ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 & 2026-2028 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Divy Tibrewala for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalised,

and the species are not.
1. Characteristics and The classification of organisms helps show the
evolutionary relationships between them.
Classification of Living Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help
classify organisms.
Organisms The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely the two
organisms are related.
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms
The Age-Old Acronym: MRS GREN

Dichotomous Keys

Dichotomous Keys use visible features to classify

organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to
organism causing a change of position or place
another option until the organism is narrowed down to its
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break genus and species.
down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in
the internal or external environment
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the same
kind of organism
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth,
and development

1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification

System 1.3. Features of Organisms

Sequence of Classification The Five Kingdoms

Organisms are classified into groups by the features they

share.
Species: a group of organisms that can reproduce to
produce fertile offspring.
Sequence of Classification: Kingdom → Phylum → Classes
→ Orders → Families → Genus → Species.
Acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Good Soup

The Binomial Nomenclature Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living

organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
The Binomial System of Naming Species is an Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
internationally agreed system in which an organism's their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
scientific name is comprised of two parts, namely, the chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
genus and species.

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and

1.6. Classification of Plants
saprotrophic organisms with cell walls not made of
cellulose, spread by spreading spores in moist/dark/warm
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns
environments. Most have hyphae and mycelium in
and flowering plants.
structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true nucleus Ferns:
or DNA in the cytoplasm. Many also have plasmids. Ex: Do not produce flowers/seeds
E.coli, Salmonella. They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
Protist or Protoctist: Single-celled organism with a Reproduce by spores
nucleus. Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba, Flowering plants:
seaweed. They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Reproduce sexually through flowers and seeds
1.4. Vertebrates Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower

Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf
Parallel veins Branching veins
Long Narrow Leaf Broad leaves
The Number of Petals is a The Number of Petals is a
Multiple of 3 Multiple of 4 or 5
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles
Types of Vertebrates Features
Tip: Differentiating monocotyledons and
Fur on the skin, External ears
dicotyledons comes up frequently in Multiple
Mammals (pinna), Internal fertilisation,
Choice Questions
Mammary Glands
Thick, dry, scaly skin, Usually four
Reptiles legs, Internal fertilisation, Soft
1.7. Viruses
Shelled Eggs
Viruses are not part of any classification system because
Wet scales, Streamlined body they are not considered living things.
Fish shape, External fertilisation, and They do not carry out the seven life processes for
soft eggs themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s metabolic
Smooth, moist skin, External pathways to make multiple copies of themselves.
fertilisation, and soft eggs, Gills, & Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA or
Amphibians
Lungs can live on land and water. DNA) inside a protein coat.
Most have four legs. Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
Feathers on the body and scales on ribosomes)
legs, Constant internal body
Birds
temperature, Hard eggs, Internal
fertilisation, birth through eggs

1.5. Arthropods
Invertebrates: Organisms that do not have a backbone.
All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton
2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body

Type of Arthropod Number of Legs 2. Organisation of the

Insects 6
Arachnids 8 Organism
Crustaceans >10
Myriapods >20 2.1. Cell Structure

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

All living things are made of cells. Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells together to perform a shared function
All typical eukaryotic cells (multicellular) have: Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of cells specific function
Cytoplasm: where chemical/metabolic reactions take Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
place working together to perform body functions.
Nucleus: contains DNA, stores genetic information Organism: A human
and controls the activity of the cell
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens Specialised Cells
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it Specialised Cells have Specific Functions.
looks rough under the microscope.
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above.
Specialised Cells Specific Function Location of Cell
Plant cells especially also have: Movement of
Respiratory Tract,
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid mucus in the
Ciliated cells Fallopian Tube,
Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell, trachea and
Testes
strengthens the cell bronchi
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light Root Hair cells Absorption Roots
energy for photosynthesis Palisade Mesophyll
A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has everything Photosynthesis Leaf Cells
cell
above.
Conduction of Everywhere in an
Neurones
electrical impulses organism
Prokaryotes
Transport of Everywhere in an
Red Blood cells
Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT have mitochondria and a oxygen organism
true nucleus. Sperm and Egg
In their respective
cells/ovum For reproduction
One example of a prokaryote is bacteria. gonads
(gametes)
A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall made of
peptidoglycan, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and
plasmids. 2.5. Magnification
It lacks a nucleus and is represented by a circular
chromosome of DNA. The general formula is represented in this way:
Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA in the cytoplasm
size of drawing image I
with extra genes outside the chromosomal DNA. M agnification = = =
size of specimen actual
​ ​ ​

A
Other Forms in Magnification Formula

Actual size = image size ÷ magnification

Image size = magnification x actual size

Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)

1cm = 10mm
1mm = 1000μm
1μm = 0.001mm

Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)

Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify the Tip: This comes out frequently in all three
cell structures in diagrams and images of papers
plant, animal and bacterial cells

2.4. Levels of Organisation 3. Movement In and Out of

The division of existing cells produces new cells. Cells
Key Terms
3.1. Diffusion
Cells: Building Blocks of Life

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Diffusion: Net movement of particles down the concentration Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it
gradient (high → low) as a result of their random movement. to burst (cell lysis) because it has too much water and no
cell wall.

In Plants

Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the

cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. The cell
wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
Decreasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the
cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole to get
smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from the cell
wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.

Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of the

random movement of molecules and ions.
The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as without
it, molecules that are needed for life, for example, glucose
and oxygen for respiration, would not be able to get to the
places they are required.
Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
through the cell membrane.

Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport) Dialysis Tubing Experiment

Concentration gradient Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living, partially

Temperature permeable membrane made from cellulose.
Surface area to volume ratio Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
Distance molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller molecules
(such as glucose and water) to pass through by
3.2. Osmosis diffusion and osmosis.

The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid

with digestion, excretion, and transport.

Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region of

higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially
permeable membrane.

3.4. Active Transport

Active Transport: The movement of particles through a cell
Conc. of Solute Conc. of Solute membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher
Condition of the Cell concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient)
(In-Cell) (Outside-Cell)
Cell Shrinks uses energy from respiration.
Low High
(Flaccid/Hypertonic) Carrier Proteins or Protein Carriers are also used during
Same Same No Change (Isotonic) active transport.
High Low Turgid/Hypotonic

In Animals

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Positive Negative
Test for: Solution Process
Result Result
Add Biuret
Biuret
Protein solution to the Purple/Violet Blue
Solution
sample
Add ethanol to
Fats \n the sample and
Cloudy
(Physical Ethanol shake with an N/A
Emulsion
test) equal volume
of water.
Add DCPIP
Vitamin C DCPIP solution to the Colourless Blue
sample
It is embedded in the cell membrane, where it picks up
specific molecules and moves them through the
membrane against their concentration gradient.
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by root
hair cells.
Some particles are too large to cross a membrane by
diffusion or active transport. A few very specialised cells
have developed a method for taking up these particles;
the particles are engulfed by the cell surface membrane
flowing around them. This process of phagocytosis is used
by white blood cells.

4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and 4.3. Structure of a DNA
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
(CHO) DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})

Smaller molecules Larger molecules

Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids Proteins

4.2. Food Tests

Positive Negative Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled

Test for: Solution Process DNA
Result Result
Add Benedict Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
solution into a Each strand contains chemicals called Bases
Reducing Benedict Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases
beaker and Brick Red Blue
Sugars Solution The bases always pair up in the same way:
Heat Up to 70-
80°C A and T
C and G
Add Iodine
Iodine You do NOT need to know the names of the DNA bases
Starch solution to the Blue-Black Brown
Solution for this syllabus.
specimen

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

5. Enzymes 5.3. pH on Enzymes

Enzymes are sensitive to pH.
5.1. Enzymes Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an
alkaline.
General Characteristics of an Enzyme Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken,
Catalyst: A substance which increases the reaction rate denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
and causes no changes in the reaction. substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.
Biological Catalyst: A living substance that speeds up a Pepsin is used in acidic conditions, Amylase is used in
chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction neutral conditions, and trypsin is used in alkalinity
Enzymes: Specific proteins involved in all metabolic conditions.
reactions, functioning as biological catalysts.
Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a 5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme
reaction to take place.
It is essential in all living organisms regarding the reaction Activity
rate necessary to sustain life.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused Effect of Temperature Effect of pH

Lock and Key Model (Hypothesis)

6. Plant Nutrition
6.1. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.

Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react,

complementary to the active site.
Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction

Different sequences of amino acids may lead to varying

shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences
(temperature/pH) may be deferred in their function.

5.2. Temperature on Enzymes

Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the temperature
at which they work best. In animals and humans, the light+chlorophyll
fastest reaction ≈ is at 37 °C. C arbonDioxide + Water ​ Glucose + Ox
When temperature increases, molecules move faster, light+cholorophyll
more effectively, and frequently collide. 6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2
​ ​ ​ ​

Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to

Only EXTENDED Students must know the Balanced
bind to active sites.
Chemical Equation
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape and
a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
no longer binding with a substrate.
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that traps light energy and
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
converts it into chemical energy to form carbohydrates
kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly.
and their subsequent storage.

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose -ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain brown
cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.

Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in

Photosynthesis

starch as an energy store

cellulose to build cell walls
glucose used in respiration to provide energy
sucrose for transport in the phloem
6.5. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
6.2. Mineral Requirements Concentration
Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
Take two de-starched potted plants.
Making amino acids Making chlorophyll Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
Deficiency: The plant lacks B.
Deficiency: small plant due to
chlorophyll, leaves turn Inside A, keep N aHC O3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
slow/stunted growth
​

yellow. produces C O2 . ​

Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs

Tip! You need to know the purpose of these C O2 . ​

required nutrients. Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight
for at least 6 hours
6.3. Investigation of Chlorophyll
Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
leaves.
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for
about 48 hours.
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
by ethanol. test
Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon dioxide
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf concentration
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it
will remain brown.

Key: PMROY, purple being the lowest carbon dioxide

6.4. Investigation of Light Intensity concentration, and yellow the highest.

NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology Paper

2. 6.6. Limiting Factors
De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours Limiting Factors: something present in the environment
Place a stencil over part of a leaf (Temperature, Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Light
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours Intensity) in such short supply that it restricts life processes.
Remove the stencil and test for starch
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue-black

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Structure Function
Control the opening and closing
Guard Cells
of stomata

Light Intensity
As the amount of light
increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases (a-
b)
The limiting factor is light
Increasing the amount of light
after a certain point does not
affect the rate (c)
The limiting factor is now
carbon dioxide or Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain how
temperature the structures above adapt leaves for
photosynthesis

6.7. Leaf Structure

6.8. Adaptations of Leaf Structure for
Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area Photosynthesis
and are thin.
Here is a table of different adaptations of the specific leaf
structure helping towards photosynthesis.

Adaptation Functions
Increase surface area for
diffusion of carbon dioxide and
Large Surface Area of Leaf
absorption of light for
Structure Function photosynthesis.
A waterproof waxy layer that Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse
Waxy Cuticle prevents water loss from the top Thin quickly into the palisade
of the leaf mesophyll cells
Thin and transparent to allow Absorb light energy so
Chlorophyll
Upper & Lower Epidermis light to enter the palisade photosynthesis can take place.
mesophyll cells Allow efficient transport of
Found at the top of the cell and Network of Veins water and mineral ions
contains the MOST chloroplasts throughout the plant
Palisade Mesophyll Cells
that absorb sunlight for Allow more light to reach the
Epidermis is thin
photosynthesis. palisade mesophyll cells
Irregularly shaped cells create Allow oxygen and carbon
air spaces to allow the gaseous Stomata/Stoma dioxide to continuously diffuse
Spongy Mesophyll Cells
exchange to take place; do not in and out of stomata
contain many chloroplasts
Vascular Bundle Made up of xylem and phloem
A tissue vessel that transports
7. Human Nutrition
Xylem
water and mineral ions

Phloem
A tissue vessel that transports 7.1. Diet
sucrose and amino acids
Little holes that open and close Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of
Stomata/Stoma to allow the gaseous exchange carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
to occur to maintain good health and metabolism.

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle: Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body
Children Below 12: Require more calcium as faeces
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Males: Generally, require more energy Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an
area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
ingestion takes place
7.2. Nutrition Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
and helps food slide down the oesophagus
Nutrients Uses
Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis
Carbohydrates Energy (circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
Source of energy, building materials, from mouth to stomach
Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy, Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in acidic
making hormones conditions) to break down proteins into amino acids and
Energy, building materials, enzymes, kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also have elastic
Proteins haemoglobin, structural material walls.
(muscle), hormones, antibodies Mechanical digestion in the stomach occurs via
Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle.
Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium
parts:
Development and maintenance of Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested by
Calcium
strong bones and teeth pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Iron Making haemoglobin Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
Provides bulk for faeces, helps down starch.
Fibre (Roughage) Jejunum: Contains many microvilli, majority of the
peristalsis
Chemical reactions, solvent for primary nutrient absorption happens here.
Water Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
transport
is where absorption also takes place.
Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that
7.3. Deficiencies works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase.
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol
and teeth and other toxins.
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
7.4. Digestive System Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need to
be known.
Process of Digestion

Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the 7.6. Teeth
body through the mouth.
Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into Our teeth play a key role in mechanical digestion to help
smaller pieces without chemical change. increase the surface area of food.
It increases the surface area of food for the action of Incisors Canines Premolars Molars
enzymes in chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food
molecules into small, soluble molecules.
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Incisors Canines Premolars Molars The small intestine is the region for absorption of
digested food.
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing the
surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny folds
on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
The epithelium is one cell thick, allowing efficient diffusion
of nutrients.
A large surface area means more absorption of nutrients
Blunt for can happen.
Blunt chewing
Rectangular chewing and Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Sharp-pointed and grinding.
shape, sharp grinding, one Capillaries: provide a good blood supply and a steep
for piercing Two or three
for cutting and or two roots, concentration gradient.
and tearing roots, ridges
biting cusps/bumps Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
at the end
at the end some from the colon (large intestine).

Structure of Tooth 7.8. Chemical Digestion

Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums Chemical Digestion: Enzymes break down large insoluble
substances, such as proteins, into smaller soluble
substances, like amino acids, so that they can be absorbed.

Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is produced

in the pancreas (but also in the salivary gland)
Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose in the
membrane of the epithelium lining in small intestines.
Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides and then
Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from into amino acids. Pepsin comes from the stomach, and
calcium salts trypsin comes from the pancreas (alkali).
Cement: helps to anchor tooth Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and produced by the pancreas.
nerve endings that detect pain. Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
collagen fibres Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Nerves Kills pathogens
Blood vessels Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid mixture
of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum from
7.7. Absorption and Villus the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.

Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines

into the blood
8. Transport in Plants
8.1. Xylem and Phloem
Functions of Xylem

transport water and mineral ions, and support the plant’s

overall structure.

Functions of Phloem

transport sucrose and amino acids from the sink to the

source (and vice versa)

Adaptations of Xylem

1. thick walls with lignin (dead cell)

2. no cell contents
3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
long, continuous tube

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata.

Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and

images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
dicotyledonous plants

8.2. Water Uptake Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
Root Hair Cells diffuses out of the stomata.
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between
They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area, mesophyll cells and the size and number of stomata.
which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis and Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
ions by active transport. transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases
water molecules.
the uptake of water and mineral ions.

Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis Wilting
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm. Wilting: occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake – cells
Then, it enters into the root cortex cells, xylem, and lastly, become flaccid, and tissues become limp.
the mesophyll cells.
Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration
Investigate the Pathway of Water through the
Temperature: The kinetic energy of the water molecules
Above-Ground Parts of a Plant increases, so they evaporate and diffuse faster from the
mesophyll cells, increasing the transpiration rate
Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like
Humidity: Low humidity increases the concentration
celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence
colouring) added.
increasing the transpiration rate
A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour
Wind Speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a
as the dyed water.
steep concentration gradient
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing that
it is being carried in specific vessels through the stem - 8.5. Translocation
a.k.a xylem vessels.
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of
8.3. Transpiration storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth
(sinks).
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the Translocation in different seasons:
Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to the

right ventricle
Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary Artery: carries deoxygenated blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood separate.
Pulmonary Vein: carries oxygenated blood from the lungs
to the left atrium
Left Atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to the
left ventricle
Left Ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via
the aorta
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to
the rest of the body
Atrioventricular and Semi-lunar Valves: prevent backflow
of blood
9. Transport in Animals IMPORTANT! Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right
Ventricle < Left Ventricle
9.1. Circulatory Systems
9.4. Functioning of the Heart
Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows
to ensure a one-way flow of blood. into the right atrium via the vena cava.
Single Circulation System (fish): Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is
pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the right
Blood flows through the heart once every complete
circuit (No Septum) ventricle.
The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed
Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve,
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills in lower-pressure
Released in body cells, then back to the heart which prevents blood from flowing backwards into the
heart.
Double Circulation System:
Four heart chambers The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the
capillaries, passing the alveoli.
Blood passes through the heart twice every complete
circuit Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
pulmonary vein
Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body, and
back to the heart It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the left
ventricle
Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push
the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body
blood to it from the lungs, preventing the mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood from
flowing back down into the heart

9.2. Heart Example Past Year Question

The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in arteries
circuit. (0610/42/F/M/23)

caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)

pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
contract/pump
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax

9.5. Exercise on Heart Rate

The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the liver
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more back to the heart
oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle. The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood
from the gut to the liver
9.6. Coronary Heart Disease
The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.

The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting blood

supply to the heart muscle.
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
heart attack
Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
genetic predisposition, age and sex
This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty food Arterioles and Venules
(a good diet) and exercising regularly

9.7. Blood Vessels

Vessel Function Structure
Elastic tissue walls
stretch and relax as
blood is forced out;
Transport high-pressure causes pulse
Arteries The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called
blood away from heart Thick walls to withstand
arterioles
high pressure
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
Small lumen maintains venules
(high) blood pressure.
Valves prevent backflow 9.8. Blood
of blood.
Blood is at low pressure, Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
but nearby muscles oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
Transport low pressure
Veins squeeze veins and help White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody production
blood to the heart
push blood to the heart Platelets: allows/promotes blood clotting
Large and wide lumen to Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
reduce resistance to the hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
flow of blood dissolved substances)
One cell thick wall for Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify red
easy diffusion and white blood cells in photomicrographs and
Highly branched; large diagrams
Allow substances to surface area
Capillaries
diffuse into cells Capillary beds
constantly supplied with
fresh blood, so diffusion
occurs

Major Blood Vessels White Blood Cells

Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein Phagocyte Lymphocyte
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins Phagocytes have
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins Lymphocytes have a circular
lobed/irregular C-shaped
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein nucleus and are found in
nuclei and vesicles containing
blood
The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the digestive enzymes.
heart to the liver

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Phagocyte Lymphocyte Blood Clotting

Phagocytosis: engulfs
Large nucleus/small Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out
pathogen, vesicles fuse with
cytoplasm, and they produce Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a
the vacuole, enzymes digest
antibodies, mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to form
bacteria.
a scab.
Antigens: Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins
protein/carbohydrate on the bind to label pathogens,
surface of the pathogen which marking them for destruction
provokes the immune system by the phagocytes.

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CAIE IGCSE
Biology

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