Introduction to Ray Optics

Ray optics, or geometrical optics, refers to the description of light behavior as rays.
It simplifies light as traveling in straight lines (rays) and describes how light
interacts with mirrors, lenses, and other optical devices.
Key Concepts in Ray Optics
1. Light as Rays:
o Light can be approximated to travel in straight lines in homogeneous media.
o Ray: The direction in which light energy travels, shown as a line with
an arrowhead.
2. Reflection:
o The act of light reflecting off a surface.
o Laws of Reflection:
1. The angle of incidence (iii) is equal to the angle of reflection (rrr): i=ri = ri=r
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the
same plane.
o Types of Reflection:

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 Specular Reflection: Reflection from smooth surfaces like mirrors.
\tDiffuse Reflection: Reflection from rough surfaces that scatter light in many
directions.
3.\tRefraction:
o\tThe bending of light as it passes from one medium to another with a different
refractive index.
o\tSnell's Law: Describes the relationship between the angle of incidence (iii) and
the angle of refraction (rrr): n1sin⁡(i)=n2sin⁡(r)n_1 \\sin(i) = n_2 \\
sin(r)n1sin(i)=n2sin(r) Where:
\tn1n_1n1 and n2n_2n2 are the refractive indices of the two media,
\tiii is the angle of incidence,
\trrr is the angle of refraction.
4.\tRefractive Index:
o\tThe refractive index (nnn) of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum (ccc) to the speed of light in that medium (vvv): n=cvn = \frac{c}{v}n=vc
5.\tTotal Internal Reflection:
o\tOccurs when light tries to move from a denser medium to a less dense medium
and the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.
o Critical angle (θcθ_cθc) is given by: θc=sin⁡−1(n2n1)\\theta_c = \\sin^{-1}\\left(\\
frac{n_2}{n_1}\\right)θc=sin−1(n1n2)o If the angle of incidence exceeds the
critical angle, all light is reflected, and none refracts.
Mirrors
1.
Types of Mirrors:
o Plane Mirror A flat, reflective surface.
 Produces an image that is virtual, upright, and same size as the object.
o Concave Mirror A spherical mirror with the reflective surface on the inward curve.
\tCan create true or virtual images, depending
on where the object stands in comparison to the focal point.
no\tConvex Mirror: A curved inward mirror whose reflecting surface is the
outward curvature
\tAlways creates a virtual, upright, diminutive image.
2.\tMirror Formula:
no\tThe formula that relates the object distance (uuu), image distance (vvv), and
focal length (fff) of a mirror: 1f=1v+1u\\frac{1}{f} = \\frac{1}{v} + \\frac{1}
{u}f1=v1+u1
o The magnification (mmm) is expressed as: m=himagehobject=−vum = h_{\\
text{image}}/h_{\\text{object}}=-v/u
m=hobjecthimage=−uv Given that himageh_{\text{image}}himage and
hobjecth_{\text{object}}hobject are the image and object heights, respectively.
Lenses
1. Types of Lenses:
o Convex Lens (Converging Lens): A lens is thicker at the center than at the edges.
• Can produce either real or virtual images, based on the location of
the object with respect to the focal point.
o Concave Lens (Diverging Lens): A lens thinner at the center than at the edges.
 Always forms a virtual, erect, and diminished size image.
2. Lens Formula:
o The equation connecting the object distance (uuu), image distance (vvv), and
focal length (fff) of a lens: 1f=1v−1u\\frac{1}{f} = \\frac{1}{v} - \\frac{1}
{u}f1=v1−u1
o The magnification (mmm) for a lens is given by: m=himagehobject=vum = \\
frac{h_{\\text{image}}}{h_{\\text{object}}} = \\frac{v}{u}m=hobjecthimage=uv
3. Focal Length of a Lens:
o Convex lenses have a positive focal length.
o Concave lenses have a negative focal length.
4. Power of a Lens:
o The power of a lens is the reciprocal of the focal length (fff): P=1fP = \frac{1}
{f}P=f1
 Power is measured in diopters (D), where fff is in meters.
o The total power of a combination of lenses is the sum of the powers of individual
lenses.
Optical Instruments
1. Eye and Vision:
o The eye functions like a camera, where the lens focuses light on the retina,
forming an image.
o Defects of Vision:
\tMyopia (Nearsightedness): A person can see nearby objects clearly but has
trouble seeing distant objects.
\tHypermetropia (Farsightedness): A person can see distant objects clearly but has
trouble seeing nearby objects.
\tAstigmatism: Caused by an irregularly shaped cornea or lens.
\tPresbyopia: Age-related loss of the ability to focus on near objects.
2.\tMicroscope:
o\tA microscope uses multiple lenses to magnify small objects.
o It comprises an objective lens (to magnify the object) and an eyepiece lens (to
magnify the image formed by the objective lens).
3. Telescope:
o A telescope is an optical instrument used to observe distant objects.
o A refracting telescope employs two lenses: a large objective lens and a smaller
eyepiece lens.
o A reflecting telescope employs mirrors, which does not suffer from chromatic
aberration (a problem with lenses where different colors of light are focused at
different points).
4. Camera:
o A camera uses a lens to focus light onto a photosensitive surface (film or digital
sensor).
o The lens focal length determines the magnification and field of view.
Chromatic Aberration
• Chromatic aberration occurs when light of different colors (wavelengths) is
refracted by different amounts in a lens, leading to a blurred image with color
fringes. This effect is reduced by using achromatic lenses (combinations of different
types of lenses).
Spherical Aberration
•\tA spherical aberration happens when light rays coming through a different part of
a spherical lens or mirror fail to converge at the same
point. In this case, an image gets blurred, which is reduced by applying parabolic
mirrors in telescopes and cameras.