UNITED PUBLIC SR SEC SCHOOL

OTTAMADAM

PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ON

ATOMIC MODELS

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

S.Prathisha
Mr. D.Desigan
Physics teacher
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project report on atomic models, which is being submitted by
S.Prathisha as a part of XII CBSE curriculum is an independent and genuine work carried out
under my guidance.

This project work has been submitted to UNITED PUBLIC SR SEC SCHOOL, Ottamadam,
Gudimangalam, Tiruppur during the academic year of 2024-2025.

S.Prathisha has worked under the guidance and supervision to fulfill all the requirements for
the submission of this project report.

This conduct of S.Prathisha remained excellent during the period of this work.

________________________________ ________________________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

______________________
 PRINCIPAL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the outset, I express my gratitude to the almighty for the divine guidance and wisdom
showered on me to undertake this project.

I am immensely grateful to my beloved physics teacher Mr.Desigan for his involvement in this
project by guiding and helping me to make this project a success.

I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to our principal Mr.R.Balamurugan MSC., B.Ed
and the management for providing me with all the facilities that was required for this project.
 INDEX
1. Introduction to atomic models 5

2. Different types of atomic models 5

3. Rutherford’s model of atom 10

4. Rutherford’s Gold foil experiment 10

5. Observations of Gold foil experiment 11

6. Conclusions of Gold foil experiment 12

7. Limitations of Rutherford’s model of atom 12

8. Bohr’s model of atom 13

9. Hydrogen Energy levels 14

10. Rydberg’s formula 15

11. Conclusion of Bohr model 16

12. Limitations of Bohr model 16

13. Bibliography 17
 INTRODUCTION TO ATOMIC MODELS

The atomic model, which has changed over time, is the model used to describe
the structure and composition of the atom. The atom as a component of the
universe has been under extensive study to understand how atoms make up the
universe.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATOMIC MODELS

ATOMIC MODEL: JOHN DALTON

THEORY

1. Matter is made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.

2. Atoms can’t be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
a. Atoms of same element have same property.
b. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
3. Atoms of different elements can form compounds.

II) PLUM-PUDDING MODEL: J.J.THOMPSON

THEORY

1. An atom is electrically neutral. It has no charge.

2. In an atom, both positive and negative charges are equal 3. An atom
is made out of a sphere of positive charges with negatively charged
electron.
III) NUCLEAR MODEL: ERNEST RUTHERFORD

THEORY

1. Atoms are mostly made up of empty space.

2. Most of the mass is concentrated in the center of the atom. This tiny,
dense, positively charged core called a nucleus.
3. Electrons are located outside the nucleus.
IV) PLANETARY MODEL: NIELS BOHR

THEORY

1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have specific size and energy.
2. The energy level of the orbit is related to its size. The lowest energy is
found in the smallest orbit.
3. Electrons reside in orbits. They move between each shell when gaining or
losing energy.
4. When gaining energy, electrons move to farther orbit from the nucleus.
When losing energy, electrons move to closer orbit from the nucleus.
V) QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL: ERWIN
SCHRODINGER

THEORY:

1. Electrons don’t move around the nucleus in orbits

2. Electrons exist in specific energy levels as cloud.
3. The electron cloud is the region of negative charges, which surrounds the
nucleus.
4. Orbital: The region with a high probability of containing electrons.
 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM

THEORY OF RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM

According to the Rutherford atomic Model, the positive charged particles and
the majority of the mass of an atom were said to be concentrated in a small
volume. He referred to this area of the atoms as the nucleus.

Another idea put forward by Rutherford's model of an atom was that an atom’s
nucleus should be surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Rutherford also
suggested that the electrons circle the nucleus at the speed of light. He called
these elliptical paths orbits.

RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT

To determine how electrons are arranged in an atom, the Alpha (α) Particle
Scattering Experiment was organized by Rutherford. Rapidly moving α
particles were directed to bombard a thin sheet of gold.
∙ The gold foil was selected so as to obtain an extremely thin layer. The
thickness of the gold foil was about 1000 atoms.
∙ Doubly-charged helium ions are known as α-particles. Rapidly moving α
particles possess a great deal of energy, as they have a mass of about 4
amu.

OBSERVATIONS OF RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT

Rutherford observed the following from his α-particle scattering experiment:

∙ A large percentage of alpha particles travelled through the gold film without
being deflected, indicating that the majority of space in an atom is empty.
As a result, an atom’s main portion must be empty.
∙ The positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a relatively small volume
and is not dispersed evenly. When bombarded, the gold foil only deflected
a small number of alpha particles. They experienced extremely slight
angles of deflection.
∙ Very few alpha particles had deflected back or at large angles. In addition,
relatively few particles had 1800 deflected. As a result, he came to the
conclusion that the positively charged particles only occupied a small
portion of an atom’s overall volume.
CONCLUSIONS OF RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT

Rutherford concluded the following from his observations:

∙ Because a large proportion of the α-particles directed toward the gold sheet
went through it without any deflection, so, the majority of the space in an
atom is vacant.
∙ Only a few α-particles were diverted off their route, suggesting that the
atom’s positive charge takes up relatively little space.
∙ Since a very tiny percentage of α-particles completely rebounded, this
implied that the atom’s mass and positive charge are concentrated in a
small volume and not uniformly distributed.

LIMITATIONS OF RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM

There are several limitations or drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model,

which are as follows:

∙ Rutherford’s Model predicts that electrons will orbit around the positively
charged nucleus, which is not anticipated to be stable. A charged particle in
rapid motion along a circular route would lose energy continually and
eventually collapse into the nucleus. This causes an atom to be unstable,
whereas we know that atoms are extremely stable.
∙ Because it merely postulated the existence of protons in the nucleus, the
Rutherford Model could not resolve the problem of atomic mass. ∙ Rutherford’s
Atomic Model doesn’t explain the arrangement of electrons in the atom, which
makes this model incomplete in this regard.
 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM

THEORY

According to the Bohr Atomic model, a small positively charged nucleus is

surrounded by revolving negatively charged electrons in fixed orbits. He
concluded that electron will have more energy if it is located away from the
nucleus whereas electrons will have less energy if it located near the nucleus.

THE BOHR ATOMIC MODEL

It was while Bohr was working in England in 1913 that he developed this
atomic model. He developed the model after studying the way glowing, hot
hydrogen gives off light.

When an incandescent light bulb is lit, it gives off all the different wavelengths
of light. As that filament heats up, all the different wavelengths come out of
that light bulb because of the hot filament. Yet, when hydrogen gas is heated to
aa high temperature so that it becomes incandescent, something rather different
is seen, a discrete wavelength – a line in the red of just one wavelength. There
may be a line in the blue, in the yellow, and maybe some other lines, each one
with a very specific wavelength.

Bohr suggested that it implies that electrons have to adopt very specific energy
levels in an atom, rather than being at any possible level. These lines in glowing
hydrogen represent times when electrons jump from a higher energy level to a
lower energy level and, as a consequence emit a photon of visible light at those
very specific wavelengths. According to the first law of conservation, energy
has to be conserved. So, the energy lost from jumping is emitted as a photon.
GROUND AND EXCITED STATES

The lowest energy level of the electron beyond which it cannot go is called the
ground state. All the higher energy states are called excited states. As electrons
hop from state to state, back and forth. Specific wavelengths are either
absorbed or emitted by that form.

BOHR'S HYDROGEN ATOM

Niels Bohr introduced the atomic Hydrogen model in 1913. He described it as
a positively charged nucleus, comprised of protons and neutrons,
surrounded by a negatively charged electron cloud. In the model, electrons
orbit the nucleus in atomic shells. The atom is held together by electrostatic
forces between the positive nucleus and negative surroundings.

HYDROGEN ENERGY LEVELS

The Bohr model is used to describe the structure of hydrogen energy levels. The
image below, the energy levels presented correspond with each shell. The
amount of energy in each level is reported in eV, and the maxiumum energy is
the ionization energy of 13.598eV.
HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

The movement of electrons between these energy levels produces a spectrum.

The Balmer equation is used to describe the four different wavelengths of
Hydrogen which are present in the visible light spectrum. These wavelengths
are at 656, 486, 434, and 410nm.

RYDBERG FORMULA

The Rydberg formula explains the different energies of transition that occur
between energy levels. When an electron moves from a higher energy level to a
lower one, a photon is emitted. The Hydrogen atom can emit different
wavelengths of light depending on the initial and final energy levels of the
transition. It emits a photon with energy equal to the difference of square of the
final and initial energy levels.

Rydberg Formula

The Rydberg Constant (R)

RH = 1.0974 X10 7 m-1

CONCLUSIONS OF THE BOHR MODEL

Electrons in the Bohr atom can reside in several different, discrete stationary
states, also called allowed orbits. There is a nucleus, then an orbit at a
well-defined distance, and another one, and another one in a kind of set of stair
steps.

An electron can remain in one orbit for a long time without accelerating. It can
rest in a stationery state and thus it doesn’t have to give off light or energy
hence making it stable.

LIMITATIONS OF BOHR MODEL

The Bohr Model was an important step in the development of atomic theory.
However, it has several limitations.

∙ It is in violation of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr

Model considers electrons to have both a known radius and orbit, which
is impossible according to Heisenberg.

∙ The Bohr Model is very limited in terms of size. Poor spectral predictions
are obtained when larger atoms are in question.

∙ It cannot predict the relative intensities of spectral lines.

∙ It does not explain the Zeeman Effect, when the spectral line is split into
several components in the presence of a magnetic field.

∙ The Bohr Model does not account for the fact that accelerating electrons
do not emit electromagnetic radiation.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

∙ https://www.wikipedia.org
∙https://www.britannica.com
∙https://www.byjus.com
∙https://www.jagranjosh.com