1 Find the Eigen values and Eigen Vectors

A= [ 2 - 1 0]
-1 2 -1
0 -1 2
2. Find the rank of the matrix by reducing it to normal form

[1 2 -1]
3 -1 2
4 1 3

3 Find the Eigen values and Eigen Vectors

A = [ 8 - 6 2]
[-6 7 - 4]
[ 2 -4 3]

4 Find the rank of the matrix

[ 1 2 3]
[ 2 1 4]
[ 3 0 5]

5 Find the Maxima and Minima of sin x+sin y +sin (x+y)

6 Examine the consistency of the systern and if consistent, solve the equations:
4x - 2y + 6z = 8 x - y - 3z = - 1 15x - 3y + 9z = 21

7. Show that the equation

x+y=5, 2x+y=8 are consistent and solve them

7. Find whether the following system of equations are consistent if so solve them
x-y+2z = 5, 2x+y-z = 1, 3x+y+z=8

8 Show that [(p v q) ^ (rv ¬q) → (pvr)] is a tautology by making a truth table, and then again by using
an argument that considers the two cases "q is true" and "q is false".

9 Show that (p → q) ↔ (q → p) is neither a tautology nor a contradiction. What does that tell you about
possible relationships between the truth values( statement and its converse?

10. Suppose ¬ [(p → q) ↔ (q → p)] is false

p ↔ q have both possible truth value

11. Use any method to show that ¬ (p → q) ↔ (p^ ¬q) is a tautology

12. Use known logical equivalences to show that ¬ (p ↔ q) ⇔ (p v q) ^ ( ¬p v ¬q)
13. Show that ~ (p v (~ p^q)) and (~ p ^~ q) are logically equivalent
 THEORY
Q.1 What is the difference between F and t-tests?
In statistical mathematics, the main differences between F-tests and t-tests are:

Comparison
The F-test compares the means of two or more groups, while the t-test compares the means of two
groups.

Variables
The F-test assesses differences between groups or factors, while the t-test examines the relationship
between a dependent variable and an independent variable.

Assumptions
The F-test assumes homogeneity of variances among all groups being compared, while the t-test assumes
equal variances between the two groups being compared.

Model terms
The F-test can evaluate multiple model terms simultaneously, while the t-test can evaluate just one term
at a time.

Both the F-test and t-test are statistical tests used for hypothesis testing, which helps researchers decide
whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis.

Q.2 What are the characteristics of F Distribution?

The F-distribution is a probability distribution that arises frequently in the context of hypothesis testing,
particularly in the analysis of variance (ANOVA), regression analysis, and the F-test used for comparing
variances. It is a continuous probability distribution that is used to test hypotheses about the variances of
two or more populations.

Key Characteristics of the F-Distribution:

1. Shape:
● The F-distribution is positively skewed (i.e., it is not symmetrical like the normal
distribution).
● The skewness decreases as the degrees of freedom increase, meaning that with larger
sample sizes or larger degrees of freedom, the distribution becomes more symmetric.
● The F-distribution is always non-negative, meaning it takes values from
0 to ∞ (Infinity) (there is no probability mass at negative values).
Q.3 Define Dual and Isomorphism of graphs with example?
In graph theory, graph isomorphism and dual graphs are concepts that describe the structure of graphs:

Graph isomorphism
A graph isomorphism is a one-to-one mapping between the vertices and edges of two graphs that
preserves their structure. This means that the graphs are structurally equivalent, and only differ in the
names of their vertices and edges.

Dual graph
A dual graph is a graph that is constructed from another graph, and is closely related to the concept of
double covers. A graph that is dual to itself is called a self-dual graph.

Here are some examples of graph isomorphism and dual graphs:

Isomorphic graphs: Two graphs are isomorphic if there is a matching between their vertices so that two
vertices are connected by an edge in one graph if and only if the corresponding vertices are connected by
an edge in the other graph.
Dual graph of a wheel graph: The dual graph of a wheel graph is itself a wheel.

Q.4 Describe a set of rooted trees recursively?

Tree Data Structure
Tree is a nonlinear hierarchical data structure that consists of nodes connected by edges.

Diagram of Tree Data Structure

Tree Terminologies:
Node: Node is an entity that contains a key or value and pointers to its child nodes. The last nodes of each
path are called leaf nodes or external nodes that do not contain a link/pointer to child nodes. The node
having at least a child node is called an internal node.

Edge: It is the link between any two nodes.

Root - It is the topmost node of a tree.

Height of a Node - The height of a node is the number of edges from the node to the deepest leaf.

Depth of a Node - The depth of a node is the number of edges from the root to the node.

Height of a Tree - The height of a Tree is the height of the root node or the depth of the deepest node.

Degree of a Node - The degree of a node is the total number of branches of that node.

Forest - A collection of disjoint trees is called a forest.

Q.5 What do you mean by a well formed formula? Explain about tautology with example.
Well-Formed Formula(WFF) is an expression consisting of variables(capital letters), parentheses, and
connective symbols. An expression is basically a combination of operands & operators and here operands
and operators are the connective symbols.
Below are the possible Connective Symbols:
¬ (Negation)
∧ (Conjunction)
∨ (Disjunction)
⇒ (Rightwards Arrow)
⇔ (Left-Right Arrow)
Statement Formulas
1. Statements that do not contain any connectives are called Atomic or Simple statements and these
statements in themselves are WFFs.
For example,
P, Q, R, etc.
2. Statements that contain one or more primary statements are called Molecular or Composite
statements.
For example,
If P and Q are two simple statements, then some of the Composite statements which follow WFF
standards can be formed are:
-> ¬P
-> ¬Q
-> (P ∨ Q)
-> (P ∧ Q)
-> (¬P ∨ Q)
-> ((P ∨ Q) ∧ Q)
-> (P ⇒ Q)
-> (P ⇔ Q)
-> ¬(P ∨ Q)
-> ¬(¬P ∨ ¬Q)

Q. 6 Discuss about the graph coloring

Graph coloring can be described as a process of assigning colors to the vertices of a graph. In this, the
same color should not be used to fill the two adjacent vertices. We can also call graph coloring as Vertex
Coloring. In graph coloring, we have to take care that a graph must not contain any edge whose end
vertices are colored by the same color. This type of graph is known as the Properly colored graph.
Example of Graph coloring
In this graph, we are showing the properly colored graph, which is described as follows:

1. The same color cannot be used to color the two adjacent vertices.
2. Hence, we can call it as a properly colored graph.

Applications of Graph coloring

There are various applications of graph coloring. Some of their important applications are described as
follows:
1. Assignment
2. Map coloring
3. Scheduling the tasks
4. Sudoku
5. Prepare time table
6. Conflict resolution

Q.7 Write applications of graph theory.

Graph theory finds applications in diverse fields such as computer science, biology, sociology, and
transportation, among others. Its versatility lies in its ability to model and analyze complex relationships
and systems using graph-based representations.
Let's explore some key applications in each of these fields:
1. Computer Science 2. Electrical Engineering 3. Linguistics 4. Physics and Chemistry 5. Computer
Network
1. Computer Science: In computer science graph theory is used for the study of algorithms like:
○ Dijkstra's Algorithm
○ Prims's Algorithm

2. Electrical Engineering: In Electrical Engineering, graph theory is used in designing of circuit

connections. These circuit connections are named as topologies.

3. Linguistics: In linguistics, graphs are mostly used for parsing of a language tree and grammar of a
language tree.
4. Physics and Chemistry: In physics and chemistry, graph theory is used to study molecules.
5. Computer Network: In computer network, the relationships among interconnected computers within
the network
Q.8 What is Queue Data Structure?
Queue is defined as a linear data structure that is open at both ends and the operations are performed in
First In First Out (FIFO) order.

We define a queue to be a list in which all additions to the list are made at one end, and all deletions from
the list are made at the other end. The element which is first pushed into the order, the operation is first
performed on that.

FIFO Principle of Queue:

Queue is like a line waiting to purchase tickets, where the first person in line is the first person served.
For example, First come first serve.
Position of the entry in a queue ready to be served, that is, the first entry that will be removed from the
queue, is called the front of the queue. Similarly, the position of the last entry in a queue, that is, the one
most recently added, is called the rear of the queue. See the figure below.

Diagram of Queue

Q.9 What is Stack?

Stack is a linear data structure in which the insertion of a new element and removal of an existing element
takes place at the same end represented as the top of the stack. To implement the stack, it is required to
maintain the pointer to the top of the stack, which is the last element to be inserted because we can access
the elements only on the top of the stack.

Basic Operations on Stack

In order to make manipulations in a stack, there are certain operations provided to us.

1. push()
2. pop()
3. top()
4. isEmpty()
5. size()

1.push() to insert an element into the stack.

2.pop() to remove an element from the stack.

3.top() Returns the top element of the stack.

4.isEmpty() returns true, if stack is empty else false.

5.size() returns the size of stack.

Q.10 What is Data Structure:

Data structure is a storage that is used to store and organize data. It is a way of arranging data on a
computer so that it can be accessed and updated efficiently. A data structure is not only used for
organizing the data. It is also used for processing, retrieving, and storing data. There are different basic
and advanced types of data structures that are used in almost every program or software system that has
been developed. So we must have good knowledge about data structures.

Need of Data structure :

The structure of the data and the synthesis of the algorithm are relative to each other. Data presentation
must be easy to understand so the developer, as well as the user, can make an efficient implementation of
the operation.
Data structures provide an easy way of organizing, retrieving, managing, and storing data.
Here is a list of the needs for Data Structure.
● Data structure modification is easy.
● It requires less time.
● Save storage memory space.
● Data representation is easy.
● Easy access to the large database.

Q.11 Arrays
Array is a variable that can store multiple values. For example, if you want to store 100 integers, you can
create an array for it.
Array declaration:
How to Access Array Elements
You can access elements of an array by indices is given below.

Few keynotes:

⮚ 1. Arrays have 0 as the first index, not 1. In this example, mark[0] is the first element.

⮚ 2. If the size of an array is n, to access the last element, the n-1 index is used. In this example,
mark[4]

⮚ 3. Suppose the starting address of mark[0] is 2120d. Then, the address of the mark[1] will be 2124d.
Similarly, the address of mark[2] will be 2128d and so on.

⮚ 4. This is because the size of a float is 4 bytes.

5.
a) Box-A contains 5 red and 3 white marbles and box-B contains 2 red and 6 white marbles. If a marble is
drawn from each box, what is the probability that they are both of same colour?

बॉक्स-A में 5 लाल और 3 सफेद कंचे हैं और बॉक्स-B में 2 लाल और 6 सफेद कंचे हैं।
यदि प्रत्येक डिब्बे से एक मार्बल निकाला जाता हैं, तो दोनों के एक ही रंग के
होने की प्रायिकता क्या है।

b) Three students A, B, C are in running race: A and B have the same probability of winning and each is
twice as likely to win as C. Find the probability that B and C.
तीन विद्यार्थी A, B, C दौड में हैं। A और B के जीतने की प्रायिकता समान हैं और
प्रत्येक के जीतने की संभावना C से दोगुनी है। B और C के जीतने की प्रायिकता
ज्ञात कीजिए।

6. In a normal distribution, 7% of the items are under 35 and 89% are under 63.
Deternine the mean and variance of the distribution. 14 एक सामान्य वितरण में, 7%
आइटम 35 से कम हैं और 89% 63 से कम है। वितरण के माध्य और मिन्नता का निर्धारण
करें।
. a) A pair of fair dice, one with four sides the other with six, are rolled and the total summed. Find the
probability that the sum equals 7

निष्पक्ष पासा का एक जोड़ा, एक चार भुजाओं वाला और दूसरा छह भुजाओं वाला, रोल
किया जाता है और कुल जोड़ दिया जाता है। योग 7 के बराबर होने की प्रायिकता ज्ञात
कीजिए।

b) A lottery game has the following rules: balls numbered 1..... 20 are placed in an urn. You choose four
numbers, two odd and two even. At least one each of your even and odd numbers must be chosen for you
to win. If six balls are chosen, with all balls equally likely, what is your probability of success?

लॉटरी के खेल में निम्नलिखित नियम होते हैं। गेंदों की संख्या 1,.... 20 कलश में
रखे जाते हैं। आप चार अंक चुनते हैं, दो विषम और दो सम। आपके जीतने के लिए कम से कम
एक सम और विषम संख्या का चयन किया जाना चाहिए। यदि छह गेंदों को चुना जाता है,
जिसमें सभी गेंदों की समान संभावना होती है, तो आपकी सफलता की संभावना क्या है?

4.

(a) Angel selects three cards at random from a pack of 52 cards. Find the probability of drawing -

(i) 3 spade cards.

(ii) One spade and two knave cards

(iii) One spade, one knave and one heart cards.

(See Unit-IV, Page 196, Prob.7)

(b) The average male height is 175 cm and about 20% of males are more than 182 cm tall. Assume that
the heights follow a normal distribution.

(i) Find the standard deviation.

(ii) What are the chances of being at least 190 cm tall?

(iii) What are the chances that among 20 male students, there is a student who is at least 190 cm tall?
(See Unit-IV, Page 231, Prob.48)