CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS IN THE PRELATURE OF INFANTA

SAINT PATRICK’S ACADEMY, INC.

Yakal 1, Paltic, Dingalan, Aurora 3207
[email protected]

Science 10: EARTH and SPACE

UNIT 1 – PLATE TECTONICS
1. Distribution of Volcanoes, Earthquake epicenter, Mountain ranges
2. Plate boundaries
3. Processes and landforms along plate boundaries
4. Internal structure of the earth
5. Mechanism or possible causes of movement
6. Evidence of plate movements
OBJECTIVES of the lesson:
1. Describe the distribution of active volcanoes, earthquake epicenters, and major mountain belts
2. Describe the different types of plate boundaries
3. Explain the different processes that occur along the plate boundaries
4. Describe the internal structure of the earth
5. Describe the possible causes of plate movements
6. Enumerate the lines of evidence that support plate movement
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
1. How would you describe earth?
2. How plate tectonics related to geological processes such as volcanic eruptions and earthquake?
At your age, what can you contribute to lessen the impacts of natural disasters?
3. How is the process of plate tectonics related to geological events such as volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes and formation of mountains?
4. Is there a relationship between the depth of the earthquake and the boundary near it?
5. What are the processes that change the surface of earth?
6. How does the interior structure of Earth affect the processes at its surface?

How should we prepare for disasters that include volcanic eruptions,

earthquakes and tsunamis?
How do Earth’s plate movements affect humans?

OVERVIEW OF EARTH AS A PLANET

How old is our planet?
 About 4.5 billion years approximately 1/3 of the age of the universe (13.7 GYA)
 Accdg to Nebular Theory, it was formed at the same as the other members of the solar
system by ACCRETION from the solar nebula.
ACCRETION – the process of coming together of materials that formed the heavenly
bodies
NEBULA – is an interstellar great cloud of gas and dust
NEBULAR THEORY – a theory which suggested that a great cloud of gas and dust, called
Nebula began to collapse because of the gravitational pull. As the cloud contracted, it
spun more rapidly.
PROPONENTS:
1. Rene Descartes
2. Immanuel Kant and
3. Pierre Simon Laplace
  As the nebula collapsed due to its gravity, it spun faster and flattened into disk. Most of
the materials were pulled toward the center forming the SUN. Other particles collided
and stuck together giving birth to considerately large bodies now known as the eight
planets in the solar system.
 During its billion years of evolution, Earth has gone through a series of major biological
and geological changes.
 Geological events such as
a. Volcanic eruptions
b. Collision of plate boundaries
c. Creation and destruction of mountain ranges and seabeds that took
place have shaped the face of the planet. It also suffered from constant bombardment from
meteorites and other cosmic bodies. One very large collision is believed to have caused the
tilting of earth and the formation of its satellite, the MOON.
METEOROIDS – are objects in space that range in size from dust grains to small asteroids.
Think of them as “SPACE ROCKS”
When meteoroid enters earth’s atmosphere or that of another planet, like mars at a high
speed and burn up, the fireballs or “SHOOTING STARS” are called METEORS.
METEORS – is a streak of light in the sky caused by a meteoroid crashing through
Earth’s atmosphere.
When meteoroid survives a trip through the atmosphere and hits the ground, it’s called a
METEORITE.
METEORITES – a fragment of spatial matter that falls to the surface of a planet.
 Eventually, the hot earth cooled down and its surface solidified to a crust. As a result of
the cooling process, iron and Sulphur sank inside Earth while lighter materials such as
silicates and water floated near Earth’s surface. Water evaporated in the atmosphere
and condensed back into the surface creating a cooling effect. Running water formed
channels and oceans as the crust split and reformed a giant continents of solid crust,
floating on the shifting mantle over the molten core.
 It was suggested that Earth’s crust and oceans may have formed within about 200
million years after the planet’s formation.
 When seen from the outer space, Earth is a small blue planet bathing in a film of white
clouds and liquid water. This picture tells us that the planet is composed of different
spheres or layers.
 Life on Earth is possible because all of the major parts of earth , namely
A. Atmosphere
B. Hydrosphere
C. Lithosphere/Geosphere, work together as a complex system
HOW MANY % OF THE PLANET IS COMPOSED OF WATER?
HOW MANY % IS MADE OF SOLID CRUST?
 About 70.8 % of the planet is covered with water while the remaining 29. 2% is
composed of land.
 The HYDROSPHERE sometimes called the water sphere, includes all the water found in
oceans, seas, lakes, glaciers, groundwater, and even the vapor in the air.
 The total volume of water on earth is about 1.4 billion Km3
 The major part of water can be found in the oceans of earth.
 About 1,300 million km3 of water is present in oceans while about 35 million km3
or 2.5% of the total volume is composed of fresh water
  Of these freshwater resources, about 70% is in the form of ice and permanent snow
cover in mountainous regions, the Antarctic, and Artic region.
 We call this part of earth’s hydrosphere as CRYOSPHERE
CRYOSPHERE – is the collective term for the portion of the earth’s surface where
water is in solid form. (sea ice, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheet and frozen ground including
permafrost)
 The cryosphere is a crucial element of the climate system as it serves as a key indicator
for climate change
 The average depth of ocean is about 3.7 km.
 The deepest point in Earth’s ocean can be found at the Challenger DEEP in the
Mariana Trench with a depth of 10.994 km. Its name was credited to the British
survey ship Challenger II that discovered this deepest location back in 1951.
HOW DEEP IS THE CHALLENGER DEEP?
 If the highest mountain on Earth, Mount Everest, will be placed in this location, it will be
covered by over one mile of water.
 The geosphere is the layer of earth that we are most knowledgeable of. It is considered
that portion of Earth that includes the planet’s interior structure, rocks, minerals,
landforms, and the processes that shape the surface of earth.
 It has different layers, each of which has its distinct properties and processes

MARIANA TRENCH is a depression in the floor of the Pacific Ocean, the deepest seafloor
depression in the world located in the MARIANA ISLAND.

In 1960 Swiss Oceanographic engineer Jacques Picard and US Navy Lieutenant Donald
Walsh descended to the CHALLENGER DEEP, the lowest point on earth, located in the
MARIANA TRENCH. They used the BATHYSCAPHE (a submarine vessel designed for deep
sea exploration) called the TRIESTE, pictured here.

TRENCH – valley on ocean floor

- A long narrow valley on an ocean or sea floor
VALLEY - low lying area surrounded by higher land.

PLATE TECTONIC

WHAT IS PLATE TECTONIC ALL ABOUT? DEFINTION?

KEY CONCEPTS:
1. PLATE TECTONIC Is a massive, irregular slabs of solid rock that envelope the surface of
earth.
2. The earth is made up of multiple plates and several different layers. These are
continually moving, colliding, or pulling apart relative to each other

 In the beginning of the 20th century , many scientist explained the physical attributes of
earth using the RAISIN THEORY.
RAISIN THEORY – accdg to this theory, EARTH is like a grape that contracted into a
raisin due to cooling process that occurred on earth after the Big Bang about 13.77 billion years
ago.

 Scientists thought that the cooling caused the contraction and pressure that allowed
some parts of the crust to move upwards and produced mountains while other parts of
the crust buckled downwards creating ocean basins and other depressions.
 The contracting Earth Concept (Raisin Theory) was further explained when an Americal
Seismologist and geologist, CLARENCE EDWARD DUTTON, proposed the term
“ISOSTASY” in 1889.

ISOSTASY (Greek Isos “equal”, stasis “standstill”)

Term used in geology to refer to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the
earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere.

The literal meaning of the word isostacy is “equal standstill”, but the importance behind it
is the principle that Earth’s crust is floating on the mantle, like a raft floating in the water,
rather than resting on the mantle like a raft sitting on the ground.

ISOSTASY is the rising or settling of a portion of the earth’s lithosphere that occurs
when weight is removed or added in order to maintain equilibrium between buoyancy forces
that push the lithosphere upward, and gravity forces that pull the lithosphere downward.

THEORY OF ISOSTACY – states that whatever equilibrium exists in Earth’s Surface,

equal mass must underlie equal surface areas, meaning, a great continental mass must be
formed of lighter materials than that supposed to constitute the ocean floor.

An iceberg floating on the ocean is a perfect illustration of isostasy. At Earth’s ocean

surface, solid freshwater glacier ice is about 10.7% less dense than cold water; as a result,
ice floats. The amount of ice rising above the ocean surface is in equilibrium with the
buoyant ice below the surface.

 Tectonic is a term derived from a Greek word TEKTON, which means “Carpenter” or
“Builder” Tectonic plates has been used by scientists to describe the movement of the
lithosphere. However, this term is now widely used for describing the physical plates
rather than their movement. Tectonic plates (also called Lithospheric plates) are
massive, irregular, slabs of solid rock that envelope the surface of Earth.
 The Theory of Plate Tectonics states that Earth’s outermost layer is fragmented into
a dozen or more large and small solid plates or slabs called lithospheric plates or
tectonic plates, which are constantly in motion relative to one another as they ride atop
hotter, more mobile material known as ASTHENOSPHERE.
- A theory which tried to explain the formation and movements on Earth
- States that the earth’s outermost layer is fragmented on large and small plates
that are moving on another while riding atop a hotter and more mobile material
known as ASTHENOSPHERE.

ASTHENOSPHERE – region in the upper mantle of earth’s interior characterized by

low-density, semi plastic rock material.
  These plates fit together like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle and the movement ranges
from less than 1 to more than 15 cm per year. The motion of the plates over millions of
years resulted in the opening and closure of bodies of water, likewise the formation
and disintegration of continents in the world.

 The Plate Tectonics Theory was developed from earlier hypotheses and date collected
about the rocks of the ocean floor. One of the foundational works that gave rise to this
theory is the first world atlas, “THEATRUM ORBIS TERRARUM,” which was developed
and published by ABRAHAM ORTELIUS on May 20, 1570. Ortelius noted the similarity
between the coastlines of Africa, Europe and the Americas and adopted Plato’s story of
the demise of Atlantis. He suggested that America was originally connected to Europe
and Africa and that the projecting parts of the two continents would fit the recesses of
America.

 Ortelius hypothesis remained silent for several centuries until an Austrian climatologist,
Alfred Wegener proposed Continental Drift Theory. In his book, The Origin of
Continents and Oceans” in 1925 Wegener expanded his theory and presented
evidences that PANGAEA (meaning “all Earth”) had really existed during the Permian
period.
 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY.-is a theory that the Earth’s land masses are in constant
motion

LINES OF EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT

1. Fit of the continents
2. Paleoclimate indicators
3. Truncated geologic features
4. Fossils
FIT OF THE CONTINENTS
Geological “fit” evidence is the matching of large-scale geological features on
different continents. It has been noted that the coastlines of South America and West Africa
seem to match up, however more particularly the terrains of separate continents conform as
well.
PALEOCLIMATE INDICATORS
Paleoclimate is the climate during a past geological age
1. Isotopic Geochemical Studies: The study of rock isotopic ratios, ice core,
bubbles, deep sea sediments etc.
2. Dendrochronology: the study of tree rings
3. Pollen distribution: the study of plant types and prevalence from pollen
found in sediments, ice, rocks, caves, etc.
TRUNCATED GEOLOGIC FEATURES
The Paraña basalts of South America and the Etendeka basalts of Africa were both
extruded about 130 million years ago on the conjugate margins of these continents and both are
cut off the coast as if cut in half.
FOSSILS
The fossil evidence definition refers to the evidence of bacteria, animals, and plants
that lived in the past. Fossil evidence is used to determine what the organism was, when it
lived, and what major events it experienced during its lifetime.
  Wegener explained that about 1,100 million years ago, there was a supercontinent
named RODINIA which predated PANGAEA. During the late Triassic period, PANGAEA
began to break up into 2 smaller supercontinents called LAURASIA and
GONDWANALAND

PANGAEA the ancient supercontinent, comprising all the present continents joined
together, which began to break up about 200 million years ago

What does the word Pangaea mean?

Pangaea means all the Earth

Pangea's existence was first proposed in 1912 by German meteorologist Alfred
Wegener as a part of his theory of continental drift. Its name is derived from the Greek
pangaia, meaning “all the Earth.”

The Greek word Pangea mean which meant all earth and PANTHALASSA means
all water. According to Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass
and mega ocean surrounded the same. The supercontinent was named PANGAEA and
the mega water is called PANTHALASSA.

PANTHALASSA a vast ocean or mega ocean that surround Pangaea

PANGAEA, GONDWANALAND, LAURASIA AND TETHYS

Pangaea
a large supercontinent that existed existed ~225 million years ago at the .. between the
close of the Paleozoic and start of the Mesozoic (at the Permo-Triassic).

WHO SUGGESTED the NAME of GONDWANALAND?

1937 South African geologist Alexander du Toit proposed that Pangaea was divided
into two larger landmasses, Laurasia in the Northern Hemisphere and Gondwana in
the Southern Hemisphere, separated by the Tethys Ocean.

Gondwana contained the southern continents—South America, Africa, India,

Madagascar, Australia, and Antarctica. It had become a coherent supercontinent at
~500 Ma and accreted to Pangea largely as a single block. Laurasia consisted of the
northern continents—North America, Greenland, Europe, and northern Asia.

GONDWANALAND
a large supercontinent that existed in the southern hemisphere, clustered near the
Antarctic Circle, before it began to break up ~200 million years ago, consisting of the
modern day continents of Antarctica, India, Australia, South America and Africa.
Breakup of Gondwanaland

GONDWANALAND. : a large area of land that is believed to have existed long ago and to
have consisted of the lands of the Southern Hemisphere and India.

LAURASIA
a large supercontinent that existed in the northern hemisphere before it began to break
up ~200 million years ago, consisting of the modern-day continents of North America,
Europe and Asia.

TETHYS
an east-west trending ocean that separated Gondwanaland from Laurasia.

COMMENTS
The modern continents as we know them were clustered into a single large continent
called Pangaea that broke apart by seafloor spreading.

The world geography was not dominated by Pangaea for all time before the end of the
Paleozoic. The Earth's plates had probably clumped up more than once in the past and
moved apart before clumping up again. That cycle of clumping and reopening of oceans
is called the Wilson Cycle. The largest clumped continents such as Pangaea are called
supercontinents. There are few guesses about the layout of continents before Pangaea
because clues from earlier rocks are difficult to decipher. Tectonic activity not only
totally destroys oceanic crust, but it munches up continental crust.
Why give a supercontinent such as Pangaea a special name rather than call it by modern
names? We give a unique name to any single continental landmass today. Even though
we may think of Pangaea as made up of the seven continents today, it was a unique
continent at the time it existed and its existence didn't depend on modern continents.

Gondwanaland is the name of another clumping of continents, one that was large, but
smaller than Pangaea and occurring at a different time - at the end of the Mesozoic.
When Pangaea broke up, the northern continents of North America and Eurasia became
separated from the southern continents of Antarctica, India, South America, Australia
and Africa. The large northern continent is called Laurasia and the southern continent is
called Gondwanaland. Laurasia and Gondwanaland were separated by an ocean called
Tethys that no longer exists today. The long direction of Tethys runs east-west rather
than north-south like the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans today. That allowed ocean currents
to flow all around the Earth in the east-west direction near the equator, causing the
Earth's climate to be very different.
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a
result of Earth's subterranean movements. The theory, which solidified in the 1960s,
transformed the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena, including mountain
building events, volcanoes, and earthquakes

How would it be classified?

These divisions are inevitably somewhat arbitrary, but by convention we

recognize
Seven (7) main or “primary” tectonic plates:
1. African Plate:
2. Antarctic Plate,
3. Eurasian Plate,
4. Indo-Australian Plate,
5. North American Plate,
6. Pacific Plate,
7. and South American Plate.
What are the secondary tectonic plates?

The secondary plates are the

1. Arabian plate,
2. the Caribbean plate,
3. the Cocos plate,
4. the Juan de Fuca plate,
5. the Indian plate,
6. the Nazca plate,
7. the Philippine Sea plate
8. and the Scotia plate