SHELL SCRIPTING

___

Notes

🖥️ Introduction to Shell Scripting Basics

🔹 What is Shell Scripting?
Shell scripting is a powerful way to automate and streamline tasks within a Linux
environment by writing and executing commands. It’s invaluable for system
administration, task automation, and enhancing productivity.

🔑 Types of Shells: Some popular shells include:

● bash (Bourne Again Shell) - most widely used
● sh (Bourne Shell)
● ksh (KornShell)
● zsh (Z Shell)
💡 Check Your Shell Type: Run the following command to identify your current
shell:

echo $0

🔹 How to Create a File and Use It?

Creating and editing files using the vi command is a core skill for working in
Unix and Linux environments. Here’s a step-by-step guide on creating a file,
entering content, and saving it with vi, as well as how to run your script and
view its output.

1. Opening vi to Create a New File

○ Open your terminal.

Type the following command to create or open a file in vi:

vi my_script.sh

○ Note: If my_script.sh doesn’t exist, vi will create a new file with

that name.

2. Basic vi Editing Commands

When you open vi, you’re in command mode, where you can issue
commands to vi. Here’s how to enter insert mode to start writing:
○ Press i to enter insert mode. You can now type content into the file.

3. Writing Content in vi
Let’s create a simple script that prints "Hello, World!" and displays the
current date and time. With vi in insert mode, type the following script:

#!/bin/bash

# This script prints a greeting and the current date

and time
 echo "Hello, World!"

echo "The current date and time is:"

date

4. Exit Insert Mode:

Press Esc to return to command mode.

5. Saving and Exiting in vi

To save the file and exit vi:
○ Type :wq and press Enter.
:wq means "write (save) and quit."
Alternatively:
○ To save without exiting, type :w and press Enter.
○ To quit without saving changes, type :q! and press Enter.

6. Making the Script Executable

Before running your script, you need to make it executable. In the
terminal, type:
chmod +x my_script.sh

7. Running the Script and Viewing Output

Run the script by typing:
./my_script.sh

8. Run the Script Without Making It Executable:

You can directly run it with bash by typing:
bash my_script.sh
 View the Output:
When you execute the script, you should see output similar to this:
Hello, World!

The current date and time is:

Tue Nov 6 12:34:56 UTC 2023

🔹 Process Control Shortcuts

● Ctrl + C: Terminates a running process immediately. Useful for
stopping commands or scripts that are running.
● Ctrl + Z: Pauses (stops) a process and sends it to the background.
Resume with fg (foreground) or bg (background).

🔹 Comments in Shell Scripting

Single-Line Comments:
Use the # symbol at the beginning of a line to create a single-line comment.

# This is a single-line comment

echo "Hello, World!" # This comment is on the same line as

a command

Multi-Line Comments:
Bash does not have a direct syntax for multi-line comments, but you can
simulate it using a here-document with <<.
: <<'COMMENT'

This is a multi-line comment.

You can add multiple lines here.

COMMENT
Alternatively, use the << syntax directly:

<<comment

This is a multi-line comment.

It won’t be executed.

comment

📜 Writing Your First Shell Script

💡 Getting Started with Scripting
A script is a series of commands executed sequentially. Here’s a simple example
that prints a message to the screen:

#!/bin/bash # Shebang to specify the interpreter

echo "Hello World!"

Output:

Hello World!

🖥️ How to Run Your Script:

Make it Executable:
chmod +x script.sh

Execute the Script:

./script.sh

Why Shebang (#!/bin/bash) Matters

This line tells the system to use Bash to run the script, ensuring compatibility
across Linux environments.
📊 Working with Variables and Arrays
Variables and arrays allow data storage and manipulation in scripts, making
automation more flexible.

🔹 Variables: Define a variable and use $ to access its value.

NAME="Linux"

echo "Welcome to $NAME Scripting"

🔹 Constants: Make variables read-only with readonly.

readonly VERSION="1.0"

🔹 Arrays: Store multiple values.

myArray=(1 2 3 "Hello" "World")

echo "${myArray[1]}"

Outputs: 2

● Get the length of an array:

echo "${#myArray[@]}" or echo "${#myArray[*]}"

This returns the total number of elements in the array.

● Get specific values from an array:

To get values starting from a specific index:
echo "${myArray[*]:1}"

This fetches all elements starting from the second element (index 1).
 ● To get a specific range of values:
echo "${myArray[*]:1:2}"

This fetches 2 elements starting from index 1.

● Update an array (Add new elements):

myArray+=(5 6 8)

● Working with Associative Arrays

Declare and Initialize:

declare -A myArray

myArray=( [name]=Paul [age]=20 )

Access Values:
echo "${myArray[name]}"

Get Array Length:

echo "${#myArray[@]}"

Update Array:
myArray+=( [city]=NewYork )

💡 Arrays are handy for managing lists of values, such as filenames or

configurations.
🧩 String and Arithmetic Operations
String Manipulation Examples:
str="Shell Scripting"

Length:

echo ${#str} Outputs: 15

Replace:
echo ${str/Scripting/Programming} Outputs: Shell Programming

Extract Substring:
echo ${str:6:9} Outputs: Scripting

Get the length of a string:

myVar="Hello World!"
length=${#myVar}
echo $length Output: 12

Convert to uppercase:
upper=${myVar^^}
echo $upper Output: HELLO WORLD!

Convert to lowercase:
lower=${myVar,,}
echo $lower Output: hello world!

Replace a substring:
replace=${myVar/World/Buddy}
echo $replace Output: Hello Buddy!

Extract a substring (slice):

slice=${myVar:6:5}
echo $slice Output: World
🔹 USER INTERACTIONS

Taking Input from the User in Shell Scripting

● Basic Input:
read var_name
echo "You entered: $var_name"

Example Output:
(User types "John")
You entered: John

● Input with Prompt:

read -p "Your name: " NAME
echo "Hello, $NAME!"

Example Output:
(Your name: User types "John")
Your name: John
Hello, John!

Key Difference:

● Basic Input: Takes input without a prompt.

● Input with Prompt: Displays a prompt to guide the user.

🔹 Arithmetic Operations

● Using the let command:

Increment:
let a++
This increments the value of a by 1.
 Assignment with multiplication:
let a=5*10
echo $a Output: 50

● Using (( )) for arithmetic operations:

Increment:
((a++))

Assignment with multiplication:

((a=5*10))
echo $a Output: 50

Key Difference:

● let is more traditional, while (( )) is more modern and allows for more
complex arithmetic expressions.

Use $((expression)) for complex calculations:

echo $((5 * (3 + 2))) Output: 25

📈 Conditional Statements in Shell Scripting

if Statement:
if [ $a -gt $b ]; then

echo "a is greater than b"

fi
if-else Statement:
if [ $a -gt $b ]; then

echo "a is greater than b"

else

echo "a is not greater than b"

fi

elif (else if) Statement:

if [ $a -gt $b ]; then

echo "a is greater than b"

elif [ $a -eq $b ]; then

echo "a is equal to b"

else

echo "a is less than b"

fi

Case Statement:
case $a in

a) echo "a is 1" ;;

b) echo "a is 2" ;;

*) echo "a is neither 1 nor 2" ;;

esac
Key Notes:

● Always put spaces around operators in conditions.

● elif and else are optional but useful for handling multiple conditions.

Comparison Operators

Equal to: -eq or ==: Checks if two values are equal.

[ $a -eq $b ]

Greater Than or Equal to: -ge: Checks if the left operand is greater than or
equal to the right.
[ $a -ge $b ]

Less Than or Equal to: -le: Checks if the left operand is less than or equal to
the right.
[ $a -le $b ]

Not Equal to: -ne or !=: Checks if two values are not equal.
[ $a -ne $b ]

Greater Than: -gt: Checks if the left operand is greater than the right.
[ $a -gt $b ]

Less Than: -lt: Checks if the left operand is less than the right.
[ $a -lt $b ]
🔹 Logical Operators
Using && (AND) Operator:
a=10
b=5
if [ $a -gt 5 ] && [ $b -lt 10 ]; then
echo "Both conditions are true"
else
echo "One or both conditions are false"
fi

Using || (OR) Operator:

a=10
b=15
if [ $a -gt 5 ] || [ $b -lt 10 ]; then
echo "At least one condition is true"
else
echo "Neither condition is true"
fi

Combining && and || Operators:

a=10
b=5
c=15
if [ $a -gt 5 ] && [ $b -lt 10 ] || [ $c -eq 15 ]; then
echo "Condition met"
else
echo "Condition not met"
fi

Explanation:

● The && ensures both conditions must be true.

● The || checks the second condition if the first fails.
🔹 Ternary Operator (One-liner If-Else)

A simple way to write an if-else statement in one line:

a=10
[ $a -gt 5 ] && echo "Greater" || echo "Not Greater"

Explanation:

● If $a -gt 5 is true, it prints "Greater".

● Otherwise, it prints "Not Greater".

🔄 For Loop
The for loop iterates over a list or a range of values and performs actions for
each item.

Syntax:
for item in list; do
# Commands to execute for each item
done

Example:
for i in 1 2 3; do
echo "Number: $i"
done

Output:
Number: 1
Number: 2
Number: 3
Range Example:
for i in {1..3}; do
echo "Count: $i"
done

Output:
Count: 1
Count: 2
Count: 3

🔄 While Loop
The while loop runs as long as the specified condition is true.

Syntax:
while [ condition ]; do
# Commands to execute
done

Example:
count=1
while [ $count -le 3 ]; do
echo "Count is: $count"
((count++)) # Increment count
done

Output:
Count is: 1
Count is: 2
Count is: 3
🔄 Until Loop
The until loop continues to execute until the condition becomes true.

Syntax:
until [ condition ]; do
# Commands to execute
done

Example:
count=1
until [ $count -gt 3 ]; do
echo "Count is: $count"
((count++))
done

Output:

Count is: 1
Count is: 2
Count is: 3

🔄 Infinite Loop
An infinite loop continues running indefinitely until it is manually stopped (e.g.,
using Ctrl+C).

For Loop Infinite Example:

for (( ; ; )); do

echo "This is an infinite loop"

done
While Infinite Example:

while :; do

echo "Infinite loop with while"

done

Until Infinite Example:

until false; do

echo "Infinite loop with until"

done

Output (repeats indefinitely):

This is an infinite loop

This is an infinite loop

...

🖥️ Select Loop
The select loop creates a simple menu system, which allows users to select an
option from a list. It's useful when you need a user-driven selection process.

Syntax:
select option in list; do
# Commands based on user choice
done
Example:
PS3="Choose a fruit: "
select fruit in Apple Banana Orange Exit; do
case $fruit in
Apple) echo "You chose Apple";;
Banana) echo "You chose Banana";;
Orange) echo "You chose Orange";;
Exit) break;;
*) echo "Invalid option";;
esac
done

Example Output:
1) Apple
2) Banana
3) Orange
4) Exit
Choose a fruit: 2
You chose Banana

Explanation:
● PS3 sets the prompt message.
● The select loop displays options, and each selection runs the
corresponding case statement.
● The break statement exits the loop when the user selects "Exit."

Summary of Loop Types

● For Loop: Iterates over a list or range.
● While Loop: Continues as long as a condition is true.
● Until Loop: Continues until a condition becomes true.
● Infinite Loop: Runs indefinitely until interrupted.
● Select Loop: Displays a menu for user selection.
💡 Tip:
Loops are powerful tools for automating repetitive tasks. You can use them for
various purposes like iterating over files, arrays, or ranges. For example, you can
rename all files in a directory using a loop.

🔄 Functions
1. Defining Functions:

You can define a function using either of these two syntaxes:

function function_name { ... }
or
function_name() { ... }

2. Basic Function:

Functions are used to encapsulate reusable blocks of code.

greet() {
echo "Hello, welcome to the shell script!"
}
greet # Calling the function

3. Functions with Parameters:

Functions can accept arguments, which are accessed via $1, $2, etc.
greet_user() {
echo "Hello, $1!"
}
greet_user "Adhyansh"
4. Return Values:

Functions return values via echo, and the output can be captured.
add_numbers() {
result=$(( $1 + $2 ))
echo $result
}
sum=$(add_numbers 3 5)
echo "The sum is: $sum"

5. Conditional Logic and Loops:

Functions can include conditions and loops.

check_even() {
if (( $1 % 2 == 0 )); then
echo "$1 is even"
else
echo "$1 is odd"
fi
}
check_even 7 output: "7 is odd"

6. Recursion:
Functions can call themselves recursively.
factorial() {
if [ $1 -le 1 ]; then
echo 1
else
prev=$(factorial $(( $1 - 1 )))
echo $(( $1 * prev ))
fi
}
 result=$(factorial 5)
echo "Factorial of 5 is: $result"

7. Default Values:

Set default values for arguments using ${1:-default_value}.

greet() {
local name=${1:-Guest}
echo "Hello, $name!"
}
greet "Adhyansh" Output: "Hello, Adhyansh!"
greet Output: "Hello, Guest!"

8. Passing Arguments by Reference:

Bash doesn't directly support passing by reference but can simulate it using
eval.

modify_value() {
eval $1=\$2
}
modify_value var 100
echo "The value of var is now: $var" Output: "The
value of var is now: 100"

9. Argument Passing:

You can pass arguments to functions, and they can be accessed inside the
function.

■ Positional Arguments: $1, $2, $3, etc. (Access individual

arguments).
 ■ All Arguments: $@ (all arguments as separate words), $* (all
arguments as a single string).
■ Argument Count: $# (number of arguments passed).

1. Positional Arguments ($1, $2, $3, etc.)

● These represent individual arguments passed to a function or script.

● $1 is the first argument, $2 is the second, and so on.

Example:
greet() {
echo "Hello, $1! You are $2 years old."
}
greet "Adhyansh" 25

Output: Hello, Adhyansh! You are 25 years old.

2. All Arguments ($@)

● This represents all the arguments passed to a function or script.

● Each argument is treated as a separate word, which is especially useful
when looping over the arguments.

Example:
print_all() {
for arg in "$@"; do
echo "$arg"
done
}
print_all "Apple" "Banana" "Cherry"
Output:
Apple
Banana
Cherry
3. All Arguments as a Single String ($*)

● Similar to $@, but it treats all arguments as a single string, meaning spaces
between arguments may be lost.

Example:
print_all_as_string() {
echo "$*"
}
print_all_as_string "Apple" "Banana" "Cherry"
Output: Apple Banana Cherry

4. Number of Arguments ($#)

● This gives the count of the arguments passed to a function or script.

Example:
count_args() {
echo "Number of arguments: $#"
}
count_args "Apple" "Banana" "Cherry"
Output: Number of arguments: 3

Summary

● Functions in shell scripts help organize code, making it modular and

reusable.
● Arguments can be passed to functions, accessed via $1, $2, etc., and
default values can be set.
● You can use loops and conditionals inside functions to add logic.
● Functions return values using echo, which can be captured in variables.
🔄 shift Operator in Bash
The shift command in Bash allows you to move (shift) the positional parameters
(arguments) passed to a script or function. Here's a brief explanation of how it
works:

Syntax:

● shift: Shifts positional parameters left by one position.

● shift n: Shifts positional parameters left by n positions.

Example 1: Shifting Arguments (One Position)

shift_example() {
echo "Original arguments: $1, $2, $3"
shift
echo "After shift: $1, $2, $3"
}
shift_example "one" "two" "three"

Output:
Original arguments: one, two, three
After shift: two, three
After the shift, $1 becomes "two", and $2 becomes "three".

Example 2: Shifting Arguments Multiple Times

shift_multiple() {
echo "Original arguments: $1, $2, $3, $4"
shift 2
echo "After shifting 2 times: $1, $2"
}
shift_multiple "apple" "banana" "cherry" "date"
Output:
Original arguments: apple, banana, cherry, date
After shifting 2 times: cherry, date
After shifting 2 positions, "apple" and "banana" are discarded, and the remaining
arguments are shifted left.

Example 3: Using shift with a Loop

process_args() {
while [ "$#" -gt 0 ]; do
echo "Processing argument: $1"
shift
done
}
process_args "arg1" "arg2" "arg3" "arg4"

Output:
Processing argument: arg1
Processing argument: arg2
Processing argument: arg3
Processing argument: arg4

The loop processes each argument one by one by shifting the arguments left until
there are no more arguments ($# becomes 0).

Example 4: Combining shift with $# to Count Remaining Arguments

process_first_two() {
echo "First argument: $1"
echo "Second argument: $2"
shift 2
echo "Remaining arguments: $@"
}
process_first_two "apple" "banana" "cherry" "date"
Output:
First argument: apple
Second argument: banana
Remaining arguments: cherry date

After shifting by 2, the first two arguments are removed, and the remaining
arguments are accessible using $@.

Key Points:

● shift removes the first argument ($1) and shifts the remaining arguments
left.
● You can shift by multiple positions using shift n.
● The $# variable always reflects the remaining number of arguments.
● The shift command is useful in loops for processing a variable number of
arguments.

break Statement

● Purpose: Exits a loop prematurely.

● Syntax: break or break n (exits the loop and can exit multiple nested
loops with n).

Example:
for i in {1..5}; do
if [ $i -eq 3 ]; then break; fi
echo $i
done

● Output: Loops until i=3, then exits.

2. continue Statement

● Purpose: Skips the current loop iteration and moves to the next one.
● Syntax: continue or continue n (skips current iteration in nested loops).

Example:
for i in {1..5}; do
if [ $i -eq 3 ]; then continue; fi
echo $i
done
● Output: Skips iteration when i=3.

3. break and continue in Nested Loops

● break: break n can exit multiple levels of nested loops.

● continue: continue n skips the current iteration in multiple nested loops.

Example:
for i in {1..3}; do
for j in {1..3}; do
if [ $i -eq 2 ] && [ $j -eq 2 ]; then break 2; fi
echo "i=$i, j=$j"
done
done
● Output: Exits both loops when i=2 and j=2.

4. sleep Command

● Purpose: Pauses the script for a specified time.

● Syntax: sleep <duration>

Example:
sleep 5 # Pauses for 5 seconds
5. exit Command

● Purpose: Exits a script with a status code (0 for success, non-zero for error).
● Syntax: exit <exit_code>

Example:
exit 1 # Exits with an error status

6. $? (Exit Status of Last Command)

● Purpose: Stores the exit status of the last executed command.

Example:
mkdir myfolder

echo $? # Returns 0 if successful, 1 if failed.

Summary

● break: Exit loops.

● continue: Skips an iteration in loops.
● sleep: Pauses script execution.
● exit: Terminates a script with a status code.
● $?: Checks the exit status of the last command.

seq command

The seq command in Linux is used to generate a sequence of numbers. It's

commonly used in shell scripting or on the command line to generate numbers for
loops, lists, or ranges.
Basic Syntax:

seq [options] <start> <end>

● start: The starting number of the sequence.

● end: The ending number of the sequence.

Examples of Using the seq Command:

Basic Sequence: Generate a sequence of numbers from 1 to 5:

seq 1 5

Output:
1
2
3
4
5

Custom Step Size: You can specify a step size between numbers. For example, to
generate numbers from 1 to 10 with a step size of 2:
seq 1 2 10

Output:

1
3
5
7
9

Generating a Sequence with Decimal Values: You can also use floating-point
numbers with seq. For example, generate numbers from 0 to 1 with a step size of
0.2:
seq 0 0.2 1
Output:
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

Reverse Sequence: You can reverse the order of the sequence by making the
start number greater than the end number:
seq 5 -1 1

Output:
5
4
3
2
1

Using seq with for Loop: You can use seq in a for loop. For example, printing
numbers from 1 to 5:

for i in $(seq 1 5); do

echo "Number: $i"
done

Output:
Number: 1
Number: 2
Number: 3
Number: 4
Number: 5
Common Options with seq:

-f: Format the output using a format string (like printf).

seq -f "Number: %.2f" 1 5

Output:
Number: 1.00
Number: 2.00
Number: 3.00
Number: 4.00
Number: 5.00

-s: Change the separator between numbers. By default, it’s a newline, but you can
change it:
seq -s "," 1 5

Output:
1,2,3,4,5

-w: Pad numbers with leading zeros to make them all the same width:
seq -w 1 5

Output:
01
02
03
04
05

Summary:

The seq command is a powerful and simple tool to generate sequences of

numbers, and it can be customized in many ways using options for formatting,
step size, and separators.
Brace Expansion is a feature in the shell (especially Bash) that allows you to
generate multiple text strings from a single expression. It is typically used to
create lists of strings or numbers, or to generate filenames with multiple variations.
Brace expansion is a simple and efficient way to generate multiple values without
having to manually list them.

Basic Syntax:

{item1,item2,item3}

This will generate a list containing the individual items within the braces.

Examples of Using Brace Expansion:

Creating a List of Words: You can generate a list of words by expanding a

comma-separated list inside braces:
echo {apple,banana,cherry}

Output:
apple banana cherry

Range of Numbers: You can create a sequence of numbers by using a range

inside the braces:

echo {1..5}

Output:
1 2 3 4 5

Range of Letters: You can also create a range of letters:

echo {a..e}

Output:
a b c d e
Range with Step Size: You can specify a step size by including it after the range:
echo {1..10..2}

Output:
1 3 5 7 9

Combining Text with Variables: You can use brace expansion to combine static
text with variables:

echo file{1..3}.txt

Output:
file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt

Nested Brace Expansion: You can also nest brace expansions to create more
complex patterns:
echo {A,B}{1,2}

Output:
A1 A2 B1 B2

Multiple Elements in a Single Expansion: You can combine multiple sets of values
within a single brace expansion:
echo {A,B,C}{1,2,3}

Output:
A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
Files and Directories: Brace expansion can also be used to generate multiple file
or directory names:
mkdir dir{1,2,3}

This will create the directories dir1, dir2, and dir3.

Important Points:

● Brace expansion happens before any other shell operation like variable
expansion or command substitution.
● It is not the same as parameter expansion or globbing. It is handled
directly by the shell before the command is executed.
● No spaces between commas in the braces. It should be {item1,item2}
instead of {item1, item2}.

Summary:

Brace expansion is a powerful feature in the shell that allows you to generate
sequences of strings, numbers, or characters without writing them out explicitly. It
can save time and reduce errors when generating repetitive patterns, filenames,
or arguments.

getopts command

The getopts command is used in shell scripting (primarily in Bash) to parse

command-line options (flags) and arguments passed to a script. It provides a way
to handle options and arguments in a structured and consistent manner, making
your script more flexible and user-friendly.

Basic Syntax:

getopts "option_string" variable

 ● option_string: A string of valid option letters. If an option requires an
argument, you append a colon (:) after the letter (e.g., a: means option a
expects an argument).
● variable: The variable where the parsed option will be stored.

How getopts Works:

● getopts processes command-line arguments one by one.

● It sets the value of the variable to the current option letter.
● If the option requires an argument, getopts will assign that argument to a
special variable, usually $OPTARG.

Example 1: Simple Options Parsing

This example shows how to handle single-letter options, such as -a or -b, in a

script.

Script Example (myscript.sh):

#!/bin/bash
while getopts "ab" option; do
case $option in
a) echo "Option A selected" ;;
b) echo "Option B selected" ;;
\?) echo "Invalid option"; exit 1 ;;
esac
done
Running the script:
$ ./myscript.sh -a
Option A selected

$ ./myscript.sh -b
Option B selected
Example 2: Options with Arguments

You can also specify options that require arguments (e.g., -f filename).

Script Example (myscript.sh):

#!/bin/bash
while getopts "f:n:" option; do
case $option in
f) echo "Option F selected with argument: $OPTARG" ;;
n) echo "Option N selected with argument: $OPTARG" ;;
\?) echo "Invalid option"; exit 1 ;;
esac
done

Running the script:

$ ./myscript.sh -f file.txt
Option F selected with argument: file.txt

$ ./myscript.sh -n 123
Option N selected with argument: 123

Example 3: Handling Long Options with Arguments

For options that have both short and long forms, you can use getopts to handle
short options (e.g., -f) but long options require additional parsing logic. Here's an
example for a simple long-option-like approach.

Script Example (myscript.sh):

#!/bin/bash
while getopts "f:n:" option; do
case $option in
f) echo "File option: $OPTARG" ;;
n) echo "Name option: $OPTARG" ;;
 \?) echo "Invalid option"; exit 1 ;;
esac
done

Running the script:

$ ./myscript.sh -f myfile.txt -n John
File option: myfile.txt
Name option: John

Explanation of Common getopts Usage:

● $OPTARG: This variable contains the value of the argument passed to an

option (if any).
● $option: The current option being processed.
● \?: Used in the case statement to catch invalid options.

Example 4: Parsing Multiple Arguments and Options

In this example, we handle multiple options that require arguments:

Script Example (myscript.sh):

#!/bin/bash
while getopts "a:b:c:" option; do
case $option in
a) echo "Option A selected with value: $OPTARG" ;;
b) echo "Option B selected with value: $OPTARG" ;;
c) echo "Option C selected with value: $OPTARG" ;;
\?) echo "Invalid option"; exit 1 ;;
esac
done

Running the script:

$ ./myscript.sh -a 10 -b 20 -c 30
Option A selected with value: 10
Option B selected with value: 20
Option C selected with value: 30

Exiting When No Arguments Are Provided:

If no arguments are given or the getopts finds a missing or incorrect argument, it

will return ?, which can be caught to display an error or usage message.

Example:

#!/bin/bash

if [ $# -eq 0 ]; then

echo "No options provided."

exit 1

fi

while getopts "a:b:" option; do

case $option in

a) echo "Option A with argument: $OPTARG" ;;

b) echo "Option B with argument: $OPTARG" ;;

\?) echo "Invalid option"; exit 1 ;;

esac

done

Key Points:

● getopts is used to process options one by one.

 ● $OPTARG contains the value for options that take arguments.
● getopts does not handle long options (e.g., --option) directly; you’ll
need to process them manually if needed.
● Return codes:
○ 0: The option was successfully processed.
○ 1: Invalid option or missing argument.

Advantages:

● Provides a simple and standard way to handle command-line options.

● Makes scripts more user-friendly and interactive.

1. basename:

● Strips the directory path and returns only the filename. You can also remove
a file extension if specified.
● Example: basename /home/user/file.txt → file.txt, and
basename /home/user/file.txt .txt → file.

2. dirname:

● Strips the filename and returns the directory path.

● Example: dirname /home/user/file.txt → /home/user.

3. realpath:

● Resolves and returns the absolute path of a file or directory, resolving

symbolic links.
● Example: realpath file.txt →
/home/user/Documents/file.txt.
4. File/Directory Existence Checks:

● -d <folder>: Checks if a directory exists.

● ! -d <folder>: Checks if a directory does not exist.
● -f <file>: Checks if a file exists.
● ! -f <file>: Checks if a file does not exist.

Examples:
if [ -d /home/user/Documents ]; then echo "Directory
exists."; fi

if [ ! -f /home/user/nonexistentfile.txt ]; then echo "File

does not exist."; fi

5. RANDOM & UID:

● RANDOM: Generates a random number between 0 and 32767.

● UID: Stores the user ID of the currently logged-in user.

Examples:
echo $RANDOM # Generates a random number

echo $((RANDOM % 101)) # Random number between 0 and 100

echo $UID # User ID of the logged-in user

These commands are essential tools for file path manipulation, file existence
checking, and working with system information in Bash scripts. Let me know if
you'd like further clarification or examples!

To continue running even after the terminal is closed, you can use nohup (short
for "no hang up"). This command is useful for running long-running processes or
scripts in the background, even if the terminal session is closed or disconnected.
 ❖ How to Use nohup:

To run a script in the background and keep it running after closing the
terminal, use the nohup command followed by the script or command and
an & to run it in the background.

nohup ./myscript.sh &

Example:
nohup bash myscript.sh &

This will run myscript.sh in the background, and the terminal can be closed
without interrupting the execution of the script. The standard output will be
redirected to a file called nohup.out unless you specify a different file.

❖ Redirecting Output:

If you don't want to see the output in the nohup.out file, you can redirect it
to /dev/null.

nohup ./myscript.sh > /dev/null 2>&1 &

❖ Checking Running Processes:

You can check if the script is running by using the ps command or jobs
command.
ps aux | grep myscript.sh
Or:
jobs
 ❖ Stopping Background Jobs:
To stop a background job, you can use the kill command with the
process ID (PID) of the job.
kill <PID>

Alternatively, you can bring the background job to the foreground using fg
and then stop it with Ctrl + C:
fg %1 # Bring job 1 to the foreground

Summary:

● nohup is used to run a command or script that will continue executing even
after the terminal is closed.
● The & operator runs the command in the background.
● You can redirect output to a file or /dev/null to suppress output.
● Use jobs and ps to check the status of background jobs.

Project: Simple Calculator

This calculator will support basic arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. The user can input the operation and two numbers,
and the script will return the result.

Steps:

1. Create a new file for the script: Open a terminal and create a new file
named calculator.sh using a text editor.

vi calculator.sh
2. Add the script code: Below is the code for the calculator:

#!/bin/bash
# Function to add two numbers
add() {
echo "Result: $(($1 + $2))"
}

# Function to subtract two numbers

subtract() {
echo "Result: $(($1 - $2))"
}

# Function to multiply two numbers

multiply() {
echo "Result: $(($1 * $2))"
}

# Function to divide two numbers

divide() {
if [ $2 -eq 0 ]; then
echo "Error: Division by zero is not allowed!"
else
echo "Result: $(($1 / $2))"
fi
}
# Menu to display options
echo "Simple Calculator"
echo "Choose operation:"
echo "1. Add"
echo "2. Subtract"
echo "3. Multiply"
echo "4. Divide"

read -p "Enter choice (1/2/3/4): " choice

read -p "Enter first number: " num1
read -p "Enter second number: " num2

# Perform the operation based on user's choice

case $choice in
1)
add $num1 $num2
;;
2)
subtract $num1 $num2
;;
3)
multiply $num1 $num2
;;
4)
divide $num1 $num2
;;
*)
echo "Invalid choice"
;;
esac
3. Make the script executable: After saving the script, make it executable by
running:
chmod +x calculator.sh

4. Run the script: Now you can run the calculator script using:
./calculator.sh

How the Script Works:

● The user is prompted to select an operation (addition, subtraction,

multiplication, or division).
● The script then asks for two numbers and performs the chosen operation.
● If division is selected and the second number is 0, the script will display an
error message instead of attempting to divide by zero.

Example Output:

$ ./calculator.sh

Simple Calculator

Choose operation:

1. Add

2. Subtract

3. Multiply

4. Divide

Enter choice (1/2/3/4): 1

Enter first number: 10

 Enter second number: 5

Result: 15

This small project helps you understand basic conditional statements, user input
handling, and mathematical operations in Bash. You can expand this project by
adding more advanced operations (like square roots, exponents, etc.) or even a
loop to make the calculator run repeatedly.

**************************************************************************************