics covered in other chapters in this book, Wire strippers

FT
see pages 108–115, 192–94, 298–300.
Side cutters
Soldering iron Side cutters are used
to cut a wire, or cut
Solder is a metal alloy that melts at about 180 °C.
the leg of a soldered
A soldering iron has an electric heater that heats its tip
component off, flat
up to about 300 °C. This will melt solder easily, but it
A
against the board. The
will not damage the copper on the PCB, which melts at
cutting jaws are at
over 1000 °C. When soldering individual components by
one side of the cutting Side cutters
hand, the soldering iron is a good way to melt the solder
head, so they can cut
R
to form the joints between components and the PCB.
flat against a PCB.

Needle nosed pliers

D

Needle nosed pliers are a useful tool for holding small

components in place and bending pieces of wire.

Electric soldering iron and stand

Wire strippers Needle nosed pliers

Electrical wire has a copper core that conducts
electricity, covered with a plastic sheath for insulation. Solder sucker
Where a wire is joined to a component, the plastic If a component needs to be removed from a PCB
insulation needs to be removed to get to the bare a soldering iron can be used to heat the solder until it
copper. Wire strippers are a good tool for doing this. Put melts. It is usually possible to pull the component out

228
 Systems

when the solder is melted, but it is easier to remove the melted solder with
a solder sucker. Depress the button on the end, then when you push the
little release button the mechanism pops up and sucks through the nozzle,
sucking up melted solder.

Screwdriver
A screwdriver is used to put screws in. They can have a flat head or a cross head,
known as a Phillips screwdriver. Screwdrivers are useful for assembling parts of
a product.

Machinery
Solder sucker
CNC milling machine
A CNC milling machine has a cutting tool that can move left to right,
forwards and backwards, and up and down. This can be used to engrave
away the unwanted copper areas on a PCB to make the tracks. A PCB design
can be drawn using a PCB design software package, and sent to the CNC mill

PCB drill
FT
to cut the tracks. It is a good way to make a one-off or a small batch, but it is
slower than photo-etching for making lots.

A pillar drill can be used to drill the holes in a PCB, but a PCB drill is more
convenient. The PCB drill is a small drill that has a stand to hold the drill and
A
a handle to pull the drill tip down, just like the much bigger pillar drill.

Digital design and manufacture A CNC mill

R
Computers are a useful tool to help with the design and manufacture of
products. Some uses are:
• simulate a circuit, to see if the idea works before making it
D

• draw the PCB, and print a mask for etching

• control a computer numerically controlled (CNC) milling machine to
engrave a PCB
• draw a 3D model of the product casing to help develop the design
• control CNC equipment like a milling machine, laser cutter or 3D printer to
make parts.
Advantages are that computer modelling can test ideas, which saves time
making prototypes that do not work, and that CNC manufacture is faster and
more accurate than hand processes.

Disadvantages are the cost of the equipment and that specialist training is
often needed to use the software and equipment.

Apply it
Describe the correct technique for using a soldering iron to solder a
component onto a circuit board.

229
5 Systems
Shaping Drilling
Drilling makes a round hole in material. It is useful for
Vacuum forming making cases, to make holes to put screws in or wires
A heated sheet of polymer is forced down over the through. Battery-powered cordless drills are useful to
mould by air pressure due to a temporary vacuum use by hand. Pillar drills are useful for accurate work, as
being created beneath the air-tight seal around the they can get the hole at 90 degrees to the work surface
sheet of polymer. The mould needs to be suitable. easily. Drilling is quick and easy and lots of things can go
It should have tapered sides so it is easier to lift the through a round hole. While drilling is generally used to
plastic off the mould. It should also have rounded produce round holes, it is possible to use the machine
edges and corners so it does not tear the soft plastic. to cut other apertures by drilling a series of holes (called
It is quick to make once the mould has been made, so chain drilling) inside a marked-out shape and then use
it is good for making a batch of identical products. It is saws and files to obtain the desired shape.
possible to produce more complex shapes using vacuum
forming, but the design of the mould is critical to ensure Fabricating, constructing and assembling
the plastic moulding can be released from the mould.
PCB mounting methods

FT
Link it up A PCB with all of the components soldered onto it needs
to be mounted in a case so that it is protected, to stop
For more information about vacuum forming, look at
the board getting bent or the components getting
page 193.
damaged. It also looks neat and professional. Some mass-
produced PCBs are mounted with a system that makes
CNC laser cutting repair difficult or impossible. A PCB is often screwed onto
A laser cutter is a computer-controlled machine that
A
a raised boss or has its legs moulded into part of the case,
uses a laser to cut through materials. The computer so that there is a gap between the board and case for
sends instructions to the machine, which guides the the components. A range of ready-made mounts/pillars
laser beam by moving mirrors to direct the laser beam are available that fit through holes drilled into the PCB.
R
along the coordinates given. Laser cutters are good Consideration should be given to where the mounts will
for cutting wood and plastic as they cut quickly and be placed when designing the PCB and its case.
accurately. However, there are also disadvantages:
laser cutters can burn the edges of wood, they are Cable management
D

expensive, they can cut only thin materials, they do not A lot of components, particularly input and output
cut metals, the smoke is toxic and needs filtering, and devices and power supplies, are joined to the rest of the
the design needs to be drawn on a computer. product with cables. It is important to manage cables
to prevent them from getting damaged or tangled up.
3D printing A wiring loom has a bundle of cables running through
A drawing is made in 3D software and converted into the product. These can be held together with cable ties,
a .stl file that can be sent to the 3D printer. The 3D tape or by enclosing them in plastic sleeving. Correct
printer uses a nozzle that heats a thin plastic filament cable management will contribute to the production of
and moves the nozzle over the bed of the machine, a reliable product. Time at the design stage is needed
building up the object a thin layer at a time. 3D printers for this though. Where cables enter a device they must
can make complex 3D shapes and one-off products be secured so that the soldered joint is not put under
can be made that would need a complex mould to strain, because a wire soldered onto a circuit can break
make any other way. They are a good way for making off easily. Cable strain relief can be obtained by using
prototypes. Disadvantages include their slow speed, commercial plugs/sockets and connectors. Threading a
as it takes several hours to produce a product, and the cable through an additional hole drilled in the PCB is a
fact that they can use only some types of plastic, which simple way to provide strain relief. The use of coloured
limits what they can be used for. 3D drawing software cables can ensure accurate connections, for example
can also be quite complicated to use. coloured ribbon cable.

230
 5.7 Processes for fabricating a prototype

Wastage
Wastage is a process that starts with a piece of material and cuts material away to
leave what is required for the product. Hand tools can be used to cut material away.
A milling machine cuts material away from a block to leave the shape required for
the product. The product is made from a solid piece of material with no joints or
fixings needed, so it will be strong. A disadvantage is that a lot of material is wasted
because it is not possible to use all the material that was cut away. However, in
industry, waste material, for example waste metal cuttings (called swarf), are sold
back to steel producers to be reused in new metal production, for example brass and
steel.
Addition
Addition is a process that puts materials together to form the required shapes. Materials
can be cut into shapes with hand tools and fixed together with joints, adhesives,
mechanical fixings such as screws and rivets, and by heat, including soldering, brazing
and welding. 3D printing is also an addition process, because plastic is added to build up
the required design. Addition is an efficient use of material, as pieces are cut to the right
size with little wastage. However, there are often lots of joins between pieces of material,

Summary
Key points to remember:
FT
so it is difficult to make the product strong.
A
• A soldering iron is used to melt solder for soldering components onto a PCB.
• CNC mills and laser cutters are a quick and accurate way to make parts of a product once the design is drawn
in suitable software.
R
• Vacuum forming uses a mould to make a plastic shell.
• 3D printing makes complex shapes, but can be slow and hard to use.
D

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name three hand tools that might be useful to make circuit prototypes.
S2 Suggest two things a computer could help with when designing or making an electronic product.
S3 Give an example of a product that would be created using vacuum forming.
Challenge
C1 Find out the best technique for soldering a joint with a soldering iron and describe the process.
C2 Give an advantage of wastage processes and an advantage of addition processes.

231
5 Systems

5.8 Surface finishes and treatments

Learning objective
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how to apply a range of surface finishes to products.

Surface finishes and treatments

There are a range of different surface finishes and treatments that can be
applied to materials. Some are applied to protect the material. Some are
applied for decoration. Some are good at doing both.

Metal plating
A metal product can have its surface plated with a thin layer of a different
metal. This is often so most of the product is made with a cheap metal and

FT
then coated with a more expensive one to make it look better, to prevent
corrosion or to improve its properties. Steel can rust, so it is often coated with
chromium, which provides corrosion resistance, but ultimately will not stop
rusting, although it does gives an aesthetically pleasing finish. Contacts in a
high-performance electronic product might be made of copper plated with
gold, because the gold surface does not tarnish and conducts electricity better.
A
Insulating coatings
Electrical wires need to transport electricity from one place to another.
R
Copper wires are coated with an insulator, usually a plastic called PVC. This
prevents wires touching each other or the case of the product by accident,
causing what is known as a short circuit.
Some electrical products that use mains electricity have an insulating case, so
D

that if there is a fault with the product the case does not conduct electricity.

Resistor colour codes

The resister codes we looked at earlier in the chapter are a way of using a
finish on the surface of the resistor to create the colour bands that are used
to identify its value.

Finishes applied to cases

Finishes are applied to the surface of a product. Some finishes are to protect
the surface. Some finishes are for decoration. Most do a bit of both. Some
examples of finishes that might be applied to the case of electronic products
are shown in Table 5.8.1.

232
 5.8 Surface finishes and treatments

Finish Description Advantages Disadvantages

Anodising • A piece of metal, often aluminium alloy, is • Stops the surface from corroding • Can be scratched away
dipped in acid and electricity passed through it • Can be coloured • Only works on some metals
• The acid reacts with the surface to form a thin • Gives a very smooth finish
surface layer that is resistant to corrosion
• It can be dyed to make the product a bright
colour
Painting • Paint is particles in a liquid that hardens as the • Available in almost any colour • Can fade in sunlight and wear
liquid dries out • Protects a material from away
• Applied to the surface of a material with a corrosion or rotting • Scratches and damages fairly
brush or spray • Easy to apply to most materials easily

Screen • The screen is a mask that goes over the surface • Can paint a complex design onto • Only works on a flat surface
printing • Paint is scraped over the surface, sticking to the a surface • Full colour requires four
exposed areas • Can be done in full colour separate screens

FT
Table 5.8.1 Finishing for cases

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Electroplating puts a layer of a different metal onto a metal object.
A
• Electrical products need insulating coatings, which can be coloured plastic.
• Anodising is a surface treatment for some metals, usually for aluminium.
• Paint is a decorative coating that also provides some protection to the material.
R

Checkpoint
Strengthen
D

S1 What materials can electroplating and anodising be used on?

S2 Why are copper electrical cables covered with plastic?
Challenge
C1 Plastic is sometimes called self-finishing. What do you think this means?
C2 What finish would you use for the following products? Say why.
a A steel light fitting
b The plastic case of a cordless drill
c The aluminium case of an expensive smartphone.

233
Preparing for your exam 5

Exam strategy
What to expect in the exam
Section B of the examination is designed to test your knowledge and
understanding of the material studied. Throughout the course you should
practise exam-style questions that will challenge your knowledge across all
sections of the systems content. Different-style exam questions can require
short answers, long answers, sketching and calculations. Preparing thoroughly
for your exam is important if you are to achieve high marks.

Section B: Material category – Systems

This section is worth 60 marks and contains a mixture of different question
styles, including short answer, sketching, calculation and extended open-
response questions. This will include 5 marks for calculations.
In the systems category you should know about:
• some design contexts

FT
• the sources, origins, physical and working properties of components and
systems and their social and ecological footprint
• the way in which the selection of components and systems is influenced
• the impact of forces and stresses on objects and how they can be reinforced
and stiffened
• stock forms, types and sizes to calculate and determine the quantity of
A
components required
• alternative processes that can be used to manufacture components and
systems to different scales of production
R
• specialist techniques and processes that can be used to shape, fabricate,
construct and assemble a high-quality systems prototype
• appropriate surface treatments and finishes that can be applied to
components and systems for functional and aesthetic purposes.
D

Revision tips
• Ensure you start revising in plenty of time before your exam. You will find it
easier to remember facts you have revised several times over a few weeks
than those you have tried to memorise at the last minute.
• Make clear and well-ordered notes about all the sections that relate to the
core and your chosen material category.
• Test yourself at the end of each section. Work through the exam-style questions
and complete activities to reinforce your knowledge and understanding.
• Work through all sample assessment materials, including past papers
available from Pearson.
• Identify the areas where you are likely to get mathematical questions and
practise the sections on numerical computation, handling data, rearranging
and using equations.
• Discuss the course with your teacher and peers as it will help your understanding.
• Work through corrections and identify areas where you may need further practice.
• Use online or other resources to extend your understanding of the design
and technology context.

234
Preparing for your exam 5
Exam tips
• You should plan to leave 60 minutes for answering questions in Section B.
• You must answer all the questions. If you are stuck on one, leave it and come
back to it at the end.
• Although the questions will be different for each paper you sit, there is
information on the page to help you answer the question. For example, the
number of marks awarded for each question will tell you the number of separate
points that need to be given in your answer.
• Pay attention to the command words used in the question as these will guide
you in how best to communicate your answers.
• Underline or highlight keywords in the question. After answering the question,
read the question again to ensure you have done what was asked.
• If you have time available, plan the structure for long answers and make sure you
give good examples where needed.
• Check through your answers at the end of the exam. Make sure you have

FT
included units and shown the workings for calculations.

Sample answers with comments

A
The following questions give some examples of how to interpret the different command words.
R

Question 1: Explain
a) Figure PE5.1 shows a simple circuit for a
D

safety night light to go on a child’s rucksack.

+

When it gets dark the LDR and transistor

turn on the bulb.
The bag light needs to meet the following
specifications:
• It must have an on/off switch. Figure PE5.1 A circuit for a safety night light on a
• It must have an LED output. child’s rucksack

• The light level it comes on at must

be adjustable. Exam tip
There are three separate changes to make to the circuit.
Use notes and/or sketches to show how the
Work out what they are, then try to draw the circuit
circuit could be modified to include these using the correct circuit symbols.
three specification points. (6 marks)

235
Preparing for your exam 5

Student answer Verdict

a) LED This answer is okay. The correct
resistor
components have been added using
variable
the correct symbols, however, a resistor
resistor
should be present at the base of the
switch transistor. Although the labels are not
really needed, it is a good idea to add
them, so, for example, if a circuit symbol
was wrong but correctly labelled you
+

might get some marks.

b) The transistor circuit could be replaced by a programmable Exam tip

FT
interface controller (PIC). Explain one reason for using a Think about things a PIC can do that a
PIC rather than a transistor. (2 marks) transistor can’t, and how the PIC could
make the product more desirable.

Student answer
The PIC can be programmed, so LEDs could be made to flash Verdict
A
or light up in different patterns or sequences. This would
This is detailed and thoughtful answer.
make the product more interesting, and a flashing light
shows up better to motorists, so it would be safer.
R
c) Figure PE5.2 shows a child’s rucksack with LEDs that light up
and flash when it gets dark. The following list includes some
specifications for the product.
D

• The batteries must last at least four hours.

• The lights automatically come on in the dark.
• It must be water resistant.
• It must have different flash patterns.
• It must have adjustable sensitivity.
Figure PE5.2 A child’s rucksack with LED lights
• It must have an on/off switch.
Explain two ways the rucksack safety lights meet or fail
Exam tip
to meet the criteria to keep children safer at night. (4 marks)
Decide which features of the product
help to keep a child safer.
Student answer Verdict
It lights up. This is a poor answer. Although the answer is correct, this question needs two
points, with well-explained reasons. A better answer would be:
1. The LED lights flash, which makes the child more visible to motorists at night.
2. The LED lights automatically come on when it gets dark, so the child
cannot forget to turn them on.

236
Preparing for your exam 5
d) Explain one method of improving the product. Exam tip
(2 marks) Identify a potential problem with the product, then
think of a way to solve that problem.
Student answer
Verdict
There should be a warning when the batteries are
getting low, so they can be changed or recharged This is a good answer. It would solve a problem with
before they go flat. the product.

Question 2: Calculate Exam tip

a) An LED output in a circuit will need a current Remember the current

+
limiting resistor. will be the same all
Ohms law is V = I x R around the circuit,
The battery supplies 9V while the voltage is

FT
split between the LED
The LED used needs a maximum of 2V and a current
and the resistor.
of 20mA Figure PE5.3 A circuit
Calculate the value of the resistor needed. (2 marks) diagram

Student answer Verdict

A
V across the resistor is 9 – 2 = 7V This is correct. The student has shown how they worked
I through resistor = 20mA = 0.02A it out, which is important. You should always show your
working out in a calculation question.
R = V/I = 7/0.02 = 350 Ω
R

b) Resistors have a tolerance. If the resistor chosen in part a) Exam tip

has a tolerance of ±10 per cent calculate the range of values
Calculate the 10 per cent first.
D

the resistor could have. (2 marks)

Student answer
Verdict
10% of 350 Ω = 350 x 10/100 = 35 Ω
This is a good answer.
The resistor is between 350 – 35 and 350 + 35 = 315 Ω and 385 Ω

c) Explain one reason why a systems designer Exam tip

should use standard values for components. For two marks you need to give a good reason with a
(2 marks) clear explanation of why it is important.

Student answer Verdict

Cheaper. This is a poor answer. Even though it is correct, more explanation must be given.
For example, a company making resistors will make them in a range of set values
because it is much cheaper than trying to make every value. So a system designer
needs to use a resistor value that is readily available to keep costs down.

237
 Preparing for your exam 5
Question 3: Discuss
Figure PE5.4 shows the circuit components for a
simple mono amplifier.
a) Use notes and/or sketches to show a mould that
could be used to vacuum form a suitable case for
the amplifier. (6 marks)

Student answer
Sloping sides so the Figure PE5.4 The circuit components for a
Loudspeaker will simple mono amplifier
mould can be removed
go here
Exam tip
There are two main points to consider: how
the case can house the components and what

FT
the important features of a vacuum-forming
mould are.

Verdict
This is a good answer. The student has drawn a
A
design that is suitable for the product and suitable
Space for PCB
for a vacuum-forming mould. Notice how the
Rounded edges so the and battery
labels are used to point out features of the design
R
plastic does not tear and explain them clearly.
b) Explain one reason why vacuum forming is a
Exam tip
good process to use to manufacture a batch of
D

50 identical cases. (2 marks) State a reason and say why this is the case.

Student answer Verdict

Once the mould has been made the vacuum former This is a good answer.
will make all of the cases the same because they are
being formed over the same mould every time.
Exam tip
c) Explain one working property of high-impact
Think what properties are needed for vacuum
polystyrene (HIPS) that makes it suitable for
forming and what properties HIPS has.
vacuum forming the case. (2 marks)

Student answer Verdict

This is a good answer as it shows an understanding of the properties
HIPS is a thermoplastic that can be of the material. Saying it will take a high impact is not a good answer
softened and moulded into a new as it doesn't show much understanding of the material and is a guess
shape by heating it and stretching it based on the name. HIPS is just a denser form of polystyrene than
over a mould. the expanded polystyrene that is used to make packaging.
238
Preparing for your exam 5
d) Explain two quality control checks that could Exam tip
be carried out on the plastic case during the
Quality control should make sure the product is
manufacturing process. (4 marks)
being made correctly.

Student answer Verdict

Make sure there are no cracks This a weak answer. The points are correct, but more explanation of the
and they are all the right colour. points is needed for four marks. The following would be a better answer.
1. Check that the plastic is fully moulded around the bottom edges of
the mould. If it isn’t, the plastic may not be getting hot enough.
2. Check that there are no blistered areas of plastic. If there are, the
plastic is getting too hot before moulding.

Question 4: Evaluate

FT
Figure PE5.5 shows a remote-controlled drone.
Some features of the drone include:
• lightweight construction
• rechargeable batteries.
Materials used are:
A
• some different types of plastic
• aluminium
• copper
• tin and traces of other metals in the electronics Figure PE5.5 A remote-controlled drone
R
• lithium in the batteries.
Evaluate the drone in terms of its ecological footprint. Exam tip
(9 marks) Spend a bit of time thinking through your answer
D

before you start writing. It might help to make a list of

Student answer points to include before you start writing your answer.

The plastics used in the drone are made from crude oil, which comes out of the ground and has a limited
supply. The metals used are mined and extracted from rock, which uses a lot of energy for processing and
shipping around the world. None of the materials used are sustainable.
The drone uses a small amount of electricity to recharge its batteries.
When the drone comes to the end of its life it will be disposed of. The materials
used make it very hard to recycle. There are different plastics used, mixed in with Verdict
other materials, so they would be hard to separate for recycling. The metals used, This is a good answer
such as the tin in the solder and lithium in the batteries, would be very hard to because it analyses the
remove from the product. They can do environmental damage if they are thrown materials used for the
into landfill, where they can leech into the ground and get into water supplies.
main parts of the product
The ecological footprint of the drone is high, because it uses a lot of different lifecycle (manufacture,
materials that are not sustainable and it cannot be recycled. How bad it is depends use, disposal). It finishes
on how long it lasts. If it breaks quite quickly and gets thrown away and replaced, with a clear conclusion.
it is worse than if it lasted a long time.
Pearson Education Ltd accepts no responsibility whatsoever for the accuracy or method of working in the answers given.
239
6Polymers
Fibres and textiles

FT
A
R
D

240
 6.1 Design contexts

6.1 Design contexts

Getting started
With so many fibres and fabrics to choose from, you need to look at the advantages and disadvantages of each
before choosing the most suitable for your design projects. Look at what you are wearing today. Can you identify
any of the fabrics? Do you know of any social or ecological implications relating to them?

While you are designing and developing or modifying your textile products
you will have certain fabrics in mind. To make the right choices, you need to
understand that the following factors affect the performance, look and cost
of the finished product.

• Fibre content: should it be made of natural or synthetic fibres?

• Fabric construction: should it be woven, knitted or non-woven, for example?
• The components: are they available to you, to join the product and make

FT
it function – for example, zips and poppers?
• Manufacturing processes: should it be dyed, printed, mechanically
finished or chemically finished?
• The performance requirements: how much wear will the product get?
• The social and environmental impact: does producing the fabric damage
the environment or cause problems for nearby communities?
A
6.2 Properties of fibres and social implications
R

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
D

• the properties and uses of a larger range of natural and synthetic fibres
• the origins of some fibres.

Natural fibres

Link it up
From Topic 1.11 (see page 47) you know that natural fibres are obtained
from plant, animal and mineral sources.
Wool and cotton were covered in the core content section of this book.
To remind yourself, see also page 47.

Fibres from plant sources include cotton, linen, hemp, sisal, jute and
coconut. Fibres from animal sources include silk, wool and mohair.

241
6 Fibres and textiles
Table 6.2.1 looks more closely at silk, a natural fibre spun by a silkworm into
a cocoon, which is carefully unravelled to make a long filament, and linen, a
natural fibre that comes from the flax plant.

Animal – silk Vegetable – linen

Properties Fibre is long, strong, smooth and has good light- Coarse, stiff fibre
reflective properties, which give the fibre lustre

Structure Cell wall

Raw silk Sericin Fibroin Fibroin Micro-fibrils Leaflet
filament strands bundle structure Lumen
Micro-fibrils

Orientation

FT
angle
Primary Secondary
wall wall
Middle
lamella

Advantages • Excellent drape • More absorbent than cotton

A
• Luxurious feel • Hardwearing
• Feels the correct temperature • Strong especially when wet
• Absorbent and dries quickly • Comfortable to wear
R
• Takes dye well

Disadvantages • Difficult to care for • No drape

D

• Expensive • Poor elasticity and resilience

• Easily damaged by acids, bleach, perspiration • Creases easily, dull lustre
and sunlight

Example uses Formal dresses, ties, luxury underwear Tableware, bedding, clothing

Table 6.2.1 Properties and structure of two natural fibres – silk and linen

Apply it
Silk is stronger than steel, weight for weight. Find three uses of silk where
this strength is utilised.

Key term
Drape: a fabric’s ability to form waves or the desired shape as it
is hung.

242
 6.2 Properties of fibres and social implications

Synthetic fibres Cellulose

fibres
In Section 1.11 you learned that synthetic fabrics are textiles made from
Macro-fibrils
artificial rather than natural fibres. Coal, oil and other petrol-based chemicals
are their raw materials. Simple chemical molecules called monomers are
Micro-fibrils
joined to form polymers, using a process called polymerisation. The polymer
chains are then spun into a yarn. Examples of synthetic fabrics include
polyester, acrylic, polyamide (nylon), elastane and Kevlar®.

Link it up OH OH
Chains of
O O O O O
Polyester and acrylic were covered in the core content (Section 1) of this OH
OH
OH
OH
cellulose molecule
book. To remind yourself, look at page 48. O
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O

O O O O O
OH OH

Regenerated fibres are derived from wood pulp. A chemical is added to Figure 6.2.1 Structure of regenerated
dissolve and extract the cellulose. The fibre is then reconstructed. cellulose fibres

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Viscose Acetate Tencel® (lyocell)
Advantages • Washes well, has low • Luxurious appearance, warm, • Soft, absorbent and strong
warmth, absorbent resilient, crisp texture when wet or dry
• Good drape • Takes dye well • Good drape, resilient,
biodegradable, takes dye well
A
Disadvantages • Not durable, creases • Heat sensitive, poor abrasion • More expensive than other
easily resistance, dissolved by nail environmentally friendly fabrics
polish remover
• More expensive than viscose
R
Example uses • Shirts, dresses, • Dresses, linings, soft • Dresses, trousers, jeans
linings furnishings
D

Table 6.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of regenerated cellulose textiles

Polyamide (nylon) Elastane

Advantages Durable, inexpensive, strong, elastic, Elastic, durable, keeps its shape, lightweight but strong
resists alkalis
Disadvantages Damaged by acids and sunlight, Poor absorbency (an advantage when used for sports
poor absorbency and swimwear)
Example uses Carpets, ropes, outerwear, clothing, Sportswear, swimwear, blended with other fibres such as
webbing straps cotton to improve stretch, e.g. stretch denim jeans
Table 6.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of synthetic textiles – polyamide (nylon) and elastane

Key term Exam-style question

Yarn: a twisted rope of fibres for Cycling shorts may contain 80 per cent polyamide and 20 per cent
knitting, weaving or sewing. elastane. Explain one working property of polyamide that makes it
suitable for use in cycling shorts. (3 marks)

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6 Fibres and textiles
Woven fabrics
Link it up
From Topic 1.11 you know that weaving is the process
of turning yarns into a fabric. You will have read
about plain (calico) and twill (denim) woven fabrics
on page 49. You can also remind yourself about warp-
and weft-knitted fabrics in Topic 1.11 on page 49.

A loom is used to hold an arrangement of vertical

threads or warp threads held under tension. The
yarn that goes across horizontally is called the weft. Figure 6.2.2 Satin weave
The edges of the fabric where the weft threads loop
back to form a non-fraying edge are known as the Satin-weave fabric
selvedge. Fabrics can also be constructed by knitting. Satin weave has a shiny ‘right’ side and a matt ‘wrong’
There are two types of knitted fabrics: weft-knitted side. On the shiny side, the weft threads go over more

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and warp-knitted. than four warp threads and under one.

The long ‘float’ threads mean the light falling on the

Key terms yarn does not scatter and break up so the fabric appears
shiny and lustrous.
Warp: vertical threads in a fabric.
Weft: horizontal threads in a fabric. Pile fabric
A
Selvedge: edges of the fabric where the weft Pile fabric is woven in two thicknesses facing each other.
threads loop back to form a non-fraying edge. After it comes off the loom, a knife cuts between the
layers to create a cut pile.
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Satin – jacquard Pile – velvet

Advantages • Complex • Looks luxurious
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and textured • Warm

patterns and
colours possible Figure 6.2.3 Pile weave
• Strong and
resilient It can be made with a variety of fibres including cotton,
silk or synthetics. Velvet is a pile fabric with a fibrous,
Disadvantages • Complex to set • Heavy tufted finish and a smooth feel. It is heavy and durable
up • The cut edges with a strong sheen. Silk velvet has a soft drape and
• Firm fabric fray
shimmering surface, while synthetic velvets, such as
Example uses • Clothing (e.g. • Clothing those made from rayon and acetate, have a strong
baseball jackets, • Outerwear sheen but do not drape well.
sports shorts • Soft furnishings
and lingerie)
• Soft furnishings, Apply it
ballet shoes To understand how jacquard fabric is constructed, cut
and bed sheets a small piece of furnishing-style fabric, turn it over
Table 6.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of woven fabrics – onto the reverse side and identify the number of
jacquard and velvet colours used. It may help to start to fray it.

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 6.2 Properties of fibres and social implications

Non-woven textiles Link it up

Fibres can be turned into fabric without first spinning them into yarns. The
For more information on fibres ,
fibres are layered at different angles to form a web held together by either
see page 50.
felting or bonding.

Fibres are dropped randomly During the carding process the The combed fibres pass through
onto the production line. random fibres are combed into high-pressure heated rollers and
a parallel formation. become thermally bonded.
Figure 6.2.4 Making a bonded web textile Apply it
Collect a range of different types
Bonded fabrics were developed to make the first disposable nappies.

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of Vilene® and create a sample
Vilene®, in Table 6.2.5, is an example of a bonded non-woven fabric that you
board, suggesting uses for each.
may have used in project work.

Type Bonded webs – Vilene®

Description Iron-on Vilene® has a layer of adhesive on one side. It comes in a range of thicknesses from
A
lightweight to firm.
Advantages Easy and cheap to produce, little waste, no grain, will not fray, good insulator, range of weights
Disadvantages No drape, distorted by stretching, quite weak, the surface can easily bobble
R
Example uses Disposable clothing/overalls, interfacing used to stiffen fabrics
Table 6.2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of Vilene®
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Fabric Origin
Cotton China, India, Pakistan, USA
Silk China, India, Uzbekistan
Flax, linen Belgium, Canada, France, Russia, Ukraine
Wool Australia, China, New Zealand, United Kingdom, USA
Regenerated fibres Alpine forests are a source of pine, spruce and hemlock trees used to make softwood
pulp for producing cellulose
European hardwood forests provide oak and birch wood pulp to make lyocell
Cotton linters (the fibres removed from cotton seeds during the production process)
can be processed to extract cellulose
Lyocell European forests: oak and birch (hardwood)
Synthetic fibres, such as Oil producers, including Russia, Saudi Arabia, UAE
polyester, nylon, acrylic
Table 6.2.6 Origins of different textiles

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6 Fibres and textiles

Key term Physical characteristics of textiles

The main physical characteristics of textiles are their allergenic
Allergenic: textile may irritate
characteristics, texture and density. Other physical characteristics include
the skin due to its rough texture
the fibre length, how long it takes to degrade and its fineness. Physical
or chemical content.
characteristics influence the choice of the material for specific tasks.
• Fineness determines how many fibres there are in a cross section of a
yarn of given thickness.
• Allergenic textiles may irritate the skin, due to their rough texture or
chemical content.
• Texture includes the tactile quality of a textile, for example whether it
feels coarse, smooth or silky.
• Density measures weight in grams per cubic centimetre. Density affects
physical properties like stiffness, impact strength and optical properties.
Link it up
Working properties of textiles
The working properties of

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elasticity, resilience and durability Property The ability of a textile to:
were covered in the core content
section (Section 1.11) of this Tensile strength resist pulling forces without stretching
book. To remind yourself, look Absorbency absorb and hold liquid
at page 51. Table 6.2.7 describes Breathability hold moisture on its surface, allowing it to evaporate
some more properties.
Electrical conductivity conduct electricity
A
Heat conductivity conduct heat
Insulation prevent heat or electrical conductivity
R
Table 6.2.7 Working properties of textiles

Apply it
D

Collect 100 mm by 100 mm samples of a range of fabrics. Observe them under

a microscope. Note the shape of the fibres and how the threads combine.
Put a sample over a beaker and secure it with an elastic band. Use a pipette
Exam-style question to drop 5 ml of water onto the surface. Wait for 1 minute. Observe how much
Explain two reasons why nylon is water has been absorbed and how much has gone through to the beaker.
used for parachute canopies. Complete a copy of the table below to show the working properties of
(6 marks) nylon, silk and wool. Then complete the properties for five more fabrics.

Elasticity Resilience Durability Tensile Breathability/ Electrical/heat

strength absorbency conductivity
Nylon Good Excellent Excellent Good Poor Poor conductivity of heat
if tightly constructed
Silk Poor Excellent when dry Good
Wool Poor

Table 6.2.8 Working properties of specific textiles

246
 6.2 Properties of fibres and social implications

Social footprint • Fibre dust released when processing cotton can

cause respiratory diseases.
Trend forecasting • Noise may be a problem near factories, especially
Designers need to know what customers will buy those associated with yarn manufacturing, knitting
months or even years ahead. Trend forecasters and weaving.
compile mood boards and colour palettes of
• Waste disposal needs to be dealt with responsibly.
emerging colour trends for fashion and interiors, and
many brands subscribe to certain trend forecasting • Child labour remains a challenge for the clothing
websites to gain information about what might be industry because it is difficult to monitor sub-
fashionable in the future. Trade shows showcase new contractors and home workers.
developments in textiles technology or advancements • Workers in the clothing industry are often low skilled
in production or finishing techniques. Fashion used or unskilled. They may not know their rights as
to change every season in high-street shops but employees and may work in poor conditions for low
now there may be new collections in every six weeks. wages. Some UK retailers are trying to impose ethical
Clothing retailers such as Zara have a turnaround time conditions on their suppliers.
of two weeks due to frequent small batch production
Impact of farming and material production on
(see page 257).

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communities and wildlife
Impact of material production on communities Cotton growing and production is a good example of
and wildlife how the textile industry may have a negative impact on
a local area.
The following factors can have an impact on the
communities where the factories are based.
Soil erosion and degradation
A
• Hazardous chemicals, particularly in cotton Cotton cultivation degrades soil quality. Most cotton
production, may be released into waste water which is grown on fields that have previously been used
may harm water-based life. for production, but their exhaustion leads to farmers
expanding into new areas, which destroys habitats.
R

Pollution
Cotton production uses fertilisers and pesticides. These
D

can run off the land and pollute rivers and drinking water,
affecting local wildlife. Pesticides threaten the quality of
soil too. Heavy use of pesticides also raises concerns for
the health of farm workers and nearby populations.

Water
Cotton production and processing uses a lot of water,
so rivers are often diverted to service the fields and
factories. This has had severe impacts on ecosystems
such as the Aral Sea in Central Asia, the Indus delta in
Pakistan and the Murray River in Australia.

Apply it
‘The fashion industry is the reason why the Aral Sea in
Central Asia has dried up.’ Research this claim online. Is
Common hazard symbols the fashion industry really to blame?

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6 Fibres and textiles
1.7 kg of fossil fuel Recycling
Customer purchases provides electricity According to the Department
a 250 g cotton T-shirt for washing,
for Environment, Food and Rural
drying and ironing
Affairs (Defra) each year about
1 million tonnes of textiles go
to landfill after use, while about
125 g of detergent sent Released to the air as Creates 10 g ash 500,000 tonnes are collected to be
to wastewater processing 4 kg of CO2 emissions
reused or recycled (2007).
Consumers often wear garments for a short time before discarding them
as they are no longer fashionable. Washing garments frequently at high
After use, incinerating reduces T-shirt to 3 g ash temperatures can also shorten their life. The trend of ‘fast fashion’ means
more garments are bought and thrown away. Both manufacturers and
consumers have a responsibility to consider the ethics of generating all this
waste and whether more could be done to make fashion more sustainable.
450 g of waste sent to landfill, primarily mining

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waste generated during extraction of the fossil fuel Reduction of chemical finishes – surface and aftercare treatments
Some chemical substances or mixtures that may be applied when processing
Figure 6.2.5 Potential waste from a textiles are hazardous and reducing their use would reduce pollution and
T-shirt other harmful side-effects.

Reduction of packaging materials

A
Textiles companies are trying to reduce packaging to be more
environmentally friendly, by reducing waste, litter and energy use. For
example, companies can reduce the number of plastic bags used when
R
sending garments ordered online by post. They can also investigate the use
of recyclable or biodegradable packaging materials.

Apply it Brand identity

D

A brand’s identity is how a company wants customers to perceive it. This may
Create your own brand identity.
cover its logo, messaging, customer service and reputation.
First, collect examples of clothing
brands. What makes a good logo? One element of this is how a company deals with consumerism. Businesses are
Now use these thoughts to design dependent on customers for their income so they want customers to have the
a company logo for your own best experience of them and their products. However, consumerism can also
fashion brand to appeal to your relate to unnecessary consumption of products, so is associated with waste
target audience. and greed. Companies need to balance these ideas within their brand identity.
For example, they can promote the way that changes to their packaging have
reduced waste in response to customer requests, making customers more likely
to buy their products.
Exam-style question
Ecological footprint
Explain three ways that a company
Human activities consume resources and produce waste. Sustainable
can improve its social footprint.
(6 marks) development usually includes consideration of environmental, social and
economic factors (see Figure 6.2.6).

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 6.2 Properties of fibres and social implications

Growing crops such as cotton can lead to deforestation, which, in turn, can lead to loss of wildlife and Disposal
destroy ecosystems. Processing the crop usually uses fossil fuels, which have been extracted from oil Recycling
fields as a result of oil exploration, contributing another cause of pollution. As existing oil fields Reusing
run out of oil, more areas of the planet will need to be explored and drilled.

End of life
6
Recycling
5
Manufacturers are being Consumer
encouraged to move towards care
sustainability, which is
development that meets the
needs of the present without
compromising the ability of
future generations to meet 1 2 When designing products, the method of transport
their own needs Cotton Fabric of the raw materials, components and final products
(Brundtland Commission). production production 4 would need to be considered. All transport requires
In this case, can he production Transportation energy, whichusually comes from fossil fuels. Sea
of a pair of jeans be profitable & distribution freight has less environmental impact than rail
for all involved without using freight, which, in turn, is better than moving goods
by road. Could the delivery vans used by a company

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up future resources and
causing harm? 3 be powered by electricity from renewables, therefore
The amount of energy used, Garment cutting pollution and the use of fossil fuels to
pollution generated and waste manufacturing generate electricity?
produced during the processing of The components of jeans are made thousands of
the fibre and production of the miles apart, brought together to assemble and
fabric need to be considered. then distributed worldwide.
A
Figure 6.2.6 Environmental factors influencing the choice of fabrics

Maths in practice 1 Summary

R
• 33.4 kg of CO2 are produced during the life cycle of a pair of jeans. Key points to remember:
11% of this CO2 is produced transporting the raw materials and final • Fabrics can be constructed by
products. How many kg of CO2 is this? weaving, knitting, felting or
D

Worked example bonding fibres together.

11
11% of 33.4 kg = 100 × 33.4 = 3.674 kg • Fibre production is a
• 44% is from the growing and processing of cotton. How many kg of CO2 worldwide industry.
is this? • The production of textiles
Worked example has environmental and social
• 44% of 33.4 kg = 4 × 10% + 4 × 1% = impacts.
4 × 3.34 + 4 × 0.334 = 14.696 kg

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What is a synthetic fibre?
S2 How is a bonded web textile made?
Challenge
C1 Explain the environmental factors that could impact a manufacturer’s choice of fabric.

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6 Fibres and textiles
6.3 Selecting natural, synthetic, blended and mixed-fibre textiles
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• that the fabrics you choose have social and ecological footprints
• types of finishing techniques and surface treatments
• ways of selecting the most appropriate fibres and textiles for your project.

Many factors need to be considered when selecting would have a completely different look and appeal if
materials for a specific application. constructed in fluorescent crepe polyester.

Aesthetic factors Texture

This can influence the customer’s buying decision
and the market placing of the product. In the design
example, the selection of heavy textures and a

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contrasting smooth fabric for the underskirt suggests it
is a high-quality product.

Lustre, sheen and shine

The fabric’s ability to reflect light has an impact on the
look the designer wants to achieve. High-lustre fabrics
such as silk convey quality. Some have a highly reflective
A
surface, making them suitable for party wear. Matt fabric
is more suitable for workwear as it conveys a more serious
and professional image.
R
Environmental factors
Ecological thinker and writer Edwin Datschefski
describes the ‘hidden ugliness’ of everyday objects:
D

the hidden pollution and waste behind products and

materials. Does a product become more attractive to a
customer if its environmental impact is minimised?

Figure 6.3.1 Design example influenced by aesthetic factors

(how a product looks)

Form
The thickness, physical properties and size of the
standard forms of the textile influence the designer.

Colour
Colours used will vary depending on the intended use
of the product and the target customer. A garment
with a muted colour palette of bronze, black and silver An outfit made from recycled materials

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 6.3 Selecting natural, synthetic, blended and mixed-fibre textiles

Sustainability Cost factors

The production and use of a fabric should harm the Every process has an associated cost. Here are some
environment as little as possible, provide a fair income examples.
for the producers of the raw materials, and disposal
should not harm wildlife or create pollution. Materials Quality of material
derived from plant sources (such as bamboo) are more The higher the quality of the materials, the higher the
sustainable than those from crude oil (such as nylon). It is cost of producing the product. For example, calico is
difficult to assess the sustainability of a material without cheap while heavyweight silk is expensive.
knowing its entire history. Manufacturing processes
Pollution Processes such as cutting, seaming, overlocking
(oversewing of an edge to prevent it from fraying) and
The designer should try to choose the textile that causes
assembling have associated labour and machine costs.
the least pollution in its production, use and disposal.
The more processes, the higher the cost.
Upcycling Treatments
This is using the material from one product to make a Treatments such as fire proofing, stain resistance and
new, higher-value, product. Livia Firth, creative director

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waterproofing involve applying chemicals, specialist
of Eco-Age, wore a dress on the red carpet made from machinery and additional labour.
recycled plastic bottles and started the Green Carpet
Challenge, which aims to promote sustainable fashion at Transportation
red-carpet events. The costs of transporting raw materials to the
processing site and then transporting the finished
Availability factors fabric, perhaps around the world, including hiring
A
or buying vehicles, fuel and drivers, are significant.
Use of stock materials
The choice of delivery method depends on time, the
Stock materials are easy to source and come in standard distance to be travelled, and budget.
widths (90 cm, 137 cm and 154 cm) and weights.
R
These are easy to order, readily available and are ready Road: providers generally charge a ‘per mile’ rate. This
for immediate use, saving time and costs. Manufacturers varies according to distance, weight, type of product and
can guarantee a good-quality finish with stock materials, service times.
Rail: not as flexible as road transport but can be
D

as their properties, sizes and quality are consistent.

cheaper and more energy efficient over long distances.
Specialist materials are more difficult to source and may
be made to a designer’s specific requirements. They may Sea: this is a commonly used method, though can take a
come in non-standard widths and weights. long time. However, it is often the cheapest method for
large deliveries.
Designers need to research how specialist materials
could, for example, take print and join. Their thickness Air: goods can be moved quickly but this is more
or finish may not fit in standard machinery, so a expensive and less environmentally friendly. Costs are
often determined by weight.
bespoke setting may need to be applied. An example of
a specialist material would be uniquely patterned gold Social factors
sequinned silk chiffon for a one-off evening dress.
Fashion and trends within different social groups may
Specialist materials popularise a particular fabric, colour or fashion. Street
fashion also has an influence on demand for styles, fabrics
Designers need to research how specialist material
and patterns leading to items becoming more popular, such
could, for example, take print and join. Their thickness or
as a particular brand of trainers. Different materials and
finish may not fit in standard machinery, so a bespoke
fashion will also appeal to different social groups. Younger
setting may need to be applied. An example of a people tend to be more interested in trying new trends and
specialist material would be gold sequinned silk chiffon fabrics than older people, who may have different priorities,
for an evening dress. such as durability or warmth.

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6 Fibres and textiles
Cultural and ethical factors however, it does use large amounts of energy and
creates pollution. The textile industry is allegedly the
Avoiding offence second largest polluting industry after the oil industry.
Fashionable clothing can sometimes be designed to
provoke a reaction, even if it is not intended to offend. Factories make mass production cheaper by employing
However, using fur, leather or other animal products is a large number of workers in less developed countries.
likely to offend many people. However, this has led to the decline of the UK industry,
mass redundancies and, in some cases, exploitation of
Also, different cultures may find certain fashion choices some of the world’s poorest workers.
unacceptable. For example, in Uganda it is an offence to
wear mini-skirts.
Link it up
Suitability for intended market
There is more about mass production in the core
The market should be researched early on, considering content section (Section 1) of this book. To remind
the wants, needs and priorities of those likely to buy the yourself, look at page 10.
product. Some customers may prioritise sustainability
while others are motivated by cost.
Built-in product obsolescence
Use of colour and language A product becomes obsolete when it is no longer

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Different colours have different associations in the considered fashionable or useable, or it wears out.
world, for example blue in Europe and America New trends become popular within the fashion industry
suggests peace and calm, whereas in Korea and Mexico quickly, with new ‘seasons’ of styles of clothes. Cheaper,
it represents mourning. Phrases printed on clothing high-street fashion could be said to have built-in
should be carefully checked to ensure they are not product obsolescence as the materials tend to be
mistranslations, ungrammatical or offensive. cheaper and therefore less durable than more expensive
A
The consumer society brands. The idea of ‘fast fashion’ creates a natural
Many customers want products quickly. This demand product obsolescence in the fashion industry.
has an impact on the people producing the clothes,
R
particularly in factories in developing countries where Exam-style question
conditions and pay are poor.
Explain two reasons why built-in product obsolescence
The effect of mass production can contribute to social and environmental problems.
Mass production is often the most cost-effective
D

(4 marks)
approach for producing a lot of identical products,

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Different types of fibres and fabrics have different working characteristics and physical properties which
influence their use.
• Designers and manufacturers must balance the social, cultural and environmental impact of the textiles that
form their products with customer requirements.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Compare the properties of felted wool with a knitted fabric.
S2 Explain why businesses care about reducing packaging materials.
Challenge
C1 Evaluate the impact of cotton farming on neighbouring communities.
C2 Investigate the term ‘fast fashion’. How does our desire to wear the latest fashions have an environmental impact?
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 6.4 The impact of forces and stresses on textiles and the process of reinforcing or stiffening

6.4 The impact of forces and stresses on textiles and the

process of reinforcing or stiffening
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the different forces and stresses textiles could be subjected to when used
• the ways textiles could be reinforced.

Forces and stresses

Fabrics are subjected to many forces when used in products. A fabric’s ability
to withstand these forces determines if it is a successful choice.

Force/stress Definition Application to textiles

Compression A force that tries to Decreases the thickness of a material by increasing the pressure, e.g. by

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squash or shorten sitting on a cushion. A fabric that compresses easily feels soft, warm and
comfortable. Surface changes such as singeing, milling or pressing (see
page 268) influence compressibility.
Tension A force that tries to Fabrics are tested to determine how much force is needed to break them
stretch or lengthen (tensile strength). New fabrics are given a minimum tensile strength for use.
A
Shear A force that acts in Tearing a fabric exerts a shearing force. The tearing strength is the force
opposite directions needed to continue to rip an existing tear. After several tests, the average is
taken. Tear strength can be improved by blending in fibres resilient to tearing
or by improving the construction of the product to prevent weak spots.
R
Flexibility A force that bends This is the ability of a fabric to stretch and recover. Comfort stretch fabrics
without breaking stretch and recover for a 25% extension, whereas power stretch fabrics can
recover from being stretched by 200%.
D

Table 6.4.1 Types of force and stress on textiles

In addition, natural fibres are subjected to forces within the fibre as it grows,
Link it up
which affects their strength and shape. Linen fibres are subjected to the
push and pull forces of the wind, which can affect the shape of the plant. For a visual representation of
Slight breezes help young plants grow sturdier but gale force winds can types of force and stress, see
damage or even break them. Plants are also affected by gravity. page 92.

Reinforcement and stiffening techniques

Textiles often need to be reinforced or stiffened if they are going to be used
in certain clothes, upholstery or outdoor products, such as tents that will be
subjected to stress or force.
Exam-style question
Ribs and boning
Explain one reason why boning
Ribs and boning support fabrics to make a more rigid shape. For example,
might be added to a corset.
they are used in strapless gowns to make the bodice stay up. Modern boning is
(2 marks)
made not of bones but of a strip of nylon cut to size and sewn into the fabric.

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6 Fibres and textiles
Fabrication, assembly and construction processes Embedding composite materials
The method of construction can affect the product’s ability D3O® is an example of a textile that uses embedded
to resist forces when worn or used. Extra care is needed at composite materials. It is flexible with shock-absorbing
high stress points, such as underarm or back seams on a properties, so is used in protective wear like motorcycle
suit jacket. French seams (see Table 6.7.2) are suitable for an jackets. In its raw form, the material’s molecules flow freely
item that it going to be washed often, such as pillow cases and it behaves like a thick liquid, allowing it to be soft
or duvet covers, as they are stronger and resist fraying. Extra and flexible like putty, but on impact the molecules lock
stitching at the top corners can reinforce patch pockets. together to dissipate impact energy and reduce force.

Lamination Stay stitching

A laminated fabric combines the properties of This is where a row of stitches is sewn on a single piece of
several layers of different materials. For example, fabric that fabric to help it keep its shape before it is constructed, for
might tear under tension could be layered with one that can example on curved edges that may stretch during sewing.
withstand more force to improve the fabric’s performance. Stay stitching is also used on folds of fabric, such as darts
The designer has the confidence of knowing the laminate’s and pleats, to help hold them in place while you attach
properties should be consistent. Stock forms for laminated other pieces.
textiles use the same sizes as standard materials.

Learning objectives FT
6.5 Typical stock forms, types and sizes used for textiles

By the end of this section, you should know:

A
• about
Stock typical types
forms, stock forms,
andtypes and sizes in order to calculate quantities.
sizes

Description Advantages Disadvantages

R
Rolls or • The most common stock form Easy to calculate how Wide or semicircular
bolts • Up to 91 m of fabric on a full roll much fabric you need shapes need to use
• Comes in standard widths of 90 cm, 137 cm and joined pieces of
D

154 cm fabric

Blocks • Furnishing foams come in blocks Easily cut to size Can be fragile
• Foams for applications such as sound insulation
come in sheets 200 cm × 100 cm
Denier • A unit equal to the weight in grams of 9000 m Industry standard so Specific denier
of yarn (silk would weigh 1 gram) that you know what weights may not be
• Used to describe the thickness of hosiery (tights) weight of fibre to expect available
Single and • The weight of woven fabrics is measured in You know the weight The two weights may
double grams per square metre (gsm) – a lightweight and thickness to order be too thin or too
weights fabric (chiffon, linen, organza) is typically thick
30–150 gsm, medium weight (satin, taffeta)
150–350 gsm and heavyweight (upholstery
fabric, canvas, denim) 350+ gsm
• A double-weight jersey fabric is two single
jerseys knitted together to leave the two flat
sides on the outside of the fabric, making it
heavier, with less stretch
Table 6.5.1 Stock forms, types and sizes of textiles
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 6.5 Typical stock forms, types and sizes used for textiles

Yarn weight
Knitting yarn weights are labelled as ‘chunky’ down to 2 ply (very fine) and
Roll width
are sold in balls of 25 g to 100 g.

Yarn can be measured by looking at its weight per unit of length. The tex Standard weave
system expresses this in grams per metre. The coarser the yarn, the greater direction
its tex value. Warp Weft
thread thread
Maths in practice 2
Figure 6.5.1 Structure of a fabric roll
Use these formulae to work out the sizes of fabric you need for your product. or bolt
Area of a square or rectangle = length × width
Worked example: length 100 cm × width 200 cm = 20,000 cm2 Link it up
Diameter is the measurement through the centre of a circle from edge For information about laminates,
to edge. To calculate the diameter of a circle from the radius multiply its see page 129.
radius (distance to its centre) by 2.
Diameter = 2 × radius

FT
The area of a circle is calculated using the formula
A = πr2 (i.e. 3.142 × radius × radius)
Worked example
Calculate the area of a circle with a radius of 5 cm.
A = πr2 = 3.14 × 5 cm × 5 cm = 78.5 cm2
Answer: 78.55 cm2
A
To calculate the circumference of a circle (distance around its outside) use
either 2πr or πD.
Worked example
R
• Calculate the diameter of a circle with a radius of 25 cm
D=2×r
D = 2 × 25 cm = 50 cm
D

Summary
Key points to remember:
• A fabric’s ability to withstand stress and forces determines if it is a successful choice.
• Fabrics and products can be reinforced to withstand these forces.
• Fabrics come in stock forms, weights and sizes.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 State the difference between tension and shear.
S2 Name three reinforcing techniques.
S3 Explain one advantage of using a stock form of fabric.
Challenge
C1 Evaluate the flexibility of three fabrics and suggest a use for each.

255
6 Fibres and textiles

6.6 Processes used to manufacture typical products to

different scales of production
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the different manufacturing processes available, depending on the quality and scale of production.

Processes used to cut and shape materials

Description Advantages Disadvantages

Shears Sharp scissor- Easy to use, Requires skill for

like blades clean edge accuracy

Stamp/die Sharp blades Precise, can Bespoke dies

FT cutting

Laser cutting
stamp out
shapes

A computer-
cut identical
multiple pieces

Quick, easy to
are expensive;
ready-made
dies could limit
design

Burnt edge
A
controlled laser set up on fabric, not
melts or burns all fabrics are
through the suitable
R
material

Heating A hot blade Quick, easy to Burnt edge

element – melts and seals set up on fabric,
D

soldering iron the edges of imprecise, only

synthetic fabrics effective on
synthetics

Extrusion A high-pressure Long lengths of Needs specialist

punch precise sections equipment,
expensive

Table 6.6.1 Methods of cutting and shaping materials

Scales of production
Link it up
Scales of production were covered in the core content (Section 1) of this
book. To remind yourself, look at pages 9–10.

256
 6.6 Processes used to manufacture typical products to different scales of production

Table 6.6.2 summarises four methods as they apply to textiles.

Definition/ Advantages Disadvantages Link it up

application See page 224 for
more information
One off A high-quality, High-quality, • Expensive to make about scales of
expensive item made exclusive garments and buy production.
once for a specialist • Needs highly
market or clientele, trained workforce
e.g. wedding dresses,
• Labour intensive
theatre costumes
and haute couture
garments

Batch Produces up to 20,000 Cheaper production • Needs design,

identical products costs pattern making and
before production sampling skills

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moves to a different
product, e.g. T-shirts
for film merchandise
• Repetitive tasks
• Requires training
• Lost time changing
production line after
each run
A
Mass Produces a high • Materials bought • Expensive to set up
production volume of identical cheaply in bulk, • Needs a large
products, usually on keeping costs low storage area
R
a production line, e.g. • Can be automated, • Jobs taken by
plain T-shirts, sheets, requiring only a machines
socks small semi-skilled
D

and unskilled
workforce

Continuous Constantly produces • Low unit costs • Expensive to set

a high volume of • A small workforce up and restart
identical products, e.g. is needed production if
fabric and tights something goes
wrong
• Only suitable
for simple
products with few
components

Table 6.6.2 Scales of textile production

Exam-style question
Give one textile item likely to be made by one-off production. (1 mark)

257
6 Fibres and textiles
Techniques for quantity production
Larger quantities of products can be made by hand or using a larger-scale manufacturing process.

Description Advantages Disadvantages

Marking out • Using reference points, lines and surfaces • Quick to do • Requires some skill
to mark a pattern on fabric and accuracy
• A datum point in the bottom left corner is
used to mark from
• Tools include tailor’s chalk, washable pens
and tracing wheels

Templates • Pre-cut plastic or cardboard shapes to • Improves • Takes time to produce

trace multiple shapes on fabric accuracy when or source templates
• Produced by hand or commercially cutting multiple
• Examples are patchwork shape templates shapes

FT
Patterns • Paper templates with markings indicating • Tested • Commercial patterns
grain direction, component placement and commercial do not cover all sizes
seam allowances patterns will be • Knowledge of pattern
• Produced commercially or by hand, by accurate markings needed
taking products apart to trace

Sub-assembly • A production cell away from the main line that • Speeds up • Production may stop
A
produces parts of the product, e.g. handles production if sub-assembly line
and pockets for a denim shoulder bag stops
R
Computer- • A programmable machine attached to • Accurate • Equipment is expensive
aided a computer, e.g. digital printers, dye • Can operate 24/7 • Training needed to
manufacturing sublimation printers, computerised sewing learn software
• Easy to make
(CAM) machines, cutting machines changes • Jobs taken by machines
D

Quality control • A system of quality checks during the • Produces high- • Extra time taken
product manufacture, e.g. checking seam quality products • Cost of quality control
allowances, correct component insertion staff
and stitch quality • Wastage if pieces are
rejected

Working within • A measure of accuracy – how much larger or • Accurate sizing • Takes care and skill
tolerance smaller you can cut patterns or sew seam • Wastage if badly cut
allowances pieces are rejected
• A tolerance of + or – is set in mm for each
size

Efficient • Commercial patterns include a diagram • Saves materials • Takes time and
cutting to showing the layout of the pattern pieces to and costs consideration
minimise make best use of the fabric and minimise
waste waste
Table 6.6.3 Techniques for quantity production

258
 6.7 Specialist techniques used for high-quality
Thermoforming textile prototypes
and thermosetting polymers

6.7 Specialist techniques used for high-quality textile

prototypes
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the different specialist techniques used when assembling high-quality prototypes.

Tools and equipment

Hand tools
Common hand tools found in most school textiles areas include: fabric
scissors; sewing needles and sewing machine needles; pins, safety pins
and pin cushions; all-purpose thread; bobbins; seam rippers; measuring
tapes. Other useful equipment includes tracing wheels, cutting wheels and
marking-out pens or chalks. Fabric scissors should be carefully looked after

FT
and used only to cut fabrics.

Hand tools are generally cheap and easy to buy and have immediate results,
if used with skill. As with all tools, they should be used with care.

Machinery
A
Using machinery achieves professional results more quickly. However,
machinery may be expensive and users need training to operate it effectively
and safely. Individuals normally use a sewing machine, possibly with an
overlocker. Sophisticated industrial machines include a laser flatbed cutting
R
table and huge jacquard looms.

Digital design and manufacture

D

Specialised software can design patterns or

whole products, which are then downloaded to a
digital machine. This can range from a simple set-
up – like a computer attached to a sublimation
printer with specialist inks and papers for
printing a T-shirt design – to more complex lay
plan software and large-scale cutting machines.

While designs can be quickly and accurately

transferred to textiles in large quantities, the
process can be expensive to buy and maintain,
so the investment needs to be calculated as
worthwhile beforehand.

Shaping
Whether used for clothes or another product,
fabric needs to be shaped to fit its purpose. The
methods depend on the end use. Large-scale digital heat transfer printing

259
6 Fibres and textiles
Adding and reducing fullness

Method Description Details

Pleats and • Pleats are folds of fabric held in place by stitches, then pressed Seam
tucks flat. Used on skirts and trousers: small pleats on shirt front allowance
panels are called pin tucks
• Advantages: creates desired shaping. Disadvantages: costs
more for added fabric, more work, time consuming Fronts of
fabrics facing
each other
Machine
stitching
Gathering • Reducing fabric width by sewing two parallel lines of stitching at the top edge,
knotting one end and pulling the other end gently
• Used for puff sleeves, gathered skirts and ruffles
• Advantages: creates full shape. Disadvantages: costs more for added fabric, more work, time consuming
Darts • Triangular folds or tucks that go to a point

Shirring
FT
• Straight, curved or double ended
• Used for shaping garments around the back, waist and bust
• Advantages: creates a more fitted shape. Disadvantages: more work, time consuming, needs care
• Sewing with thin elastic that gathers the fabric to create a
A
stretchy panel
• Used to create a snugly fitting bodice
• Advantages: creates a closely fitting garment. Disadvantages:
costs more for added fabric and elastic, more work, time
R
consuming

Ease • Written instruction on sewing patterns, e.g. fitting a constructed sleeve into an armhole – by careful
D

pinning, or with basting stitches, the bigger piece is reduced to fit the smaller one
• The negative or positive amount of room in a garment is also called ease: a loosely fitting
garment has positive ease; a stretch-rib polo neck top has negative ease and is smaller unworn
than worn
• Advantages: creates a closely fitting garment. Disadvantages: some may not like the close fit.
Godet • A piece of curved fabric, which is inserted into a garment to add fullness
• Used in skirts and dresses
• Advantages: creates desired shaping, such as flared shape to a skirt. Disadvantages: costs more
for added fabric, more work, time consuming
Under • When a seam is pressed and folded in two it can roll back again, especially if it is a neck facing
stitching • Under stitching prevents this roll and makes a neater, sharper edge
• Advantages: creates a better quality garment that keeps its shape. Facings are kept in place.
Disadvantages: time consuming

Table 6.7.1 Methods of changing fullness

260
 6.7 Specialist techniques used for high-quality textile prototypes

an extra layer of the same fabric where it does not show, or

Exam-style question
a bonded web that comes in various weights with a fusible
Explain one reason why pleats would be used in the glue on one side to make it easy to apply. The weight of the
manufacture of trousers. (2 marks) interfacing is determined by the weight of the fabric. The
wrong weight makes the area too stiff or not stiff enough.
Moulding Adding structure can be time-consuming and extra costs may
Textiles may need to be moulded into a 3D shape to be involved when using boning and specialist machinery.
fit the design. Moulding can achieve this without the
need for seams. For example, wool felt was traditionally Link it up
moulded into bowler and top hats by being placed over For information on boning, look at page 253.
a mould and treated with heat and steam. The use of
heat and steam means that health and safety must be Fabricating, constructing and assembling
considered. Cotton sleeves may also retain their shape
Various techniques and considerations are needed to
when pressed with heat and steam.
assemble the parts into a finished product. The methods
Most other textiles need to be stiffened by dipping in a influence important aspects, such as drape, which is the
dilute solution of PVA adhesive. The wet fabric is draped fabric’s ability to form waves as it is hung. The fabric’s stiffness,

FT
over a mould and should retain the shape when dry. weight and rigidity will affect its ability to form shapes well.

Adding structure Seams

Interfacing adds an extra rigid layer to parts of garments Joining two pieces of fabric creates a seam. This is a weak
that need to retain their structure, for example the collar, point and sometimes a feature, so the most suitable type
cuffs, pockets and shoulder seams of shirts. This may be of seam should be chosen.
A
Method Description Details

Plain or flat • The most common seam

R
• When completed, it is pressed open and raw
edges should be neatened to prevent fraying
• Advantages: straightforward to achieve.
Disadvantages: the raw edges of the fabric will
D

need overlocking or zig zag stitch applying to

prevent fraying

Felled • An overlapping seam sewn flat to be strong,

durable and neat, most often seen on jeans
• Time consuming to achieve Step 1 Step 2
Step 1 Step 2
• Advantages: very strong seam. Disadvantages: Stitch here
takes more time to achieve Stitch here

Step 3
Step 3

French seam • Used on delicate fabrics such as chiffon

• The raw edges are contained inside a double-
stitched seam
• Advantages: very neat finish; raw edges
are enclosed so don’t need finishing.
Disadvantages: takes a little longer Step 1: Sew wrong Step 2: Turn so right
sides together and sides are facing and
trim seam allowance. stitch close to the seam.

Table 6.7.2 Types of seam Cont...

261
6 Fibres and textiles

Method Description Details

Double • Stitching a plain seam as normal and then

stitching stitching again 5 mm away from the stitch line
within the seam allowance
• Prevents seams on lightweight or stretchy
fabrics from unravelling
• Advantages: stronger than a plain seam.
Disadvantages: takes twice as long as a plain
seam; edges still need finishing

Topstitching • Stitching a plain hem, pressing it open,

reversing it and stitching a line of stitches
close to the crease

FT
• A decorative effect that also keeps the seam flat
• Used for patch pockets
• Advantages: looks attractive. Disadvantages:
needs great precision to look professional
A
Table 6.7.2 Types of seam

• Blind hemming neatens a hem without visible stitches,

R
Exam-style question
by hand or using a sewing machine and a special
Use notes and/or sketches to show the process of presser foot. The hem is doubled over and pressed. Tiny
making a French seam. (4 marks) stitches catch the hem material to the main body.
D

• Invisible (slip or ladder) stitching is useful for seam

Finishing raw edges repairs and involves the needle entering the folded
Although it takes time, finishing raw edges makes the edge directly opposite the last stitch.
garment last longer as it prevents fraying and improves
the neatness of the finished product. Fusing
Normally, needle puncture holes would allow water
• Zig zag stitching along the raw edge strengthens it,
through seams. In waterproof garments and outdoor
but adds bulk. A sewing-machine overlocking foot can
textile products such as tents, seam tape covers the seams
make it neater.
and heat-fusing is used to bond the inside of the product
• Bound seams use bias binding, which encases raw to form a waterproof sealed seam. Three-layer seam-
edges on both sides. sealing tapes are applied by a hot-air machine to sewn
• Rolled hems are narrow hems on delicate fabrics seams of a garment to prevent water leaving through the
such as chiffon. A row of straight stitching is sewn seam. Seam tape is expensive so another method is sealing
6 mm from the raw edge and pressed under with an the seams with a brush-on plastic adhesive.
iron. The fabric is turned over, and a row 6 mm from
the edge is sewn again close to the pressed edge. Component linkage
• Turned under and sewn: the raw edges are turned Two pieces, or ends, of material often need to be joined
under and a row of straight stitches is made close to temporarily, for example while a garment is worn or a
the fold. bag is closed. A huge number of options are available.

262
 6.7 Specialist techniques used for high-quality textile prototypes

Type of Description Advantages Disadvantages

component
Button A decorative fastening to join two • Readily available in different • If insecurely fastened can be lost from the
pieces of material sizes and colours garment
• Tricky for those with arthritis or young
children to operate
Toggle A long wooden button which fits • Easy to apply • Sometimes made from wood
through a loop on the other side, • Readily available • Not very water resistant
traditionally used in duffle coats
Zip Joins two pieces of fabric using • Quick way of undoing • Quite tricky to fit
interlocking teeth garments • Requires a specialist foot on the machine
Hook • A strip of tiny hooks on one side of • Easy to apply • Makes a loud noise when undoing it
and loop the fabric attach to loops on the • Readily available
fastener other side • Good for children’s shoes
• Suitable for children as it is safe and and bags as easy to operate
easy to open and close
Press studs/ • Two-part interlocking pieces: one • Readily available • Hard for those without fine motor skills to
poppers with a dome, one with a recess so • Easy to sew on locate the two parts of the popper
that they clip together
• Made of plastic or metal

Magnetic
clasps

Buckle
clothing

handbags
FT
• Used on duvets and children’s

Two magnetic parts, often used on

Used to adjust belts or straps to the

right length
• Quick method of closure
• Easy to operate

• Secure fastening
•
•
•
•
Not readily available
Would need specialist tools to affix
Not very secure
Cost
A
• Usually plastic or metal • Belt buckles are riveted onto leather
requiring specialist tools
Frog buttons A button made from a knotted cord • Look very attractive • Not readily available
which is pushed through a loop • Need to find right colour for garment or
make your own
R
Safety Plastic two-part clips used on • Secure fitting • Small parts sometimes break off
buckles/clips rucksacks
Hook and • A hook links to an eye on the • Cheap • Can be difficult to sew on
eye opposite side of the fabric • Readily available • Can bend in use
D

• Used at the top of dress/skirt zips • Easy to apply

Rouleau Decorative button and loop closure • Can look very attractive in • Very difficult to make consistently the same
loops often seen on wedding dresses vertical rows
Rivets Copper two-part components used to • Attractive look • Need strength and skills to apply to heavy
reinforce pockets on jeans or to attach fabrics
other components, such as buckles,
to bags
Upholstery Used to neaten edges of upholstery • Look attractive on the edge • Need to be applied carefully to look
tacks and provide a decorative finish of the upholstered item professional,
• Could be considered an ‘old-fashioned’ style
Staples Used to attach upholstery fabric to • Very easy to use • Don’t look attractive if the piece is on show
backing boards • Readily available (usually used on hidden undersides of seat
pads)

D-rings Used to loop handles to bags, • Widely available • Not very secure
sometimes made of brass • Easy to put on • The tape holding them on can wear and break

Cord toggle • A plastic clip with an internal spring • Easy to adjust the cords to • Need to find the right toggle to fit the cord
that keeps cords in place. Used on make a garment fit and work well
fleeces and waterproof coats
Table 6.7.3 Types of linking components and fasteners

263
6 Fibres and textiles
Overlocking • Three-thread stitches are used on narrow rolled
Overlock stitches sew over the edge of one or more hems, neatening edges and creating seams on knitted
pieces of material to form a strong barrier against or woven fabrics.
fraying. Overlocking machines or attachments generally • Four-thread stitches are the strongest, so are used for
use two-, three- or four-thread arrangements. potentially high-stress areas that need to stay flexible,
such as the seat of workwear trousers.
• Two-thread stitches are used for edging and
seaming, neatening seam edges, stitching elastic and Pressing
lace to underwear, and hemming. Pressing is ironing the seams open as you create the
Stitching Neoprene
product and then setting the position using heat or steam.
It helps to press all seams open before joining subsequent
sections. Additional shaping, such as darts, should be
pressed to one side before assembling other parts. When
the garment is complete, it is pressed again to set the
shape and remove creases, ready to be worn or sold.

Seam
Link it up

Stitching
FT Neoprene
For information on moulding, look at page 224.

Wastage and addition

Fabric may need to be reduced (such as by a dart,
see page 260) or added to (such as with a godet, see
A
Seam
Figure 6.7.1 Overlocking page 260).
R
Summary
Key points to remember:
• Textiles are cut, shaped and produced in several ways.
D

• Additional techniques help to produce several identical products or components quickly.

• Hand tools, machinery and digital design aid production.
• Shaping and assembling techniques include changing fullness, moulding, adding structure, seaming, fusing
and using linking components.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Describe the purpose of an overlocker.
Challenge
C1 Investigate fusing techniques for waterproofing external fabrics.
C2 Justify the use of batch production for school uniforms.

264
 6.8 Surface treatments and finishes for functional and aesthetic purposes

6.8 Surface treatments/finishes

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the types of finishing techniques and surface treatments.

Before or after the product is assembled, it may need to be decorated or finished

for functional and aesthetic purposes. Here are some common techniques.

Decorations
Surface Application Advantages Disadvantages
treatment
Fabric • Used in handmade one-off pieces • Only brushes, paints and • Requires skill
painting • Created using fabric paints directly on stencils required • Errors are hard to rectify
fabric • Low cost • Fabric becomes stiffer

FT
• Applied with a paintbrush, with a • Interesting effects, e.g.
stencil, by spraying, sponging or using salt on silk paintings
marbling makes mottled light and
• Fixed by ironing dark textural areas
Batik Used for decorative pieces: Interesting effects created • Requires specialist
1 Hot wax is drawn onto fabric and simply equipment, e.g.
A
allowed to cool tjantings (tool used to
apply wax to fabric),
2 Cloth is cold-dyed
beeswax pellets and a
3 The parts covered in wax resist the wax melting pot
dye and remain the original colour
R
• Hot wax is a health and
4 After the final dyeing the wax is safety risk
removed by ironing or boiling
Laminating • Creates a fabric of two or more layers Better properties than single Can come apart, darts are
D

to combine their properties fabric stiff and creases are not

• Used in luggage and accessories, sharp
waterproof breathable textiles and for
creating textured looks such as high-
shine or wet-look PVC
Couching A decorative embroidery technique Easy to do Time consuming
involving laying threads onto fabric and
securing them with small stitches across
the threads
Embroidery • Used for decorating fabric using a Only requires embroidery • Requires knowledge and
needle and thread or machine stitches threads, a hoop and skill to achieve high-
• Decorative stitches include French embroidery needles quality results
knots and satin stitch • Time consuming if done
by hand
Appliqué Creates textures and interesting effects Able to create textures and • Time consuming, so
by sewing smaller pieces of fabric onto effects costly
larger pieces to create a pattern or motif • Requires skill

Table 6.8.1 Types of decorative technique Cont...

265
6 Fibres and textiles
Surface Application Advantages Disadvantages
treatment
Block Dye is applied to the carved surface of Easy to do • Time consuming, so
printing a wooden block and then pressed onto costly in an industrial
fabric repeatedly to make a pattern setting
• Requires skill to
create a regular
pattern
Screen The most common method of printing onto • Can make multiple prints • Needs a separate
printing fabric: with the same screen screen for each colour
• The colour is bonded • Multi-coloured
1 Fine mesh is stretched over a wooden
with the fibre and resists patterns are costly
frame and a stencil is made from
washing and friction
paper or chemicals using a
photographic method
2 The dye is moved over the mesh with
a squeegee and forced through it onto

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the fabric to produce a pattern
Digital • Inkjet prints onto fabric, onto a product • Short run reduces Not cost effective for
printing or onto large rolls of fabric wastage long runs
• Often used for customised banners, • Immediate
signs, retail graphics and silk scarves • No restriction on number
of colours
A
• Low set-up costs
Sublimation • Printing a pattern onto special paper, • Fairly quick • Expensive equipment
which transfers it to polyester using • Cheap once set up as only • Can only be used with
R
heated rollers or plates and heat-sensitive printed paper needs to polyester
inks be changed to change • Limited to size of
• Suitable for detailed, intricate designs pattern printer and press
D

Resist • Creates richly decorated fabrics by making Unique patterns and rich • Labour intensive, slow
dyeing areas of cloth that will not dye by either colours • Resist is difficult to
painting on a paste or folding, twisting remove
or bunching and binding the fabric, then
dipping it in indigo dye (shibori)
• Batik (see above) is an example of
resist dyeing
Patchwork • A traditional technique for making A good way of recycling Time consuming
quilts and furnishings, involving sewing fabric or using offcuts
together small pieces of fabric to make a
larger design
• Formed of simple squares or more
complex patterns

Quilting Sewing together two or more layers of • Creates a soft, strong • Labour intensive
fabric with padding between them to make fabric • Time consuming to
a thicker quilt or garment • Attractive designs correct errors
possible • Requires a lot of fabric
Table 6.8.1 Types of decorative technique

266
 6.8 Surface treatments and finishes for functional and aesthetic purposes

Blocking technique of painting Batik technique of painting

Chemical treatments
The advantage of using chemical treatments is that they improve properties of fabrics, but this adds to the cost of

FT
the final product. The disadvantages are listed in table 6.8.2.

Treatment Description Advantages Disadvantages

Bleaching Chemicals remove natural colour from The lighter shade The fabric can be weakened;
cotton and linen. may make printing bleaching uses large amounts of
The fabric can be weaker. clearer. chemicals, water and energy.
A
Easy care Resin is applied to cotton and viscose to Eventually washes out; hard to
reduce creasing and shrinkage, giving handle; loss of tensile strength.
them some properties of synthetic fibres.
R
Mercerising Cotton fabric is soaked in sodium Gives the fabric Adds cost to the fabric.
hydroxide to straighten the fibres strength and lustre.
Carbonising Acid removes grease and impurities from This help it to hold Uses sulphuric acid which needs
D

wool. dye. careful storage and could harm the

environment; can break the fibres.
Fire proofing Flame resistant chemicals are applied to Stiffens fabric; needs careful
yarn or fabric. washing.
Stain Silicon or resin is sprayed onto the fabric’s Uses fluorocarbons.
resistance surface to repel stains.
Shrink Wool-fibre scales are removed using chlorine Shrinking may still occur in
resistance or coated in resin to prevent felting. washing.
Water- Silicon is sprayed onto the fabric surface or Wears off.
repellence the finished product to reduce absorbency.
Anti-static Permanent or semi-durable chemicals are This reduces their Eventually washes out.
applied to synthetic fabrics to make the conductivity and
surface of the material slightly conductive increases their
by upping the moisture content. They can moisture content to
also reduce frictional forces by providing improve their finish
lubrication. This also improves the finish and feel.
and feel.
Table 6.8.2 Types of chemical surface treatments and finishes

267
6 Fibres and textiles
Physical treatments

Treatment Description Advantage Disadvantages

Calendering Heavy rollers press down on the fabric to • Improved sheen Cost of equipment
create a polished surface. • Feels smoother and
softer

Raising The fabric is passed between hooked Increases thermal insulation Cost of equipment
rollers to bring end fibres to the surface
and create a raised, fuzzy surface
Heat-setting Heat and pressure make the surface of the • Better handle Cost of labour and
fabric smooth • Smoother surface power
Brushing • The fabric is passed between wire rollers • Feels softer Cost of equipment
which pull the fibres and raise them • Provides a raised surface
• It may also be briskly brushed by hand

FT
Desizing Size, a chemical agent applied to Improves the fabric’s Cost of labour and
strengthen warp yarns during weaving, is absorbency and ability to equipment
removed take dye
Singeing Loose yarn ends are burnt off Creates a smooth surface Health and safety risks
that is printed on clearly of heat and flames
Emerising The fabric is passed between rough, emery- • Feels softer Cost of equipment
A
covered rollers to create a suede-look finish • No animal products used
• Increased water, crease
and stain resistance
R
Milling, • Traditional method of cleansing and Does not need expensive • Does not work for all
fulling thickening woollen cloth equipment wools
(walking) • First it is pounded and then milled (felted) • Labour intensive
D

Table 6.8.3 Types of physical surface treatments and finishes

Biological techniques
These use enzymes (catalysts made by living cells) to get the desired finish, but the cost
of purchasing the enzymes and equipment can be high.

Treatment Description
Biostoning This creates a stonewashed finish on denim without pumice stones, which damage hems and
waistbands. Instead, denim is washed with enzymes, which are milder than stones and chemical
agents, and achieves an even finish. An advantage of biostoning is that it uses less harsh
chemicals, does not damage the products, and gives a more even finish. However, there is a cost
to purchase the enzymes and equipment.
Biopolishing This one-time enzyme treatment decreases the pilling (bobbling) tendency of cotton and knitted
fabrics. It removes fibres above the surface so it feels smoother and softer, and looks better for
longer. An advantage of biopolishing is the improved wearing properties and the fabric looks
better for longer However, again, there is a cost to purchase the enzymes and equipment.
Table 6.8.4 Types of biological treatments

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 6.8 Surface treatments and finishes for functional and aesthetic purposes

Smart techniques
In this context, smart materials react to a stimulus like heat or light. Many
are based on microencapsulation. Microcapsules are embedded in the
fabric and are like tiny bubbles filled with solids, such as anti-bacterial
compounds or mosquito repellents. These containers release their contents
under controlled conditions to create otherwise impossible properties in a
fabric. The effects are reversible, which is useful, but the cost of dyes and the
microencapsulation process is high.

Treatment Description

Thermochromic Based on mixtures of leuco dyes that change between

dyes colourless and coloured depending on temperature

Photochromic Change colour in response to the UV level in light:

microcapsules are usually added to textiles by screen

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printing

Solvation Change colour in response to moisture, for example in

chromism nappies

Electrochromic Change colour in response to an applied electrical

current
A
Table 6.8.5 Types of smart material treatments and finishes

Summary
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Key points to remember:

• Surface treatments and finishes are applied to textiles for decorative purposes or to change their properties.
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• These treatments may be physical, chemical, biological or smart.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Name a way to add colour to plain fabric.
S2 Explain why embroidery might affect the cost of producing a garment.
Challenge
C1 Describe and compare the different ways of adding a chemical finish to fabrics.
C2 Investigate different smart material treatments and design two products that could use them.

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Preparing for your exam 6

Exam strategy
What to expect in the exam
The examination is designed to test your knowledge and understanding of
textiles. Throughout the course you will need to practise exam-style questions
in all areas. Preparing carefully for your exams is important to enable you to
get as many marks as you can.

Section B: Material category – Textiles

This section is worth 60 marks and contains a mixture of different question
styles, including open-response, graphical, calculation and extended-open-
response questions. Five marks are allocated to calculation questions in
Section B.

For textiles, you should understand design contexts. You should also know
about natural, synthetic, woven and non-woven, knitted, blended and mixed-

FT
fibre textiles in relation to:

• the sources, origins, physical and working properties of each one, and their
social and ecological footprints
• the way in which their selection is influenced
• the impact of forces and stresses and how each one can be reinforced and
A
stiffened
• typical stock forms, types and sizes used in order to calculate and determine
the required quantity
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• alternative processes that can be used to manufacture typical products to
different scales of production
• specialist techniques, tools, equipment and processes that can be used to
shape, fabricate, construct and assemble a high-quality prototype
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• appropriate surface treatments and finishes that can be applied to each one
for functional and aesthetic purposes.

Revision tips
• Ensure you start revising in plenty of time. You will find it easier to
remember facts you have revised several times over a few weeks than those
you have tried to memorise at the last minute.
• Make clear and well-ordered notes about all the sections.
• Work through all sample assessment materials, past papers and textbook
questions available from Pearson.
• Identify the areas where you are likely to get mathematical questions and
practise arithmetic and numerical computation, handling data, graphs,
geometry and trigonometry.
• Discuss the course with your teacher and peers as it will help your
understanding.
• Use online or other resources to extend your understanding of the design
and technology context.
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Preparing for your exam 6

Sample answers with comments

The following questions give some examples of how to interpret the different command words.

Question 1: ‘Calculation’ question Calculate how much fabric is wasted when the piece
Figure PE6.1 shows the dimensions for a pattern for is cut from a square of fabric measuring 160 mm by
a circular bag made of denim. 160 mm. (5 marks)
Formula for the area of a circle, or radius r :
Area of a circle = π × r²
π = 3.14

FT Ø140 mm
A
R
Figure PE6.1
D

Exam tip
Student answer You will need to use your maths skills in the exam.
a) Area of a circle = π × r² The formula you need may be given in the question but
d = 140 mm π = 3.14 it helps to be familiar with formulae that are likely to
come up
Area = 3.14 × 70 mm × 70 mm
= 3.14 × 4900 mm²
= 15,386 mm² Verdict
Area of fabric = length × width Although the student has the correct answer they have
not explained that they have divided the diameter by
= 160 mm × 160 mm
2 to get the radius. Read questions carefully as they
= 25,600 mm² may give further instructions as to the units the answer
would need to be expressed in, for example mm², cm² or
Area of fabric wasted = 25,600 mm² – 15,386 mm² m², and to how many decimal places.
= 10,214 mm²

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Preparing for your exam 6

Question 2: ‘Explain’ question Exam tip

Explain two reasons why farming and material ‘Explain’ answers need to be fairly detailed, exploring
production may impact on communities and aspects of the situation by reasoning or argument.
wildlife. (4 marks)

Student answer Verdict

1. Local opportunities for employment but some The student has given two reasonable answers that explore
workers possibly on very low pay. aspects of the concept. Care needs to be taken to consider
both the positive and negative effects of farming and material
2. Possible pollution and soil erosion caused by production on local communities. The student could expand
processing and growing fibres.
on the answers given, adding in examples.

Question 3: ‘Evaluate’ question

Student answer

FT The table shows that the T-shirt is made from cotton

which has been grown and processed in the USA. If
the processing plant and the growers are near each
other, the environmental impact of transporting the
crop from the farm to the processor could be quite
small. However, cotton growing and processing uses a
A
great deal of water: 20,000 litres of water are needed
to produce 1 kg of cotton. If the crop is not grown
organically then pesticides are likely to be used, which
R
The product above is a cotton T-shirt with a could leak into water courses causing pollution. Cotton
screen-printed design. The table below gives growing needs lots of water and has been linked to
information about the T-shirt. Evaluate the the drying of river basins in the Rio Grande area
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T-shirt with reference to its ecological impact. of the USA. This has an impact on the surrounding
(9 marks) ecosystems. Cotton is a recyclable material or the
T-shirt could be reused when the user has finished
Material Cotton wearing it. The T-shirt has been screen printed with
Source of material USA inks that are derived from crude oil. These could be
Manufactured Los Angeles, USA replaced with vegetable-based inks, which would make
Decoration Screen printed using the environmental impact of the T-shirt less harmful.
plastisol inks (derived Overall I think that the T-shirt has quite a large
from crude oil) environmental impact, which could be reduced if the
crop is grown with careful management to prevent
Verdict damage to the environment. Many cotton clothing
items are discarded when they go out of fashion,
This is a good answer. The student has made ending up in landfill.
several well-balanced evaluations drawing on the
impacts of growing, transporting and processing Exam tip
the material to make the T-shirt. They have also
‘Evaluate’ answers need to look at the strengths and
considered what might happen to the T-shirt once
weaknesses of a proposition and then draw a conclusion.
the user has finished wearing it.

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Preparing for your exam 6
Question 4: ‘Explain’ question
The cushions below are made of linen and have a Student answer
flame-retardant finish applied to the surface. 1. Reinforce the seam with a second line of
stitching in the seam allowance.
2. It is strong and it looks smart.

Verdict
In part 1, the student has correctly identified a suitable
method.
In part 2, the student does not give the full justification
required. They could have written the answer in the
Linen cushions
following way.
1. Give one method of increasing the strength of the 2a) Linen is a hardwearing fibre meaning that it

FT
cushion. (1 mark) will withstand abrasions and washing. This will be a
2. Explain two reasons why linen is an appropriate useful property for cushions as they are often rubbed
material for a cushion. (4 marks) against other fabrics. They can be abraded by the
chair covering or the user’s clothing, resulting in
Exam tip uneven wear on each side.
This is a combination of a ‘Give’ question and an 2b) Linen is a strong, stiff and smooth fibre, which
A
‘Explain’ question. means that the cushion will keep its shape even after
‘Explain’ questions require you to give reasons why being deformed in use and will not pick up dirt due
you have chosen your answers. to its smooth surface.
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Question 5: ‘Give’/’name’ (short answer)

question
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The materials that products are made from are chosen

because of their characteristics. The picture opposite
shows a one-piece swimming costume.
The swimwear is made from 62 per cent polyamide and
38 per cent elastane. Give one reason why elastane is
used in the manufacture of swimwear. (1 mark)

Student answer
1. Elastane is a suitable material as it keeps it its Exam tip
shape even when wet.
This type of question requires specific information,
but it does not need to be clarified further.
Verdict
The student has answered the question as required.

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Preparing for your exam 6
Question 6: ‘Give’ (short answer)
question
Figure PE6.2 is a pie chart showing the amounts Give one reason why cotton cultivation uses the most
of water used during the various production water. (2 marks)
stages of making a pair of jeans.
Exam tip
Water consumption
This type of question requires
you to find the answer from key
Fibre cultivation/yarn production information displayed in a certain
88%
format.
Fabric production
8%
Cut, sew, finishing Student answer
1%
Cotton plants need water to grow.
Sundries and packaging
This is done by irrigating the land.

FT
3%

Verdict
A
Figure PE6.2 Graph to show the amounts of water used The student has answered this
during the various production stages of making a pair of question well.

Question 7: ‘Use notes and/or sketches to

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show’ question
Figure PE6.3 shows a solution for hanging storage
in a student bedroom. It is made from cotton
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and folds flat when not in use.

The design needs to be improved to:
• provide more pockets to store items
• be part of a new children’s nursery range
• have some sections that can be fastened shut.
Use notes and/or sketches to show how the
design could be modified to include these points.
(6 marks)

Exam tip
It is important to annotate (label) sketches as
the detail is not always clear in a sketch and the
marks awarded can also come from written or
drawn information. Figure PE6.3

274
Preparing for your exam 6

Student answer

My design has now been

made bright and colourful
for a nursery with many Verdict
more pockets added
This is a good answer. The
to all sides
annotation states that the design
has now been made bright and
colourful for a nursery with many
more pockets added to all sides.
One pocket has Some of the pockets have flaps
a zip fastening with press studs that can be closed,

FT Some pockets have

flaps with press studs
and one has a zip fastening.
A
that can be closed
R
Pearson Education Ltd accepts no responsibility whatsoever for the accuracy or method of working in the answers given.
D

275
7 Timbers

FT
A
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D

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 7.1 Design contexts

7.1 Design contexts

Getting started
Timber has a variety of uses in everyday life. Think about where you live and consider the following questions:
• How many objects can you think of that are made of wood?
• How many types of wood can you name?
Trees are an important part of the natural world. Describe some of the ways in which trees are important to
animals, birds and humans.

Timber is wood that has come from tree trunks and been dried and cut into usable
planks or boards.
Timber has been used for thousands of years. There is evidence of Stone Age people
making houses with timber frames. Imagine how long it took to cut up a tree with a
stone axe! Large areas of Britain that are now fields and cities used to be forest. As the
population grew more and more, trees were cut down to build houses and boats and the

FT
land was used for agriculture instead of trees.
Timber is still used today, even though we have developed many new materials. Timber
is a strong, lightweight material and it looks attractive, so it is used for construction,
furniture and many other things. Some traditional hand craft techniques have not
changed much for hundreds of years, but manufacturing processes can prepare timber
and make products at a speed that would have been unimaginable 100 years ago.
A
People used to use whatever timber grew near where they lived. As transport got cheaper
and easier, people were able to use different timbers from all around the world. Oak used
to be used in Britain, because it grew here naturally and it is a good, strong wood to make
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things from. Now most of the oak has gone, the majority of the timber we use is pine, with
a lot of it imported from other countries. Some timbers, such as mahogany, used to be
imported from tropical rainforests in South America, Africa and Indonesia. Nowadays less
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tropical hardwood is imported because of concerns about damage to the rainforests.

7.2 Sources of timber

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• some of the different hardwoods, softwoods and manufactured boards available
• the advantages and disadvantages of some timbers, and the kind of products they are often used for
• some of the physical characteristics of timber
• some of the social issues raised by the use of timber.

Natural timbers – hardwoods

A hardwood comes from a tree with broad leaves and its seed in a fruit. Many
hardwood trees are deciduous, meaning they lose their leaves in winter. Key term
Hardwood trees grow quite slowly, often taking more than 100 years to be big Deciduous: a tree that loses its
enough to use for timber. There used to be a lot of hardwood trees in Britain, leaves in the winter.
but most of our natural forests were cut down a long time ago.

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77 Timbers
Timbers
There are many types of hardwood. Some common ones are shown below.

Oak, mahogany, beech and balsa

Link it up
The advantages and disadvantages of using oak, mahogany, beech and
balsa were covered in the core content section (Section 1) of this book. To
remind yourself, look at page 52.

Jelutong, birch and ash

Type Appearance Advantages Disadvantages Common uses

Jelutong Even, close grain Soft and not very Model making, moulds
is easy to cut and strong, so not good for casting or vacuum
shape for structural uses forming

Birch
FT Regular, even
grain and easy to
work
Low resistance to
rot and insect attack
Veneers: to make
plywood and to surface
cheaper materials that
A
are used for interior
door and furniture
Ash Strong, tough, Low resistance to Handles for tools, sports
R
flexible and rot and insect attack equipment, ladders
finishes well
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Table 7.2.1 Properties of jelutong, birch and ash

Natural timbers – softwoods

A softwood comes from a tree with needle-like leaves and seeds in a cone,
like a Christmas tree. Most softwood trees are evergreen, meaning they
have leaves on all year. Larch is an unusual softwood because it does lose
its leaves in winter. Softwood trees grow quite quickly, and can be used for
timber after about 30 years. This means they can be grown commercially, so
most forests planted for timber are softwoods. That is why softwood timber
is a lot cheaper than hardwood timber.

Link it up
The advantages and disadvantages of using pine and cedar were covered
in the core content section (Section 1) of this book. To remind yourself,
look at page 53.

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 7.2 Sources of timber

Type Appearance Advantages Disadvantages Common uses

Larch • Tough, durable and Costs more than Small boats, yachts,
resistant to water some other exterior cladding
• It can be used outside softwoods on buildings
untreated, and fades
to a silvery grey

Table 7.2.2 Properties of larch

Manufactured timber
Natural timber is a useful material, but because of the size of a tree trunk Link it up
it is only available in fairly narrow planks. Also, the grain lines in timber are
Plywood and MDF were covered
what give it strength and they only go in one direction, so timber is strong
in the core content section
lengthways but not across its width. Manufactured boards use timber to
(Section 1) of this book. To
manufacture a board that has different properties to plain timber. If you
remind yourself, look at page 53.
want a large, thin sheet of wooden material you need a manufactured board.

Type

Chipboard
Description

Wood chips are mixed

FT
with glue and pressed
into flat sheets
Advantages

Uses waste
materials so is
cheap to produce
Disadvantages

• Not much structural strength,

especially in damp conditions
• Surface is very rough, so
Common uses

Desktops, kitchen
worktops, cheap
flatpack furniture
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usually plastic coated
Table 7.2.3 Properties of chipboard
Sources and origins of
timber
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Different types of tree grow naturally
in different parts of the world, due
to different climates. In the past, this
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influenced which timbers were used

in manufacturing, but globalisation
means timber and goods are moved
around the world. Most softwoods
naturally grow in colder regions.
Some hardwoods grow in temperate
climates, such as Europe, while
others grow in tropical rainforests.

Cold climates (such as Alpine) with softwood forests, such as pine, cedar and larch.
Temperate climates (such as European) with a mix of softwoods and temperate hardwoods, such as oak, beech, ash and birch.
Exam tip
Tropical climates (such as Amazonian) with rainforests of tropical hardwoods, such as mahogany and jelutong. Sometimes there is more than
one material you could choose.
Figure 7.2.1 Where different types of timber can be found in the world
Make sure you justify why you
have chosen it by mentioning
Exam-style question the properties of each material
Give one type of timber you would use to make a table top for a children’s and explaining why that makes
nursery. (1 mark) it suitable.

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77 Timbers
Timbers
The physical characteristics of timber
Because of the way trees grow, all timbers have a similar set of physical
characteristics.

Knots
A knot in timber appears where a branch grew out of the tree: the grain
swirls around and the wood can be harder, so a knot can make that part of
the timber harder to cut with saws and chisels. Knots also fall out, leaving a
hole, so it is good to use timber that is free from them. However, knots can
also make timber visually appealing, but if timber is to be painted, knots
should be treated with knotting (shellac dissolved in methylated spirits) to
prevent resin in the knot from staining the painted surface.

Colour
Different woods have different colours, from the pale colours of pine to the
rich, dark reddish browns of mahogany. But trees are living organisms and
their colours will vary from tree to tree and within the tree itself. This means

FT
that when buying timber it’s important to remember that colour may vary
Knots in timber from plank to plank.

Grain structure and density

Timbers are split into hardwoods and softwoods. Hardwoods have two
types of long vessels, known as fibres and pores, which run the length of
Key terms the tree. Softwoods have one main cell called tracheids. Both have annual
A
Grain: fibres run the length of rings, produced as growth is added under the bark each year. These give
a tree trunk, which give it its timber its grain. Slow growth and narrow annual rings is sometimes called
strength and make the distinctive close grained. Birch and holly do not have clear growth rings but they can
R
patterns you see on timber. be seen by staining. Parana pine has almost no discernible growth rings and
Density: weight in grams per its small cells give it a very fine texture, whereas pitch pine and western red
cedar have clear growth rings. In some hardwoods such as utile or iroko, the
cubic centimetre or kilograms
vessels spiral through the tree, giving an attractive interlocking grain, which
per cubic metre. Density is the
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is difficult to work with as it tears whichever way you plane it.

compactness of a substance or
material. Wood is often said to Open grain refers to hardwoods where the vessels are quite large and show
have a high strength to weight at the surface (also called coarse grained). Birch and holly are close grained
ratio because of its low density timbers with small vessels similar in size, hence fine grained. All hardwoods
and good structural strength. are somewhere between open and close grain. For example, red oak is very
open, birch is close.
When applying finishes to grain, softwoods generally require sanding first.
With most hardwoods, grain filler is needed before painting or polishing,
otherwise the vessels will show through. Even very dense hardwoods like
rosewood need grain filler.
Density varies from timber to timber; balsa wood has a density of 60 kg per
cubic metre, while oak has a density of 750 kg.

Working properties
When talking about materials, you must use the correct meaning of the
words that describe the properties of materials. It is helpful to compare
properties of materials when describing them. For example, rubber is more
elastic than metal.
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 7.2 Sources of timber

Elasticity Recycling and disposal

The elasticity of a material is its ability to stretch and Timber is a natural material that will biodegrade and rot
return to its original length or shape. Rubber is an away in time. Composite materials, such as chipboard
elastic material. Wood is not very elastic, although covered with plastic, are much harder to dispose of. Timber
some woods are a little more elastic than others. Yew is cannot be recycled by melting it down and re-moulding
excellent for making bows (archery). it like plastics and metals can. Sometimes timber can
be reused for something else, e.g. by cleaning it up and
Tensile strength sawing it into smaller pieces. Timber can be disposed
The tensile strength of a material is the amount of force of by burning to create heat, which can be useful if it is
it can withstand when being pulled. The tensile strength well managed, and biomass boilers generate electricity
of most timbers is three to four times the compressive from burning wood. ‘Clean’ timber – meaning a supply of
strength. Ash and oak have high tensile strength, more timber that is not mixed with manufactured boards and
than double that of western red cedar. other rubbish – is sometimes turned into boards such as
chipboard or MDF. Timber can be disposed of by burning
Compressive strength to create heat, which is useful if it is well managed.
The compressive strength of a material is the amount

FT
of force it can withstand from a crushing force. The Ecological footprint
denser the wood, the more likely it is to have good At its simplest, it is the amount of the environment
compressive strength. Hickory has approximately double required to produce the goods and services necessary
the compressive strength of western red cedar. to support a particular lifestyle. It includes the whole
product life cycle, from cutting the trees down and
Social footprint seasoning the timber, to manufacturing, use of the
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product and disposal after use.
Trend forecasting
Manufacturers and retailers try to forecast the trends there Sustainability
will be in a year or two, so they can invest in designing and
Sustainability of timber is the idea that there are
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making products people will want in the future.
always trees available to be used. Hardwood trees take
One current trend is the increase in the use of softwoods a long time to grow, so are rarely replanted once cut
from sustainable sources. Tropical hardwoods are being down. Softwood trees grow more quickly and are often
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used much less, partly because of the damage their loss planted in large areas of forestry. Some forests now are
causes to rainforest areas and the impact that has on the sustainably managed, which means that trees are being
people and wildlife that rely on those rainforests. replanted as soon as others are cut down, so that there is
always an area of the forest that is mature enough to be
Another current trend is towards greater use of cut down.
manufactured timbers in construction, with builders
using manufactured I shaped beams for joists instead of
the traditional solid timber.

Impact of logging on communities

Sometimes logging (cutting trees for timber), an industry,
brings jobs and money to an area. However, in many
poorer regions, such as the Amazon rainforest, logging is
badly managed and large companies log in areas where
indigenous people live. Logging activity often pushes
them out of their ancestral homes, leaving them with The Forest Stewardship Council lets timber producers use its
nowhere to go, and destroys their traditional way of life logo on their timber if that timber comes from forests that
are shown to be sustainably managed. Schemes like this help
and the wildlife they depend on for food.
consumers make informed choices

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7 Timbers
Deforestation Processing
Deforestation is a global problem, with trees being When a tree is cut down it needs to be processed to
cut down faster than they grow. Most of Europe was make usable timber. A tree trunk will be sawn into
deforested hundreds of years ago and deforestation planks and then dried out in a process called seasoning
is now a major problem for areas of the developing (natural or kiln-drying). These processes, particularly
world, such as South America and West Africa. kiln-drying, use energy which adds to the ecological
Deforestation can cause a lot of accompanying footprint of the timber. Waste material such as leaves
environmental issues such as soil erosion. For and small branches are no use, so are often burnt or
example, in Nepal deforestation has caused problems left to rot.
with landslides. Worldwide about 46,000–58,000
square miles of forest are lost each year. That is an Transportation
area the size of England every year, or equivalent to 48 When a tree is cut down in a forest, it must be taken
football fields every minute. out of the forest to go for processing, either on lorries
Because trees absorb carbon dioxide from the air, or sometimes by being floated down a suitable river.
scientists think that having fewer trees will make the Most of the timber used in Britain has been imported.
greenhouse effect worse, which will warm the Earth As most transport burns fossil fuels this increases the
carbon footprint of the timber.

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and affect the climate and sea levels for the whole
world.
Wastage
Habitat destruction and loss The trunk of a tree will be used for planks, but other
When an area of forest is destroyed, the animals that live parts of the tree such as small branches and leaves
there lose their habitat, and they usually have nowhere that are not useful will be left to rot or burnt if the l
else to go. Some well-known animals including tigers, and is being cleared for farming. Larger branches and
A
gorillas, orangutans and elephants are in danger due to the waste from the trunk after cutting into useful
loss of habitat, and there are hundreds more species of planks may be turned into chipboard or MDF. As
animals, birds and insects that are at risk of extinction if timber has become scarcer it has become more
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deforestation continues. expensive. It is also becoming increasingly important
to reduce wastage. It is important to note that many
of these timbers and manufactured timbers (such as
MDF) appear on the toxic wood list. When prolonged
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turning and routing take place, the exposure to toxicity

can be high and can cause health problems such as
skin, nose and eye irritation, and respiratory issues
such as asthma. The Health and Safety Executive
produces Woodworking Information Sheet Number
30, which covers how to reduce negative effects. This
includes ensuring that work areas are well ventilated
and that protective equipment, such as gloves and
masks, are used.
Pollution
Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and release oxygen, so living trees are very good for
the environment. When wood is burnt for firewood,
or to clear land, it releases carbon dioxide into the
air, which increases the greenhouse effect. The other
This photo shows a large area of forest cut down: the
pollution from timber comes from the transportation
land is likely to be used to grow crops or keep cattle,
of it around the world.
not replanted with trees

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 7.3 Selection of timber

Summary
Key points to remember:
• There are many different types of timber and manufactured boards. Learn some of their properties and the
things they are good for.
• Timber is a natural material with a grain structure that affects its strength and how it is used.
• Managing forestry is an important global issue for the sustainability of timber sources and to preserve the
natural environment.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What is the difference between hardwoods and softwoods?
S2 Give three examples of manufactured boards.
S3 In what parts of the world are you most likely to find oak and beech trees?
Challenge

FT
C1 Describe what impact deforestation can have on local communities and habitats.
C2 Explain how large-scale deforestation can affect the atmosphere around the world.
A
7.3 Selection of timber
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Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the aesthetic, cultural and social factors affecting product design
D

• the environmental factors involved in the use of timber

• how cost and availability affect product design
• how to use this information to select the most appropriate materials.

Aesthetic factors Colour and texture

Aesthetics is about how a product looks. Timber can vary in colour from light yellowish brown
to dark browns, even to almost black. Lighter timber,
Form such as pine, is sometimes stained to make it look like a
The form of a product is the way that the overall shape darker wood, keeping the distinctive grain pattern that
and structure looks. Some products are designed to gives natural wood its characteristic look. The texture
be purely functional; some are designed to look good of wood can be quite rough, but it finishes to a smooth
to the consumer. A good product manages to do both. surface that feels quite warm to the touch. Ash is light
Timber’s flowing, sometimes twisting grain patterns brown; western red cedar is dark brown/red; sycamore is
make it particularly attractive. white; beech is pinkish-brown to white.

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77 Timbers
Timbers
Environmental factors
Designers and manufacturers need to consider certain environmental
Link it up factors in order to choose the most suitable material for their product/
For more information on chosen application.
sustainability, look at page 281.
Sustainability
If timber from sustainable sources is used, it does less damage to the
Exam-style question environment. This is better for the long-term health of local ecosystems and
Explain one benefit for the global climate.
environment of using upcycled
material to make a bookend. Genetic engineering
(2 marks) Genetic engineering allows scientists to make changes to the DNA of a
tree. If they can work out how to change the right parts of DNA in the right
way they can create a tree that is different from natural trees. It is possible
to make a tree resistant to particular diseases. Scientists are also trying
to develop trees that grow faster than they do naturally. This would mean

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timber could be grown more quickly.

Campaigners against genetic engineering of plants are concerned that we

do not know enough about the long-term effects of releasing genetically
engineered plants into the environment.
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Seasoning
A freshly cut tree is about 85 per cent water, so it’s very wet. It must be dried
out to below 18 per cent water, and is often dried to 10–12 per cent water for
indoor use. Drying timber is called seasoning.
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Seasoned timber has increased strength, resistance to decay, and stability,
meaning it is less likely to warp (bend).
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Air seasoning stacks the planks outside and after a few years they have
dried out to about 18 per cent water. This is a slow process, and does not
get the timber dry enough to use indoors. Kiln seasoning stacks the planks
in a room and pumps first steam then warm dry air around them. This dries
them to the required level in a few weeks. Kiln-drying is much quicker, it
kills insect eggs in the timber, and it can dry the wood to the 10 per cent
needed for use in our warm, dry, centrally heated houses. A designer will
select timbers that have been correctly and appropriately seasoned for their
intended purpose. This ensures that the final product, for example a wooden
window frame, will not warp in use.

Key terms Upcycling

Seasoning: reducing the water A timber product can sometimes be given a new lease of life by upcycling.
content of timber to 10–18%. A designer may specify used timber to create a particular style, such as
Warping: bending or twisting rustic or shabby chic. A piece of old furniture might be repaired and then
that happens to timber as it painted to make it look more modern and stylish. Old pallets can be turned
dries out. into a product such as a garden table. This continued use of the timber is
better than burning it.

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 7.3 Selection of timber

Availability factors Link it up

Use of stock materials For more information on sizes of
Materials are processed and sold in standard sizes, called stock materials. A timber, see pages 290-291.
sawmill cuts timber into standard sizes. If a designer uses stock sizes it saves
time cutting the wood again to make it smaller, and saves a lot of wasted timber.

Use of specialist materials Apply it

There are some specialist timber products that can be used for specific
Find out what thicknesses of
purposes, for example:
MDF and plywood your school has
• marine plywood is waterproofed for outdoor use in stock.
• expensive hardwood veneers can be laminated on the outside of cheaper timber
• structural house timbers can be treated with flame retardant chemicals to
slow the spread of fire.

Hurricanes, storms and disease

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Trees can be affected by naturally occurring events. Hurricanes and severe
storms can blow trees over. It can take a long time for trees to grow again.
Disease can kill trees. If a new disease arrives in a country it can spread and
kill off a particular type of tree. In Britain a lot of elm trees were killed by a
disease called Dutch elm disease. More recently ash trees have died from a
disease called ash dieback, and about 126 million trees in British woods are at
A
risk from this disease.

Cost factors
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Quality of material
Timber is a natural material, and trees grow with variations and defects.
Sometimes timber can warp (bend), depending on how it is cut and seasoned.
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Some pieces of timber have more knots than others; some develop splits as
they dry. Timber is sorted, graded and sold for different purposes.
Constructional carcassing timber is used for structural applications, such as
joists, roof trusses (the wooden frames that support roofs) and stud walls
(plasterboard walls supported by a wooden frame), where it will not be seen.
It is graded for strength. For softwood C16 is the most common grade. C24 is
also quite common and is a bit stronger.
Joinery timber comprises the better-looking pieces of timber, and is used for
products where the timber will be seen, e.g. window frames and doors. It has
low knot content, straight grain and a smooth finish.

Manufacturing processes necessary

The manufacturing processes required affect the cost of the product. The scale
of production chosen will depend on how many products are to be made.
The scale of production needed will also affect the choice of manufacturing
processes. The designer will use stock sizes and standard components bought
in, so that their company does not need the specialist equipment to prepare
timber or make parts that can be bought ready made.

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77 Timbers
Timbers
Treatments Solid timber was used more in the past as newer,
Timber will burn and rot quite easily and quickly. It cheaper materials were not available. A hundred years
can be treated with chemicals to reduce this. ago children’s toys would often be made of wood, but
now such products are usually made of plastic. Bespoke
Timber can be pressure treated with a preservative. wooden toys are still very popular, for example wooden
The pressure treatment forces the preservative rocking horses, but they are often very expensive. Most
chemicals deep into the wood, and makes it resistant furniture was made of solid wood and people expected
to rotting. Pressure treated timber can be used it to last their lifetime. But the trend now is using
outside for years. A common chemical used is chipboard, or veneered chipboard, and many people
called Tanalith E, and the treated timber is called only expect furniture to last for a few years.
tanalised timber.

Timber can be treated with fire proofing chemicals that

Cultural and ethical factors
make it burn less well. Correctly treated wood can slow Avoiding offence
the spread of flames, allowing more time for people to It is obvious that if people find your product offensive
escape, reducing damage to the wooden structure and they are not going to buy it. It is less obvious that
giving more time to extinguish the blaze. people in different parts of the world, or other cultures

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and religions, might be offended by something that is
Social factors not offensive to the product designer. It is important
to have some understanding of different cultures and
Use for different social groups
religions so that you can avoid accidentally causing
Groups of people of different ages or interests will
offence with a word, symbol or picture that has a
like different things. If a product designer can
different significance to other people.
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create a product that is appealing to a particular
social group the product may sell well to that group
Suitability for intended market
of people. That product may be less appealing to
It is important to understand the intended market for a
other groups, so it can be a difficult balance between
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product, so you can make sure a product is suitable.
making it acceptable to everyone or desirable to only
some people. It is also important that a product designed for a user
of a particular age, or with a particular need, is suitable
Cheaper materials, such as chipboard and MDF,
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for people of that age or need. If you understand the

are more likely to be used in the mass-consumer
needs of your user, you can make sure they can use the
market, such as for flat-pack furniture. Bespoke
product and that it is safe for them.
furniture made by a local carpenter for a wealthier
clientele is more likely to be made of more
expensive hardwood, such as oak.
The consumer society
In Britain, and much of the richer developed world, we
Trends, fashion and popularity live in a consumer society. We are relatively wealthy and
products are quite cheap, so some people can afford to
Trends and fashions come and go. The popularity of a
buy a lot of things they do not really need. There are lots
product depends on lots of factors. It has to work well,
of companies advertising products to try to sell us these
but it also has to look good and appeal to consumers.
things we do not actually need.

There is nothing wrong with people having nice things

Apply it or useful things if they are affordable, but some people
Consider the difference between furniture made from can go so far as to get themselves into debt consuming
oak and that made from chipboard. What are the too much. From an environmental point of view, some
advantages and disadvantages of each as a material? people think that as a society we are using up limited
resources too quickly and damaging our environment.

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 7.3 Selection of timber

The effects of mass production Apply it

Carpenters used to make products one at a time. Now products tend to
What are the advantages and
be mass produced. Mass production and manufactured boards have made
products a lot cheaper than they used to be. This means they are more disadvantages to a society of
affordable and people can buy more things than they used to be able to. increasing the mass production of
products?
Mass production also means factories are more automated than before. Lots
of people used to have jobs in factories making the same thing every day.
Now machines do more of that work, so there are fewer low-skilled jobs.
These have been replaced by jobs for smaller numbers of engineers and
computer programmers to run the machinery that has taken the jobs of the
manual workers.

Built-in product obsolescence

A lot of products only have a short lifespan. Manufacturers deliberately
make some products with parts that fail after a time and cannot be
replaced. This process of making products with a short lifespan – that are

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intended to be thrown away and replaced – is called built-in obsolescence.
Manufacturers like it because it means people buy new products more often.
For example, using lower quality boards such as chipboard will lead to early
product failure. It is not very environmentally friendly because it means a lot
more rubbish is created when people dispose of things rather than mending
them or replacing a part.
A
Summary
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Key points to remember:
• Timber may be selected for its strength, cost or appearance.
• Seasoning is drying timber to make it stronger and more stable.
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• Timber is graded and used for different purposes.

• Timber can be treated to improve its resistance to rot and fire.
• Furniture manufacture increasingly uses cheap laminated chipboard instead of solid timber.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Why is it important to season timber?
S2 How could you make a piece of timber better for use outdoors?
Challenge
C1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using plastic-coated chipboard for furniture instead of
solid oak?
C2 Is the genetic engineering of trees a good thing? Explain your answer.

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7 Timbers
7.4 Strengthening timber
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the types of forces that can act on timber
• some ways to strengthen timber beams and frames.

Forces and stresses Reinforcement and stiffening techniques

There is a range of different forces and stresses that
Frame structures
can act on materials. When designing a product, it is
A square or rectangle is a useful shape to make
important to understand the forces that will be put on
things from, but it is not very strong. The corners can
it so you can choose the best material and make the
twist and the square easily turns into a diamond shape.
product strong enough.
• Compression is a squashing force, like standing on
something.

of a rope.

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• Tension is a pulling force, like tugging on the ends

• Shear forces act in opposite directions, pushing one

side up and the other side down, like the cutting
action of scissors.
Figure 7.4.1 A rectangle can easily collapse under force

A rectangle can be strengthened in several ways:

• by putting a thin panel inside the frame

A
• by adding a diagonal strut or triangle across each of
the corners
Link it up
• by adding a strut corner to corner to make two
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For a visual representation of the types of forces and
triangles.
stresses, see pages 137–142.
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Natural forces within the timber as it grows

When a tree grows, branches grow out of it, the wind
blows at it and it can lean to one side. The weight of
Figure 7.4.2 A diagonal strut used to prevent collapses
the tree leaning over a bit or supporting big branches
stresses the wood. This does not matter to the tree,
but when it is cut down and sawn into planks, the Fabrication, assembly and construction
stress is released from the wood and it can bend and processes
crack. Fabrication processes are the processes used to make
the parts for something. Assembly processes are the
Pre-stressed construction beams processes used to put the parts together.
When a beam is loaded, it tries to bend and the
bottom of it is in tension. If you pre-stress the beam
by putting the bottom rail in tension (stretching it) Link it up
when the beam is made, it will stretch less when the For more information on fabrication processes, look
beam is loaded. This means the beam will bend less at page 301.
and be stronger.

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 7.4 Strengthening timber

Lamination
A laminate is a thin layer of material. Lamination can be useful to make
curved shapes from timber. The thin layers are glued and bent into shape.
When the glue is dry, the layers are fixed together in the bent shape. Timber
can be bent a little bit by steaming it, but laminating can achieve much larger
bends. Lamination can also greatly increase the strength of material such as
plywood. Lamination is used to increase the strength of wooden beams, for
example Glulam and Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL).

Braces and tie bars

A brace is a bar added to a frame to strengthen it. They are usually
diagonal, to make triangle shapes. A tie bar is similar, but is a rod that is
good in tension. Steel is often used. The rod is fixed across the frame like a
brace and, because it cannot stretch, it holds the frame in shape.

Embedding composite materials

A composite material is made of different materials bonded together.

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Sometimes adding other materials to a timber product can improve its
properties. GRP (fibreglass) can be used to make a strong, hardwearing,
waterproof shell around a wooden beam. Steel strips fixed on a timber
beam strengthen it because of the high tensile strength of the steel. Fibres
can be laminated into timber to greatly improve strength. For example,
a Japanese company is developing a wooden beam that has laminated
The seat and back of this chair have been
made by laminating thin layers of wood

Key term
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carbon fibre called Carbon Fibre Reinforced Wood (CFRW). Stiffer and Lamination: bonding several
stronger laminated beams will result in smaller cross section, reducing the thin layers together to make a
amount of timber needed in a project. thicker material.
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Summary
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Key points to remember:

• Learn the meaning of tension, compression and shear.
• Pre-stressing components of a beam during manufacture can strengthen the beam.
• Braces and ties go diagonally across a rectangular frame and make it a lot stronger.
• Laminating joins thin layers together and can be used to make bent wooden parts.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Draw diagrams to show tension and compression acting on a piece of timber.
S2 Draw a rectangle and add a cross brace that would strengthen it.
S3 What is laminating?
Challenge
C1 Draw a beam that is bending. Add arrows to show where it is in tension and where it is in compression.

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77 Timbers
Timbers

7.5 Stock forms and sizes

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the stock shapes timber comes in
• the standard stock sizes timber comes in
• how to use this information to select the appropriate timber.

Stock forms/types
Timber is available in a variety of stock forms.

Name Availability Picture

Regular • Timber is sold in a standard range of cross- • Commonly

sections sectional shapes and sizes – sawmills do this for available sizes and
convenience, so there is a limited range of sizes to shapes of timber

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cut
• Designers can use the standard sizes when
designing products

Mouldings • Lengths of timber cut into decorative shapes Common moulding

• There are lots of shapes available for different shapes
A
purposes, such as skirting boards or decorative
edging
• Saves time but can be relatively expensive
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Dowels • Wooden rods that are round in cross-section Different-sized
• Have a variety of uses, from model making to dowels
furniture construction – can be used to strengthen
simple joints
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• Short lengths of dowel are used to join pieces of

wood with a dowel joint
• Requires accurate drilling of holes
Sheets • Manufactured boards come in standard-sized A stack of
sheets in a range of thicknesses manufactured
• Available in large sizes but large sheets are boards in a
relatively difficult to cut and edges may splinter warehouse

Table 7.5.1 Standard sizes of timber

Sizes used to be 4 inches × 2 inches, and many carpenters will

still call it two-by-four.
Imperial and metric
Understanding imperial sizes can help to understand One inch is roughly 25 mm, so timber sizes usually
why timber comes in the sizes it does. Although wood is increase in 25 mm steps. Manufactured boards generally
sold in metric sizes today, it is still the equivalent of the go in 3 mm steps: 12.7 mm is half an inch and 6.35 mm is
nearest old imperial size. For instance, 100 mm × 50 mm a quarter of an inch.

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 7.5 Stock forms and sizes

PAR and PSE Apply it

PAR stands for ‘planed all round’. This means all four
1 Visit the website of a timber supplier and find
surfaces have been planed, and it will have slightly
the sizes they sell timber in.
rounded edges to make handling easier and safer.
Constructional timber, such as for studwork (frames for 2 Find out what sizes of timber your school
interior walls) is usually PAR. usually stocks.

PSE is ‘planed square edge’. All four surfaces are planed,

but the edges are left square. Joinery timber is usually PSE. Diameter
PAR and PSE are planed and ready to use. They are often The diameter is the measurement across a circle from
only available in long lengths (1.8 m). The timber may be one side to the other. A dowel has a circular cross-
warped or twisted so check before use. section, and comes in a range of sizes. A few common
It is worth knowing that timber is usually sold by the sizes are 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 8 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm
sawn size. The planed size is a few millimetres smaller. and 25 mm.
So, the 100 mm × 50 mm standard size is the rough sawn
size. If you buy 100 × 50 PSE, it will actually measure Board sizes
Manufactured boards are usually sold in a sheet

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about 96 mm × 47 mm.
measuring 2440 mm × 1220 mm. In imperial this was
Cross-sectional area 8 feet by 4 feet. DIY stores sometimes sell part sheets,
The price of timber will depend on its cross-sectional area such as 1220 mm × 610 mm, because they are easier for
(width by thickness), although it will always be sold by its customers to handle.
width and thickness as these are the important sizes.
Manufactured boards are sold in standard thicknesses.
A
A few common sizes of timber are:
Plywood and MDF thicknesses include 3 mm, 6 mm,
• 15 mm × 75 mm • 50 mm × 100 mm
9 mm, 12 mm, 15 mm, 18 mm and 25 mm. Chipboard
• 15 mm × 100 mm • 75 mm × 75 mm commonly comes as 15 mm or 18 mm thick.
• 15 mm × 150 mm • 100 mm × 100 mm
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• 50 mm × 50 mm
There are many more sizes available.
D

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Timber is sawn into standard sizes by sawmills.
• PAR and PSE are planed timber, which has smooth surfaces.
• Mouldings can be used to add decorative trim to products.
• Manufactured boards come in standard-sized sheets, in a range of thicknesses.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What do PAR and PSE mean?
S2 Why is most timber sold in multiples of 25 mm?
S3 What is a dowel?
Challenge
C1 Why is it important for a product designer to use standard-sized timber wherever possible?

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7 Timbers
7.6 Manufacturing processes
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• some of the machinery used to process timber
• the different scales of production in manufacturing
• how manufacturing aids can be used in production processes.

Processes to cut and shape materials

Routing
A router contains a rotating cutter. It can be used
with lots of different-shaped cutters. It can be used
to make a straight slot in wood, it can be used with a jig

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to cut shapes or it can be used with a bearing-guided
cutter to profile the edge. Routing can also be carried
out with a computer-controlled router/milling machine.
It removes material quickly and there are a wide range
of cutters available. Large cuts may burn/blacken timber
so must be used with extreme care.
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Sawing
Sawing machines are used to prepare timber quickly, A hand-held router being used to cut a decorative shape into
with the circular saw and bandsaw being the most the edge of a piece of timber. The man in the picture above is
R
common. Small ones are used in a workshop to cut not following correct health and safety procedures. What is he
timber to the required size and shape. Sawmills use doing wrong?
much larger versions to cut whole tree trunks into
D

planks. Cutting thicker timber on a bandsaw may result

in edges not being square.

A table circular saw used to cut timber to size: the circular A bandsaw: the blade is one long band with teeth that can make
blade makes straight cuts in timber straight and curved cuts in timber. What’s wrong in this photo?

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 7.6 Manufacturing processes

Use of a mortiser
A mortiser makes a square hole. It gets its name
from the mortise (slot) half of a mortise and tenon
joint. The round centre of the chisel drills a round
hole, and the square chisel around it cuts the
corners out to make a square. Produces mortises
quickly and accurately, but requires requires
accurate marking out and care to get the exact size
mortise required.

Use of a bag press

A bag press is a bag that can be sealed and have
the air sucked out of it. A mould and laminates
are put inside it. When the air is sucked out of
the bag, the laminates are forced into the mould,
and are held there while the glue dries. Presses
equally on all surface areas but may not work
with thicker laminates.

Apply it
FT
Find out which of these pieces of equipment
your school has. Which ones would you be
A
allowed to use in school?
A bench-top mortiser
Scales of production
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Choosing the right scale of production is very
important when manufacturing a product. Investing
in an expensive factory makes the product cheaper,
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but you need to sell a lot to pay for the factory.

One-off
A one-off product can be made in a workshop by a craftsperson. A one-off
might be made for an individual client who wants something unique.
A prototype of a product can be made as a one-off to test a design, before
the time and cost of setting up machinery for mass production.

Batch
A batch is a number of the same thing made at the same time. A batch
production process might use a jig, a template or a mould to mark out or
cut the same shape several times.
For example, 20 chair legs of the same shape could be made by drawing
around a template. Screw holes in the chair legs could be made in the right
place by putting a jig over the end of the leg to guide the drill. Curved
chair backs and seats could be made the same by laminating them over
the same mould in a bag press.

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77 Timbers
Timbers
Mass production day. Mass production processes are very expensive to
Mass production processes make the same product all the set up, but once they are set up they can make the
time. A factory is often set up to mass produce products. The product cheaply.
chipboard pieces for flat-pack furniture will be cut to the
correct size by automated saws. Holes for the fittings will be
Continuous
drilled in exactly the right place by computer-controlled drills. Continuous production is a step up from mass production.
Continuous production is used for products that have
Machinery will be set up to make a particular part of a a high demand all the time. The factory will be highly
product and it will make that part all day long, day after automated and running 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

Scale Description Advantages Disadvantages

One-off One product made at a time, • No set-up cost Slow, so expensive to make
either for a specialist product • Made with existing equipment several
or to test an idea
• Product can be customised to
the user’s needs
Batch Several copies of the same • Jigs, templates and moulds • Labour intensive, so it

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product are made at the same speed up the process and can be is quite expensive per
time kept for future use product
• Special machinery is not needed, • Takes time to make jigs,
so set-up cost is not high moulds and templates
Mass Factory machinery set up Can make a product quickly and Machinery expensive to set
to make lots of identical cheaply up, so only worthwhile for
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products making a lot of products
Continuous Factory machinery making the Makes the product very quickly Machinery very expensive to
same thing 24/7 and cheaply set up, so only worthwhile
for making huge quantities
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of a product
Table 7.6.1 Scales of production
not need to mark out if machinery has been set up to
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Exam-style question
process materials automatically. But for one-off or batch
A company has been batch producing coffee tables. production, marking out is important. A reference point
A large retailer has just ordered 3000 of its tables. is essential. This is the point on the material you start
Explain two reasons why the directors should change measuring from. It could be the bottom left-hand corner,
to mass production. (4 marks) and every measurement is taken from there. Sometimes, a
particular line or surface of the material will be used as the
known starting point that everything is measured from.
Exam tip
With a question like this, it is important to show When preparing a piece of timber, get one face flat. This is
the examiner you understand the batch and mass called the face side. Then, using the face side, get one edge
production processes. Start by explaining the square with it. This is
advantages and disadvantages of both processes. now called the face Face side
Then say why mass production is the preferred choice. edge. Mark the timber
as shown, and make Face edge

Techniques for quantity production all measurements

from these surfaces.
Marking-out methods
Marking out is transferring measurements onto material Figure 7.6.1 The marks used to indicate
before it is cut. Sometimes manufacturing processes will the face side and face edge
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 7.6 Manufacturing processes

Jigs sends cutting instructions to the CNC machine, which

A jig can be put over a has cutters moved around by electric motors. This is very
piece of work and guide a accurate and can operate 24/7. It has high initial costs and
drill or a saw to cut in the training is required for programmer.
required place. It is a quick
CNC routers, milling machines and laser cutters can all be
and accurate way to make
used in a workshop to make one of a product or a batch of
lots of holes or cuts in
lots of the same products. Factories use large machinery
exactly the right place, as
controlled by computers.
long as the jig is positioned
correctly. Jigs are very Figure 7.6.2 A drilling jig that Quality control
useful for batch production has been clamped to the corner Quality control is a system for trying to make sure the
because once you have the of the workpiece to get the
products being manufactured are good enough for
jig you can keep using it. holes in the correct place
sale. It reduces waste and should help customers to
Fixtures receive a more reliable product. At stages through the
manufacturing, a sample of the product is inspected to
A fixture holds the workpiece in place while it is being cut make sure it is correct. The more complex a product is,
or shaped. This speeds up processes but a range of fixtures the more sampling is likely to take place. Careful planning

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may be required, adding to initial costs. and implementation is required. If the sampling finds a
Templates faulty product, the process might be stopped so it can be
A template is a cut-out shape that you can draw around corrected before many more faulty ones are made.
to mark out the shape you want to cut from a piece of Working within tolerance
material. A template might be made from paper or card for
Manufactured parts will always have a tolerance. That is
a single use, or it might be made from a thin sheet of wood
A
the range of sizes within which the part is acceptable.
or metal if it is going to be used a lot. A template is really
The designer will need to specify a tolerance for a part.
useful in batch production because it allows workers to
If the holes on a flat-pack cupboard are the wrong size
mark out the same shape quickly and accurately. Templates
the fittings will not work. If the holes are 2 mm out of
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must be accurately produced and protected from damage.
line, the pieces will not go together properly. Careful
Patterns application of tolerances ensures a product with several
A pattern is similar to a template, but the term is components will always fit together and that spare/
replacement parts will fit too. Manufacturing processes
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sometimes used to refer to a collection of templates used

to make the complete product. The pattern for a product must be able to produce the right tolerance, and part
might include several individual templates needed of quality control is checking the parts are all within the
to make the whole product. One pattern can result in required tolerance. Parts of a product are often made
multiple accurate replicas but the template must be and assembled in different factories, so stating the
accurately produced, which may be expensive. acceptable tolerance for every part is essential for the
parts to fit together. It requires accurate machine set-up
Sub-assembly and checking systems, for example go, no-go gauges.
Sub-assemblies are components that have been
assembled and used as an individual component in a Efficient cutting to minimise waste
larger product. The sub-assembly is built to a uniform Material costs money, so it is important to use as
specification, quality tested in its own right and can be little as possible when making products. This includes
entirely replaced. An example is a standard DVD module minimising waste to reduce costs and better use finite
inserted into different desktop computers. resources. When cutting out materials, the way shapes
are marked out can make a big difference to waste.
Computer-aided manufacturing Using a template to mark out shapes so they are as
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) uses a computer close together as possible, and designing the part to
to guide the cutters on a computer numerically controlled ensure the closest possible fit to the next one, can
(CNC) machine. The product outline will be drawn on a make a big difference to the amount of material wasted,
computer-aided design package (CAD). The computer although this requires careful planning.
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77 Timbers
Timbers

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Machinery like circular saws and bandsaws is used to prepare timber.
• The different scales of production, and some of their advantages and disadvantages.
• How jigs, moulds and templates can be used to assist batch production.
• Computers can be used to control machinery quickly and accurately.
• Ensuring good quality control and correct tolerances of components are important parts of manufacturing
processes.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 List the four scales of production.

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S2 What is a template used for?
S3 Draw a jig that could be used to drill a line of four holes equally spaced along the edge of a piece of MDF
200 mm wide.
Challenge
C1 Explain why it can be a big risk for a company to invest in mass production facilities.
A
7.7 Equipment and processes used to make prototypes
R
Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• the purpose of a range of hand tools used for working wood
D

• the purpose of some of the machinery that can be used to work wood
• the fixtures and fittings that can be used to join wood together.

Tools and equipment

Hand tools
There is a variety of useful hand
tools for marking out, cutting and
shaping wood.

Tools for marking out accurately

are important. If you mark out
your work accurately you can cut it A try square is used to mark a line at A marking gauge used to mark a line parallel
accurately too. 90° to an edge and check if something to an edge – can mark out several pieces
is square – versatile, may be damaged of timber at the same measurement, the
if dropped scribing point (spur) scratches the timber so
it is vital the gauge is set correctly

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 7.7 Equipment and processes used to make prototypes

Machinery A pillar drill: in a

The first woodworkers had to do everything with hand tools, which could workshop work is held
flat on the table and the
be quite time consuming. Nowadays we have a lot of electrically operated
drill makes accurate 90°
machinery that makes woodwork much quicker and easier. The circular
vertical holes. It requires
saw and bandsaw in Section 7.6 on page 292 are very useful machines for
various clamping
cutting timber to the required size. methods depending
Digital design and manufacture on the shape and
thickness of the
Computer-aided design software is useful for drawing parts of a product material to be drilled
accurately. It is essential if the work is going to be cut out with computer-aided
manufacture, as the computer sends information from the drawing to the A hand-held ‘cordless’
battery-operated drill is
machine, such as a CNC router or a laser cutter. The big advantage of computer-
very useful on site or for
aided design and manufacture is the speed and accuracy with which it can cut.
big pieces of work that
are hard to move – no
Shaping power lead so it can
Drilling work away from a power

FT
source, but requires a
A drill makes a round hole in material. There are different types which all have
charged battery to work
their advantages and disadvantages.

Name Appearance Use Advantages Disadvantages

Twist • Drilling smaller-sized Readily available in a wide • Usually only up to
drill holes in most materials range of sizes from very 13 mm diameter
A
• The flutes lift the swarf small up • Deep holes can block
out of the hole up the flutes
Flat bit Drilling larger holes in • Centre spur gives an Cannot be used to
R
wood accurate starting point make an existing hole
• Drills quickly bigger
D

Forstner Drilling flat-bottomed Small centre spur can Slower than a flat bit
bit holes in wood make a blind hole with a
flat base

Auger Drilling deep holes in Can bore deep holes Needs to be used at a
wood slow speed

Hole Cutting large holes Can make a large hole in • Only good for quite
saw a sheet of manufactured thin materials
board • Limited range of
sizes available
Table 7.7.1 Types of drill bit

Key term
Flutes: the twisted spirals along a drill bit that remove the swarf (fine
pieces of stone).

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7 Timbers
Cutting
Timber is cut with a saw. A saw has teeth on it that cut the wood as the
saw is pushed over the wood. There are different types of saw, but they all
use the same principle.

Name Appearance Use Advantages Disadvantages

Hand Used to cut larger Can cut long, deep cuts • Blade can bend, so
saw pieces of wood through big planks it’s important to saw
straight
• Harder work than a
power saw

Tenon Used to cut smaller Stiffened blade makes Stiffened blade back
saw pieces of wood and it easier to make means it cannot cut

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accurate detail like precise, straight cuts deeper than the blade,
joints as the spine that
keeps the blade stiff is
thicker than the blade
A
Coping Used to cut shapes • Thin blade can go • Blade snaps quite
saw out of thin wood and around curves easily
manufactured boards • Blade can be taken • Small teeth saw
out and put through slowly
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a hole to cut internal
shapes
D

Scroll Used to cut shapes Can cut fine, accurate Large pieces of wood
saw out of thin wood and details cannot be cut with it
manufactured boards

Jigsaw • The blade goes up • Can cut quite quickly • Difficult to cut
and down • Thin blade can cut straight lines
• Used to cut large curved shapes • Blade can wander in
thin pieces of wood thicker materials
clamped to a bench

Table 7.7.2 Types of saw

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 7.7 Equipment and processes
Thermoforming andused to make prototypes
thermosetting polymers

Planing
A plane has a sharp blade, which must be kept sharp, protruding from a flat
base plate. It is used to remove wood from the edge of a piece of timber, and
is good for getting a crooked edge straight. Planes are available in different
lengths and it is easy to adjust depth of cut.
A planer/thicknesser is a useful machine for preparing timber. A rotating A jack plane, good for making a long
flat surface or edge: smoothing plane is
cutter block planes the wood. The top of the table planes it to get flat,
shorter, and easier to handle on small
square faces and edges. Under the table the thicknesser draws the wood in pieces of timber
and planes it to the set thickness.

Chiselling
A wood chisel is used for paring wood, that is, slicing between the grains. A bevel-edge chisel, available in a range
A mortise chisel has a much thicker blade and a heavier duty handle. It is of widths. It is good for general-purpose
used for cutting slots in wood, so it is hammered with a mallet a lot. Chisels woodworking
are hard to use across end grain. A sharp chisel is easier and safer to use.

Turning
A wood-turning lathe holds a piece of wood and spins it. The operator holds

FT
a chisel on a rest and guides it over the spinning wood to chisel wood away.
It requires careful preparation of material and setting up of the lathe.

Maths in practice 1
Calculating wastage
Materials cost money, so it is important to keep waste to a minimum. To work out how
A
much material is going to be wasted, you need to be able to calculate the area of shapes.
Rectangle E.g.
10

area = width × length area = 10 × 20 = 200 mm2

20 A thicknesser with a lower table
R
Triangle E.g.
area = 12 base × height area = 12 × 10 × 10 = 50 mm2
10

10

Or area = 12 × 20 × 20 = 200 mm2

D 20

20
Circle e.g. radius
2
area = πr2 area = πr
• π = 3.14 = 3.14 × 10 × 10 = 314 mm2
• r = radius 10 A wood lathe turning between centres: a
• r2 = radius squared = r × r long piece of timber is held and spun, so
• r = 12 diameter e.g. diameter r = 12 D = 20
2 = 10 the operator can chisel away the edges
area = πr 2
to create complex designs, such as a
20
= 3.14 × 10 × 10 = 314 mm2 decorative table leg
• Figure 7.7.1 shows a shape that is being
cut out of 3 mm thick plywood. 30
Calculate the area of plywood that is
wasted.
20

All dimensions are in mm.

80

Hint: work out the area of the waste pieces and

add them together.
area of 1 triangle = 12 base × height = 12 × 20 × 20 =
20

200 mm2
area of circle = πr2 20 20 A piece of timber on a face plate: the face
30 2 80 plate spins the wood and the operator can
= 3.14 × ( 2 ) = 3.14 × 15 × 15 = 706.5 mm2
wasted area = (4 × 200) + 706.5 = 1506.5 mm2 Figure 7.7.1 chisel away the middle and the edges to
cont... shape and hollow it out, making a bowl shape
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77 Timbers
Timbers

• Figure 7.7.2 shows a shape that is being cut out of 6 mm thick MDF. 30 30
Calculate the area of MDF that is wasted.
All dimensions are in mm.
Hint: sometimes it is easier to work out the area of the piece of material
you want and subtract it from the rectangle it is cut from to find the waste.

60
Remember it is important to show your working in any calculation question.
The shape fits in a rectangle area = 60 × 160 = 9600 mm2
The cut out shape is a rectangle and two half circles, making a whole circle.
• rectangle area = 100 × 60 = 6000 mm2 100
• circle area = 3.14 × 30 × 30 = 2826 mm2 160
• shape area = 6000 + 2826 = 8826 mm2
Figure 7.7.2
• area wasted = 9600 – 8826 = 774 mm2

Abrading Electric sanders are useful tools for abrading wood to

Abrasive paper has a rough grit bonded on a paper or shape it and smooth it.
cloth backing. The first abrasive used was sand, hence the Carving
name sandpaper. Glass grit is more commonly used now. Woodcarving uses shaped chisels to cut away the wood.

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Abrasive paper is measured by the number of pieces
of grit in a square inch, so the bigger the number the
smaller the grit. P80 is a coarse grit that is good for the
initial removal of material on a rough surface. P120 gets
a smoother finish, and P240 gets a really smooth finish
on wood. You can get finer grits, but there is little need
It is a skilled art form that takes a long time, but can
create very detailed decorative pieces of work. It was
once used a lot, but traditional woodcarving has mostly
been replaced by CNC machinery, as it is much faster.
Files, rasps and surforms
A
Files, rasps and surforms have teeth on them that can
for them when working with wood.
be used to abrade away wood. They all come in a range
When sanding wood, it is best to sand in line with the of shapes. Flat ones are good for flat surfaces and
grain. Going across the grain can tear the grains and external curves. Round and half-round shapes are good
R
leave it rougher. for internal curves.

Name Appearance Use Advantages Disadvantages

D

File A range of tooth sizes Good for smoothing Small teeth are quite
and shapes available and shaping the slow on wood
sawn edges of
manufactured boards

Rasp • Large individual • Big teeth cut soft Big teeth leave marks
teeth woods quickly in the wood that need
• Available in • Good for rough removing with a file or
different shapes, shaping sandpaper
usually flat, half-
round and round

Surform A frame holds the • Good for rough • Leaves a rough

blade with pressed shaping of soft surface
metal teeth, rather like materials • Hard work on
a cheese grater • Blade can be harder woods
removed from
frame and replaced

Table 7.7.3 Tools to abrade wood

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 7.7 Equipment and processes used to make prototypes

Fabricating and constructing Link it up

Lamination For more information on
Laminating is joining layers together. Plywood is laminated, it is layers of lamination, see page 289.
veneer glued together. Laminate flooring is made up of layers. Laminating is
useful in the workshop because thin layers can be bent and glued together,
and they stay in the bent shape when the glue has dried. The bag press on
page 293 is helpful for this.

Veneering
Veneer is a thin layer of wood, which means it can be more prone to damage.
Plywood is made of layers of veneer laminated together. Veneer can be glued
onto the surface of a cheaper material, such as MDF, to make the surface look
like more expensive wood. MDF can be bought covered with hardwood veneer.

Use of screws Countersink so screw head

fits flat with the surface
Screws are a very useful fixing for joining pieces of wood together. They
create a tight fit to make a strong joint, and they can be unscrewed and

FT
Clearance hole, wider
removed if necessary. than the screw shank
There are two main head designs: slotted (also known as flat) and Phillips (a
Pilot hole, narrower than
cross shape). You need the right screwdriver tip to fit the screw head. the screw threads
A countersunk screw is useful in wood, because you can make the head of
the screw fit flat with the surface of the wood. A clearance hole must be Figure 7.7.3 Drilling timber parts
A
drilled first to accommodate the screw head. Drilling a pilot hole as well, ready for a countersunk screw
which must be narrower than the screw thread, will make it easier for the
screw to go in.
R
Nailing
Nails come in a range of shapes and sizes. Nails are hammered into the wood
grain, which pinches tight onto them so they are hard to pull out. It is quick and
D

nails can be driven below the surface and covered over to improve appearance.
However, holes may need to be drilled to prevent wood from splitting.
• Round wire nails usually have a large flat head so they do not pull
through thin materials.
• Oval nails spread the grain less, so are less likely to split the wood when
hammered in.
• Panel pins are small nails for small workpieces and for holding thin
boards onto timber.

Adhesives
PVA (polyvinyl acetate) is a commonly used wood glue. It is a thick white
liquid, but becomes clear when it dries. It makes a strong joint in wood as long
as the pieces are clamped tightly together while the glue dries. It is almost
impossible to disassemble a joint without destroying it when PVA has set.
Contact adhesive is good for sticking a flat piece of a different material
onto wood. Spread a thin film onto both surfaces, wait until it is nearly dry,
then press the two parts firmly together. It is fast but there is little or no
opportunity to reposition the pieces and it gives off solvent fumes.

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77 Timbers
Timbers
Wood joints
Name Appearance Advantages Disadvantages
Butt Easy to make, it is just square • Weak: there is no
ends glued together mechanical strength,
just the glue
• Not aesthetically
pleasing

Dowel Automated machines can drill Hard to line up the dowels

the dowel holes quickly and accurately by hand
accurately

Lap Quite easy to cut Not very strong

Housing
FT • Holds a shelf or divider • Can be tricky to cut
A
securely in the middle of a neatly on a wide board
carcass (frame) • Very accurate marking
• Pairs well with corner lap out and cutting required
R
joints to ensure a shelf is
exactly level

Mitre • Looks good because no end Weak, it is only a butt joint

D

grain shows at 45°

• Good for picture frames

Mortise Mortise • A strong joint Time consuming to cut by

and tenon Tenon • Good for joining a table or hand
chair frame to legs

Dovetail • A very strong joint – the Very tricky to cut accurately

dovetails lock together by hand
securely
• Good for a drawer front that
will get pulled hard

Table 7.7.4 Types of joint

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 7.7 Equipment and processes
Properties used
of fibres andtosocial
makeimplications
prototypes

Wastage Assembling
Wastage processes cut material away and waste it. This Knock-down fittings
is usually the fastest way to obtain the required shape
Knock-down fittings are a useful range of blocks
with sheet materials. Most woodworking processes
and fittings that are easy to use to fix the pieces of
are wastage processes: sawing, planing, filing and
a product together. They are used a lot for flat-pack
sanding all remove material that is wasted and leave
furniture and cupboards because they are easy for the
the required shape behind. Waste can be minimised by
customer to fit themselves.
careful planning and use of stock sizes or off-cuts. Waste
material adds to the cost of the product so should be
Ironmongery
reused wherever possible.
Ironmongery is a name for a range of parts that
Addition can be bought to go onto products. Items include:
Addition processes add pieces of material together. • hinges • hooks
Assembling parts, by making joints, gluing, screwing and • handles • drawer runners
nailing pieces together are addition processes. This is a fast • knobs • locks.
method of producing 3D shapes but often requires a range
of joining techniques, which may be time consuming.

Hinges
Name
Butt hinge
Appearance
FT Use
Used to fit doors
Advantages
Hidden from sight when
Disadvantages
Hard to fit as an
A
door is closed accurate slot needs
to be cut on both
sides
R

Flush Used for small Easy to fit as no slots Leaves a gap

hinge cupboard doors to cut between the door
and frame
D

Butterfly Screws onto the Easy to fit, as it screws The whole hinge
hinge surface, often a onto the surface with shows on the
decorative shape the parts lined up surface

T hinge Used for gates Long bar good for Sits on the surface,
and shed doors supporting the weight so shows on the
of a gate front of the gate or
door

Table 7.7.5 Types of hinge

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77 Timbers
Timbers

Summary
Key points to remember:
• The name and purpose of the hand tools.
• The name and purpose of woodworking machines.
• The advantages and disadvantages of the different types of wood joints.
• The advantages and disadvantages of the different types of fixtures, fittings and hinges that can be used.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 What type of drill bit makes a flat-bottomed hole in wood?
S2 Why are knock-down fittings used a lot for flat-pack furniture?
S3 Why is a mitre joint good for the corner of a picture frame?
Challenge

FT
C1 Explain why knock-down fittings are good for flat-pack furniture.
C2 List the steps in preparing and screwing two pieces of timber together with a countersunk screw.
A
7.8 Surface treatments and finishes for functional and
aesthetic purposes
R

Learning objective
By the end of this section, you should know:
D

• the advantages and disadvantages of a range of surface finishes that can be applied to timber.

Surface finishes and treatments

There are many surface finishes and treatments that can be applied to wood.
Wood is porous, so it will absorb water and grease and quickly look dirty and
damaged. A surface finish fills the pores and makes it water resistant and
easy to wipe clean. A finish can also make a product look better.

Link it up
You need to remember to consider health and safety implications when
treating and finishing timber.

304
 7.8 Surface treatments and finishes for functional and aesthetic purposes

Description Advantages Disadvantages

Painting • A coloured pigment in liquid • Available in a range of colours • Covers up the natural
that dries out wood grain

Staining • A coloured liquid that soaks • Makes a pale-coloured wood like pine a • Does not look quite
into the wood surface darker colour to mimic more expensive like another wood as
woods like oak or mahogany the pine grain still
shows

Varnishing • A clear coating that dries to • Gives a hardwearing finish that shows • Can scratch or chip
a shine the grain of the wood and expose the wood
• Can be a high gloss or a matt finish

Wax • A soft solid that is rubbed • Easy to apply • Rubs away and needs
into the surface with a cloth • Gives a plain, natural look reapplying
• Not a glossy finish

Oil

Shellac
FT
• Is rubbed onto the surface
and soaks in

• A cloudy liquid made from a

• Good waterproofing for timber
• Vegetable oil on kitchen ware is
non-toxic

• Traditionally used on expensive

• Surface feels oily

• Easily damaged by
A
resin secreted by a beetle furniture for its glossy lustre water and heat
• Lots of layers are rubbed
on and polished to create a
finish called French polish
R
Veneering • A thin layer of wood glued • An expensive, decorative wood like • The veneer is natural
onto the surface mahogany can be put onto a cheaper wood, so it still needs
wood like pine or chipboard a finish applied
D

Table 7.8.1 Treatments and finishes for wood

Summary
Key point to remember:
• the advantages and disadvantages of the different finishes.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Why is it important to apply a finish to a wooden product?
S2 What is an advantage of using varnish?
S3 Why is stain used?
Challenge
C1 What finish would you use on a dining table? Explain your choice.

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Preparing for your exam 7

Exam strategy
What to expect in the exam
Section B of the examination is designed to test your knowledge and
understanding of the material studied. Throughout the course you should
practise exam-style questions that will challenge your knowledge across
all sections of the timbers content. Different styles of exam questions can
require short answers, long answers, sketching and calculations. Preparing
thoroughly for your exam is important if you are to achieve high marks.

Section B: Material category – Timbers

This section is worth 60 marks and contains a mixture of different question
styles, including short answer, sketching, calculation and extended-open
response questions. This will include five marks for calculations.

In the timbers category you should know about:

FT
• some design contexts
• the sources, origins, physical and working properties of natural and
manufactured timbers, and their social and ecological footprints
• the way in which the selection of each natural and manufactured timber
is influenced
A
• the impact of forces and stresses on timber and how it can be reinforced
and stiffened
• stock forms, types and sizes to calculate the required quantity of timber
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• processes that can be used to manufacture typical timber products to
different scales of production
• specialist techniques and processes that can be used on timber to shape,
D

fabricate, construct and assemble a high-quality prototype

• appropriate surface treatments and finishes that can be applied to
timber for functional and aesthetic purposes.

Revision tips
• Ensure you start revising in plenty of time before your exam. You will find
it easier to remember facts you have revised several times over a few
weeks than those you have tried to memorise at the last minute.
• Make clear and well-ordered notes about all the sections that relate to
the core and your chosen material category.
• Test yourself at the end of each section. Work through the exam-style
questions and complete activities to reinforce your knowledge and
understanding.
• Work through all sample assessment materials, including past papers
available from Pearson.

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Preparing for your exam 7

• Identify the areas where you are likely to get mathematical questions
and practise the sections on numerical computation, handling data,
rearranging and using equations.
• Discuss the course with your teacher and peers, as it will help your
understanding.
• Work through corrections and identify areas where you may need
further practice.
• Use online or other resources to extend your understanding of the design
and technology context.

Exam tips
• You should plan to leave 60 minutes for answering questions in Section B.
• You must answer all the questions. If you are stuck on one, leave it and
come back to it at the end.

FT
• Although the questions will be different for each paper you sit, there is
information on the page to help you answer the question. For example,
the number of marks awarded for each question will tell you the number
of separate points that need to be given in your answer.
• Pay attention to the command words used in the question, as these will
guide you in how best to communicate your answers.
A
• Underline or highlight keywords in the question. After answering the
question, read the question again to ensure you have done what
was asked.
R
• If you have time available, plan the structure for long answers and make
sure you give good examples where needed.
• Check through your answers at the end of the exam. Make sure you have
D

included units and shown the workings for calculations.

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Preparing for your exam 7

Sample answers with comments

Question 1: Give/state/name (short answer question) Plywood seat
and backrest
a) Figure PE7.1 shows a design for a chair.
The chair must be:
• comfortable to sit on
• strong enough if the user rocks back on it
• easy to pick up and carry. Beech legs
and frame
Use notes and sketches to show how the chair could be modified
to include these three specification points. (6 marks) Figure PE7.1 Design for a chair

Exam tip 220

There are three changes to make to the chair. Work out what 160

FT
they are, then sketch the chair with your changes.
Use notes to explain things that are not obvious in your sketch,
and give reasons for your changes.

60

60
b) Explain one reason why beech is a good choice for the
250

130
chair legs/frame. (2 marks)
A
Exam tip
60

Think about the properties of beech compared to other woods.

R
80 220 80
c) Figure PE7.2 shows a modified design for the back of the 400
chair with all of the dimensions. Figure PE7.2 Design for the back of the chair
All dimensions are in millimetres.
D

Calculate the area of wood that is wasted. (5 marks) Exam tip

Area of a circle = π × r 2
Divide the wasted portions into simple shapes.
Area of a triangle = ½ × base × height
π = 3.142 Exam tip
d) Explain two different methods that could be used to Consider different methods: hand tools, batch
manufacture the re-designed chair back. (6 marks) production, CAD/CAM etc.

Student answer Verdict This is a good answer. The changes made would meet
the specifications better than the original design.
Slot cut in backrest
a) makes it easy to
pick the chair up b) It is strong.
Cushion on the
seat makes the Verdict
chair more
comfortable This is a poor answer. Beech is quite a strong wood, but the answer needs
to be more specific. For example: Beech has a close, even grain that makes
Extra rail between
it stronger and tougher than many other woods, so beech would withstand
legs make the
frame stronger the stresses put on a chair frame better than many other woods.
Figure PE7.3 Modified chair design 308
Preparing for your exam 7
c) Area of each corner = ½ × 80 × 60 = 2400 mm2
Area of 4 corners = 4 × 2400 = 9600 mm2
Verdict
The slot is two half circles (a whole circle) and a rectangle This is a correct answer. All working out
Slot = (π x 302) + (60 × 160) = 2827.8 + 9600 = 12,427.8 mm2 is clear – it is important to show your
Wood wasted = 9600 + 12,427.8 = 22,027.8 mm2 working out in a calculation question.
d) 1. The chair back could be batch produced by marking the
shape out with a template, drilling holes at each end of the Verdict
slot and sawing out with a jigsaw. The corners could be cut off
with the jigsaw or a bandsaw; finish with a sander. This is a good answer – it describes two
different methods in enough detail.
2. The chair back could be cut with a computer-controlled
router: draw the shape with suitable software on a computer;
tessellate several together – as many as will fit in the
machine; place the plywood plank in a computer-controlled
router and cut out.

Question 2: ‘Discuss’ question Exam tip

FT
2 a) Figure PE7.4 shows a design for a simple wooden candle holder. Decide which features
The candle holder must: 20mm blind hole are good or need
15mm deep improving. Make it
• have a stable base so the candle is not knocked over
• have an attractive appearance clear if your points are
• be easy to pick up and carry the candle safely. meeting or failing to
meet the criteria.
Explain two ways in which the candle holder meets
A
or fails to meet the design criteria. (4 marks) Figure PE7.4 Design for a wooden candle holder

b) A Forstner bit is used to drill the blind hole.

R
Exam tip
Explain one reason why a Forstner bit would be used to
Think about what makes a Forstner bit
drill the hole. (2 marks)
different from other types of drill bit.
D

c) Use notes and sketches to show the process of drilling Exam tip
the blind hole safely and accurately.
Use a sketch to show the main points of your answer.
You will be marked on how you apply your understanding You might not need to show the whole machine.
of design and technology, not on your graphical skills. Add notes to explain the main points or anything
(4 marks) that is not obvious from your sketch.

Student answer Verdict

a) 1. The candle holder meets the criterion of a This is a good answer. Two sensible points are made and
stable base. The base is a large flat-bottomed clearly explained.
square that would be quite hard to knock over.
2. The candle holder does not meet the criteria Verdict
of an attractive appearance well. It is a plain
square shape with no interesting design features to This is a poor answer. It is a correct statement, but it has no
make it stand out or appeal to the consumer. value because all types of drill bit make a round hole. A Forstner
bit would be used because it is designed to make a large round
b) A Forstner bit makes a round hole. hole with a flat bottom, so it is best for a blind hole.

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Preparing for your exam 7

c) Forstner bit
Guard would be
around the chuck
Verdict
held in drill
chuck This is a good answer. Notice the student has only
sketched part of the pillar drill to explain their
Drill table is at
point, and has used labels to make the key points
90º to the drill
clear. A good addition to the answer would be to
bit so the hole
include use of a depth stop to get the hole the
is vertical
G-clamp holds right depth.
the candle holder
securely on the Figure PE7.5 Drilling the
drill table blind hole

Question 3: ‘Explain’ Frame to be made of

Figure PE7.6 shows a design for a picture decorative moulding
frame. The frame is to be made from
decorative moulding.

FT Figure PE.7.6 Design

for a picture frame

a) To batch produce 20 picture frames, a ready-made decorative Exam tip

Corner joint
A
moulding has been bought in long lengths. Explain one reason State your reason and explain why
why buying ready-made moulding might be a good idea. it is good for the company making
(2 marks) the frames.
R

b) (i) Name a good joint to use in the corner of the picture frame. Exam tip
(1 mark) Make sure your reason matches
D

(ii) Explain one reason for your choice. (2 marks) the joint chosen.

Exam tip
c) Explain two quality control checks that could be carried out on Quality control should make
the frame during the manufacturing process. (4 marks) sure the product is being made
correctly.
d) Table PE7.1 shows some information about the picture frame.
Raw material Mahogany Exam tip
Source South American rainforests Spend a bit of time thinking
Growth rate/lifespan 25-100 years through your answer before you
start writing. It might help to make
From sustainably managed sources no a list of points to include before
Table.PE7.1 Information about a picture frame you start writing.
Analyse the information in Table PE7.1.
Evaluate the picture frame with reference to its ecological footprint.
(9 marks)
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Preparing for your exam 7

Student answer Verdict

(a) Although plain wood is cheaper to buy than This is a good answer. Remember, this is about
moulding, it would be expensive to buy and set up scales of production. If the company was going
the equipment needed to make the moulding, so to manufacture 20,000 picture frames every year
for the small number needed it is cheaper to buy it they would probably buy the equipment to make
ready-made from a specialist supplier. the moulding themselves.

(b) (i) A mitre joint.

(ii) A mitre joint has both ends cut at 45˚. It
Verdict
looks good because it hides the end grain and This is a good answer. The student has correctly
the moulding pattern would join up neatly in identified that the joint used will need to look good.
the corner.

(c) Make sure they are all the right size.

Verdict

FT
This a weak answer. It is a true statement, but more explanation of specific checks is needed for four marks.
A better answer would be:
1. Check that sawn pieces are exactly the right length before cutting joints.
A
2. Check that each joint is cut at exactly 45°, so the two angles fit together to make square corners.

(d) Mahogany is a tropical hardwood from rainforest. This mahogany has come from a South American
rainforest that is not sustainably managed, so new mahogany trees are not being planted. The
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cleared land might be used for agriculture afterwards, so the forest is being lost forever.
Even if the forest areas were being re-planted after cutting down the mahogany trees, it would
take at least 25 years for them to grow big enough to harvest again, and the other plants and
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animals that lived in the forest areas before would have been lost.
South America is a long way away. The trees have been transported to the coast on lorries or
boats, then shipped to the UK. This is a lot of transport, using fossil fuels and doing damage to
the environment.
The mahogany is being used to make moulding, which can be quite wasteful because a lot of the
wood is machined away to dust to create the shape and patterns in the moulding.
The ecological footprint of using mahogany is high because of the environmental damage caused by
destroying the forest and the impact of transporting it around the world. The picture frames could
be made from pine from sustainably managed forests in Northern Europe and stained a darker
colour. This would have less environmental impact.

Verdict
This is a good answer. Notice how the student has explained a list of four
different factual points and finished with a clear conclusion.

Pearson Education Ltd accepts no responsibility whatsoever for the accuracy or method of working in the answers given.

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment

FT
A
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 Introduction

Introduction
Everything in our world is designed: from the big things, such as houses and cars,
to the little things, such as paper clips, plug holes and matches. Some of these
things are so common that we tend to forget that they were ever designed.

Some things, on the other hand, are more obvious, due to their technical design
or humour. You will have the challenge in Component 2 to design either a
product from scratch or redesign an existing product from a set of scenarios.

Design scenarios
Throughout our lives we come across problems, annoyances or things we
don’t like. Designers love to work out these problems to create solutions and
ultimately to make money. However, the problems that we face in our own lives
might be very different to those faced by our neighbours or people in other
countries. Designers need to identify their customer clearly and understand
their needs, wants, dislikes and values.

FT
What am I expected to do in Component 2?
A year before your exams, your teacher will introduce you to Component 2,
the non-examined assessment, which does not include an examination. Each
year, three different exciting scenarios are set by Edexcel; each one provides
A
a challenge with limitless possibilities for you to respond to through a design
and make activity. This is your chance to show off your developed Design and
Technology skills by identifying and meeting a user’s needs and wants in a certain
scenario. You will present your ideas through the following stages:
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• investigate
• design
• make
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• evaluate.
These sections are all covered separately in this section.

Apply it
The scenario: In 1978, James Dyson found that he could not get his vacuum
cleaner to suck up dirt properly from the carpet. His frustration led him to
open up the vacuum cleaner, where he was surprised to find that the vacuum
bag was nearly empty, not full as he had imagined. On further investigation,
he realised that a thin layer of dust had coated the inside of the bag, blocking
the bag’s pores. This had caused the vacuum to lose suction power.

The identification of this problem led to many hours of brainstorming, design

thinking, and hundreds of models and prototypes until he released the first
Dyson vacuum cleaner. Today Dyson is a leading brand in a range of products.
Where could your ideas lead you?

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Each design scenario will include two questions to help stimulate your
Apply it
imagination. Think carefully about the scenarios, but remember it is not
An example scenario could be: compulsory to follow one of the questions. Instead, you may generate your
Improving working spaces both own questions. You need to pick a scenario that will sustain your interest
inside and outside of the home over a few months and one that sets off your imagination. It might be that
(environments and objects) you want to analyse each scenario by brainstorming your first thoughts
and carrying out some initial research to help you make your decision. It
• How can work spaces be made
may also be worth reading ahead so that you can see what is expected of
more environmentally friendly?
you, however, you don’t need to have a solution all ready as this will come
• How can workspaces encourage through the iterative design process.
students to revise more for
their exams? What does controlled assessment mean?
Component 2 is a controlled assessment task. This means that the work you
submit must be your own and must be completed in your classroom. You can
ask your friends for their opinions and their feedback but you cannot submit
work done by anyone else.

FT How much of my GCSE is it worth?

Component 2 is worth 50 per cent of your Design and Technology GCSE, so
you need to try your best at every stage of the creative process.

How will I be marked?

A
There are 100 marks for the project and you will submit it to your teacher
as a portfolio and prototype. Your portfolio will be approximately 20–30
sides of A3 paper. You may also submit models (using mediums such as
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Key terms paper/card/foam) alongside your finished prototype. You will either submit
Iterative design process: where your work electronically or as a printed project, depending on your teacher
you continually test, evaluate and school – a selection of these will then be passed on to an external
moderator. You will use your knowledge, skills and understanding that you
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and refine your ideas, meaning

that you will do work on have gained throughout KS3 and KS4 to complete your project.
different stages at a variety of The moderator may not see your actual prototype in the flesh. Therefore, it is
points through your project.
really important that you take pictures at every stage of the manufacturing
Prototype: either a scale process to show that it was you who made it and not your friend, the teacher
model or an actual finished or the technician!
product. For example, if you are
designing an interior, you would Can my teacher help me?
not have time to make this full
Your teacher will be there to guide you through the process, discuss your
size, so a scale model would be
ideas with you, ensure that you are working safely and provide general
appropriate.
feedback to your group. Your teacher is not allowed to give you individual
External moderator: someone feedback on how to meet the assessment criteria or allow you to re-work
who will check that your teacher
your portfolio after it has been marked. Therefore, you need to make sure
has given your non-examination
that you listen carefully to any whole group feedback and apply this to your
assessment the correct mark.
own work.

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment Investigation

Investigation
Getting started
Your teacher will tell you the three scenarios for your controlled assessment. These will be available in June during
the year before your final exams. Think carefully about:
• which scenario sounds the most interesting to you
• which scenario sparks your design imagination.
Using your specialist material knowledge, investigate how an interior designer might explore their customers’ needs
and wants for the design of an in-school café. The café is for GCSE students to help them both relax and study.

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how to identify and fully investigate a design question that you would like to solve
• how to research your users’ needs and wants with full reference to form and function
• how to use your research to write a design brief and comprehensive specification.

Identifying a design problem

FT
Once you have chosen your design scenario, you are
then on to the exciting and limitless task of identifying
a design question within it. When exploring the context,
Identifying user requirements
Hopefully you now have a question that you would like to
explore and solve. The next step is to identify your users’
needs and wants. This could be done through:
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you may discover a need or opportunity that you hadn’t Observations
thought of. Brainstorming and carrying out market As part of your observations, you could:
research such as speaking to users, trying out products
• watch someone’s routine (for example, getting a child
and doing some internet research could help you to to go to sleep)
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narrow down your area.
• watch someone use, or wear, a product, system or service.

Identifying User Requirements Positive – This student has

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provided clear primary research

Name – Alan George It is amazing to see how weathered the paint looks in such a short
Age – 56 space of time – I love how they look when they are freshly painted!
What is your occupation? Things to improve – It would
I am the postman for Duporth in St Austell and I
be useful for this student
have done this job for the last 36 years. I empty all
the postboxes in the local area each day. to include an interview with
someone who regularly/
How has your job changed in the past 36 years? irregularly uses postboxes for
I have noticed a real decline in the amount of letters being posted each their valued opinions, too.
day over the past 36 years. I used to empty lots of postboxes twice
a day and now the amount of postboxes has been reduced and the Overall conclusions:
collections have been minimised. It was really interesting speaking to Alan the postman and hear his
experience in his job over the past 36 years and his thoughts on the
Student coursework
How do you think people could be encouraged to use the example page (1):
postal system? future of the postal system. From this I am going to do the following
things to help meet my users’ needs and wants: This student’s design
I think it would be interesting to see postboxes where they work in more
of an electronic way. Perhaps you could weigh your parcel and put the • Research into other postal methods, such as the Amazon lockers, problem revolves around
correct postage on at the actual postbox, rather than going to a post and look at some self-serving systems such as self-serve at the the declining use of the
library for library books and ATMs, as these could influence some
office where you are restricted with times. In a few years’ time, I wonder
of my design thoughts and increase the use of the postal system.
postal system. She has
whether postboxes might start to look more like the Amazon lockers that observed how a postman
are cropping up around the place. • Research into how to make the postal method that I choose user
friendly, as from my observations of him emptying the postbox, empties the postbox and
What problems do you find with the actual postbox? I could hear the squeaks of the metal inside and it was obvious interviewed him with
I often find that inconsiderate people have put litter inside of them and that Alan had to use a bit of force to open it up. carefully worded questions.
sometimes this can be dangerous things, such as used needles. I also find • Research into methods that could stop people selfishly dropping
litter in them while protecting our postmen and -ladies.
Who would you observe to
that they could all do with a good WD40 to stop them creaking so much!
understand your user?
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Component 2: Controlled Assessment

Ergonomic research Some information about arthritis

• There are many common symptoms of
Conclusion from the page:
Having researched the average
measurements of a female adult hand,
Positive – this student
has found out more
An imprint of an arthritis. They include swelling, pain, stiffness I have found out that: information about their
elderly person’s and a loss of motion in the joints. • My user has a roughly average-sized users’ arthritis condition and
hand on a jar lid • 1 in 5 people have arthritis over the age of 18. grip circumference of 189 mm. Using
after they have that data, and having seen how my researched anthropometric
held it. This will It is the UK’s number one cause of disability. user interacts with different sized jar measurements that will be
lids, I now know that the maximum
Grip length 109 mm
help identify • The Arthritis Foundation have an ‘Ease of diameter of the lid needs to be 70 mm essential to help design
Thumb width
where grip could Use’ mark that can be placed on products. for my user to comfortably open. This is a product that will be
19 mm be added. Companies that develop products designed smaller than for people without arthritis
comfortable for them to
188 mm

as I have found out that arthritis causes

Hand length
Grip width
for people with arthritis can apply for their joints to swell and, therefore, the full grip
175 mm
76 mm
product to be tested by a team of scientists to circumference will be harder to achieve.
use. A great piece of primary
see if it meets the requirements of a person • Much smaller jar lids, such as the research was observing an
Anthropometric data for with arthritis. example in image A, were too elderly person opening a
an average woman’s hand uncomfortable to open.
• Each product is evaluated against a number • It is also amazing to see the vast range of different jars with
of ‘pass’ or ‘fail’ requirements. amount of people who suffer from varying diameters for lids.
arthritis, which shows the huge
• The scientists assess and establish user tasks impact that a solution to my design
based on how someone with arthritis might problem could have.
use a product. This includes the point from • I need to start to think about products
which from the product is purchased- how that successfully use grips, such as
bike handles, and consider how I Things to improve – this
might they remove the product from the
packaging?
may incorporate this into my design
solutions. I therefore want to research
student could repeat the
materials that enable a hand to grip in testing with different-
• As well as scientists, a group of people who more detail.
have arthritis also evaluate the product for shaped lids, too, as perhaps

FT
• The Arthritis Foundation has an Ease
grip, torque and muscle strength, endurance, of Use mark – this has provided a she might have come across
pinch force and range of motion. After using good place to test my product once
it has been manufactured. I will try
certain shapes that would be
Products that use the product, they are questioned by the this with my gran who suffers from easier for people suffering
Anthropometric data of the hand effective grip scientists in an interview. arthritis. from arthritis to twist.

Student coursework example page (2): This student’s design problem revolved around creating a set of storage
units for items in the kitchen that could be opened and closed easily by elderly people suffering from arthritis
A
Interviewing a particular user or user group These will all vary depending on the problem that you are
Before interviewing, think carefully about what you would trying to solve. Remember to record these findings, as it
like to find out and what would be beneficial to know shows that you are understanding the problem through
or understand in order for you to generate ideas and your users’ eyes and consequently helps you to design and
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solutions. Use these thoughts to help you carefully word make your product according to their needs.
pre-prepared questions but also be ready to improvise
depending on the responses from the interview.
Investigating existing products
Think of your mobile phone. There are many competitor
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Is form or function more important? mobile devices on the market today, differing in size,
Some people think that form (how a product looks) is camera capability, apps, storage and so on. Brands such
more important than function (how a product works), as Apple, Samsung and Motorola constantly look at each
some people think the other way around and some other’s products to try to make their own products more
people think that they carry equal weighting. appealing than their competitors’. It is important for them
to know what is already out there, their prices, functions,
For example, the gold-plated version of the Alessi lemon customer opinions and so on. You need to do exactly the
squeezer called the Juicy Salif corroded with lemon same. Ask yourself these questions:
juice – Philippe Starck (an Alessi designer) was quoted
• What have designers done in the past that was
saying that ‘it was not meant to squeeze lemons’ but ‘to
successful/unsuccessful?
start conversations’. The Juicy Salif costs approximately
• What products do current designers have on the
£50, whereas, in contrast, a plastic lemon squeezer can
market/who is your competition?
be bought from a pound shop. The £1 lemon squeezer
would squeeze lemons perfectly, while not corroding, • What are the current trends, such as vintage fashion?
could be seen as inferior with regard to aesthetics. Is • What are their prices? Are they good value for money?
form or function more important to your user/s? • What is good/bad about their products?
• What are their customer reviews like?
User research
• What other products could also influence your design?
You may need to research conditions that affect your For instance, one that uses a similar mechanism that
user, such as arthritis, disabilities, colour blindness or could apply to your design solution.
allergic reactions.
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 Investigation

Try to look at as many existing products in the flesh o Different options, such as choices of switches –
as possible. Picking up the products, feeling them and slide/push/toggle
testing them will give you the hands-on feel that your user o Different fastenings, for example hook and look
will experience. As you work through these questions, keep fasteners, poppers or zips.
in mind who your user is and what their opinion would be
• How has the product been assembled, for example
on each of these points – if you don’t know then ask them.
use of linings or bias binding?
Record this through images and words.
• What materials have been used and could this
Product disassembly influence your design ideas?
It is always fascinating to have a look inside a product, • What could you learn from this product for your
as you can learn a lot about materials, components and design ideas?
fixings. Try to find a product that could be useful to your
scenario to take apart. Ask yourself: Research strategies
Depending on your chosen scenario and design
• What components/fixings would you need to include
question, your design research may go in different
in your solution? What constraints will they give you
directions compared with others in your class. This is
on size?

FT
perfectly normal and makes the whole process more
o Essential internal components and their relevant interesting. The following table provides possible
sizes, e.g. bulb, battery. suggestions, but you may find other things/routes that
• What options/limitations will you have? you could also find out more about, such as market
research (see page 315).

Investigating existing products

A
INTRODUCTION
I am investigating the design scenario of ‘creating alternative play spaces for
Positive – this student
young children’. I have found three different products that I would like to look into has managed to analyse
with more depth and gain my customer’s opinion from. My customer is Leanne three different products
Ashworth, mother to two-year-old Michael Ashworth.
and consider how they
This tepee costs £129.99 and is sold on the teepeeeforfun website. It is similar to CUSTOMER OPINION ‘I like the look of it, would appeal to her
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many sold on websites such as Not on the High Street or Etsy. The average price however, with tepees like this, I have found
is £100 for them but they go up to £250+. I personally feel that this is extortionate, that they often fall over, especially if Michael customer. This has
however, some customers are prepared to pay this for a customised tepee. As pushes/runs into/knocks one of the poles. informed her design
shown by the customer review, ___% of people have rated it as 5/5 and __% as 4/5, I would not be happy going out of the room and requirements.
therefore customers do seem happy with it. The lights look really effective in the dark leaving him in there just to nip to the toilet in
and this could be a lovely little hideout for young children. I would definitely consider case it fell on top of him. I also think Michael
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using lights in one of my design solutions, although I will need to be careful with the would appreciate it being more “boyish” and
batteries around children and the potential heat from bulbs/LEDs. The five poles make ideally I would like it to have a base.’
the space inside larger for play, however, this might limit people with smaller rooms.

59% of people have rated this 5/5 and 34% have rated it 4/5. CUSTOMER OPINION ‘I love the colours and I think
Improvements – to take
Michael really would too. I understand the polyester this one step further, it
The child’s teepee cost £30 and is sold in ______. Rather than the fabric material can be wiped clean, I liked how the poles would have been good
tepee above, it is made using polyester material. This is a good idea, could be taken off the tepee and the fabric popped in
as it means that it can be wiped clean easily, but I do not like the feel to see the products in
the wash for a thorough cleaning.’
of the plastic and I personally feel that it makes it look cheap. I like the the flesh with Michael
native-American inspired pattern and I think that a theme is important to testing each of them
include for the child.
out, rather than using
The Eden Project has inspired to CUSTOMER OPINION ‘Although I have not been to the Eden Project with Michael,
think about a play place/den for a I have been with my husband Adam and we were equally amazed about the
images from the
young boy. The domes allow a large fantastic spaces created. I think that this would be a great idea although it would internet.
amount of light in and create a warm be harder to incorporate a theme into it, which I know Michael would love. I think
atmosphere inside while aesthetically we would be more likely to use it inside than outside, due to our limited garden
they look amazing. I am thinking that space. So being able to deflate/inflate it would not be a huge selling point to myself.’
perhaps a blow-up play place could
be created. This would allow it to be OVERALL FINDINGS
deflated and stored when not in use, Having looked carefully at three different products from my own perspective and my customer’s
but it could also be transported easily perspective, I have come to the following conclusions for my design requirements:
into different rooms and the garden. • Must be capable of being disassembled and put in the washing machine
It would also be wiped clean. • Must incorporate a theme suitable to my user (I need to do some investigation into potential themes)
• Must not topple over if the child accidentally or non-accidentally walks/pushes into it.

Student coursework example page (3): This student’s design scenario revolved around creating alternative
play spaces for young children

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment

Things you may need to research

Material choices • Suitable materials for different parts and purposes, for example rubber for grips on
handles and blackout linings (see section x)
• Smart materials, including thermochromic and glow in the dark materials
Different technologies Fingerprint sensor, password or eye retina recognition
Aesthetics Colours that appeal to certain user groups, like primary colours for children
Colours for dangers/warnings/hazards
Textures
Biomimicry Inspiring mechanisms found in nature, such as the pitcher plant that eats insects
Sustainability issues Energy sources: solar power, wind-up power or rechargeable batteries
Recycled materials
How could the product be repaired/recycled/reused at the end of its life?

FT
Sizes • Dimensions of existing products/related products/components
• Size constraints of places for the product to be stored
Laws that may be Safety standards, flammable/toxic materials
relevant
Packaging • How does the product reach its user?
A
• How is the product protected from damage?
• How is the product marketed to its user?
• How can you reduce the ecological footprint of the product?
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Table CA2.1 Areas to research

Key term Design brief

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You will need to write a design brief based on the findings of your
Biomimicry: how products/
investigation. This is a short statement that identifies what you plan to
materials take inspiration from
do, for whom, where it will be used and why you have chosen to follow
nature. For instance, Velcro® was
this route.
developed from the tiny little
hooks found at the end of the
cocklebur flowering plant after
I am designing a working space for som
the inventor George de Mestral e teenagers’
bedrooms to encourage them to revise
found them attached to his dog and help them
following a hunting trip. to achieve high marks in their exams.

Product specification
Your specification is a list of design requirements from your research that
are realistic, technical, measurable and justified. The requirements will focus
on what your product has to do to be successful. You will use them to assess
and re-work your ideas throughout the iterative design process and to
evaluate the success of your final prototype.

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 Investigation

To strengthen your specification, you will need to justify your requirements

with reasons and ideas from your research. For example: My product must be able to hold
three AA batteries as shown from
The requirement to hold three AA batteries is a measurable part – if one
of your designs is only big enough to hold two batteries then it will not be
my product disassembly. These
fulfilling your specification. must be securely contained in a
screwed compartment as my user’s
The student example below refers to their product disassembly and their mother told me that he likes to
user interview. try to take his toys apart.
Apply it
Have a go at finishing these sentences:
• My design must enable a child to play, interact, create movement and
create sound because…
• My design must appeal to a 3- to 6-year-old and a parent… Key terms
• My design should be no bigger than 150 mm × 150 mm… Function: relates to the way in

FT
Writing your own specification
Use the ideas bank below to help you write your design requirements.
Your product specification needs to consider the points in Table CA2.2.
It is sometimes useful to start off the sentences using ‘my product must/
which something works.
Ergonomics: how anthropometric
data is used to make a product
more comfortable for its user.
Form: relates to the way that
A
should/could’: something looks.

Considerations My product must/should/could:

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Function and • What are you designing and why? Example: My product must be able to
performance • What will your product do that makes it different be seen clearly in the dark so that
from others on the market? users can tell the time when they
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• Where will the product be used and how will it wake up in the middle of the night.
endure the conditions?
Customer/ • Who are you designing your product for (age Example: My product must appeal
user range/size of customer/customer likes/dislikes/ to elderly people aged 70+ who
ergonomics) and why? suffer from arthritis and movement
• User/buyer: Is the person who is going to buy it restrictions.
different to the person going to use it? What do It should help them to open jars
they both require from this product and how can
easily and efficiently.
you meet their needs?
Form/ • What could your product look like/represent? Example: My product could represent
aesthetics • Think about colour/pattern/texture/smell/taste/ a cartoon animal to appeal to the
design style/era. 8-year-old child.
It must not look scary so that the
child is not scared of being alone in
their room.
Table CA2.2 Developing your product Cont…

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment

Considerations My product must/should/could:

Cost/scale of • How much should your product cost to make? Why? Example: My product should cost
production Think about scale of production: batch/mass/one-off. no more than £20 otherwise it
• How much should your product cost to sell? Why? Think will be unaffordable to a typical
about affordability/value/profit margins. average family, as shown in my user
research.
• Where would it be sold? High street store, specialist
shop or internet site. It will be sold in mainstream
toyshops, such as Toys R Us, that
attract families to the store.
Environment/ • Is it refillable? For example with batteries/liquid – are Example: My product must have
sustainability these easy to access? the batteries easily accessible so
• Can the product change with the customer’s age or that my customer can change the
needs (for example some highchairs convert into a batteries without having to replace
toddler chair)? the whole product.

FT
• How could it be disposed of or recycled at the end of its
life? Is it easy to disassemble to then sort for recycling?
Safety • What do you need to consider in the design of your Example: My product must have all
precautions product? (For example sharp edges/loose parts/choking of its electronics hidden away and
hazards/accessible electronic parts/allergic reactions/non- not accessible to small children, so
toxic paint for children’s toys/flammable textiles/parts that they do not harm themselves.
A
that produce heat and therefore shouldn’t be covered.)
• What do you need to consider in the use of your
product? Think about age limits or instructions to
R
prevent harm.
Size • Dimensions – cm/mm/m/weight/storage capacity (for Example: My product must fold
example, to hold 12 pencils) away to half the size to fit in the
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• Anthropometrics and ergonomics: is the size cupboard underneath a bedside

appropriate to the client? Can it be held easily? Will it fit cabinet (540 × 400 × 450 mm) so
your customer? that it can be stored easily in my
customer’s cluttered room.
• Is it foldaway/expandable? Where can it be stored?
Materials and • What materials will you use and why? Polymers/metals/ Example: My product will be used
components woods/ceramics/fabrics outside so must be waterproof and
• Will your materials need protecting? Varnishing/dip be able to withstand all weather
coating/painting? conditions without ageing. It
should be easy to clean due to
• Where will your product be used? Waterproof, sturdy,
animals in the garden and birds
ability to be wiped/cleaned/washed.
flying over.
• BOP parts (bought-out parts, such as nuts, bolts, zips,
poppers, buttons)
Table CA2.2 Developing your product

Key term
BOP: bought-out parts from a supplier, e.g. screws, nuts and bolts.

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 Investigation

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Identify a clear problem to solve and sum this up in your design brief.
• Research your users’ needs and wants.
• Analyse existing products and carry out any other relevant research.
• Use your research to write a justified specification.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Is your research specifically relevant to your design scenario and design question?
S2 Have you found out something about your design scenario or question that you did not know before?
S3 Is there anything that you found out from your research that you could use to strengthen your design

FT
requirements in your specification, for example, it needs to include a grip on the lid, as my user said that they
most often use the product in the kitchen after washing their hands.
Challenge
C1 Have you included measurable user and design requirements that can be easily tested?
C2 Have you justified your user and design requirements against your research?
A
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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Design
Getting started
This is the creative part of the project where you have the wonderful opportunity to solve your user’s problems
through creative ideas. Think carefully about:
• What would your user like?
• How can you respond to your user and design requirements from your design brief and specification?
Investigate a variety of design approaches that designers might use when coming up with design ideas. To support
your investigation, refer to Section 1.16.

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how to use your research to help you come up with a range of creative design ideas
• how to address your design and user requirements from your specification at all stages

final concept.

Design ideas
FT
• how to use a range of communication techniques to model and develop your ideas into a tested and modified

• systems and schematic diagrams

A
‘If you always do what you always did then you’ll • computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided
always get what you always got…’ Henry Ford, manufacture, such as laser cutting/3D printing
industrial designer and founder of the Ford • exploded views to show how things fit together.
Motor Company
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Try to use a mixture of communication techniques.
Let your imagination take over and do not let the issue However, you may feel that either your own personal
of ‘how’ constrain your initial thoughts – some ideas strengths or the style of your project will suit certain
might seem a little far-fetched but what you learn from strategies more than others.
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these may help you to build stronger ideas later on. You
will consider the detail and practicality in more depth Link it up
when you start to develop your ideas.
For more information on how to communicate your
How can I communicate my ideas? design ideas, see page 68–76.
There are many strategies that you can use to
communicate your design ideas, your development and Annotations
your final concept such as: To get top marks for communicating your design
• freehand sketching (2D and/or 3D) ideas, you will need to add lots of annotations. The
• cut and paste techniques annotations will help you to explain your ideas and will
• digital photography/media enable anyone looking at your work to understand your
ideas without the need to speak to you. Always respond
• 3D models
to your design brief, address the design requirements
• isometric and oblique projection from your specification and refer to your research.
• perspective drawing The table on page 323 gives a list of things to think
• orthographic and exploded views about including when communicating and annotating
your designs.

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 Design

DESIGN IDEAS NEED TO CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING: From the audience, they would see the Positive – This
top of the parasol that would look like
• My design must clearly represent Japan in the opening ceremony of the Olympics the Japanese flag with a red circular is a strong
in Tokyo 2020. centre made up of sewn-in LEDs to example showing
• My design must be easy to wear/change for the performers. make it stand out.
• My design must provide a ‘wow’ and be clear for both the live and TV audience.
freehand sketched
development using
The Japanese flag, fan and parasol Cherry blossom is a symbolic Japanese detailed annotations
are recognisable symbols of Japan. flower, which is celebrated between
The fan could March to April in the festival of Hanami. which consider both
I could combine all three. then turn into the user and design
a parasol by The cherry blossom pattern
an internal requirements, and
could be incorporated into a
extendable pole simple wrap version of the are also clearly based
handle, however, traditional-style kimono that on the student’s
this could be could be slipped off their
tricky during a research.
shoulders and placed over their
performance. heads or onto the floor, creating
a mass of cherry blossom to
Lanterns are a traditional the audience. As long as the
symbol of Japan and wrap would be held in place Things to improve
are used in the yearly manually or by a simple clip,
or hook and loop fasteners – – The student could
Nihonmatsu Chochin
Matsuri Lantern Festival. this would be easy for the provide annotations
performers to change out of. that relate to more of
the user specification
A simple head-dress of different-shaped and
coloured lanterns could be worn by a range of requirements. This
people of different heights to create a mass could be done by

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It could start off as
the performers are of lanterns to the audience – the lanterns recording actual
fanning themselves with bulbs inside would light up the whole
arena. The bulbs could be turned on by the feedback from their
while dressed in user through the
traditional Japanese performers and the colour of the bulb could
kimono outfits. vary between performers. The performers annotations.
could move around so that the colours of the
bulbs create the Olympic symbol.

Student coursework example page (1): student example showing outfit design ideas for the Olympic opening
A
ceremony in Tokyo 2020

Checklist
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How does it respond to your design brief?

How does it meet the points in your specification? If it does not, then why and how could you modify it?
D

How would it achieve the function(s) that you intended?

What are the positives/negatives of each design?

Does it appeal to your user/customer?

• Ergonomics: would your user be able to use/operate/wear it comfortably?
• Does it appeal to your user’s cultural values?

Would it be possible within the budget that you have set yourself/the price that you would like it to be sold at?

What are your thoughts on potential materials/components/processes and techniques?

Would it be sustainable?
• Materials
• Sustainable sources of energy (solar/wind-up)
• Could it be recycled? Easily dismantled?

Is it an idea to take forward? Or would part of it be an idea to take forward?

Table CA2.3 Checklist of things to show/consider when communicating your ideas

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Review of initial ideas You should have annotated user and specification
Choosing which design to take forward can sometimes requirements in your design ideas, but you could spend
some time analysing a few of your most successful ideas.
be more difficult than coming up with the design ideas
This could be presented in a table like the student example.
themselves. This is where you will need to take feedback
You may be surprised at which ideas come out more
and advice from your user, reflect on your design brief
positively measured against your design requirements
and be objective on the design requirements decisions
or you might notice that elements of each design could
that you made in your design specification. Try to do
be used to make one really successful idea. These design
this throughout the whole designing process and do not
decisions will then help you to modify both your ideas and
be afraid to rethink at any stage.
thought process when you go on to develop your design.

Specification points Design 3 – Design 7 – Design 10 –

The alert cone The buzzing watch The pre-recording
FUNCTION – My product This design idea has a The receiver to this design This idea detects the sound
must be able to detect large red LED that flashes idea is a small buzzer of the baby, but sets off a
noise from a baby’s room ON/OFF ten times every that can either be worn pre-recorded sound saying
and alert the parents so time a noise is received as a watch or can go in something like: ‘Henry is

FT
that the parents can feel through the monitor. It your pocket. The vibration awake and needs feeding!
comfortable doing their own will also relay the noise would alert you to a noise This could help put a light-
thing (for example a dinner made from the baby. from the baby’s room. hearted side to the baby
party), in the knowledge waking up, especially with
that their monitor will being able to customise the
detect any problems. recording.
A
AESTHETICS – My product The vacuum-formed case This design would not be This design looks like a little
must be easily seen and represents a large red seen easily but would be cartoon baby with the sound
found in a messy, child- alert button. This will hard to lose if attached to coming from the baby’s
friendly house so that it stand out in most rooms the parent. It is discreet mouth. It can be customised
R
does not get lost. and is unlikely to get lost if other people are around. by the slot behind the see-
in the surroundings. through baby’s head where a
picture of your baby can be
included.
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USER OPINION I think this design will I like this idea as I am I like this idea as we
stand out in my house, less likely to leave it could change the recording
especially with the flashing around the house, although and have a bit of a giggle
LEDs, but I feel that it is I would like to know how with it, although again
a bit of an eyesore. much the baby is crying – I would like to hear the
is it just a whimper or a type of cry too.
distressed cry? This design
would not enable me to
do this.
Table CA2.4 Part of a student example page where the
student is creating an electronic product to detect noise from
a baby’s room Things to improve – The student goes on to talk
about each requirement from their specification,
Positive – This is a strong page as the student has however, including a row about the positives that
analysed three of their designs against the design they want to take forward from each design could
requirements in their specification alongside feedback. help to strengthen their analysis.

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 Design

Developing your design

evaluate your new developmental ideas – the more
Apply it
you do this, the more successful your design will be.
Dyson has always encouraged his designers to
Do not be afraid to ‘go back to the drawing board’ as this
think of the design process as a cycle, rather than
is part of the iterative design process as we talked about
a straight line. When designing the DC01 vacuum
in the introduction to Component 2. Have a think about
cleaner, Dyson produced 5,127 different prototypes what your developmental research should involve.
that didn’t work, but rather than giving up, he used
his findings to help him with the next model. Try to Checklist for developmental research
take the same approach with your ideas – don’t be • Does your design respond correctly to your
afraid to keep going back to the drawing board! design brief?
• What design requirements from your specification
does your design not meet?
• What do you need to do/find out to enable all the
requirements to be met?

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• Could you merge successful features from other
design ideas?
• How will it actually work? Think about:
o Mechanisms

o Ways of opening

o Ways of moving/spraying
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o What electronic parts will you will need?

o Joining/assembly, such as glue, fixings, hook and

loop fasteners, clips, hooks

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o Components – which ones would you buy (BOP)?

Examples could include timers, bulbs, hook and

One of the many prototypes for the later DC22 Dyson vacuum made loop fasteners, poppers
from a mixture of card and existing parts from previous machines
D

o Internal sketches, such as hollow parts to contain

certain parts, hidden seams

o Specific materials.
Considering user group needs and
preferences • How would it be manufactured? Think about:
o Processes – for example CAM
You now arrive at the exciting part of developing and
o Techniques – such as jigs, templates or patterns.
experimenting with one or several parts of your ideas
so to develop a working prototype. You will start to • How could it appeal to your user more?
ask yourself questions about the practicalities of your o Aesthetics

designs and this will highlight new problems/obstacles/ o Is there anything else that you need to find out

opportunities that you will need to research. Use a about your user?
variety of methods such as drawing, modelling and CAD o Ergonomics – could it be made easier to pick up, for

alongside additional research to allow you to explore, example?

modify and strengthen your ideas just like Dyson. o Positioning and fitting: where to place handles, zips,

It is really important that you incorporate the buttons.

valuable user feedback from your design decisions • Sustainability issues
and continually use them to help you generate and • Safety/BSI standards.

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Positive – This is an
1 This is where people will 2 After conducting some further
queue up to pay in the shoe research into clean and creative
example of a strong
shop. I have added footprints children’s toys, I came across the design development
for the children who are bored Doodle Mat. It meets many of my that combines
in the queue to doodle on. user and design requirements research, sketches and
My initial thoughts were to as it allows children to draw with annotations to take the
use ordinary marker pens on pens that are filled only with water,
a whiteboard or chalks on a meaning that they are non-toxic student’s ideas forward
chalk board, however, my user so not harmful to the kids or the whilst referring to
suggested that their children products in the store! The marks the design and user
might end up drawing on disappear after 5–10 minutes so requirements.
things that they shouldn’t. the mat does not need to be wiped
or cleaned after.
4 Instead of having the pens
dangling off I could create a
little slot in the heel of the foot Improvements – The
where the pen slots into so that student could include
it can be safely stored in an research about suitable
aesthetically pleasing way.
and safe lengths of
3
a These pens are often found in places such as banks to ensure that b I could use something like elastic or a chain or a cord for the pens to
people do not run off with the pens. I need to do something like this to shoe lace to attach to the water pens. I will need be attached to. Could
ensure that the water pens are not taken by the children. It would also to research into suitable lengths so that I meet my the student be more
meet my user requirement about not creating extra work or cleaning design requirement of being safe for children in case creative in the design
for employees. of cords causing strangulation.
of the pen?

FT
Student coursework example page (2): a student example showing ways to develop a concept for a shoe shop
store counter that helps prevent queuing children becoming bored and misbehaving in a shop

Testing
A successful way to develop your ideas is to model
and test them out as prototypes. Prototyping could
to interact with the model. For example, is it easy
enough to pick up/open/fit/move around or is it a
little awkward? Remember to take pictures of your
model at each stage as proof of your thinking. Record
A
be through materials such as paper, fabric, cardboard, your user’s responses and use this feedback to adapt
Styrofoam, high-impact polystyrene and other your model or draw the adjustments on top of one of
traditional materials, or through computer modelling, the photographs – both are great examples of further
3D printer models and simulations. Sometimes seeing
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development. Remember to annotate your pictures and
the idea in full size and 3D allows you and your user your adaptations to clearly show your thinking.
D

Positive – This student

has created a physical
model to explore sizes/
joints/materials and
asked for user feedback
to develop it further.

3. The toilet tube does 4. I tried a hook and loop fastener 5. So, I created a slot-in section in
2. At first, I used a toilet roll tube as the handle.
not hold the cling film at the bottom, however, my user MDF using the forstner drill and
However, I replaced this with a cling film tube – the
pole straight inside the disliked the noise it made when this works better – I then added
diameter is narrower and my user found it easier to
flower pot. removing the flower torch from the a supporting Styrofoam rim and
hold on to, so I need to think about the diameter of
pot and it doesn’t seem very secure. this works well. Perhaps I could
the material I choose to use here – options could be
use a magnet at the bottom, too.
acrylic tubing or a wooden dowel/pole.
Improvements – It
1. The flower needs to contain 6. I then put plasticine on the cling would be good to see
the electronics – perhaps a 3D film tube and asked my user to hold a picture of the model
printed flower or a vacuum- it again – the Plasticine allowed the
formed flower with hollow user’s hand to indent so that I can in the environment (for
space inside for electronics. see how it is being held. I want to try example, a bedside
The thermoplastic (ABS) for and make it more comfortable for the cabinet in a child’s
the 3D printer would make the user to hold. Potential options could room). Modelling using
product very expensive. be to use polymorph as grips or to the vacuum former for
The vacuum forming would create indentations by filing my actual the flower would show
be the cheaper option. product – I shall do some developmental
research into possible materials. further development.

Student coursework example page (3a): student example showing the developmental model of a nightlight/lamp that turns
into a torch to help stop children being scared of the dark and enabling them to navigate to the toilet in the middle of the night
326
 Design

Final concept • materials

o mathematical calculations of quantities
Once you have modified your design, taking into
o technical details of materials
account your user feedback, you will have a finalised
design. This will have evolved from your design brief, • processes/manufacturing techniques
user and design requirements. • components.
You now need to present your final concept using a To allow your final concept to gain a strong mark, you
mixture of the communication techniques discussed will need to evaluate your final concept effectively and
on page 322. You will also need to show clear details review the modifications that you made to it including
of the following: feedback from your user(s).

Here it is being held as

LEDs in Miniature Edison a torch to help young
petals screw (MES) bulb children find their way Vacuum-formed flower 1 × MES bulb in the
in centre to the toilet in the created from laser-cut centre of the flower,
middle of the night 6 × LEDs in MDF which will shine
each petal through the 0.5 mm

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Vacuum- thick HIPS
formed
flower head
in red HIPS

3D printer ABS
bee holding the
light-dependent
resistor (LDR)
A
Green acrylic
tubing for the This zoom-in shows the 2 × toggle switches on 3D printer ABS bee with space
stem ergonomic indents to be the back to turn each of for the LDR to fit through
created by filing to enable the whole circuits ON/ it – this will detect the dark
the torch to be held easily OFF. 1 circuit for MES and the LEDs will turn on. The
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bulb, 1 circuit for 6 LEDs MES bulb can be turned on
manually so as not to be too
Use a Forstner drill to create a slot for the 2 × 3 V button batteries bright unless required
acrylic tubing to be placed inside
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Base lathed out of a mixture of

different-coloured hardwoods laminated
together by wood glue toggle LDR
switches

Magnets at the bottom of the hole drilled with

a Forstner bit and also sunk into the end of the
acrylic tubing, to enable the torch to stay safely MES bulb
in the pot when used as a lamp/nightlight, LED
but also allowing it to be easily removed in the
middle of the night by a small child

Student coursework example page

Positive – Following the Improvements – This student needs to ensure
(3b): student example showing the final example in the prototyping, that they detail all calculations for quantities of
concept for a bedside light this student has gone on to materials and provide an effective analysis against
produce their final concept their specification and user requirements. This
through annotated drawings would need to be done on an additional page due
and CAD models. to the extent of their drawings and CAD models.

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment

Summary
Key points to remember:
• Come up with lots of design ideas creatively and communicate them in a variety of ways.
• Always refer back to your user and design requirements from your design brief and specification
through annotations.
• Use added research to help you to modify and develop your design ideas.
• Test your ideas using 3D models and simulations.
• Present a final concept with details of materials, components and plans for manufacture.
• Do not be afraid to rework your ideas throughout the iterative design process.

Checkpoint
Strengthen

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S1 Have you fully considered the design brief, user requirements and the specification requirements in
your designs?
S2 Have you used your research to develop your designs?
S3 Have you used a variety of 2D, 3D and CAD modelling techniques to develop your design?
Challenge
A
C1 Is it clear how your product could be made in terms of materials and manufacturing processes?
C2 Could anyone understand your ideas from your portfolio without the need to speak to you in person?
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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Make
Getting started
This is the hands-on part of the project where you have the opportunity to manufacture the design that you have
developed. Think carefully about:
• what materials and processes will be the most suitable for your project
• how you can ensure that you manufacture a quality prototype.
Have a look around your school workshop. Do you know what every machine does? If not, then find out – perhaps
it could help you to develop how your design is going to be made.

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:
• how to manufacture a successful and working prototype that meets your user and design requirements

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• how to carefully select suitable materials and processes
• how to demonstrate accuracy and how to stay safe throughout the manufacturing process
• how to present all of the above using photos and annotations.

Manufacturing think it is the most suitable material for your design,

A
This is your opportunity to produce either a full-sized and you must demonstrate your mathematical skills
product, scaled working model(s) or a functioning when deciding on the quantities you will require. Talk
system. This will depend on the problem you are solving through your plans with your teacher before going
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and the design development that you have produced. ahead to ensure that you have access to the appropriate
It will need to be fully functioning and meet your user materials and manufacturing processes.
needs and design requirements from your specification.
You will need to use a wide range of competent making Manufacturing processes
D

skills with precision and accuracy to carefully assemble While selecting your materials you need to think about
and then finish your prototype to a high quality. You will the following:
go on to use this product/prototype to test and evaluate • marking-out tools/hand tools/machinery
your ideas against your user and design requirements. • techniques
• fixtures, templates, jigs, patterns
Material selection • components
You can use a range of materials such as: • surface treatments and finishes
• woods • assembly
• metals • quality.
• plastics Each material will require different considerations.
Use the information specific to the material you are
• fabrics
using (see core section, pages 2–77) to help you select
• electronic components appropriately for your prototype.
• papers and boards.
You must select which materials to use that are fully Planning your manufacture
appropriate for your chosen prototype. You need to Using your final concept, you may wish to plan your
show your understanding of material properties clearly manufacture before commencing. Have a think about
when choosing your materials, to make it clear why you the timescale that your teacher has given you – would

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
it be possible to manufacture your prototype? Consider Safe manufacture
the following: Your teacher and technician can advise you on safe
• What processes will you use? working practices at any time in your manufacture – do
• Which rooms/facilities will you be able to use in which not be afraid to ask them. Through your manufacture
lessons? log, you should be able to demonstrate how you are
• Will you need to allow time for things to dry/set? For staying safe, this could be through a mixture of safety
example paints, epoxy resins. precautions such as:
• Will you need to allow order and delivery times for • wearing goggles/aprons/heatproof gloves when
any materials? appropriate
• Will you need to build/make any jigs/templates/patterns • tying back hair/loose clothing
to enable you to make your prototype accurately? • using extraction/ventilation with certain machines/
• How much time will you need to assemble it? tools/processes
• Have you factored in enough time to get the accurate • using guards with certain machines/tools
and quality finish that you would like? • setting up your area safely; for example, keeping
Plan your time wisely; for example, do not paint your wires out of the way from soldering irons.
prototype at the start of the lesson if it means that
Quality assurance

FT
you have nothing else to do for the rest of the lesson
because you are waiting for it to dry. Could you do Quality checks help to ensure that you produce a
something else first? functioning and successful prototype. Examples
could be:
Manufacture log
• Accuracy in terms of
You must remember to take photographs at every single
o aesthetics
stage of the manufacture of your product. This is evidence
A
o correct assembly
that you have made the product by yourself and will also
o consistency between parts
show your understanding of materials, manufacturing
processes, accuracy and safety. Try to ensure that all • surface finishes
R
photographs are well lit and of a high resolution. These • is it going to function as intended?
photographs will need to be presented in the correct order • choice of materials
in your portfolio accompanied by short explanations: • testing components using multimeters or logic
probes to check that they produce the correct
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Photo explanations checklist: outputs within a circuit.

☐ What are you doing in the photo/what stage are While carrying out your quality checks, we would
you at? be surprised if you did not encounter problems
☐ What materials have you selected and why? throughout the manufacture. This does not mean
that you have failed, but might mean that you need
☐ What processes/tools are you using and why?
to re-look at your ideas/materials/processes and
☐ What CAD/CAM have you chosen to use and why?
make modifications. This is all part of the iterative
☐ How are you being accurate, for example using design process, just make sure that it is recorded in
a drilling jig to help you drill in exactly the same your manufacturing log.
place in every piece of material (jigs/templates/
fixtures/patterns)?
Key terms
☐ How are you ensuring that you are staying safe?
Multimeters: an electronic measuring instrument
☐ What have you selected in terms of components
that can measure voltage, current and resistance. It
and fittings/surface treatments/finishes? is often used to find faults within circuits.
☐ How have you been sustainable in your manufacture? Logic probes: an electronic measuring instrument
☐ How is each stage helping to meet your user and that tests the logical states of a digital circuit to see
design requirements from your specification? whether a circuit is working correctly or not.

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 Make

Meeting the user’s requirements from the

specification highlighted in blue.
Accurate Making Log RED comments = how I am staying safe
BLUE comments = meeting my user requirements
marking out.
5. In order to get a quality finish and to make my
product look more realistic, I used the
Effective hand-held palm sander. I held it flat on each
of the surfaces of the shoe and evenly moved
selection of it over it while the sand paper vibrated. I tied
materials for my hair up, wore an apron and used a vacuum
the prototype. bag to extract all the dust into. I also used
the vertical sander for the front of the shoe
and then finally glass paper to achieve a high-
quality smooth finish.
1. I laminated an individual 2. I cut the main outline of 3. To create as much space
block of wood by gluing scrap the shoe using a tenon as possible for jewellery,
pieces of ash and oak together saw, however my teacher I drew an outline on 6. In order to vacuum form the mould for my Competent use of a variety of
to create a block 160 mm high helped cut some of the the front surface of the shoe’s heel successfully, I have added to the
heel’s original slanted base using plastercine to different machines and hand
and 175 mm wide. I chose to internal curves on the shoe. With help from my
use two hardwoods as I want band saw which I am teacher due to Health and give it a flat base and ensure that the heel can tools to create a quality finish.
to route a hole in it later. I unable to use due to Safety, I routed the sole stand upright when being vacuum formed and
then drew the shoe outline. Health and Safety laws. creating a space 2.5 cm in the HIPS can mould over the whole shape.
depth and 14 cm long.
Economic use of materials. 7. The teacher 8. After the 24 hours I ripped away the
poured the mould and the heel was set and strong.
4. I used a coping saw to cut off the heel from the shoe and began experimenting with crystal resin into It had a quality finish with a clear,
Experimentation creating a mould for the heel that I could pour crystal resin into to make a unique the mould for me smooth surface and after cutting the top
to create one-off heel. due to the fumes fits perfectly onto my shoe. I am really
I created a silicon mould by mixing the white and blue clay like materials and it was left in pleased as it has created a unique heel
an effective together, however, when this was set, it was really difficult to take the wooden heel a well-ventilated that could not be exactly replicated.
outcome, while out and the mould broke. area to dry
I then tried a tester mould (so as not to waste the crystal resin) in 2 mm thick for 24 hours. I
considering HIPS (High-Impact polystyrene). This worked well, however, the blue HIPS left a

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watched wearing Safe working practices
material slight tinge on the crystal resin and was very difficult to remove, being so thick. a face mask.
properties. From this I decided to vacuum form my heel using 1 mm thick white HIPS. highlighted in red.
I also tried another sample piece in a plastic cup with dolly mixtures in to see if
the crystal resin would still set and they would keep their colour – they did!

Student coursework example page (1): A design and technology student designed and made a bespoke jewellery stand for a young
woman who loves shoes and jewellery. This is a page of their Making Log, with clear annotated evidence of the skills that were used.

Final outcome
A
to take photographs from a range of angles showing
You will also need to show photographs of your details of all sides and features of your 3D outcome. You
final prototype/product to show that it is accurately should include detailed annotations against your user
assembled and finished to a high quality. Remember, and design requirements will clearly show that you have
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your portfolio will be sent to a moderator so be sure fulfilled your specification.
My Final Product
Positives – The
range of photos
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Chiselled and annotations

slots for show clearly how
the hinges the student has
met their user
requirements,
including the effect
Front view open and front
view with outside lights off of the product in
Internal view showing sublimation
printing for interior and clock face the dark.
Front view closed. with mechanism behind. Clock can
be seen with doors open or closed for
Electronics my user to tell the time when it is
hidden in on their bedside cabinet
the rafters Things to improve
– A picture of the
product being
used by the user
Colour-
Separated switches changing themselves and
for radio and night LED’s as a in the home
light and headphones nightlight environment would
Real sand wrap around the to create
from the safety life belt so a relaxed
have strengthened
beach. that they can be atmosphere this page.
neatly stored without for going to
getting tangled sleep

Student coursework example page (2): A design and technology student designed and made a beach hut night light, clock and
radio, with a headphones port, for a child who has trouble getting to sleep. They used a wide range of skills, including dowel
joints, laser cutting, sublimation printing, electronics, painting and chiselling.
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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Summary
Key points to remember:
• Carefully select your materials and manufacuring processes according to your user and design requirements.
• Plan your manufacturing so that you finish on time.
• Stay safe and check the quality of your product/prototype throughout manufacture.
• Record your manufacture processes and decisions through annotated photographs.
• Do not be afraid to rework your ideas throughout the iterative design process.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Have you fully considered your user and design requirements throughout your manufacture?
S2 Have you clearly shown your decision making and modifications through your manufacturing log?
S3 Have you taken high-quality photos of every angle of your prototype, showing clearly how it functions?
Challenge

FT
C1 Is your manufacturing log clear enough for a stranger to follow?
C2 Re-read your manufacturing log – have you gone into enough detail and depth?
C3 Have you used the correct terminology for different materials, tools and machinery? For example, HIPS instead
A
of plastic.
C4 Have you clearly shown how you have been accurate? For example, confident use of drilling jigs, measuring
depths of holes and so on.
R
D

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Evaluate
Getting started
You will need to be creative in generating individual ways to test and evaluate your product throughout the whole
iterative design process. Have a think about the following:
• Who could you ask to provide useful comments to evaluate your product?
• What creative ways could you come up with to test your product?
Investigate the difference in how designers test the following products:
• car scraper
• lava lamp
• wet suit
• pop-up book.

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you should know:

FT
• how to conduct suitable tests to evaluate your product
• how to evaluate your product/prototype against your user and design requirements
• how to assess the impact of your final prototype(s) on the environment.

Evaluation is not just a ‘tick the box’ exercise at the end. future developments. Different designers have different
A
Evaluation should have been continually carried out and approaches to evaluation and testing depending on
used to modify your ideas throughout the whole iterative the product that they manufacture, and this will be the
design process. As we approach the close of your project, same between you and others in your class. Be sure to
it is now your opportunity to evaluate your final product/ provide evidence of your testing, this could be through
R
prototype extensively and make suggestions for any photographs, quotes and written techniques.

Apply it
D

Dyson carries out a variety of tests on its products such as:

Obstacle course
To ensure that Dyson vacuum cleaners can endure the bumps and bashes of real life, Dyson have set up an all-day,
all-week obstacle course. Machines are knocked over, bashed into doors and skirting boards, and pushed down stairs!
Drop test
Dyson engineers drop their vacuum cleaners over and over again to test whether the finished product will still
work, if dropped on the floor by future users.
Life test
Dyson uses a process called highly accelerated life testing (HALT) over several days to test how its vacuum cleaners
will perform over their expected lifetime. One such test has a machine that pushes and pulls the prototypes at
a walking pace. This piece of equipment operates for more than 2 weeks, 24 hours a day, allowing the vacuum
cleaners to travel more than 1,300 km. This enables Dyson engineers to decide on future improvements and
calculate a realistic lifetime for each product, which affects other decisions, such as length of guarantees.
You are unlikely to test your product/prototype to the extent that Dyson does with its vacuum cleaners.
Think about what creative tests you could do at school/home to see whether your product achieves what you
set out to do in your specification.

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Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Analysing against your specification You could time each one and then compare times,
Using both your user and design requirements from their thoughts and your observations.
your specification, you need to carefully analyse and The dance outfit should fit a 10-year-old girl
evaluate your product/prototype to make sure that it
comfortably and enable them to move freely while
meets the specification.
performing a Latin-style dance. It should catch the
User requirements light using embellishments and electronics so as to
You now have a physical product or prototype to present stand out in a dance competition.
to your user for them to use/wear/interact with. Use
your user and design requirements to shape questions You could ask the user to perform a Latin-style
to either ask your user or user group. dance routine while wearing the outfit. Record
My product must appeal to elderly people aged 70+ your observations through photographs and
who suffer from arthritis and movement restrictions, written techniques with regard to fit and the
it should help them to open jars easily and efficiently. impact of the embellishments/electronics in the
dance show lighting. Ask for their thoughts on
You could gather a collection of different-sized jars comfort and their dance teacher’s thoughts on
and ask the user to open them a) firstly using

FT
the suitability at a dance competition.
without your product and b) with your product.
Pockets to hold Loops inside the top of the tepee Fabric matches curtains Pockets at the bottom
batteries for to feed fairy lights through and ‘H’ for Henry. to store books and
fairy lights sensory toys
A
Positive – This
student has
managed to
observe their
R
user (who is
too young to
talk) while
QUESTIONS TO PARENT (THE BUYER): he plays with
Does Henry enjoy playing in the tepee? What do you personally like about the tepee?
the product,
D

OBSERVATIONS Yes, Henry loves to go into his tepee and play I love the way that you listened to my views about
I gave the tepee to my auntie and with his toys in there. His favourite things are other tepees on the market as they all seem to fall alongside
her 15-month-old son Henry to keep dinosaurs, so we love the fabric that you down every time Henry bashes into them – whereas receiving
for a week and to test it out. I also managed to find. the way you have created a structured base with feedback from
watched Henry play in the tepee at bamboo canes is brilliant as it does not fall over
the start of the week and at the end How often does Henry play in the tepee? or topple over. I love the inside pockets with the their potential
of the week. His confidence had We put the tepee upstairs in his new bedroom for different textures and the fairy lights – he likes buyer – the
really grown by the end of the week a week and he played in there every time we were looking at them from inside but also loves to be parent.
and he was confidently exploring/ upstairs while I was doing jobs like sorting the held up so that he can see them from above. I also
playing with it independently. I felt washing. This was great for me as it allowed me love the way that you have incorporated the curtain
really bad taking it away from Henry to get some jobs done. fabric into the tepee as it goes so nicely with his
to bring back to school and have new big boy room.
promised he can have it back soon! OVERALL FINDINGS/
How does Henry play in the tepee? What would you change about the tepee?
From watching him – he seemed CONCLUSIONS
really proud to be playing in it and
We put some of his books and cuddly toys in the I would like you to add a peep window with a roll I am really happy with the feedback
proud to be reading his books
tepee and he goes in and plays with them. He also curtain over. from my targeted buyer and from
loves it when I hide inside and boo him! He loves
inside. He loved the fact that I could
running around the outside of it too! How much would you be prepared to pay for this tepee? the observations of my user Henry
also fit inside with him so we could Custom-made ones in the shop start at around playing with it. This interview clearly
play together. As you can see from £100 – I would be happy to pay this as I personally shows that I have met so many of
the pictures, he was fascinated What do you think about the lights? feel that it is so much better than the current ones my user and design requirements.
by the fairy lights when we turned As above I love them but also like the fact that around, due to the structured base. I also like the I agree that a window would have
off his bedroom lights – luckily the the batteries are hidden away in the secret pocket fact that it has an inbuilt fabric base and that the been a good addition to have and
battery pocket meant that he could and the loops enable the lights to not fall down bamboo canes can come out easily so that it can I think that I will make one before I
not get to the batteries. but stay in place. be washed. give Henry the actual tepee.

Student coursework example page: this student has carried out an effective user Things to improve – To get more reliable results it
requirements analysis by carefully wording questions to both the customer (the would be good to see a few different users interacting
parent) and the child (the user). They have also taken pictures of the user interacting with the tepee. The student could have considered
with the product while noting down personal observations taking the tepee to a children’s playgroup to provide a
range of different users and views.

334
 Evaluate

Testing to ensure fitness for purpose see whether the lights or LEDs switch on by
Just like Dyson, you will need to conduct a variety of themselves? Take pictures as your evidence.
tests under realistic conditions to ensure that your
product is fit for its purpose and meets both your user My product must fold up easily and fit underneath
and design requirements. Think about what these tests a standard single bed when not in use so that it
could be: can be stored easily.
My product should use an LDR to respond to Take your product to a home with a standard
the natural light fading so that a child does not single bed. Does it fit underneath? Take a
become scared of the dark. picture of it folded out, in the process of it being
folded, fully folded and then underneath the bed
Does the LDR work? Could you test this by as evidence. Did your user find it easy to fold?
putting the product in a dark cupboard to Observe, photograph and record their thoughts.

Specification points Evaluation of my finished product User feedback/testing Evidence

FUNCTION – My product My product has fulfilled this • Could fit four of her rings Testing a bracelet

FT
must help the user to specification requirement through onto the ring holder with and ring on the
comfortably hang and store three wire hangers that allow you space still left for more if she finished product.
a range of jewellery (such to hook necklaces and bracelets adds to her collection.
as rings/necklaces and on and prevent them from getting • Could hang four bracelets and
bracelets) to prevent them tangled. The hangers are also high four necklaces, still with space
from becoming tangled and/ enough for the jewellery to hang for more.
A
or broken. and not touch whatever surface the
• Commented, ‘I found it easy
product is on. Rings are also able
to hang and then remove
to be stored as there is a large ring
the jewellery from the stand
cushion inside the shoe.
R
without them tangling up’.
SIZE – My product should My product is 38 cm tall from When tested, the jewellery
fit onto a bedside table or the base of the shoe to the top of holder was placed on a desk in
D

desk, therefore it should the hanging wires, enabling the her bedroom. It didn’t take up
not be too large or take up majority of necklaces to be hung too much room but held enough
too much room. It should without touching the surface, but storage space for all of her
be no taller than 40 cm also without being excessively big. jewellery. Only one particularly
high, which would enable For future development, I would long necklace had to be looped
the majority of necklaces to add a row within the shoe which over twice so it did not touch
hang from it freely, without is slightly narrower so as to hold the desk.
touching the surface of the earrings easily without them
table or desk. falling out.
Table CA2.5 This student designed a jewellery storage product in the shape of a shoe. This is an extract of their
evaluation against their specification where they have analysed against each design and user requirement while
referring to the evidence from the testing. The comments in red show areas for future development

Sustainability
You will also need to evaluate the impact that your final Link it up
product/prototype has on the environment through
carrying out a life-cycle analysis (LCA). For more information on LCA, see page 61.

335
Component 2: Controlled Assessment
Think about the energies used and released in the life test, how would your product be maintained or
following stages from cradle to grave for each part of repaired? For example, does it have the ability to use
your product to assess its impact on the environment: rechargeable batteries that are easily accessible by
• Raw materials – Where have your materials the user so that the product can continue working?
originated from? For example certain plastics will • Disposal or recycling – Thinking ahead, what would
have come from crude oil. happen to your product at the end of its life? Could it
• Material processing – How were your raw materials be easily disassembled and sorted for recycling? Have
made into the actual material that you used? For you included recycling symbols to make this process
example, extrusion of PVC. easier for your user?
• Manufacture – How did you shape/join/finish/ Think carefully about each stage from cradle to grave of
embellish your raw materials? For example CAM your product. Where has your product/prototype had a
embroidery of designs. small or large environmental impact? If you could reduce
your environmental impact through the energies used or
• Distribution – If you were to make this product
released, which stage(s) would be the most appropriate?
on a larger scale, how would you distribute it to the
retailers?
Key term
• Product in use – Having observed your user

FT
interacting with your product, what impact could it Cradle to grave: the life cycle of the product from
have? For example, using batteries/mains/renewable the design stage to the disposal or recycling of the
sources of energy to power your product. product (i.e. from raw materials through materials
processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair
• Repair and maintenance of the product – Thinking
and maintenance, and disposal or recycling).
ahead like Dyson does with its highly accelerated
A
Summary
R
Key points to remember:
• Test and evaluate against all your user and design requirements.
• Provide evidence for each test and evalution that you carry out on your product/prototype – this could be
through photographs, quotes, observations etc.
D

• Your testing and evaluation might be very different to others in your class. This is a good sign as it shows that you
have adapted your evalution to suit your own product.
• Use LCA to evaluate the impact of your product/protoype on the environment.

Checkpoint
Strengthen
S1 Think carefully about the tests that you have carried out on your product/prototype. Are there any other rigorous
tests that could provide useful information for you to be able to evaluate?
S2 Have you thoroughly evaluated against each user and design requirement?
S3 Have you provided clear evidence in your portfolio from each of your tests?
Challenge
C1 Have you carefully considered the current and future impacts that your product/prototype has and could have on
the environment?
C2 Have you provided some mathematical data/results/measurements for some of your testing?

336
Index
Page numbers in bold indicate key term definitions.

3D carving 300 copper 209

drawing 70 casting 96, 99 corrosion 209
modelling 70, 75 challenges 58–61 cost factors 60, 91, 137, 176–7, 215,
printing 75, 195, 230 chemical treatments 267 251, 285–6
chiselling 299 cotton production 247
abrading 115, 193, 300 chuck 112 cradle to grave 336
adhesives 120, 195, 301 circuit 34 cranks and sliders 30
aesthetic factors 91, 136, 174, 214, symbols 206 critical evaluation 11–12
250, 283 cloud (or crowd) funding 4 crop marks 149, 150
allergenic 246 CNC 75 cross-sectional areas 97, 183
alloy 38 machines 106, 113, 190, 191, 197, 229, cultural and ethical factors 91, 138,
aluminium 88, 209 230, 295, 300 178–9, 215–16, 251–2, 286–7
amplifier 208 collaboration 66 culture 6–7
analogue 36 colour bars 149, 150 current 34, 220

FT
annotated sketches 76, 322–3 command words 80 cut and paste 69
anthropometric data 67 communication techniques 68–77 cutting 110–11, 147, 150, 192, 256,
Archimedes screw thread 185 components 34 258, 298
areas, calculating 144, 221 programmable 35–7
cross-sectional 97, 183 properties and origins 204–13 deciduous 277
assembly drawings 74 selection 213–17 decorative techniques 265–7
automation 6 stock forms/types 219–23 deforestation 135, 282
A
availability factors 91, 137, 175, 215, composite material 21–2, 166, 218, demographic movement 3
251, 285 254, 289 density 89, 131, 168, 280
compressive strength 21, 89, 139, design
Bakelite 163 140, 281 brief 318–19
R
batches 9, 103, 148, 188, 224, 225, 257, computer-aided design (CAD) 75–6, constraint 164
293, 294 108, 151, 191, 195, 229, 259, 297 controlled assessment 322–8, 335
beam types 94 computer-aided manufacture (CAM) strategies 66–8
belts and pulleys 29 see CAM designers and companies, work of
D

bending 114, 192 computer modelling 70, 229 64–5

binding 153 conduct 204 diameter 144, 221
biodiversity 133 conductor 211 digital photography/media 69
biomimicry 318 construction lines 71, 72 disassemble 74
bioplastics 169 consumer society 138, 178–9, 216, drape 242
blow moulding 184 252, 286 drawing programs 75–6
board 41 see also paper and board consumerism 134 drilling 111, 230, 297
bonded fabrics 245 consumers 5 ductile 87
BOP 320 contexts which inform outcomes 55–8 ductility 39
brand identity 133–4, 248 continuous production 10, 103, 148, durable 54, 168
brazing 116 188, 224, 225, 257, 294
breadboard/stripboard 70, 224 control devices and components 34, ecological footprint
buzzers 34, 207 204–7 fibres and textiles 248–9
controlled assessment 312–36 metals 89–90
CAM 75, 106, 149, 190, 258, 295 design 322–8 paper and board 134–5
cams 27–8 evaluate 333–6 polymers 171–3
cantilever 94 introduction 313–14 systems 212
carbon dioxide calculation 249 investigation 315–21 timbers 281–3
carbon footprint 14, 59 make 329–32 efficiency 27

337
Index
elastic 211 fibres and textiles 47, 240–69 gears 30–2
electromagnet 208 calculating size 255 glass reinforced plastic (GRP) 45, 166
electroplate 209 categorisation 47–50 global warming 13, 59
encapsulation 141 cutting and shaping 256 gold 209
energy 15–18 design contexts 241 grain 52, 280
engraving 191–2 ecological footprint 248–9 ‘green designs’ 59–60
enterprise 4 exams 270–5
environmental factors 59–60 fabricating/constructing 261–4 hard 54
fibres and textiles 249, 250–1 fasteners and links 262–3 hardening metals 93, 102–3
metals 91 forces and stresses 253 hardness 39
paper and board 136–7 manufacturing processes 256–8 hardwoods 52, 277–8
polymers 174–5 moulding 261 HDPE (high-density polyethylene) 178
systems 214, 255 origins 245 hinges 303
timbers 284 properties and social implications 51, HIPS (high-impact polystyrene) 43, 44
environmental impact 241–9 hydrocarbons 167
energy sources 18 prototypes 259–64
logging 281 quantity production 258 industry 3
new technologies 8 reinforcement/stiffening 253–4 injection moulding 186, 189

FT
polymers 169–70 scales of production 256–7 input device 33
systems 212–13 seams 261–2 input signal 33
environmental perspectives 13–14 selection 250–2 insulators 46, 211
equations 220, 221, 222 shaping 256, 259–61 internet of things (IoT) 7
ergonomics 319 smart 19–20, 269 investigating work of others 62–5
ethics 13 social footprint 247–8 investigation, controlled assessment
evaluate, controlled assessment stock forms/types/sizes 254–5 315–21
A
333–6 surface finishes 265–9 ironmongery 303
evergreen 53 tools and equipment 259 isometric projections 71
exam questions and answers working properties 246 iterative design process 314
command words 80 filing 108–9, 192
R
core section 81–5 fixtures 105, 149, 295 jigs 105, 149, 189, 224, 295
fibres and textiles 271–5 flange 94 joints, wood 302
metals 125–7 flash material 172
paper and board 157–61 flash memory 207 knitted textiles 50
D

polymers 199–201 flexible packaging 169

systems 235–9 flowcharts 35 laminating 141
timbers 308–11 flutes 297 fibres and textiles 254, 265
exam tips 79, 170, 198, 235, 307 followers 27, 28 paper 141, 142, 153
existing products, investigating forces and stresses 25 timbers 289, 301
316–17 fibres and textiles 253 laser
exploded views 74 metals 92–3 cutting 147, 191–2, 230, 256
external moderator 314 paper and board 139–41 engraving 197
extrusion 96, 100, 185, 256 polymers 180–1 printing 137
systems 217 lettering 153
fabric 47 see also fibres and textiles timber 288 levers 25–7
fabricating/constructing forging 98 life-cycle analysis (LCA) 14, 61
fibre and textile 261–4 form 319 light-dependent resistors (LDRs) 33,
metals 116–18 freehand sketching 69 204
paper and board 152–3 friction 28 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 34, 207
polymer 194–6 fullness 260 lignin 137
systems 231 function 319 line bending 187
timber 288–9, 301–4 fusing 262 linkages 27
feedback loop 36 lithium 209, 212

338
 Index

logic probes 330 working properties 89 reduction in 133, 248

loudspeakers 208 microcontrollers 207 rigid 169
microprocessors 206 trends 169
make, controlled assessment 329–32 milling 113 paper and board 40, 41, 128–55
malleability 39 modern materials 19–20 design contexts 129
malleable 88 modular 61 ecological footprint 134–5
manufacturing, controlled assessment monoculture 135 exam 156–61
329–32 monomer 48 fabricating/constructing 152–3
manufacturing processes 60–1 motors 208 forces and stresses 139–41
advantages and disadvantages 57 moulds 105, 189, 193, 196, 224 manufacturing processes 145–7
fibres and textiles 256–8 movement, mechanical devices to properties and structure 40–2, 130,
justifying 57 produce 25–32 131, 132
metals 98–107 cams 27–8 prototypes 151–3
paper and board 145–7 cranks and sliders 30 quantity production 148–50
polymers 184–91 followers 27, 28 reinforcement/stiffening 140–1, 152
production techniques and systems gear types 30–2 scales of production 148
9–10 levers 25–7 selection 136–9
systems 223–7 linkages 27 shaping 151

FT
timbers 292–6 pulleys and belts 29 sizes 142–4
marking-out methods 104–5, 148, 192, movement, types of 25 social footprint 132–4
226, 258, 294, 296 multimeters 330 sources and origins 131
mass production 10, 103, 148, 188, stock forms/types 142
224, 225, 257, 294 nails 301 surface finishes 154–5
effects of 138, 179, 216, 287 natural fibres 47, 241–2 tools and equipment 151
mechanical advantage 26 natural resources 5 working properties 41, 132
A
mechanical properties 55 new and emerging technologies PAR and PSE 291
metals 86–123 evaluating 11–14 parison 184
assembling 118–20 impact 3–10 patent 74
beam types 94 nickel 209 patterns 105, 189, 226, 258, 295
R
calculating waste 106 non-renewable resource 5, 15, 163 PEEL 170
categorisation 37–9 non-woven textiles 50, 245 people 5–6
design context 87 normally off/on 205 perspective drawing 72–3
ecological footprint 89–90 nuts 119, 194 photo etching 223
D

exam 124–7 photovoltaics 16

fabricating/constructing 116–18 oblique projections 71 physical properties 55
forces and stresses 92–3 offset lithography 137 piezoelectric 204
manufacturing processes 98–107 Ohm’s law 220–1 planing 299
marking-out methods 104–5 oil 170, 171, 176 planned obsolescence 91, 138, 179,
properties 39, 87–8, 89 one-off production 10, 103, 148, 188, 212, 216, 252, 287
prototypes 107–20 224, 225, 257, 293, 294 plasticity 39
quantity production 105–6 ore 208 pollution 5
reinforcement/stiffening 93 origins see sources and origins fibres and textiles 247, 251
scales of production 103–6 orthographic views 73 metals 90
selection 90–2 output devices 33, 207–8 new technologies and 5, 8
shaping 108–15 output signal 33 paper and board 133, 135, 137
sizes 96–7 overlocking 264 polymers 172–3, 175
social footprint 89 timber 283
sources and origins 88 packaging polymers 43, 162–97
stock forms/types 95–6 brand 134, 137 biodegradable 175
surface finishes 121–3 disposable cups 138 calculating quantity 182–3
tools and equipment 104–5, 108, flexible 169 design contexts 163–4
110, 111 laminate 130, 131, 141, 154 ecological footprint 171–3

339
Index
in electronic systems 208, 211 qualitative 167 fibres and textiles 256–7
exam 198–201 quality control 106, 149, 190, 226, 258, metals 103–6
fabrication and construction 194–6 295 paper and board 148
forces and stresses 180–1 quantity production techniques polymers 188
manufacturing processes 184–91 fibres and textiles 258 systems 224–5
oil processing 171–3 metals 105–6 timbers 293–4
oil supply and price 176 paper and board 148–50 SCAMPER 66
properties 44–6, 164–5, 167–8 polymers 189–91 schematic diagrams 74–5
prototypes 191–6 systems 225–7 screws 120, 301
quantity production 189–91 timbers 294–6 seams 261–2
reinforcement/stiffening 181 seasoning 284
scales of production 188 rack and pinion 31 selection
selection 174–9 rare earth elements 209 fibres and textiles 250–2
shaping 191–3 raw edges 262 metals 90–2
social footprint 169–70 reciprocals 221, 222 paper and board 136–9
sources and origins 166–7 recycling 5, 59, 60 polymers 174–9
specialist materials 175 electronic products 212, 214 systems 213–17
stock forms, types and sizes 175, 182–3 fibres and textiles 248, 250, 251 timbers 283–7

FT
surface finishes 196–7 metals 89 selvedge 244
symbols 170 paper and board 133, 134, 137 semi-conductors 34, 207
thermoforming 43–4, 45, 164–6 polymers 170, 171, 172 sensors 33–4, 204
thermosetting 43, 44–5, 166 timbers 281 shaping
treatments and additives 177–8 regenerated cellulose textiles 243 fibres and textiles 256, 259–61
working properties 44–5, 168 registration mark 149, 150 metals 108–15
powder metallurgy 96, 100 reinforcement/stiffening techniques paper and board 151
A
powering systems 17 fibres and textiles 253–4 polymers 191–3
press moulding 185 metals 93 systems 230
printing 145–6 paper and board 140–1, 152 timbers 297–300
product disassembly 59, 317 polymers 181 silicon 208
R
program 33, 207 systems 218 simulations 70
properties timber 288 sliders and cranks 30
fibres and textiles 51, 241–9 relays 207 smart materials 19–20, 269
materials and components 55–6 renewable energy 16, 18 social factors 91, 137, 177–8, 215,
D

mechanical 55 research strategies 317–18 251, 286

metals 39, 87–8, 89 resistance 33, 34, 220, 221 social footprint
paper and board 40–2, 130, 131, 132 resistors 34, 205, 219, 221 fibres and textiles 247–8
physical 55 colour codes 209–11, 232 metals 89
polymers 44–6, 164–5, 167–8 respect for different groups 58 paper and board 132–4
systems 204–13 Restriction of Hazardous Substances polymers 169–70
timber 54, 280–1 (RoHS) Directive 214 systems 211–12
prototypes 57 reusing products and materials 5, timbers 281
controlled assessment 314, 326, 59, 60 society 7–8
329–31 revision tips 79, 124, 156, 198, 234, softwoods 53, 278–9
fibres and textiles 259–64 270, 306–7 soldering, hard 116
metals 107–20 revolutions per minute 31 sources and origins
paper and board 151–3 rigid packaging 169 electronic products 208–9
polymers 191–6 riveting 117 fibres and textiles 245
systems 228–31 routing 292 metals 88
timbers 296–304 paper and board 131
pulleys and belts 29 sandwich construction 141 polymers 166–7
punching 116 saws 292, 298 timbers 277–83
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) 46, 177, 178 scales of production specification criteria 62–3, 334–6

340
 Index

specification, writing a 319–20 raw materials 208–9 tools and equipment 296–7, 300
stamping 100 reinforcement/stiffening 218 working properties 280–1
staple 47 resistor colour codes 209–11, 232 tolerance 106, 149, 190, 210, 227,
stock forms/types/sizes scales of production 224–5 258, 295
electronic components 219–23 selection 213–17 tools and equipment
fibres and textiles 254–5 shaping 230 fibres and textiles 259
metals 95–6 sizes 220–3 metals 104–5, 108, 110, 111
paper and board 142 social footprint 211–12 paper and board 151
polymers 182–3 stock forms/types 219–23 systems 228–9
timbers 290 surface finishes 232–3 timbers 296–7, 300
stripboard/breadboard 70, 224 tools and equipment 228–9 torque 31
Styrofoam 70, 165, 168 working properties 211 toughness 46, 54
sub-assembly 105–6, 226–7, 258, 295 systems thinking 67–8 transistors 34, 205
surface finishes and treatments transparency 131
fibres and textiles 265–9 tapping 118, 194 transportation 4, 8, 14, 90, 135, 172,
metal 121–3 tarnish 209 251, 282
paper and board 154–5 technical textiles 23–4 trend forecasting 89, 132, 169,
polymers 196–7 templates 105, 149, 189, 224, 226, 247, 281

FT
systems 232–3 258, 295 tungsten carbide 112
timbers 304–5 tensile strength 21, 89, 180, 246, 281 turning 112, 299
surface-mount technology (SMT) textiles see fibres and textiles
219, 226 texture 131, 136, 154, 174, 196, 214, user-centred design 67
sustainability 63 250, 283 user requirements 315–16, 334
controlled assessment 335–6 thermistors 34, 204
fibres and textiles 251 thermoforming polymers 43–4, 45, vacuum forming 193, 230
A
metals 90 164–6 vanishing point 72
new technologies 4–5 thermosetting polymers 43, 44–5, 166 velocity ratio 26, 29, 30
paper and board 134–5, 136 threading 118, 119, 194 veneers 21, 53, 301
polymers 174–5 through-hole components 219 voltage 34, 220
R
timbers 281, 284 timbers 276–305
switches 34, 204, 205 design contexts 277 warp 244
synthetic fibres 48, 243 ecological footprint 281–3 warping 284
system diagrams 74–5 exam 306–11 waste 5, 8, 59
D

systems 33–5, 202–33 fabrication, assembly and construction fibres and textiles 248
case construction 211 288–9 metals 90, 106, 118
control devices and components 34, joints 302 minimising 106, 150, 227, 258, 295
204–7 manufactured 53, 279 paper 135
design contexts 203 manufacturing processes 292–6 polymers 169, 170, 172, 175
ecological footprint 212 natural 52–3, 277–9 systems 212–13, 214, 231
exams 234–9 origins 279 timber 283, 303
forces and stresses 217 properties 54, 280 Waste Electrical and Electronic
machinery 229 prototypes 296–304 Equipment (WEEE) Directive 214
manufacturing processes 223–7 quantity production 294–6 web 94
maths 222 scales of production 293–4 weft 244
outputs 207–8 selection 283–7 weight calculation 129
PCB population 224 shaping 297–300 welding 101, 187
programmable components 35–7 sizes 290–1 wildlife 89, 133, 170, 247
properties and origins of components social footprint 281 woven fabrics 49, 244
204–13 sources 277–83
prototypes 228–31 stock forms/types 290 yarn 243, 255
quantity production 225–7 strengthening 288–9
rare earth elements 209 surface finishes 304–5

341
Acknowledgements
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their photographs:

(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; l-left; r-right; t-top)

123RF.com: 297tr; Alamy Stock Photo: Ajotte 219b, Art Directors & Trip 12, Claudia Rehm 278tl, 279, Cultura
Creative RF 259, David Bleeker Photography 104t, David J Green tools 105, Design Pics Inc 166, foodfolio
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115b, Tiler84 49, Will Thomas 83b, Zerophoto 152b; Getty Images: Boston Globe 71, Carlos Orario 250, Carol
Yepes 317t, dejan Jekic 190, Fotonoticias 260, In Communicado 293, malerapaso 128, Martin Harvey 170, 290

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(c), Science & Society Picture Library 289, Vincenzo Pinto 140, Zoran Milch 312; Greenpeace UK: Kemal Jefri
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A
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276, Zakharchenko Anna 272; The Allandale Group/http://www.machine-dro.co.uk/: 104c; Thrace Synthetic:
24; Vegware: 136b
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Cover images: Front: Getty Images: Yagi Studio

All other images © Pearson Education

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