CROSS POLLINATION

DONE BY:
NIHAAL
XII
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all those who have
helped me complete this school project successfully.

I am extremely thankful to my project guide, Ms Praveena C.K, my

Biology teacher, for invaluable guidance, encouragement and
support throughout this project. She provided me direction,
reviewed my progress and results, and helped me clarify my
doubts. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort she put into
supervising my project.

I am grateful to our school Principal, Mrudhula M.R for providing us

the resources and facilities to enable our project work. She took
keen interest in my project and motivated me to give my best
efforts.

My special thanks to my family, they encouraged me at every step,

and helped me manage my time effectively. Their faith in my
abilities inspired me to take on this project.

I could not have completed this project successfully without the

support of all these people. I will always be indebted for everything
they have done for me.
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Contents
SI.No Topic Page No
1. Introduction
2. What Is Pollination?
3. Parts of Flower
4. Types Of Pollination
5. Agents of Pollination
6. Artificial Hybridization
7. Steps Of Artificial Hybridization
8. Advantages and Disadvantages
9. Conclusion
10. Bibliography
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INTRODUCTION

All living organisms have one major goal in common, which is to

pass along their genetic information to the next generation by
creating offspring. Flowering plants create seeds, which carry the
genetic information of the parents and develop into new plants.

There are two critical stages in the life cycle of a flowering plant:

1) The transfer of pollen from anther to stigma-Most flowering

plants have different types of mechanisms to promote the
transfer of pollen from an anther in one flower to a stigma in
a different flower.
2) The dispersal of seeds-Plants often solicit the aid of
animals,as well as abiotic sources such as wind, to accomplish
these.
Much of the flower diversity that you have observed is
because of the adaptations for the pollination by different
mechanisms.
In this project, we will discuss the main types of pollination
mechanism and artificial hybridization.
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What is Pollination?
Pollination is a method where pollen grains are picked from an anther,
which is the male part of a flower and transferred to the flower’s female
part called the stigma. To make the pollination work successfully, the
pollen grains must be transferred from the same species of flower.

The process of pollination begins when the pollen grains from the respective
flowers land on the stigma and form a pollen tube with the style length,
which connects both the stigma and ovary. After the completion of the pollen
tube, the pollen grain starts transmitting sperm cells from the grain to the
ovary.

Later the process of fertilization in plants will take place when the sperm
cells will reach the ovary and egg cells. The seed is then released from the
parent plant and makes it able to grow into a plant and continue the
reproductive cycle with the use of the pollination method.
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Parts Of A Flower

Parts of a Flower
The calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium are four whorls of modified
leaves that constitute the flower. The sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils,
respectively, constitute one of the flower parts in each of these whorls.
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The different parts of a flower are mentioned below:

Vegetative Parts of a Flower

The vegetative part of a flower consists of the following:

● Petals: This is a bright-coloured part that attracts bees, insects, and birds. The
colour of petals varies from plant to plant; some are bright while some are pale
coloured. Thus, petals help us to differentiate one flower from another.
● Sepals: Sepal is the green-coloured part beneath the petals to protect rising buds.
Some flowers have fused petals-sepals while a few have separated petals-sepals.

Reproductive Parts of a Flower

Flowers contain the plant’s reproductive structures.

In different plants, the number of petals, sepals, stamens and pistils can vary.
The presence of these parts differentiates the flower into complete or incomplete.
Apart from these parts, a flower includes reproductive parts – the stamen and
pistil. A flower may have only female parts, only male parts, or both.

The reproductive parts of a flower consist of the following:

● Stamen: This is the male reproductive organ and is also known as Androecium. It
consists of two parts namely: anther and filaments.
1. The anther is a yellowish, sac-like structure, involved in producing and storing the
pollen.
2. The filament is a slender, threadlike object, which functions by supporting the anther.
● Pistil: This is the innermost part and the female reproductive organ of a flower which
comprises three parts -stigma, style and ovary. This is collectively known as the
pistil.
1. Stigma: It is the topmost part or receptive tip of carpels in the gynoecium of a flower.
2. Style: It is the long tube-like slender stalk that connects the stigma and the ovary.
3. Ovary: It is the ductless reproductive gland that holds a lot of ovules. It is the part of
the plant where the seed formation takes place.
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Types Of Pollination

Types of Self-pollination and Cross-pollination

Pollinations can occur either within a flower or between flowers of the same
plant or flowers of different plants. Depending on this, pollinations are of
three types, namely:

Autogamy

It is a type of self-pollination where the transfer of pollen grains from the

anther to the stigma takes place within the same flower. Coordinated
opening, maturation and exposure of the anther and stigma are necessary for
autogamy. There are two conditions for autogamy to take place:

● Anther-stigma synchronization; when the pollen is released, stigma should be

ready to receive it.
● The position of or distance between anther and stigma. Both should be close
enough for pollination.

In chasmogamous flowers, anther and stigma are exposed. The exposed

reproductive parts give a chance of cross-pollination in chasmogamous
flowers. While in cleistogamous flowers anther and stigma are not exposed
but lie close enough for transfer. Thus, the chances of cross-pollination in
cleistogamous flowers are almost none. In addition, they barely require a
pollinating agent.
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Geitonogamy

Geitonogamy is the type of self-pollination where the transfer of pollen

grains from the anther to the stigma takes place between different
flowers in the same plant. Though it seems like cross-pollination and
takes place with the help of pollinators, both the gametes have the
same plant as their origin.

Xenogamy

Xenogamy is the cross-pollination where the pollen grain transfer

occurs across flowers of two different plants. In other words, the
transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to the stigma of another
plant.

Each type of pollination has its own merits. Xenogamy leads to a new
variety, whereas autogamy helps to preserve parental characters. Plants
have various adaptations to accomplish this task. In addition, flowers
depend on certain pollinating agents which can either be biotic or
abiotic. These biotic and abiotic pollinating agents are collectively
termed pollinators.
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Agents Of Pollination
Agents of pollination or pollinators

As pollen cannot transfer itself, pollinating agents play an important

role. Some of the agents of pollination are birds or insects that carry
pollen from one plant to another. These agents are also known as
pollinators. The factors causing pollination can be divided into two
types: abiotic or non-living agents and biotic or living agents.

1. Abiotic or Non-living Agents: Abiotic agents are the nonliving factors

that help in the transport of pollen from one plant to another, such

as wind and water. This permits the plant to focus its energy on

pollen instead of flowers and nectar to attract pollinators.

Pollination by wind is more common in abiotic pollination. Abiotic

agents are made up of two types:

○ Anemophily (Pollination by wind/air): This type of pollination

mostly occurs in flowers that are not brightly colored or

perfumed. Such types of plants have petals that are either little

and green, or they aren’t there at all. Typically, in these plants,

the male flowers are more in number than the female ones.

The anthers on such plants are adaptable, allowing them to

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move freely in the wind. Pollen grains have a smooth wall, are

light, tiny, and dry, causing them to be easily blown away by

the wind.Examples;Sugarcane, Maize, Wheat, Bamboo, Pinus.

○ Hydrophily (Pollination by water): Hydrophily, or water

pollination, uses water to carry pollen, sometimes in the form

of complete anthers. Such a type of pollination takes place

either completely underwater or on the water’s surface,

helping transmit pollen grains which can move across the

water to another plant.Pollination by water is quite rare in

flowering plants and is limited to about 30 genera, mostly

monocotyledons. As against this, you would recall that water is

a regular mode of transport for the male gametes among the

lower plant groups such as algae, bryophytes and

pteridophytes.

○ Hypohydrophily : Plants which are pollinated inside the water

e.g., Zostera, Ceratophyllum, Najas etc.

○ Epihydrophily : Plants which are pollinated outside the water

e.g., Vallisneria (Ribbon weed).

2.Biotic or living agents: The living organisms that help in the process of
pollination are known as the biotic agents. Flowers whose pollination
takes place by the interference of insects, birds, and other living
organisms are mostly colourful, beautiful, and also have sweet smells.
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These properties attract insects and birds which further act as agents
of pollination or pollinators. Different types of biotic pollinators are:

○ Entomophily (Pollination by insects): Bees, butterflies, beetles,

and flies are the most common pollinators for this sort of

pollination. This process mostly takes place in angiosperms.

Such flowers have pollen grains in a small amount, and the

pollen has a rough surface that makes it easy for it to attach to

insect limbs when they visit flowers in search of nectar.Yucca

is pollinated by Pronuba (=Tegaticula) yuccasella

○ Ornithophily (Pollination by birds): Hummingbirds and honey

thrushes are little birds that feed on flower nectar. Such

flowers do not have many pollen grains. In this type of

pollination, the pollen grains get attached to the beaks and

mouths of pollinators and get transferred to other

flowers.Examples;Bombax (red silk cotton), Erythrina (Coral

tree).

○ Chiropterophily (Pollination by bats): Bats are known to

pollinate Kigelia Africana, Anthocephalus cadamba, Bauhinia

Monandra, and many other trees.

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Artificial Hybridization

Pollen-stigma compatibility is essential for successful

pollination and fertilization. Once compatible pollen is
accepted by pistil, events of fertilization proceed, whereas
incompatible pollen will be rejected. This interaction where a
pistil is capable of recognizing its pollen is the result of
long-term pollen-pistil interaction and chemicals released by
pollen.

It is very important to understand pollen-pistil interaction in

hybridization. It is one of the innovative methods of the crop
production improvement program. During artificial
hybridization, only the desired pollen grains are introduced to
the stigma through pollination. This helps to avoid unwanted
pollen rejection and saves time. Also, the plants with the
desired characteristics can be grown.
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Steps Of Artificial Hybridization

Selection of Parent Plants
Pick and hybridise two plant species or breeds that exhibit the required
qualities. The male plant will act as the pollen supplier, and the female
plant will act as the pollen receiver.

Emasculation
Removing the male reproductive organs (stamens) from the female parent
plant and avoiding self-pollination are required to ensure controlled
pollination with the desired pollen.

Pollination
Pollen from the male parent plant should be applied to the stigma of the
female parent plant. This can be accomplished by delicately brushing or
dusting the pollen onto the stigma or by transferring the pollen grains
using a little brush or cotton swab.

Bagging
Once pollination is complete, shield the blooms from unintended
cross-pollination by placing them in a mesh enclosure or breathable bag.
This ensures that only the intended pollen is used for fertilisation and
prohibits the introduction of pollen from other plants.

Seed Development
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Once pollination is successful, the flowers that have been fertilised will
grow into either seed pods or fruits. It is important to let them mature
fully on the plant before harvesting.

Seed Harvesting
Harvest the fruit or seed pods carefully once they have reached maturity.
To be processed and stored further, the seeds should be removed from
the pods or fruits and collected.

Seed Germination
To encourage germination, sow the gathered seeds in the appropriate
growing medium or environment. For the best seed germination, create
the ideal temperature, light, and moisture conditions.
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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of self – pollination

● In self- pollination, there is no diversity in the genes and
therefore the purity of the race is maintained.
● The plants do not depend on external factors for pollination and
even smaller quantities of pollen grains produce a good success
rate in getting pollinated.
● Self- pollination ensures that recessive characters are
eliminated.

Disadvantages of self- pollination

● Since there is no mixing up of genes, there are no new
characters or features that are introduced into the lineage of the
offspring.
● Self- pollination is said to reduce the vigor and vitality of the
race as there are no new features introduced.
● Without new characters introduced, the resultant offsprings’
immunity to diseases reduces.
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Conclusion
In Conclusion, cross pollination is essential for
ecological survival function as without
pollination the human race and all of earth’s
terrestrial ecosystem would not survive.
Throughout this project, we have explored
different aspects of pollination including its
types,pollinators,merits and demerits etc…

We have learned how cross pollination can

Bring out variation and provide tolerance from
abiotic and biotic sources for the plants. The
plant varieties we see everyday are a result of
pollination and we can also create variations in
plants using artificial hybridization methods.
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Bibliography

https://www.wikipedia.org/
https://unacademy.com/
https://byjus.com/
NCERT Biology Class 12
https://www.youtube.com/