SEMICONDUCTORS

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
1. Classification Based on Conductivity:
Metals: Low resistivity, high conductivity (p ~10-102m, o~ 10 10 Sm').
Semiconductors: Intermediate resistivity or conductivity (p ~ 10-10 9 m, g ~10- 10 Sm').
Insulators: High resistivity, low conductivity (p ~ 10-10° 9m, o~ 10ll- 101" S m).
2. Semiconductor Types:
Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge.

Compound semiconductors:
1. Inorganic (CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP)
2. Organic (anthracene, doped phthalocyanines)
3. Polymers: polyaniline, polypyrrole etc.
3. Energy Bands:
Ina solid, electrons encgy ia influenced by nearby atoms, forming cnergy bands.
Valence Band: Contains energy levels of valence clectrons.
Conduction Band: Lies above the valence band; electrons can move freely here.
Metallic conductors have overlapping valence and conduction bands.
4. Inslators and Conductors:
Insulators have a gap between valence and conduction bands, making electrons remain bound
Electrons in the valence band can gain cnergy to move into the conduction band, creating vacancics for
conduction.
5. Crystal Structure of Si and Ge
Si and Ge crystals have outer orbits with 4N valence electrons.
Energy bands of these electrons are split by an energy gap (E) at absolute zero.
Valence band is fulty occupicd, while the conduction band is empty at absohute zero.
6. Energy Band Gap (Eg:
Defiition: The gap betwecn the top of the valence band (EV) d the bottom of the conduction band
(EC).
Variability: The energy band gap (Eg) can be large, small, ot zero, depending on the material.
Representation: Shown in Fig, 14,1 with closely spaced energy levels.
7. Different Conductors:

Case I (Fig 14.2a): [Metals]

1. Partially filled conduction band or overlapping conduction and valence bands.
2, Electrons fronm valence band can casily move to the conduction band.
3. Results in a large number of electrons available for electrical conductionat

4. Low resistance or high conductivity in such materials.

 Elcciron
energles Electron
energes
Overlapping
conduction band
Conductton
band (E, = 0)

Valence Valence
band hand

(a) ()

Case II (Fig. 14.2b): [Insulatorsl

1. Large Band Gap (E>3 eV).
2. Conduction band is empty; Do electrons for electrical conduction.
3. E, is so large that thermal excitation
cannot elevate electrons from valence to conduction band.
4. Represents insulators.
5. No clectrical conduction is
possible due to the absence of clectrons in the
conduction band.
Case IlI (Fig. 14.2c):
(Semiconductors]
1. Small Band Gap (E, <3eV).
2. Band gap is finite but small.
3. Atroom temperature, some
electrons from
the gap and enter the conduction band. the valence band can acquire enough energy tocross
4. Limited nunbes of
electrons move in the conduction band.
5. Resistance of semiconductors is lower than insulators due to this
partial conduction.
Elevtron
encrgles Empty
conduction Electron
energles
band

E, >3 eV

E E, <3 eV
Valence
band

(b
(c)
8. Broad
Classification of Materials:
Metals: Overlapping or partially illed bands,
facilitating electrical conduction.
Insulator: Large band gap (E>3eV), no electrons in the
conduction band, no electrical conduction.
Semiconductors: Small band gap (E<3 eV), allowing some electrons to move into the
band, resulting in partial electrical conduction
conduction.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
9. Dismond-Like Structure of Ge and Si:
Common case considered for Ge and Si with
diamond-ike structures (Fig. 14.3).
Each atom is surrounded by four
nearest neighbours.
 Si and Ge have four valence
electrons.
In crystalline structure, cach Si or Ge atom shares one of its four valence clectrons with each of its four
nearest neighbour atoms, forming covalent bonds.
Shared electron pairs constitute acovalent bond., creating astrong connection.
10. Covalent Bonds in Ge and Si Structure:

2-D represcntation in Fig. 14.4 overemphasizes covalent bonds.

At low temperatures, all bonds are intact.
With increased temperature, thermal energy may cause some electrons to break away, contributing to
conduction.

11. Thermal Lonization and Hole Formation:

Thermal energy ionizes a few atoms, creating a vacancy in the bond (Fig. 14.5a).
Free electron with chargeqleaves avacancy with an effective charge (+q).
The vacancy is knowa as ahole, behaving as an apparent free particle with an efective positive charge.
12. Intrinsic Semiconductors:

In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons (14) is equal to the number of boles (D).
Mathematically: n, D(Equation
= 14.1).
n, is the intrinsic carrier concentration.

13. Unique Property of Semiconductors:

Semiconductors exhibit a unique property where, in addition to electrons, holes also move.
Understanding the coOvalent bond formation, thermal ionization, and the concept of holes in intrinsic
semiconductors sets the stage for comprehending the movement of electrons and holes, essential for
semiconductor conductivity.
14. Hole Movement in Semiconductors:
Ahole at site 1 (Fig, 14.5a) exemplifies hole movement.
Visualized movement shown in Fig. 14.5(b).
Electron from the covalent bond at site 2 jumps to the vacant site 1(hole).
Añer the jump, the bole is at site 2, and site 1 now has an electron.
The hole appears to nove from site 1to site 2, though the originally freed electron is not directly
involved.

15. Independent Motion of Free Electrons:

The freed elgron moves independently as a conduction electron, contributing to electron current (L.)
under an applied electric field.
Hole mohon serves as a convenient way to describe the motion of bound electrons when there's an
empty bond in the crystal.
Underan electric field, holes move toward negative potential, creating hole current (,).
16. Total Current in Semiconductors:

Total current (1) is the sum of electron curTent (L) and hole current (I).
Mathematfcally expressed as:I =LtI (Equation 14.2).
17. Recombination Process:
Simultaneous recombination process occurs alongside the generation ofconduction electrons and holes.
At equilibrium, the rate of generation equals the rhte of recombination of charge carriers.
Recombination results from an electron colliding with a hole.
(Thermally generated free electron)

Hok at site I
electron vacancy) Site 1y
+4) site

" Site 2 Site 2

....

(+4) si or Ge
SIor Ge
(a)
(b)
18. Bchaviour of Intrinsic Semiconductors:
At T=0K(Absolute Zero):
1. Intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator (Fig.
14.6a).
At T>0K (Higher Temperatures):
1. Thermal energy excites electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band.
2.
Thermally excited electrons at T> 0K partially occupy the
conduction band.
Energy-Band Diagram at T> 0K (Fig. 14.6b):
1. Some electrons are in the
conduction band, baving moved from the valence band.
2. Equal number of holes remain in the
valence band.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
19. Temperature Dependence of Intrinsie
Semiconduetors:
Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors increases with temperature.
However, at room tenmperature, their conductivity is very low.
 Enhancing Conductivity with Impurities:
1. To improve
conductivity, impurities are added.
2. Addition of a few parts per million (ppm) of a suitable impurity
manifold. increases conductivity
3. Materials with added impurities are termed extrinsic or impurity
semiconductors.
4. The deliberate addition of impuritics is called
doping, impurity atoms are dopants.
and
20. Dopants in Ertrinsic Semiconductors:
Types of Dopants:
I. Pentavalent (valency S): Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc.
2. Trivalent (valency 3): Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al),
etc.
Doping Process:
1. Dopant size should be similar to semiconductor atomns to avoid lattice
distortion.
2. Doping involves adding a smallamount of dopant to the pure
semiconductor.
21. n-Type Semiconductor:

Pentavalent Dopant (e.g, Phosphorous):

Dopant donates an extra electron for conduction (donor impurity).
Electrons become majority carriers, and holes remain minority carriers.
Known as n-type semiconductors: n, >> (Equation l4.3).
22. p-Type Semiconductor:
Trivalent Dopant (e.g, Boron):
Dopant creacs holes in the latice.
Holes become majority carriers,and electrons remain minority carriers.
Known as p-type semiconductors: n, >> n, (Equation 14.4).
23. Effect of Doping onCharge Carriers:
n-Type Semiconductor:
1. Electrons from dopants and intrinsically generated holes.
2. Recombination reduces the number of holes.
p-Type Semiconduetor:
1. Holes from dopants and intrinsically generated electrons.
2. Recombination reduces the number of electrons.
24, Energy BandStructure in Extrinsic Semiconductors:
Additional Energy States:
Donor impurities (Eb) in n-type semiconductor.
2. Acceptor impurities (E) in p-type semiconductor.
25. Electron and Hole Concentrations:
Concentration in thermal equilibrium: n,n n (Equation 14.5).
 intrinsic semiconductors.
Extrinsic semiconductors exhibit diferent conductivity characteristics than
26. Energy Gap and Resistivity:
Energy gap between conduction and valence bands determines resistivity.

Energy gaps for C(diamond), Si, and Ge are 5.4 eV, 1.1 eV, and 0.7 eV, respectively.
Sn is a metal with an energy gap of 0 eV.

energy
Electron
E

=0.01eV

E,
E E
o.01-0.05 eV

(a) T> OK
onc thermally generated electron-hole (b) T> 0K
pair + 9 electrons from donor atoms

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

27. Introduction:

The p-n junction is a fundamental componeat in semiconductor deviccs such as diodes and transistors.
Understanding junction bebaviour is crucial for analysing the operation of various semiconductor
devices.
28. Formation of p-n Junction (14.5.1):
Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si)semiconductor wafer.
Introducea small amouut of pentavalent impurity to convert part of p-Si into n-Si.
Formation involves diffusion and drift processes.
29. Diffusion Process:
Concentration gradient leads to holes diffusing from p-side ton-side (p ’n).
Electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n ’ p).
Diffusion current arises due to the motion of charge carriers across the junction.
30. Space-Charge Regions:
Lonized donors and acceptors remain immobile, creating positive and negative space-charge regions.
Together, these regions form the depletion region, depleted of free charges.
Depletion region thickness is approximately one-tenth of a micrometre.
31. Electric Fiekd and Drift Current:
Electric field develops due to positive and negative space-charge regions.
Drift curent occurs as electrons move from p-side to n-side and holes move from n-side to p-side.
Drift current oppoSes the diffusion current.
32. Junction Formation:
 Initially, diffusion current is large, and drift current is small.
Space-charge regions extend, increasing the electricfield strength and drift current.
Equilibrium is reached when diffusion current equals drift current.
No net current in a p-n junction under equilibrium.
33. Equilibrium Potential (Fig. 14.11):
Loss of electrons from the n-region and gain of electrons by the p-region create a potential difference.
Polarity opposes further carrier flow, establishing equilibrium.
The potential is termed a barrier potential.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
34. Introduction:

Asemiconductor diode is essentially a p-n junction with metallic contacts for external voltage
application.

Met.llk
laqpletio)

l.)

FIGURE 14.L2 . , Mi

Symbolic representation in Fig. 14.12(b).

Equilibrium barrier potential altered by an external voltage V.
35. p-n Junction Diode under Forward Bias (14.6.1):
Forward bias: p-side connected to the positive terminal, n-side to the negative terminal.
Applied voltage mainly drops across the depletion region.
Efective barrier height reduced to (Vo- V).
Minority carrier injection occurs, leading to increased carrier concentration at the junction.
Diffusion of injected carriers gives rise to current.
Total diode forward current is the sum of hole diffusion current and conventional current due to electron
diffusioa.
36. p-a Junction Diede under Reverse Bias (14.6.2):
Reverse bias: n-side is positive, p-side is negative.
Applied votage mainly drops across the depletion region.
Effective barrier height increased to (Vo +).
Difusion current decreases significantly compared to forward bias.
Drift curent ärises as cariers move from minority to majority side across the junction.
 Hl
W
+|w
n
P

(a)
(a)
2
3
V
V

(b
FIGURE 14.13( ) 1 (b)
ineion diol: under lorw:ard FIGURE 14.15 (a) Diode
bius. () Barrier potenlial
) without baltcrv. (2) Low under reverse bias.
bltev oltage. d (:3) ligh (b) Barrier potential under
nltag batten. reerse bias.

Reverse curent is voltage-independent up to breakdown voltage (Vb).

destruction.
Breakdown voltage causes a sharp increase in reverse curent, leading to potential diode
V-Icharacteristics graph in Fig. 14.16(c).

Voltmeter(V)

p n

MiIlammeter 100
(mA)
80
Switch
60
(a
40
Voltmeterf)
20
10 60 4n 20

10

204
Microammeter
(BA) 30 -
Switch

(b

37. V-I Characteristics Study:

Circuit arrangement for studying V- characteristics shown in Fig. 14.16(a) and (b).
Milliammeter used for forward bias, microammeter for reverse bias.
Threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (-0.2V for germanium diode, ~0.7V for silicon diode).
Reverse saturation current in the uArange.
 Beyond reverse saturation current, special cases txhibit sudden current
increase at high reverse bias
(breakdown voltage).
General-purpose diodes avoid operation beyond the reverse saturation curront region.
38. Diode Properties:
Diode primarily allows current flow in one direction (forward bias).
Low forward bias resistance compared to reverse bias resistance.
Utilized for rectification of AC voltages.
39. Dynamic Resistance Definition:
Dynamic resistance defined as the ratio ofsmallchange in voltage AV to a small change in current Al: