Daily Maintenance Checks.................................................................................................................

11-21
Pre-flight Checks........................................................................................................................................11-22
Troubleshooting & Abnormal Operation.....................................................................................................11-22
Troubleshooting.................................................................................................................................. 11-23
Engine Keeps Running With Ignition OFF..................................................................................... 11-23
Knocking Under Load.................................................................................................................... 11-23
Abnormal Operation............................................................................................................................ 11-23
Exceeding the Maximum Admissible Engine Speed...................................................................... 11-23
Exceeding Maximum Admissible Cylinder Head Temperature...................................................... 11-23
Exceeding Maximum Admissible Exhaust Gas Temperature......................................................... 11-23
Engine Preservation...................................................................................................................................11-23
General Maintenance Practices for the Light-Sport Jabiru Engines..........................................................11-23
Engine & Engine Compartment Inspection......................................................................................... 11-23
Lubrication System............................................................................................................................. 11-24
Carburetor Adjustment & Checks....................................................................................................... 11-24
Spark Plugs........................................................................................................................................ 11-24
Exhaust System.................................................................................................................................. 11-24
Head Bolts.......................................................................................................................................... 11-24
Tachometer & Sender......................................................................................................................... 11-25
Engine Inspection Charts...........................................................................................................................11-25

Glossary........................................................................................................................................................ G-1
Index................................................................................................................................................................ I-1

xx
Chapter 1
Aircraft Engines

General Requirements
Aircraft require thrust to produce enough speed for the wings Turbojets, ramjets, and pulse jets are examples of engines that
to provide lift or enough thrust to overcome the weight of accelerate a smaller quantity of air through a large velocity
the aircraft for vertical takeoff. For an aircraft to remain in change. They use the same working fluid for propulsive force
level flight, thrust must be provided that is equal to and in that is used within the engine. One problem with these types
the opposite direction of the aircraft drag. This thrust, or of engines is the noise made by the high velocity air exiting
propulsive force, is provided by a suitable type of aircraft the engine. The term turbojet was used to describe any gas
heat engine. All heat engines have in common the ability to turbine engine, but with the differences in gas turbines used in
convert heat energy into mechanical energy by the flow of aircraft, this term is used to describe a type of gas turbine that
some fluid mass (generally air) through the engine. In all passes all the gases through the core of the engine directly.
cases, the heat energy is released at a point in the cycle where
the working pressure is high relative to atmospheric pressure. Turbojets, ramjets, and pulse jets have very little to no use
in modern aircraft due to noise and fuel consumption. Small
The propulsive force is obtained by the displacement of general aviation aircraft use mostly horizontally opposed
a working fluid (again, atmospheric air). This air is not reciprocating piston engines. While some aircraft still use
necessarily the same air used within the engine. By displacing radial reciprocating piston engines, their use is very limited.
air in a direction opposite to that in which the aircraft is Many aircraft use a form of the gas turbine engine to produce
propelled, thrust can be developed. This is an application of power for thrust. These engines are normally the turboprop,
Newton’s third law of motion. It states that for every action turboshaft, turbofan, and a few turbojet engines. “Turbojet”
there is an equal and opposite reaction. So, as air is being is the former term for any turbine engine. Now that there are
displaced to the rear of the aircraft the aircraft is moved forward so many different types of turbine engines, the term used to
by this principle. One misinterpretation of this principle is air describe most turbine engines is “gas turbine engine.” All
is pushing against the air behind the aircraft making it move four of the previously mentioned engines belong to the gas
forward. This is not true. Rockets in space have no air to push turbine family.
against, yet, they can produce thrust by using Newton’s third
law. Atmospheric air is the principal fluid used for propulsion All aircraft engines must meet certain general requirements of
in every type of aircraft powerplant except the rocket, in which efficiency, economy, and reliability. Besides being economical
the total combustion gases are accelerated and displaced. The in fuel consumption, an aircraft engine must be economical in
rocket must provide all the fuel and oxygen for combustion the cost of original procurement and the cost of maintenance;
and does not depend on atmospheric air. A rocket carries its and it must meet exacting requirements of efficiency and low
own oxidizer rather than using ambient air for combustion. It weight-to-horsepower ratio. It must be capable of sustained
discharges the gaseous byproducts of combustion through the high-power output with no sacrifice in reliability; it must also
exhaust nozzle at an extremely high velocity (action) and it is have the durability to operate for long periods of time between
propelled in the other direction (reaction). overhauls. It needs to be as compact as possible yet have easy
accessibility for maintenance. It is required to be as vibration
The propellers of aircraft powered by reciprocating or free as possible and be able to cover a wide range of power
turboprop engines accelerate a large mass of air at a relatively output at various speeds and altitudes.
lower velocity by turning a propeller. The same amount of
thrust can be generated by accelerating a small mass of air These requirements dictate the use of ignition systems
to a very high velocity. The working fluid (air) used for the that deliver the firing impulse to the spark plugs at the
propulsive force is a different quantity of air than that used proper time in all kinds of weather and under other adverse
within the engine to produce the mechanical energy to turn conditions. Engine fuel delivery systems provide metered fuel
the propeller. at the correct proportion of air-fuel ingested by the engine
regardless of the attitude, altitude, or type of weather in which
the engine is operated. The engine needs a type of oil system

1-1
that delivers oil under the proper pressure to lubricate and which can be maintained for the duration of the flight.
cool all of the operating parts of the engine when it is running. If the weight of an engine per brake horsepower (called
Also, it must have a system of damping units to damp out the the specific weight of the engine) is decreased, the useful
vibrations of the engine when it is operating. load that an aircraft can carry and the performance of the
aircraft obviously are increased. Every excess pound of
Power & Weight weight carried by an aircraft engine reduces its performance.
The useful output of all aircraft powerplants is thrust, the Tremendous improvement in reducing the weight of the
force which propels the aircraft. Since the reciprocating aircraft engine through improved design and metallurgy
engine is rated in brake horsepower (bhp), the gas turbine has resulted in reciprocating engines with a much improved
engine is rated in thrust horsepower (thp): power-to-weight ratio (specific weight).

Fuel Economy
thrust x aircraft speed (mph)
Thp = The basic parameter for describing the fuel economy of
375 mile-pounds per hour aircraft engines is usually specific fuel consumption. Specific
fuel consumption for gas turbines is the fuel flow measured
in (lb/hr) divided by thrust (lb), and for reciprocating engines
The value of 375 mile-pounds per hour is derived from the the fuel flow (lb/hr) divided by brake horsepower. These are
basic horsepower formula as follows: called thrust-specific fuel consumption and brake-specific
fuel consumption, respectively. Equivalent specific fuel
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb per minute consumption is used for the turboprop engine and is the fuel
flow in pounds per hour divided by a turboprop’s equivalent
33,000 x 60 = 1,980,000 ft-lb per hour shaft horsepower. Comparisons can be made between the
various engines on a specific fuel consumption basis. At low
1,980,000 speed, the reciprocating and turboprop engines have better
= 375 mile-pounds per hour
5,280 ft in a mile economy than the pure turbojet or turbofan engines. However,
at high speed, because of losses in propeller efficiency, the
reciprocating or turboprop engine’s efficiency becomes
One horsepower equals 33,000 ft-lb per minute or 375 mile- limited above 400 mph less than that of the turbofan.
pounds per hour. Under static conditions, thrust is figured as
equivalent to approximately 2.6 pounds per hour. Durability & Reliability
Durability and reliability are usually considered identical
If a gas turbine is producing 4,000 pounds of thrust and the factors since it is difficult to mention one without including
aircraft in which the engine is installed is traveling at 500 the other. Simply put, reliability is measured as the mean time
mph, the thp is: between failures, while durability is measured as the mean
time between overhauls.
4,000 x 500
= 5,333.33 thp More specifically, an aircraft engine is reliable when it can
375 perform at the specified ratings in widely varying flight
attitudes and in extreme weather conditions. Standards
It is necessary to calculate the horsepower for each speed of an of powerplant reliability are agreed upon by the Federal
aircraft, since the horsepower varies with speed. Therefore, it Aviation Administration (FAA), the engine manufacturer,
is not practical to try to rate or compare the output of a turbine and the airframe manufacturer. The engine manufacturer
engine on a horsepower basis. The aircraft engine operates ensures the reliability of the product by design, research,
at a relatively high percentage of its maximum power output and testing. Close control of manufacturing and assembly
throughout its service life. The aircraft engine is at full power procedures is maintained, and each engine is tested before
output whenever a takeoff is made. It may hold this power for it leaves the factory.
a period of time up to the limits set by the manufacturer. The
engine is seldom held at a maximum power for more than Durability is the amount of engine life obtained while
2 minutes, and usually not that long. Within a few seconds maintaining the desired reliability. The fact that an engine
after lift-off, the power is reduced to a power that is used for has successfully completed its type or proof test indicates
climbing and that can be maintained for longer periods of that it can be operated in a normal manner over a long period
time. After the aircraft has climbed to cruising altitude, the before requiring overhaul. However, no definite time interval
power of the engine(s) is further reduced to a cruise power between overhauls is specified or implied in the engine

1-2
rating. The time between overhauls (TBO) varies with the engines is a limiting factor. In the range of cruising speed of
operating conditions, such as engine temperatures, amount 180 to 350 mph, the turboprop engine performs very well.
of time the engine is operated at high-power settings, and the It develops more power per pound of weight than does
maintenance received. Recommended TBOs are specified by the reciprocating engine, thus allowing a greater fuel load
the engine manufacturer. or payload for engines of a given power. From 350 mph
up to Mach .8–.9, turbofan engines are generally used for
Reliability and durability are built into the engine by the airline operations. Aircraft intended to operate at Mach 1 or
manufacturer, but the continued reliability of the engine is higher are powered by pure turbojet engines/afterburning
determined by the maintenance, overhaul, and operating (augmented) engines, or low-bypass turbofan engines.
personnel. Careful maintenance and overhaul methods,
thorough periodical and preflight inspections, and strict Types of Engines
observance of the operating limits established by the engine Aircraft engines can be classified by several methods. They
manufacturer make engine failure a rare occurrence. can be classed by operating cycles, cylinder arrangement,
or the method of thrust production. All are heat engines that
Operating Flexibility convert fuel into heat energy that is converted to mechanical
Operating flexibility is the ability of an engine to run energy to produce thrust. Most of the current aircraft engines
smoothly and give desired performance at all speeds from are of the internal combustion type because the combustion
idling to full-power output. The aircraft engine must also process takes place inside the engine. Aircraft engines
function efficiently through all the variations in atmospheric come in many different types, such as gas turbine based,
conditions encountered in widespread operations. reciprocating piston, rotary, two or four cycle, spark ignition,
diesel, and air or water cooled. Reciprocating and gas turbine
Compactness engines also have subdivisions based on the type of cylinder
To affect proper streamlining and balancing of an aircraft, the arrangement (piston) and speed range (gas turbine).
shape and size of the engine must be as compact as possible.
In single-engine aircraft, the shape and size of the engine also Many types of reciprocating engines have been designed.
affect the view of the pilot, making a smaller engine better However, manufacturers have developed some designs that
from this standpoint, in addition to reducing the drag created are used more commonly than others and are, therefore,
by a large frontal area. recognized as conventional. Reciprocating engines may be
classified according to the cylinder arrangement (inline,
Weight limitations, naturally, are closely related to the V-type, radial, and opposed) or according to the method of
compactness requirement. The more elongated and spread cooling (liquid cooled or air cooled). Actually, all piston
out an engine is, the more difficult it becomes to keep the engines are cooled by transferring excess heat to the
specific weight within the allowable limits. surrounding air. In air-cooled engines, this heat transfer is
direct from the cylinders to the air. Therefore, it is necessary to
Powerplant Selection provide thin metal fins on the cylinders of an air-cooled engine
Engine specific weight and specific fuel consumption were in order to have increased surface for sufficient heat transfer.
discussed in the previous paragraphs, but for certain design Most reciprocating aircraft engines are air cooled although
requirements, the final powerplant selection may be based a few high powered engines use an efficient liquid-cooling
on factors other than those that can be discussed from an system. In liquid-cooled engines, the heat is transferred
analytical point of view. For that reason, a general discussion from the cylinders to the coolant, which is then sent through
of powerplant selection follows. tubing and cooled within a radiator placed in the airstream.
The coolant radiator must be large enough to cool the liquid
For aircraft whose cruising speed does not exceed 250 mph, efficiently. The main problem with liquid cooling is the added
the reciprocating engine is the usual choice of powerplant. weight of coolant, heat exchanger (radiator), and tubing to
When economy is required in the low speed range, the connect the components. Liquid cooled engines do allow high
conventional reciprocating engine is chosen because of power to be obtained from the engine safely.
its excellent efficiency and relatively low cost. When high
altitude performance is required, the turbo-supercharged Inline Engines
reciprocating engine may be chosen because it is capable An inline engine generally has an even number of cylinders,
of maintaining rated power to a high altitude (above 30,000 although some three-cylinder engines have been constructed.
feet). Gas turbine engines operate most economically at This engine may be either liquid cooled or air cooled and has
high altitudes. Although in most cases the gas turbine engine only one crank shaft, which is located either above or below
provides superior performance, the cost of gas turbine the cylinders. If the engine is designed to operate with the

1-3
cylinders below the crankshaft, it is called an inverted engine.

The inline engine has a small frontal area and is better

adapted to streamlining. When mounted with the cylinders
in an inverted position, it offers the added advantages of a
shorter landing gear and greater pilot visibility. With increase
in engine size, the air cooled, inline type offers additional
problems to provide proper cooling; therefore, this type of
engine is confined to low- and medium-horsepower engines
used in very old light aircraft.

Opposed or O-Type Engines

The opposed-type engine has two banks of cylinders
directly opposite each other with a crankshaft in the center.
[Figure 1-1] The pistons of both cylinder banks are connected
to the single crankshaft. Although the engine can be either
liquid cooled or air cooled, the air-cooled version is used Figure 1-2. Radial engine.
predominantly in aviation. It is generally mounted with
the cylinders in a horizontal position. The opposed-type five, seven, or nine. Some radial engines have two rows of
engine has a low weight-to-horsepower ratio, and its narrow seven or nine cylinders arranged radially about the crankcase,
silhouette makes it ideal for horizontal installation on the one in front of the other. These are called double-row radials.
aircraft wings (twin engine applications). Another advantage [Figure 1-3] One type of radial engine has four rows of
is its low vibration characteristics. cylinders with seven cylinders in each row for a total of 28
cylinders. Radial engines are still used in some older cargo
V-Type Engines airplanes, war birds, and crop spray airplanes. Although
In V-type engines, the cylinders are arranged in two inline many of these engines still exist, their use is limited. The
banks generally set 60° apart. Most of the engines have 12 single-row, nine-cylinder radial engine is of relatively simple
cylinders, which are either liquid cooled or air cooled. The construction, having a one-piece nose and a two-section
engines are designated by a V followed by a dash and the main crankcase. The larger twin-row engines are of slightly
piston displacement in cubic inches. For example, V-1710. more complex construction than the single row engines.
This type of engine was used mostly during the Second World For example, the crankcase of the Wright R-3350 engine
War and its use is mostly limited to older aircraft. is composed of the crankcase front section, four crankcase
main sections (front main, front center, rear center, and
Radial Engines
The radial engine consists of a row, or rows, of cylinders
arranged radially about a central crankcase. [Figure 1-2] This
type of engine has proven to be very rugged and dependable.
The number of cylinders which make up a row may be three,

Figure 1-1. A typical four-cylinder opposed engine. Figure 1-3. Double row radials.

1-4
rear main), rear cam and tappet housing, supercharger front engine. It also provides support for attachment of the
housing, supercharger rear housing, and supercharger rear cylinder assemblies, and the powerplant to the aircraft. It
housing cover. Pratt and Whitney engines of comparable size must be sufficiently rigid and strong to prevent misalignment
incorporate the same basic sections, although the construction of the crankshaft and its bearings. Cast or forged aluminum
and the nomenclature differ considerably. alloy is generally used for crankcase construction because
it is light and strong. The crankcase is subjected to many
Reciprocating Engines variations of mechanical loads and other forces. Since the
cylinders are fastened to the crankcase, the tremendous
Design & Construction
forces placed on the cylinder tend to pull the cylinder
The basic major components of a reciprocating engine are off the crankcase. The unbalanced centrifugal and inertia
the crankcase, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, valves, forces of the crankshaft acting through the main bearings
valve-operating mechanism, and crankshaft. In the head subject the crankcase to bending moments which change
of each cylinder are the valves and spark plugs. One of the continuously in direction and magnitude. The crankcase
valves is in a passage leading from the induction system; the must have sufficient stiffness to withstand these bending
other is in a passage leading to the exhaust system. Inside moments without major deflections. [Figure 1-5]
each cylinder is a movable piston connected to a crankshaft
by a connecting rod. Figure 1-4 illustrates the basic parts of If the engine is equipped with a propeller reduction gear, the
a reciprocating engine. front or drive end is subjected to additional forces. In addition
to the thrust forces developed by the propeller under high
Crankcase Section power output, there are severe centrifugal and gyroscopic
The foundation of an engine is the crankcase. It contains forces applied to the crankcase due to sudden changes in the
the bearings and bearing supports in which the crankshaft direction of flight, such as those occurring during maneuvers
revolves. Besides supporting itself, the crankcase must of the airplane. Gyroscopic forces are particularly severe
provide a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil and must when a heavy propeller is installed. To absorb centrifugal
support various external and internal mechanisms of the loads, a large centrifugal bearing is used in the nose section.

An intake valve is needed to let The cylinder forms a part of the

the fuel/air into the cylinder. chamber in which the fuel is
compressed and burned.

An exhaust valve is needed

to let the exhaust gases out.

The piston, moving within the

cylinder, forms one of the walls
of the combustin chamber.
The piston has rings which seal
the gases in the
cylinder, preventing
any loss of power Spark plug
around the sides of
the piston.
Crankcase

The crankshaft and connecting

The connecting rod forms a link rod change the straight line
between the piston and motion of the piston to a rotary
the crankshaft. turning motion. The crankshaft
in an aircraft
engine also
absorbs the
power or work
from all the
cylinders and
transfers it to the propeller.

Figure 1-4. Basic parts of a reciprocating engine.

1-5
 arrangement is also used for turboprops.

On some of the larger radial engines, a small chamber is located

on the bottom of the nose section to collect the oil. This is called
the nose section oil sump. Since the nose section transmits
many varied forces to the main crankcase or power section,
it must be secured properly to transmit the loads efficiently.

The machined surfaces on which the cylinders are mounted are

called cylinder pads. They are provided with a suitable means
of retaining or fastening the cylinders to the crankcase. The
general practice in securing the cylinder flange to the pad is
to mount studs in threaded holes in the crankcase. The inner
portion of the cylinder pads are sometimes chamfered or
tapered to permit the installation of a large rubber O-ring around
Figure 1-5. The crankcase. the cylinder skirt, which effectively seals the joint between the
cylinder and the crankcase pads against oil leakage.

The shape of the nose or front of the crankcase section Because oil is thrown about the crankcase, especially on
varies considerably. In general, it is either tapered or round. inverted inline and radial-type engines, the cylinder skirts
Depending upon the type of reciprocating engine, the nose or extend a considerable distance into the crankcase sections to
front area of the crankcase varies somewhat. If the propeller reduce the flow of oil into the inverted cylinders. The piston
is driven directly by the crankshaft, less area is needed for and ring assemblies must be arranged so that they throw out
this component of the engine. The crankcases used on engines the oil splashed directly into them.
having opposed or inline cylinder arrangements vary in form
for the different types of engines, but in general they are Mounting lugs are spaced about the periphery of the rear
approximately cylindrical. One or more sides are surfaced to of the crankcase or the diffuser section of a radial engine.
serve as a base to which the cylinders are attached by means These are used to attach the engine assembly to the engine
of cap screws, bolts, or studs. These accurately machined mount or framework provided for attaching the powerplant
surfaces are frequently referred to as cylinder pads. to the fuselage of single-engine aircraft or to the wing nacelle
structure of multiengine aircraft. The mounting lugs may
If the propeller is driven by reduction gearing (gears that slow be either integral with the crankcase or diffuser section or
down the speed of the propeller less than the engine), more detachable, as in the case of flexible or dynamic engine mounts.
area is required to house the reduction gears. A tapered nose
section is used quite frequently on direct-drive, low-powered The mounting arrangement supports the entire powerplant
engines, because extra space is not required to house the including the propeller, and therefore is designed to provide
propeller reduction gears. Crankcase nose sections are usually ample strength for rapid maneuvers or other loadings. Because
cast of either aluminum alloy or magnesium. The crankcase of the elongation and contraction of the cylinders, the intake
nose section on engines that develop from 1,000 to 2,500 pipes which carry the mixture from the diffuser chamber
hp is usually larger to house reduction gears and sometimes through the intake valve ports are arranged to provide a slip
ribbed to get as much strength as possible. joint which must be leak proof. The atmospheric pressure on
the outside of the case of an un-supercharged engine is higher
The governor is used to control propeller speed and blade than on the inside, especially when the engine is operating at
angle. The mounting of the propeller governor varies. On idling speed. If the engine is equipped with a supercharger
some engines, it is located on the rear section, although this and operated at full throttle, the pressure is considerably
complicates the installation, especially if the propeller is higher on the inside than on the outside of the case. If the
operated or controlled by oil pressure, because of the distance slip joint connection has a slight leakage, the engine may
between the governor and propeller. Where hydraulically idle fast due to a slight leaning of the mixture. If the leak is
operated propellers are used, it is good practice to mount quite large, it may not idle at all. At open throttle, a small
the governor on the nose section as close to the propeller leak probably would not be noticeable in operation of the
as possible to reduce the length of the oil passages. The engine, but the slight leaning of the air-fuel mixture might
governor is then driven either from gear teeth on the periphery cause detonation or damage to the valves and valve seats. On
of the bell gear or by some other suitable means. This basic some radial engines, the intake pipe has considerable length

1-6
and on some inline engines, the intake pipe is at right angles
to the cylinders. In these cases, flexibility of the intake pipe Accessory Gear Trains
or its arrangement eliminates the need for a slip joint. In any Gear trains, containing both spur- and bevel-type gears, are
case, the engine induction system must be arranged so that it used in the different types of engines for driving engine
does not leak air and change the desired air-fuel ratio. components and accessories. Spur-type gears are generally
used to drive the heavier loaded accessories or those requiring
Accessory Section the least play or backlash in the gear train. Bevel gears permit
The accessory (rear) section usually is of cast construction angular location of short stub shafts leading to the various
and the material may be either aluminum alloy, which is used accessory mounting pads. On opposed, reciprocating engines,
most widely, or magnesium, which has been used to some the accessory gear trains are usually simple arrangements.
extent. On some engines, it is cast in one piece and provided Many of these engines use simple gear trains to drive the
with means for mounting the accessories, such as magnetos, engine’s accessories at the proper speeds.
carburetors, fuel, oil, vacuum pumps, starter, generator,
tachometer drive, etc., in the various locations required Crankshafts
to facilitate accessibility. Other adaptations consist of an The crankshaft is carried in a position parallel to the
aluminum alloy casting and a separate cast magnesium cover longitudinal axis of the crankcase and is generally supported
plate on which the accessory mounts are arranged. Accessory by a main bearing between each throw. The crankshaft main
drive shafts are mounted in suitable drive arrangements bearings must be supported rigidly in the crankcase. This
that are carried out to the accessory mounting pads. In this usually is accomplished by means of transverse webs in the
manner, the various gear ratios can be arranged to give the crankcase, one for each main bearing. The webs form an
proper drive speed to magnetos, pumps, and other accessories integral part of the structure and, in addition to supporting
to obtain correct timing or functioning. the main bearings, add to the strength of the entire case.

Camshaft bearings
Main bearing surface
Generator Prop shaft Connecting rod

Crankcase (left half) Parting surface

Crankcase (right half)
Magneto
Transverse webs

Cylinder
Crankshaft

Tachometer
generator

Camshaft
Starter
Accessory case assembly

Oil pump Induction system

Oil sump

Figure 1-6. Typical opposed engine exploded into component assemblies.

1-7
The crankcase is divided into two sections in a longitudinal threw these substances to the outside of the chamber and
plane. This division may be in the plane of the crankshaft so kept them from reaching the connecting-rod bearing surface.
that one-half of the main bearing (and sometimes camshaft Due to the use of ashless dispersant oils, newer engines no
bearings) are carried in one section of the case and the other longer use sludge chambers. On some engines, a passage
half in the opposite section. [Figure 1-6] Another method is is drilled in the crank cheek to allow oil from the hollow
to divide the case in such a manner that the main bearings crankshaft to be sprayed on the cylinder walls. The crank
are secured to only one section of the case on which the cheek connects the crankpin to the main journal. In some
cylinders are attached, thereby providing means of removing designs, the cheek extends beyond the journal and carries a
a section of the crankcase for inspection without disturbing flyweight to balance the crankshaft. The crank cheek must be
the bearing adjustment. of sturdy construction to obtain the required rigidity between
the crankpin and the journal.
The crankshaft is the backbone of the reciprocating engine. It
is subjected to most of the forces developed by the engine. Its In all cases, the type of crankshaft and the number of crankpins
main purpose is to transform the reciprocating motion of the must correspond with the cylinder arrangement of the engine.
piston and connecting rod into rotary motion for rotation of The position of the cranks on the crankshaft in relation to the
the propeller. The crankshaft, as the name implies, is a shaft other cranks of the same shaft is expressed in degrees.
composed of one or more cranks located at specified points
along its length. The cranks, or throws, are formed by forging The simplest crankshaft is the single-throw or 360° type.
offsets into a shaft before it is machined. Since crankshafts This type is used in a single-row radial engine. It can be
must be very strong, they generally are forged from a very constructed in one or two pieces. Two main bearings (one
strong alloy, such as chromium-nickel-molybdenum steel. on each end) are provided when this type of crankshaft is
used. The double-throw or 180° crankshaft is used on double-
A crankshaft may be of single-piece or multipiece row radial engines. In the radial-type engine, one throw is
construction. Figure 1-7 shows two representative types of provided for each row of cylinders.
solid crankshafts used in aircraft engines. The four-throw
construction may be used either on four-cylinder horizontal Crankshaft Balance
opposed or four-cylinder inline engines. The six-throw shaft Excessive vibration in an engine not only results in fatigue
is used on six-cylinder inline engines, 12-cylinder V-type failure of the metal structures, but also causes the moving
engines, and six-cylinder opposed engines. Crankshafts parts to wear rapidly. In some instances, excessive vibration
of radial engines may be the single-throw, two-throw, or is caused by a crankshaft that is not balanced. Crankshafts are
four-throw type, depending on whether the engine is the balanced for static balance and dynamic balance. A crankshaft
single-row, twin-row, or four-row type. A single-throw radial is statically balanced when the weight of the entire assembly
engine crankshaft is shown in Figure 1-8. No matter how of crankpins, crank cheeks, and flyweights is balanced around
many throws it may have, each crankshaft has three main the axis of rotation. When checked for static balance, it is
parts—a journal, crankpin, and crank cheek. Flyweights and placed on two knife edges. If the shaft tends to turn toward
dampers, although not a true part of a crankshaft, are usually any one position during the test, it is out of static balance.
attached to it to reduce engine vibration. Any engine to be overhauled completely should receive a
runout check of its crankshaft as a first step. Any question
The journal is supported by, and rotates in, a main bearing. It concerning crankshaft replacement is resolved at this time
serves as the center of rotation of the crankshaft. It is surface- since a shaft whose runout is beyond limits must be replaced.
hardened to reduce wear. The crankpin is the section to which
the connecting rod is attached. It is off-center from the main Dynamic Dampers
journals and is often called the throw. Two crank cheeks A crankshaft is dynamically balanced when all the forces
and a crankpin make a throw. When a force is applied to the created by crankshaft rotation and power impulses are
crankpin in any direction other than parallel or perpendicular balanced within themselves so that little or no vibration is
to and through the center line of the crankshaft, it causes the produced when the engine is operating. To reduce vibration
crankshaft to rotate. The outer surface is hardened by nitriding to a minimum during engine operation, dynamic dampers are
to increase its resistance to wear and to provide the required incorporated on the crankshaft. A dynamic damper is merely
bearing surface. The crankpin is usually hollow. This reduces a pendulum that is fastened to the crankshaft so that it is free
the total weight of the crankshaft and provides a passage for to move in a small arc. It is incorporated in the flyweight
the transfer of lubricating oil. On early engines, the hollow assembly. Some crankshafts incorporate two or more of these
crankpin also served as a chamber for collecting sludge, assemblies, each being attached to a different crank cheek.
carbon deposits, and other foreign material. Centrifugal force The distance the pendulum moves and, thus, its vibrating

1-8
 Cylinders 1 4
1 4
Crank arm

180°

180°
Journal
2 3
2 3

3 4
3 4

0°

12
12

0°
5 1

2 6
1 2 5 6 120°

Figure 1-7. Solid types of crankshafts.

frequency corresponds to the frequency of the power impulses crank cheek. Two spool-shaped steel pins extend into the
of the engine. When the vibration frequency of the crankshaft slot and pass through oversized holes in the flyweight and
occurs, the pendulum oscillates out of time with the crankshaft crank cheek. The difference in the diameter between the pins
vibration, thus reducing vibration to a minimum. and the holes provides a pendulum effect. An analogy of the
functioning of a dynamic damper is shown in Figure 1-9.
The construction of the dynamic damper used in one engine
consists of a movable slotted-steel flyweight attached to the Connecting Rods
The connecting rod is the link that transmits forces between
the piston and the crankshaft. [Figure 1-10] Connecting rods
Crankpin must be strong enough to remain rigid under load and yet be
light enough to reduce the inertia forces that are produced
when the rod and piston stop, change direction, and start
again at the end of each stroke.

There are four types of connecting-rod assemblies [Figure 1-11]:

Journal
1. Plain.
2. Fork and blade.
3. Master and articulated.
Crank cheek
4. Split-type.

Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly

The master-and-articulated rod assembly is commonly used
in radial engines. In a radial engine, the piston in one cylinder
in each row is connected to the crankshaft by a master rod.
All other pistons in the row are connected to the master
rod by articulated rods. In an 18-cylinder engine, which
has two rows of cylinders, there are two master rods and
Counterweight Damping weights 16 articulated rods. The articulated rods are constructed of
forged steel alloy in either the I- or H-shape, denoting the
cross-sectional shape. Bronze bushings are pressed into the
Figure 1-8. A single-throw radial engine crankshaft.

1-9
 Handpump bellow

Pendulum length
Handpump bellow

Figure 1-9. Principles of a dynamic damper.

bores in each end of the articulated rod to provide knuckle- offsetting to an extent the effect of the link rod angularity.
pin and piston-pin bearings.
Another method of minimizing the adverse effects on engine
The master rod serves as the connecting link between the operation is to use a compensated magneto. In this magneto
piston pin and the crankpin. The crankpin end, or the big end, the breaker cam has a number of lobes equal to the number
contains the crankpin or master rod bearing. Flanges around of cylinders on the engine. To compensate for the variation
the big end provide for the attachment of the articulated rods. in piston position due to link rod angularity, the breaker cam
The articulated rods are attached to the master rod by knuckle lobes are ground with uneven spacing. This allows the breaker
pins, which are pressed into holes in the master rod flanges contacts to open when the piston is in the correct firing position.
during assembly. A plain bearing, usually called a piston-pin This is further outlined during the discussion on ignition timing
bushing, is installed in the piston end of the master rod to in Chapter 4, Engine Ignition & Electrical Systems.
receive the piston pin.
Knuckle Pins
When a crankshaft of the split-spline or split-clamp type is The knuckle pins are of solid construction except for the
employed, a one-piece master rod is used. The master and oil passages drilled in the pins, which lubricate the knuckle
articulated rods are assembled and then installed on the pin bushings. These pins may be installed by pressing into
crankpin; the crankshaft sections are then joined together. holes in the master rod flanges so that they are prevented
In engines that use the one-piece type of crankshaft, the big from turning in the master rod. Knuckle pins may also be
end of the master rod is split, as is the master rod bearing. installed with a loose fit so that they can turn in the master rod
The main part of the master rod is installed on the crankpin; flange holes, and also turn in the articulating rod bushings.
then the bearing cap is set in place and bolted to the master These are called full-floating knuckle pins. In either type of
rod. The centers of the knuckle pins do not coincide with installation, a lock plate on each side retains the knuckle pin
the center of the crankpin. Thus, while the crankpin center and prevents a lateral movement.
describes a true circle for each revolution of the crankshaft,
the centers of the knuckle pins describe an elliptical path.
[Figure 1-12] The elliptical paths are symmetrical about a
center line through the master rod cylinder. It can be seen that
the major diameters of the ellipses are not the same. Thus,
the link rods have varying degrees of angularity relative to
the center of the crank throw.

Because of the varying angularity of the link rods and the

elliptical motion of the knuckle pins, all pistons do not move
an equal amount in each cylinder for a given number of degrees
of crank throw movement. This variation in piston position
between cylinders can have considerable effect on engine
operation. To minimize the effect of these factors on valve and
ignition timing, the knuckle pin holes in the master rod flange
are not equidistant from the center of the crankpin, thereby Figure 1-10. A connecting rod between the piston and crankshaft.

1-10
 Blade rod

Articulating rod

Knuckle pin lock plate

Fork rod

Knuckle pin

Solid-type master rod Fork-and-blade rod

Piston pin end

Bronze bushing

Shank

Bearing shells lined with bearing material

Crimp or pinch

Connecting rod bolts Cap

Plain rod Split-type master rod

Figure 1-11. Connecting rod assemblies.

Plain-Type Connecting Rods

Plain-type connecting rods are used in inline and opposed
engines. The end of the rod attached to the crankpin is fitted
1 with a cap and a two-piece bearing. The bearing cap is held
on the end of the rod by bolts or studs. To maintain proper
fit and balance, connecting rods should always be replaced
7
2 in the same cylinder and in the same relative position.

Fork-and-Blade Rod Assembly

The fork-and-blade rod assembly is used primarily in V-type
engines. The forked rod is split at the crankpin end to allow
space for the blade rod to fit between the prongs. A single two-
piece bearing is used on the crankshaft end of the rod. This
6 type of connecting rod is not used much on modern engines.

3 Pistons
The piston of a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical member
which moves back and forth within a steel cylinder.
[Figure 1-13] The piston acts as a moving wall within the
5 4 combustion chamber. As the piston moves down in the
cylinder, it draws in the air-fuel mixture. As it moves upward,
it compresses the charge, ignition occurs, and the expanding
Figure 1-12. Elliptical travel path of knuckle pins in an articulated
rod assembly. gases force the piston downward. This force is transmitted
to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. On the return
upward stroke, the piston forces the exhaust gases from the
cylinder and the cycle repeats.

1-11
 strength or wear resistance. The top of the piston, or head,
may be flat, convex, or concave. Recesses may be machined
in the piston head to prevent interference with the valves.

Modern engines use cam ground pistons that are a larger

diameter perpendicular to the piston pin. This larger diameter
keeps the piston straight in the cylinder as the engine warms
up from initial startup. As the piston heats up during warm
up, the part of the piston in line with the pin has more mass
and expands more making the piston completely round.
At low temperatures, the piston is oval shaped and, when
it warms to operating temperature, it becomes round. This
process reduces the tendency of the piston to cock or slap in
the cylinder during warm up. When the engine reaches its
normal operating temperature, the piston assumes the correct
Figure 1-13. A piston. dimensions in the cylinder.

Piston Construction As many as six grooves may be machined around the

The majority of aircraft engine pistons are machined from piston to accommodate the compression rings and oil rings.
aluminum alloy forgings. Grooves are machined in the [Figure 1-15] The compression rings are installed in the
outside surface of the piston to receive the piston rings, and three uppermost grooves; the oil control rings are installed
cooling fins are provided on the inside of the piston for greater immediately above the piston pin. The piston is usually
heat transfer to the engine oil. drilled at the oil control ring grooves to allow surplus oil
scraped from the cylinder walls by the oil control rings to
Pistons may be either the trunk type or the slipper type. pass back into the crankcase. An oil scraper ring is installed
[Figure 1-14] Slipper-type pistons are not used in modern, at the base of the piston wall or skirt to prevent excessive oil
high-powered engines because they do not provide adequate consumption. The portions of the piston walls that lie between

Compression rings Oil control ring Recessed head

Piston pin

Aluminum plug

Piston Piston pin boss

Slipper type Trunk type

Flat head Recessed head Concave head Dome head

Figure 1-14. Piston assembly and types of pistons.

1-12
ring grooves are called the ring lands. In addition to acting the cross-section desired. Then they are split so that they can
as a guide for the piston head, the piston skirt incorporates be slipped over the outside of the piston and into the ring
the piston-pin bosses. The piston-pin bosses are of heavy grooves that are machined in the piston wall. Since their
construction to enable the heavy load on the piston head to purpose is to seal the clearance between the piston and the
be transferred to the piston pin. cylinder wall, they must fit the cylinder wall snugly enough
to provide a gastight fit. They must exert equal pressure at
Piston Pin all points on the cylinder wall and must make a gastight fit
The piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod. It is against the sides of the ring grooves.
machined in the form of a tube from a nickel steel alloy
forging, casehardened, and ground. The piston pin is Gray cast iron is most often used in making piston rings. In
sometimes called a wristpin because of the similarity between some engines, chrome-plated mild steel piston rings are used
the relative motions of the piston and the articulated rod and in the top compression ring groove because these rings can
that of the human arm. The piston pin used in modern aircraft better withstand the high temperatures present at this point.
engines is the full-floating type, so called because the pin is Chrome rings must be used with steel cylinder walls. Never
free to rotate in both the piston and in the connecting rod use chrome rings on chrome cylinders.
piston-pin bearing. The piston pin must be held in place to
prevent the pin ends from scoring the cylinder walls. A plug Compression Ring
of relatively soft aluminum in the pin end provides a good The purpose of the compression rings is to prevent the escape
bearing surface against the cylinder wall. of combustion gases past the piston during engine operation.
They are placed in the ring grooves immediately below the
Piston Rings piston head. The number of compression rings used on each
The piston rings prevent leakage of gas pressure from the piston is determined by the type of engine and its design,
combustion chamber and reduce to a minimum the seepage although most aircraft engines use two compression rings
of oil into the combustion chamber. [Figure 1-15] The rings plus one or more oil control rings.
fit into the piston grooves but spring out to press against the
cylinder walls; when properly lubricated, the rings form an The cross-section of the ring is either rectangular or wedge
effective gas seal. shaped with a tapered face. The tapered face presents a narrow
bearing edge to the cylinder wall, which helps to reduce
Piston Ring Construction friction and provide better sealing.
Most piston rings are made of high-grade cast iron.
Oil Control Rings
[Figure 1-14] After the rings are made, they are ground to
Oil control rings are placed in the grooves immediately below
the compression rings and above the piston pin bores. There
may be one or more oil control rings per piston; two rings
may be installed in the same groove, or they may be installed
in separate grooves. Oil control rings regulate the thickness
of the oil film on the cylinder wall. If too much oil enters the
combustion chamber, it burns and leaves a thick coating of
carbon on the combustion chamber walls, the piston head, the
spark plugs, and the valve heads. This carbon can cause the
valves and piston rings to stick if it enters the ring grooves
or valve guides. In addition, the carbon can cause spark plug
misfiring as well as detonation, pre-ignition, or excessive
oil consumption. To allow the surplus oil to return to the
crankcase, holes are drilled in the bottom of the oil control
piston ring grooves or in the lands next to these grooves.

Oil Scraper Ring

The oil scraper ring usually has a beveled face and is installed
in the groove at the bottom of the piston skirt. The ring is
installed with the scraping edge away from the piston head
Figure 1-15. Machined rings around a piston.
or in the reverse position, depending upon cylinder position
and the engine series. In the reverse position, the scraper ring

1-13
retains the surplus oil above the ring on the upward piston design and aids in a more rapid and thorough scavenging of
stroke, and this oil is returned to the crankcase by the oil the exhaust gases.
control rings on the downward stroke.
The cylinder used in the air cooled engine is the overhead
Cylinders valve type. [Figure 1-17] Each cylinder is an assembly of two
The portion of the engine in which the power is developed major parts: cylinder head and cylinder barrel. At assembly,
is called the cylinder. [Figure 1-16] The cylinder provides the cylinder head is expanded by heating and then screwed
a combustion chamber where the burning and expansion of down on the cylinder barrel, which has been chilled. When
gases take place, and it houses the piston and the connecting the head cools and contracts and the barrel warms up and
rod. There are four major factors that need to be considered in expands, a gastight joint results. The majority of the cylinders
the design and construction of the cylinder assembly. It must: used are constructed in this manner using an aluminum head
and a steel barrel. [Figure 1-18]
1. Be strong enough to withstand the internal pressures
developed during engine operation. Cylinder Heads
2. Be constructed of a lightweight metal to keep down The purpose of the cylinder head is to provide a place for
engine weight. combustion of the air-fuel mixture and to give the cylinder
3. Have good heat-conducting properties for efficient more heat conductivity for adequate cooling. The air-fuel
cooling. mixture is ignited by the spark in the combustion chamber
and commences burning as the piston travels toward top
4. Be comparatively easy and inexpensive to manufacture, dead center (top of its travel) on the compression stroke. The
inspect, and maintain. ignited charge is rapidly expanding at this time, and pressure
is increasing so that, as the piston travels through the top dead
The cylinder head of an air cooled engine is generally made of center position, it is driven downward on the power stroke.
aluminum alloy because aluminum alloy is a good conductor
of heat and its light weight reduces the overall engine weight.
Cylinder heads are forged or die-cast for greater strength. The
inner shape of a cylinder head is generally semispherical. Combustion chamber

The semispherical shape is stronger than conventionalist Intake valve Exhaust valve

Cast aluminum head

Piston Piston pin

Connecting rod

Crankshaft
Forged steel barrel

Figure 1-16. An example of an engine cylinder. Figure 1-17. Cutaway view of the cylinder assembly.

1-14
The intake and exhaust valve ports are located in the cylinder Cylinder Barrels
head along with the spark plugs and the intake and exhaust The cylinder barrel in which the piston operates must be
valve actuating mechanisms. made of a high-strength material, usually steel. It must be
as light as possible yet have the proper characteristics for
After the cylinder head is cast, the spark plug bushings, valve operating under high temperatures. It must be made of a
guides, rocker arm bushings, and valve seats are installed in good bearing material and have high tensile strength. The
the cylinder head. Spark plug openings may be fitted with cylinder barrel is made of a steel alloy forging with the inner
bronze or steel bushings that are shrunk and screwed into surface hardened to resist wear of the piston and the piston
the openings. Stainless steel Heli-Coil spark plug inserts rings which bear against it. This hardening is usually done
are used in many engines currently manufactured. Bronze or by exposing the steel to ammonia or cyanide gas while the
steel valve guides are usually shrunk or screwed into drilled steel is very hot. The steel soaks up nitrogen from the gas,
openings in the cylinder head to provide guides for the valve which forms iron nitrides on the exposed surface. As a result
stems. These are generally located at an angle to the center of this process, the metal is said to be nitrided. This nitriding
line of the cylinder. The valve seats are circular rings of only penetrates into the barrel surface a few thousands of an
hardened metal that protect the relatively soft metal of the inch. As the cylinder barrels wear due to use, they can be
cylinder head from the hammering action of the valves (as repaired by chroming. This is a process that plates chromium
they open and close) and from the exhaust gases. on the surface of the cylinder barrel and brings it back to new
standard dimensions. Chromium-plated cylinders should use
The cylinder heads of air cooled engines are subjected to cast iron rings. Honing the cylinder walls is a process that
extreme temperatures; it is therefore necessary to provide brings it to the correct dimensions and provides crosshatch
adequate cooling fin area and to use metals that conduct heat pattern for seating the piston rings during engine break-in.
rapidly. Cylinder heads of air cooled engines are usually cast Some engine cylinder barrels are choked at the top, or they
or forged. Aluminum alloy is used in the construction for a are smaller in diameter to allow for heat expansion and wear.
number of reasons. It is well adapted for casting or for the
machining of deep, closely spaced fins, and it is more resistant In some instances, the barrel has threads on the outside
than most metals to the corrosive attack of tetraethyl lead in surface at one end so that it can be screwed into the cylinder
gasoline. The greatest improvement in air cooling has resulted head. The cooling fins are machined as an integral part of
from reducing the thickness of the fins and increasing their the barrel and have limits on repair and service.
depth. In this way, the fin area has been increased in modern
engines. Cooling fins taper from 0.090" at the base to 0.060" Cylinder Numbering
at the tip end. Because of the difference in temperature in Occasionally, it is necessary to refer to the left or right side
the various sections of the cylinder head, it is necessary to of the engine or to a particular cylinder. Therefore, it is
provide more cooling-fin area on some sections than on necessary to know the engine directions and how cylinders of
others. The exhaust valve region is the hottest part of the an engine are numbered. The propeller shaft end of the engine
internal surface; therefore, more fin area is provided around is always the front end, and the accessory end is the rear end,
the outside of the cylinder in this section. regardless of how the engine is mounted in an aircraft. When
referring to the right side or left side of an engine, always
assume the view is from the rear or accessory end. As seen
from this position, crankshaft rotation is referred to as either
clockwise or counterclockwise.

Inline and V-type engine cylinders are usually numbered from

the rear. In V-engines, the cylinder banks are known as the
right bank and the left bank, as viewed from the accessory end.
[Figure 1-19] The cylinder numbering of the opposed engine
shown begins with the right rear as No. 1 and the left rear as
No. 2. The one forward of No. 1 is No. 3; the one forward of
No. 2 is No. 4, and so on. The numbering of opposed engine
cylinders is by no means standard. Some manufacturers
number their cylinders from the rear and others from the front
of the engine. Always refer to the appropriate engine manual
to determine the numbering system used by that manufacturer.
Figure 1-18. The aluminum head and steel barrel of a cylinder.

1-15
Single-row radial engine cylinders are numbered clockwise
when viewed from the rear. Cylinder No. 1 is the top cylinder. Double-Row Radial Engines
In double-row engines, the same system is used. The No. 1 On a double-row radial engine, the firing order is somewhat
cylinder is the top one in the rear row. No. 2 cylinder is the complicated. The firing order is arranged with the firing
first one clockwise from No. 1, but No. 2 is in the front row. impulse occurring in a cylinder in one row and then in a
No. 3 cylinder is the next one clockwise to No. 2 but is in cylinder in the other row; therefore, two cylinders in the
the rear row. Thus, all odd-numbered cylinders are in the rear same row never fire in succession.
row, and all even-numbered cylinders are in the front row.
An easy method for computing the firing order of a
Firing Order 14-cylinder, double-row radial engine is to start with any
The firing order of an engine is the sequence in which the number from 1 to 14 and add 9 or subtract 5 (these are called
power event occurs in the different cylinders. The firing order the firing order numbers), whichever gives an answer between
is designed to provide for balance and to eliminate vibration 1 and 14, inclusive. For example, starting with 8, 9 cannot be
to the greatest extent possible. In radial engines, the firing added since the answer would then be more than 14; therefore,
order must follow a special pattern since the firing impulses subtract 5 from 8 to get 3, add 9 to 3 to get 12, subtract 5 from
must follow the motion of the crank throw during its rotation. 12 to get 7, subtract 5 from 7 to get 2, and so on.
In inline engines, the firing orders may vary somewhat, yet
most orders are arranged so that the firing of cylinders is The firing order numbers of an 18-cylinder, double-row radial
evenly distributed along the crankshaft. Six-cylinder inline engine are 11 and 7; that is, begin with any number from 1 to
engines generally have a firing order of 1-5-3-6-2-4. Cylinder 18 and add 11 or subtract 7. For example, beginning with 1,
firing order in opposed engines can usually be listed in pairs add 11 to get 12; 11 cannot be added to 12 because the total
of cylinders, as each pair fires across the center main bearing. would be more than 18, so subtract 7 to get 5, add 11 to 5 to get
The firing order of six-cylinder opposed engines is 1-4-5- 16, subtract 7 from 16 to get 9, subtract 7 from 9 to get 2, add
2-3-6. The firing order of one model four-cylinder opposed 11 to 2 to get 13, and continue this process for 18 cylinders.
engine is 1-4-2-3, but on another model, it is 1-3-2-4.
Valves
Single-Row Radial Engines The air-fuel mixture enters the cylinders through the intake
On a single-row radial engine, all the odd-numbered cylinders valve ports, and burned gases are expelled through the
fire in numerical succession; then, the even numbered exhaust valve ports. The head of each valve opens and closes
cylinders fire in numerical succession. On a five-cylinder these cylinder ports. The valves used in aircraft engines are
radial engine, for example, the firing order is 1-3-5-2-4, and the conventional poppet type. The valves are also typed by
on a seven-cylinder radial engine it is 1-3-5-7-2-4-6. The firing their shape and are called either mushroom or tulip because
order of a nine-cylinder radial engine is 1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8. of their resemblance to the shape of these plants. Figure 1-20
illustrates various shapes and types of these valves.

Single-Row Radial Double-Row Radial Opposed

18 2

1 1
9 2 16 17 3 4

6 5
8 3 15 5
4 3
14 6
7 4 13 7 2 1

6 5 11 9
12 8

10

Figure 1-19. Numbering of engine cylinders.

1-16
 the valve guide installed in the cylinder head for this purpose.
Valve Construction [Figure 1-21] The valve stem is surface hardened to resist wear.
The valves in the cylinders of an aircraft engine are subjected The neck is the part that forms the junction between the head
to high temperatures, corrosion, and operating stresses; thus, and the stem. The tip of the valve is hardened to withstand the
the metal alloy in the valves must be able to resist all these hammering of the valve rocker arm as it opens the valve. A
factors. Because intake valves operate at lower temperatures machined groove on the stem near the tip receives the split-ring
than exhaust valves, they can be made of chromic-nickel stem keys. These stem keys form a lock ring to hold the valve
steel. Exhaust valves are usually made of nichrome, spring retaining washer in place. [Figure 1-22]
silchrome, or cobalt-chromium steel because these materials
are much more heat resistant. Some intake and exhaust valve stems are hollow and
partially filled with metallic sodium. This material is used
The valve head has a ground face that forms a seal against because it is an excellent heat conductor. The sodium melts
the ground valve seat in the cylinder head when the valve is at approximately 208 °F and the reciprocating motion of
closed. The face of the valve is usually ground to an angle the valve circulates the liquid sodium, allowing it to carry
of either 30° or 45°. In some engines, the intake-valve face away heat from the valve head to the valve stem where it
is ground to an angle of 30°, and the exhaust-valve face is is dissipated through the valve guide to the cylinder head
ground to a 45° angle. Valve faces are often made more and the cooling fins. Thus, the operating temperature of the
durable by the application of a material called stellite. About valve may be reduced as much as 300° to 400 °F. Under
1
⁄16 inch of this alloy is welded to the valve face and ground no circumstances should a sodium-filled valve be cut open
to the correct angle. Stellite is resistant to high-temperature
corrosion and also withstands the shock and wear associated
with valve operation. Some engine manufacturers use a
nichrome facing on the valves. This serves the same purpose
as the stellite material.

The valve stem acts as a pilot for the valve head and rides in

Sodium chamber Hardened tip

Large stem

Small stem

Face
Figure 1-21. View of valve guide installed on a cylinder head.
Neck

Head

Hollow-head
mushroom type Mushroom type Tulip type

Tulip type Semi-tulip type Tulip type

Figure 1-22. Stem keys forming a lock ring to hold valve spring
Figure 1-20. Various valve types. retaining washers in place.

1-17
or subjected to treatment which may cause it to rupture.
Exposure of the sodium in these valves to the outside air
Adjusting screw Rocker arm
results in fire or explosion with possible personal injury.
Lock screw Roller
The most commonly used intake valves have solid stems,
and the head is either flat or tulip shaped. Intake valves for
low-power engines are usually flat headed. In some engines,
the intake valve may be the tulip type and have a smaller stem
Push rod tube
than the exhaust valve or it may be similar to the exhaust
valve but have a solid stem and head. Although these valves Valve spring
are similar, they are not interchangeable since the faces of the
Port
valves are constructed of different material. The intake valve Valve guide
usually has a flat milled on the tip to identify it. Seat
Return oil
Valve Operating Mechanism
For a reciprocating engine to operate properly, each valve Tappet
must open at the proper time, stay open for the required Case
length of time, and close at the proper time. Intake valves
are opened just before the piston reaches top dead center, Pressure oil
and exhaust valves remain open after top dead center. At
a particular instant, therefore, both valves are open at the Cam roller
same time (end of the exhaust stroke and beginning of the
intake stroke). This valve overlap permits better volumetric Cam ring
efficiency and lowers the cylinder operating temperature. Tappet guide

This timing of the valves is controlled by the valve-operating Cam lobe

mechanism and is referred to as the valve timing.

The valve lift (distance that the valve is lifted off its seat) and Cam track
the valve duration (length of time the valve is held open) are
both determined by the shape of the cam lobes. Typical cam
lobes are illustrated in Figure 1-23. The portion of the lobe
that gently starts the valve operating mechanism moving is
called a ramp, or step. The ramp is machined on each side of

Figure 1-24. Valve-operating mechanism (radial engine).

the cam lobe to permit the rocker arm to be eased into contact
with the valve tip and thus reduce the shock load which would
Camshaft otherwise occur. The valve operating mechanism consists of a
cam ring or camshaft equipped with lobes that work against a
cam roller or a cam follower. [Figures 1-24 and 1-25] The cam
follower pushes a push rod and ball socket, actuating a rocker
arm, which in turn opens the valve. Springs, which slip over
the stem of the valves and are held in place by the valve-spring
Cam ramps
retaining washer and stem key, close each valve and push the
valve mechanism in the opposite direction. [Figure 1-26]

Cam Rings
The valve mechanism of a radial engine is operated by one or
two cam rings, depending upon the number of rows of cylinders.
In a single-row radial engine, one ring with a double cam
track is used. One track operates the intake valves, the other
Figure 1-23. Typical cam lobes.

1-18
 Push rod Tappet
Camshaft

Valve spring

Figure 1-25. Valve-operating mechanism (opposed engine).

operates the exhaust valves. The cam ring is a circular piece of through the cam intermediate drive gear assembly. The cam
steel with a series of cams or lobes on the outer surface. The ring has two parallel sets of lobes spaced around the outer
surface of these lobes and the space between them (on which periphery, one set (cam track) for the intake valves and the
the cam rollers ride) is known as the cam track. As the cam ring other for the exhaust valves. The cam rings used may have
revolves, the lobes cause the cam roller to raise the tappet in the four or five lobes on both the intake and the exhaust tracks.
tappet guide, thereby transmitting the force through the push The timing of the valve events is determined by the spacing
rod and rocker arm to open the valve. In a single-row radial of these lobes and the speed and direction at which the cam
engine, the cam ring is usually located between the propeller rings are driven in relation to the speed and direction of the
reduction gearing and the front end of the power section. In a crankshaft. The method of driving the cam varies on different
twin-row radial engine, a second cam for the operation of the makes of engines. The cam ring can be designed with teeth
valves in the rear row is installed between the rear end of the on either the inside or outside periphery. If the reduction
power section and the supercharger section. gear meshes with the teeth on the outside of the ring, the
cam turns in the direction of rotation of the crankshaft. If the
The cam ring is mounted concentrically with the crankshaft ring is driven from the inside, the cam turns in the opposite
and is driven by the crankshaft at a reduced rate of speed direction from the crankshaft. [Figure 1-24]

A four-lobe cam may be used on either a seven-cylinder or

nine-cylinder engine. [Figure 1-27] On the seven cylinder,
it rotates in the same direction as the crankshaft, and on the
nine cylinder, opposite the crankshaft rotation. On the nine-
cylinder engine, the spacing between cylinders is 40° and
the firing order is 1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8. This means that there
is a space of 80° between firing impulses. The spacing on
the four lobes of the cam ring is 90°, which is greater than
the spacing between impulses. Therefore, to obtain proper
relation of valve operations and firing order, it is necessary
to drive the cam opposite the crankshaft rotation. Using the
four-lobe cam on the seven-cylinder engine, the spacing
between the firing of the cylinders is greater than the spacing
Figure 1-26. A typical set of valve springs used to dampen of the cam lobes. Therefore, it is necessary for the cam to
oscillations. Multiple springs are used to protect against breakage. rotate in the same direction as the crankshaft.

1-19