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Palm oil: A nutritional overview

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Palm Oil: a nutritional overview
PRAMOD KHOSLA
Wayne State University
Department of Nutrition and Food Science
Detroit, MI 48202, USA

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INTRODUCTION with other dietary oils or fats. Early studies evaluated palm oil
within the context of typical Western diets prevalent at the time
Palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) is currently the second largest (~ 40 percent of total calories from fat), Thus, when male
traded edible oil and accounts for about one quarter of the subjects were fed liquid-formula diets with 40 percent of
world's fats and oil supply. The oil palm gives rise to two calories supplied exclusively by a single fat, palm oil was
distinct oils - palm oil - from the mesocarp of the fruit, and palm hypercholesterolemic relative to high oleic safflower, high
kernel oil - from the kernel. (Palm kernel oil is distinct from linoleic safflower oil and a high stearate interesterified fat, but
palm oil in terms of its fatty acid composition, and is not the hypocholesterolemic relative to coconut oil. In all instances the
subject of this brief review). The bulk of palm oil that is primary effect of palm oil was on LDL levels (1-3).
produced goes into food applications, hence its nutritional Recent studies (4-14) have evaluated palm oil within the
properties have been extensively studied. Nutrition research context of prudent diets both in terms of total fat (~30 percent
related to palm oil has focused primarily on two major areas - of total calories) and saturated fatty acid content (~10 percent
the fatty acid composition and the micronutrient content of of total calories). In these studies, using mildly
palm oil. hypercholesterolaemic to normocholesterolaemic younger
subjects, the cholesterol raising attribute of palm oil was either
muted or disappeared. Under such conditions, stable-isotope
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION studies have revealed no effects on endogenous cholesterol
synthesis (5-8). In contrast to the older studies, recent trials
21

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Like any edible fat, the fatty acid composition of palm oil has have used palm olein, the liquid fraction of palm oil rather than
been the major focus for nutrition-related research. Palm oil palm oil itself. In such scenarios, direct comparisons of palm
contains approximately an equal amount of saturated and olein with some of the monounsaturated fatty acid-rich
unsaturated fatty acids. Amongst the former, palmitic and vegetable oils (olive and canola oils), have revealed
stearic acid account for 45 percent and 5 percent of total fatty comparable effects on plasma lipids and lipoproteins (4, 10,
acids, respectively. The unsaturated fatty acid content is made 13, 14). Whether the switch to palm olein having a higher
up of 40 percent oleic and 10 percent linoleic acid. unsaturated fatty acid composition (reduced palmitic,


Fractionation can give rise to a stearin (higher palmitic increased oleic and linoleic acids) resulted in the muted

May/June 2006
content) and an olein product (higher oleic content). With cholesterol response in the subjects is not clearly defined.
regards to the fatty acids present in palm oil, their collective The neutral effect of palm olein typically observed in studies in
and individual effects on blood lipids and lipoproteins has been which total fat represented ~30 percent of total calories, may in
evaluated in studies in both humans and various animal part be explained by the studies of Hayes and co-workers (15- 

models. Although palmitic acid is the major saturated fatty acid 20). According to their work, the individual SFA are not equally
Anno 17 - No. 3

(SFA) in palm oil, it fails to impact plasma lipids when total fat hypercholesterolemic, with lauric and myristic acid (12:0 and
intake is in line with the levels currently recommended by most 14:0) being the most cholesterolemic, followed by palmitic
health agencies. (16:0) and stearic (18:0). The latter is generally recognized as
Numerous dietary intervention studies designed to evaluate neutral. Additionally, any deleterious effects that SFA may
the ability of palm oil to influence blood cholesterol have been have on blood lipids can be blunted or even abolished, if
reported. The results from these have often been conflicting, "threshold" levels of dietary linoleic acid (18:2) are present (
primarily because some of the studies were designed to ~5- percent of total calories). Below this threshold value, the
evaluate the effects of individual SFA and used palm oil as a relative potencies of the individual SFA is readily apparent,
source of palmitic acid, while others, compared palm oil per se whereas above threshold levels of 18:2, the SFA begin to
appear "neutral'. This is believed to reflect, in part, 18:2's
ABSTRACT ability to maximally express LDL receptors. Thus palm olein,
Palm oil is one of the two leading edible oils in terms of which is essentially devoid of 12:0 and 14:0, appears to have
production and trade. Its major use is in food formulations. In sufficient 18:2 to counter any deleterious effects of 16:0. In the
addition to being a readily available source of energy, a above model, the monounsaturated oleic acid (18:1) is
carotenoid-enriched red palm oil, has proven to be a practical and believed to be neutral. The above concept of using 18:2 to
cost-effective medium for combating Vitamin A deficiency. As the essentially balance SFA in the diet is ingrained into most
food-industry seeks alternatives for the use of partially current dietary recommendations, which essentially advocate
hydrogenated liquid vegetable oils, to use in solid fat equivalent amounts of SFA and PUFA, with the remaining fatty
formulations, palm oil may be one of the viable alternatives by acids being derived from MUFA.
virtue of its fatty acid composition. To illustrate the above concept further, Table 1 is a theoretical
calculation showing the maximum amount of palm olein that
 can be incorporated at different levels of fat, while still PALM OIL MINOR COMPONENTS
maintaining a saturated fatty acid composition that is in line
In addition to the fatty acid composition, the nutritional
Table 1. Maximizing palm olein in fat formulations properties of palm oil's minor components have been
extensively studied. The carotenoids of palm have been
extensively evaluated for their pro-vitamin A activity and
several studies in humans have been reported in which beta-
carotene -rich red palm oil has been used effectively in dietary
intervention studies to fight vitamin A deficiency (22-29).
Crude palm oil is one of the richest known sources of
biologically active carotenoids (500 - 700 parts per million), of
which α- and β-carotene account for ~ 35 percent and 56
percent, respectively. However, these are destroyed during
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conventional refining. A refined palm oil is available which

Table shows the Maximum percentage of total dietary fat that can retains in excess of 80 percent of the carotenoids that were
come from palm olein to achieve the indicated intakes for SFA. originally present in the crude oil. This, red palm oil, has been
For example, when total fat contributes 25 percent of total
calories, 43 percent of the dietary fat from palm olein will result in exploited by nutrition researchers for its pro-vitamin A activity.
SFA intakes below 5 percent of total calories, 61 percent of the Several reports have shown that red palm oil can be used as
dietary fat from palm olein will result in SFA intakes below 7 an effective medium for delivering Vitamin A without the need
percent of total calories, etc. The calculation assumes that the
remaining fat will be primarily from a low SFA containing oil(s)
for resorting to synthetic Vitamin A. Children fed traditional
e.g. soybean, canola, safflower, which will invariably provide Indian sweets made with red palm oil (2.4 mg β -carotene per
additional linoleic acid. Note that at total fat intakes of 20 percent day for 1 -2 months) had increased blood retinol levels,
of total calories, 100 percent (**) of the dietary fat from palm olein indicative of red palm oil's efficacy as a means for delivering
will provide 9.2 percent of calories from SFA.
pro Vitamin A (22). When school children were fed biscuits
baked in a commercialized baking fat containing red palm oil,
with the recommendations from most health agencies. there was a significant improvement in Vitamin A status, as
From this Table it can be readily seen that in studies where measured by serum retinol levels, which was comparable to
total fat was 40 percent of calories, and palm oil /olein was the that obtained when the children had been fed biscuits with
sole fat utilized, the SFA content of the diet was well in excess added synthetic β -carotene (23). Similarly, higher serum
of the recommended levels of 10 percent of calories. As such retinol levels were also obtained in school children who were
the SFA was far in excess of any 18:2 that the diets could given 5 mL of red palm oil on a daily basis for 10 months. The
accommodate. In the studies in which total fat was 30-35 enhancement in serum retinol translated into a significant
percent of total calories, even when palm olein represented reduction in Bitot's spot (24). Cooking green leafy vegetables
upto 60 percent of the total dietary fat, the SFA content of the in red palm oil, resulted in twice as much β -carotene being
22 diet was still within recommended levels, allowing for the made available as compared to cooking in sunflower oil (25).
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presence of adequate 18:2 to balance the 16:0 derived from In studies in Burkina-Faso, actively promoting red palm oil use
palm olein. Thus as Table 1 suggests, palm olein can be used (along with other Vitamin A rich foods) in certain villages led to
as the major fat at essentially any fat level (20 percent to 35 a significant reduction in Vitamin A deficiency within 24 months
percent of total calories), and the SFA will be within of promotion (26)
recommended levels. In addition to the above studies, several studies have also
The above concept of balancing different fatty acids, has taken reported on the successful use of red palm oil to improve
on added significance since optimal fatty acid blends are Vitamin A status of pregnant or lactating women and their
believed to be important for maintaining both plasma LDL and offspring. A ten day dietary supplementation with red palm oil,

May/June 2006

HDL levels (please see reference 21 for the latest review). total of 90 mg β -carotene, resulted in significant improvement
Since SFA raise both LDL and HDL, cis MUFA lower LDL, in serum carotenes as opposed to a supplement of synthetic
trans MUFA raise LDL and lower HDL, while PUFA lower LDL beta carotene in lactating mothers (27). This was accompanied
and HDL (at high intakes), teleologically it is apparent that by a significantly higher increase in breast-milk beta carotene
optimal blends of fatty acids can be selected to maximally of the mothers supplemented with red palm oil, as opposed to

Anno 17 - No. 3

lower LDL while maintaining or raising HDL. Sundram et al those supplemented with synthetic beta carotene. The results
(13) have presented evidence that such blends are indeed suggested, indirectly, that the Vitamin A status of the infants
possible. Finally, with regards to palm oil and its fatty acid would have been improved. Similarly, feeding 8 mL of red palm
composition, recently, palm oil has been thrust to the forefront oil (~ 2.2 mg β -carotene) for the 2 months prior to delivery
of the edible-oils market owing to the publicity that has been resulted in significantly higher serum retinol levels in both the
afforded to the negative health effects of trans fatty acids mothers and their infants, as compared to feeding of
generated during the partial hydrogenation of liquid vegetable groundnut oil (28). Finally, in pregnant women in their third
oils. Legislation by various European countries has advocated trimester, the use of red palm oil in household cooking,
elimination of trans fatty acids from the market place. In the resulted in higher plasma and breast-milk retinol
United States, the Food and Drug Administration called for concentrations than those observed in women who had been
mandatory labeling of trans fatty acids which came into effect using sunflower oil (29). Thus the above studies illustrate, the
in 2006 Thus the food industry is being forced to find safety and efficacy of using red palm oil for fighting Vitamin A
alternatives to trans fatty acids for use in solid-fat formulations. deficiency. Besides the carotenoids, palm oil contains
Various options are being considered, including genetic appreciable amounts of vitamin E -both the tocopherols and
engineering of oil crops, full hydrogenation of liquid vegetable tocotrienols. Palm is one of the richest natural sources of the
oils followed by enzymatic or chemical interesterification with a latter. Unlike the studies on pro Vitamin A activity discussed
suitable liquid vegetable oil, as well as the use of naturally above where palm oil was fed primarily to exploit its β -
occurring fats and oils to provide a source of saturated fatty carotene content, the bulk of the studies exploiting palm oil's
acids, needed for products requiring a certain amount of solid vitamin E properties, have been conducted using a Vitamin E-
fat content. In the latter option, palm oil may find an even enriched (primarily, tocotrienol-enriched) fraction derived from
broader market as it is 50 percent saturated. palm oil. These studies have revealed that in vitro, tocotrienols
inhibit cholesterol synthesis, but studies in humans fed palm REFERENCES AND NOTES
derived-tocotrienol supplements, have been inconclusive with
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23

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