MINE ENVI IONMENT AND VET4TILATION

318

fan circulates 100 m s- at a pressun o f 500 Pa. Calculate the

3 1

change in the equivalent orifice o f the nine, taking ,r>=1.2 kg m - .3

CHAPTER V
Plot the new mine characteristic.
NATURAL VENTILATION
4.13 A rectangular roadway 4 x 2.5m in cross-section and 1000m
long passes 7500 m min- of air. What would be he saving in powe.
3 1 Smail and shailow mines are somtimes ventilated by natural means
if (a) the entire length of the roadway is enlarged to u height of only though the v^ntilatiot in such cases is usually poor, fluctuates
3m maintaining the same width of 4m throughout, (b) the roadway to a large extent and is even subject to reversal of direction. In
is concrete-lined to a finished section of 3.5 x 2m throughout assu cases of emergency such as fi'.es underground, mechanical ventila-
ming the flow to remain unchanged an i the coefficient of friction tion can be subjected to control while natural ventilation cannot be.
for unlined and concrete-lined roadways to be 0.01 and 0.003 It is for these reasons that all mines should preferably be mechani-
N s m - respectively. Further assuming .he cost of electric power to
2 4
cally veniiiat'-d. However natural ventilation does play a role
be 12 paise per unit and an overall fan and drive efficiency of 65%, in all mechanically ventilated mines.
calculate the most economic one of all the three alternatives i f the
cost of stripping is Rs 50.00 per metre and the cos* o f lining 5.1 C A U S E S O F N A T U R A L V E N T I L A T I O N
Rs 300.00 per metre length o f the roadway which has an expected
life of 15 years. 5.1.1 Temperature
Natural ventilation can y. visualized to be caused by the differ-
4.14 200 m s-> of air downcasts through a shaft at a pressure drop
3 - ence in densities of air in the upcast and downcast shafts. The
of 3 kPa. It is required to increase the airflow to 300 r n S t r e a m
3 neavier air sinks down and the lighter air moves up thus setting
lining of shaft equipment gives 40% re Auction i n the <;t efficient of up an ait-current. The difference in air densities in the upcast
friction. The efficiency of fan and motor being 70%, calculate the and downcast shafts is m; inly caused by the heating and rarefac-
annual saving in power cost achievable by streamlining the shaft tion of air in the mine workings due to the addition of heat from
equipment i f 1 kWh of power costs R : 0.14. rocks, m^n, machinery, lights, spontaneous healing etc. Auto-
compression in the downcast shaft changes the density of air accor-
4.15 A 1000m long and 3 x 4 m cross section drift is ventilated ding to the theoretical rela ion p or p the effect being maximum
llt

by a fan connected to two ducts of 400mm and 300mm diameter at the bottom of the shaft, but the reverse process takes place in
installed in parallel. Calculate the delivery through each duct if the the upcast shaft due to auto-expansion. So theoretically, there
is no difference between the average air densities in the two shafts
fan pressure is 3 kPa assuming a coefficient of friction o f 0.003
and hence no natural ventilation due to auto-compression and auto-
N s*m- for the ducts and 0.01 N s n r for the drift. What is the
4 s 4
cxpansion, though in practice a slight effect on natural ventilation
size of a single duct which may replace the two ducts without
is exerted by the two processes being non-isentropic and occuring
affecting the ventilation at the face? Neglect leakage. at different average tempet ttures.
Apart from temperature, the following are the other factors
affecting air density.

5.1.2 Moisture Content of :he Air

Addition of moisture in the downcast shaft decreases the density
of air as moisture is lighte. than air, but this also causes evapora-
tive cooling o f the downcast air and consequent increase in its
 NATURAL VENTILATION 321
320 MINE ENVIRONMENT A N D VENTILATION
natural ventilation by increasing the downcast air density or
density so much so that, in effect, evaporation of moisture in the decreasing the upcast air density.
downcast shaft usually aids natural ventilation.
5.2 A M O U N T OF N A T U R A L V E N T I L A T I O N
5.1.3 Barometric Pressure The quantity of air circulated by natural ventilation depends on
It is well known that air density is i function of barometric the above factors, the mos' important of them being the heat added
pressure. I f the mean barometric pressure of the downcast air to the air from the strata in the workings. In shallow mines the
column is higher than that of the upcast air column, it helps natural natural ventilating pressure (this in turn determines the quantity
ventilation and vice versa. However, since barometric pressure depending on the mine resistance) may be of the order of a few
rarely varies to any appreciable extent from place to place pascals, but in derp and hot mines, it increases considerably varying
within the limits of a mining property, the effect of such variation from 250 Pa to even 750 Fa. In some hot and deep mines such as
on natural ventilation is negligible. Robinson Deep on the Rand, South Africa, where refrigerated
air is sent down the intake shaft, the N.V.P. is estimated to be
5.1.4 Addition of Gases of the order of 1200 Pa.
Methane emitted from the workings of coal mines reduces the
density of return air thus aiding natural ventilation. This effect 5.3 DIRECTION OF N A T U R A L VENTILATION
may, however, be slightly offset by the cooling of mine air produced
This depends mainly on the depth of the mine as the depth generally
by the dcsorption of methane. Large addition of carbon dioxide
controls the amount of heat added to the mine air. In shallow mines,
on the other hand has the opposite effect. Addition of compressed-
where the underground temperature is not very high, the surface
air from the exhaust of the compressed-«,ir machinery used under-
temperature is the major contributing factor to the direction of
ground, however, has little effect on the density of air.
natural ventilation. Let us consider two shafts with their collars
at different elevations as illustrated in Fig. 5.1. Let the ground
5.1.5 Leakage temperature be 293 K at an average depth of 20m from the surface
In multilevel mines, leakage of denser downcast air to the upcast and the geothermic gradient, 1 K for every 40m depth. Then the
shaft causes an increase in the density ol upcast air, thus reducing temperature at the bottom of the shaft A will be 299.5 K and that
natural ventilation. In view of the low efficiency of natural ventila- at the bottom of shaft B, 301.5 K. In summer, the surface tem-
tion, of the order of 1.4 to 1.6% it is important to minimize leakage perature k higher than the average annual temperature of 298 K.
of air from the downcast to the upcast shaft in order to get the Let us assume this to be 308 K. The average temperature of the
maximum benefit of natural ventilation. air column in shr t B will then be 304.75 K and that in shaft A ,
r

303.75 K , but in shaft A> the totai air column balancing that in
5.1.6 Circulation of Refrigerated Air shaft B also includes a column of surface air equal in length to the
difference in heights of the two shaft collars. Or, in other words,
Circulation of refrigerated air through the downcast shaft in-
the effective average air temperature in shaft A will be (303.75
creases the density of downcast air thus aiding natural ventilation + 308)/2~ 305.88 K which is higher than that in shaft B. Hence
to a large extent. the air will flow down shaft B and up shaft A. In winter, however,
the surface air temperature falls. Assuming the winter surface
5.1.7 Other Factors
temperature to be 288 K the average temperature in shaft B will
Other factors such as spraying of water in the downcast shaft be 294.75 K. and that in shaft A, 291.88 K so that air will flow
for preserving shaft timber from dry rot or minimizing fire hazard down shaft A and up shaft B, thus resulting in the reversal of air-
etc. or having steam pipes through the upcast shaft where steam
is used underground (this is, however, a rare practice now) help
322 MINE ENVIRONMENT A M D VENTILATION NATURAL VENTILATION 323

current. It will be evident from the above that the temperature perature o f the workings is always greater than that of surface
in the shallower shaft is more affected by variations in surface atmosphere, natural ventilation continues in the same direction,
temperature than in the deeper one. Hence, the deeper the shaft, but the quantity may vary depending on the average downcast air
the less is the effect of changes in surface temperature on natural" temperature which is affected by the surface temperature. There
ventilation. is hardly any variation in the upcast air temperature. The extent
of variation of quantity will, however, depend on the depth of the
shaft, deeper shafts havin/j lesser variation. In one of the South
•-] 1
African mines with I200r,i deep shafts the winter N.V.p. was
i found to be greater than the summer N.V.P. by about 500 Pa.
1
1 The summer N.V.P. at Chinakuri 1 and 2 pits with 611m deep
1 shafts is 150 Pa while the winter N.V.P. is 285 Pa.
I Although natural ventilating pressure in a mine is mainly
generated in shafts, it is also generated in the workings i f the air
e travelling through them traverses an inclined path. With normal
c> ventilation of dip workings in an inclined seam or bed the cool
«»
intake air travels down an inclined airway to the face and gets
E
heated up there so that the return air travelling up gets hot and
c>> rarefied. As a result, a positive N.V.P. which aids the N.V.P.
produced in the shafts is generated in the workings. In case of rise
B A
workings however, a negative N.V.P. is produced which opposes
the pit-bottom N.V.P. For similar reasons, a higher N.V.P. is
produced in the workings with ascensional ventilation where the
Fig. 5.1 Figure illustrating the development of natural downcast air is taken directly to the bottom of the workings and
ventilating pressure.
allowed to travel up through them into the return, whereas with
descensional ventilation, the N.V.P produced in the workings is
The reversal of air-current in shallow mines usually takes place considerably less.
seasonally, from summer to winter and vice versa, the intervening
periods of spring and autumn being periods of stalemate with very
little or no natural ventilation. Where there is a large diurnal 5.4 C A L C U L A T I O N OF N.V.P. FROM A I R DENSITIES
variation of temperature, ventilation may be reversed during the Let the mean density of downcast and upcast air be p and p , D L

course of the day. kg m ~ respectively.

5

We have considered shallow shafts with collars at unequal eleva- Let the shafts be of equal depths, D m (or, D should be taken
tions. If the collars are at the same elevation, the average tempera- as equal to the difference in height between the higher shaft collar
tures of the air columns in the two shafts become the same and and the deepest ventilated point in the mine).
there is no natural ventilation. However, when the surface-air
temperature is less than the temperature o f the workings, natural The N.V.P. =D ( P t } - P r ) g Pa (5.1)
ventilation can continue in any one direction i f initiated by some
Now a J*> 0.378.e ) x l 0 \ D
agency in that direction. In such a case, the downcast air column Pd (5.2)
287.1 T — kg m ~ D
s

will be more affected by the surface-air temperature and hence

will have a lower average temperature than the upcast air column _(A,-0.378 g ( / )xlO»
and
and natural ventilation will occur. In deqp mines where the tem- (5.3)
Pu wrrT7,— kg *
 325
NATURAL VENTILATION
324 MIME E N V I R O N M E N T A N D V E N T I L A T I O N

Downcast shaft-lop= 293 K

where B and B are the mean barometer readings in k.Pa in the
D v
Downcast shaft-bottou-296 K
downcast and the upcast shafts respectively, e and e are the D u

Upcast shaft-top = 303 K

average vapour pressures of moisture in kPa in the downcast and
Upcast shaft-bottom-303.5 K
upcast air respectively ?nd T and T are the mean temperatures
0 v

The coefficient of friction k for the shafts is 0.004 N s « m - \d for

of the downcast and upcast air columns respectively in K .
the levels, 0.01 N far . Neglect shock losses.
4
For mine shafts in general, B =B = B say. Further, let us
D L

neglect the effect of moisture. Then, 293+296_ ? Q

Average downcast shaft temperature= K.

3034- 303.5
Average upcast shaft temperature- - *W.Z3 K».
N.V.P. - I * - g ^ r J x l O -

9 8 x 300 x 101.325 (303.25-294.5)

N V R = 2871 rni5x~294S "

= 101.7 Pa
Example 5.1
Cross-sectional area of the l e v e l - 5 m . 2

Calculate the natural ventilating pressure in a mine given the

Perimeter of the level=9m.
following data :
Depth o f mine=300m Cross-sectional area of the shafts = - J (6)*=9 n m*.
Pit-bottom barometer reading= 101.27 kPa -
Perimeter of the <>hafts=6 rr m.
Pit-top barometer reading=98.10 kPa ,
Average temperature i n downcast shaft=304 K
Let v=velocity of flow in the level in m s . -1

Average temperature i n upcast shafts307 K

Using equation 5.4
N.V.P. =— 8 T ~ »x\0'
u T The quanity of flow=5v m's" . 1

287.1 TuXT D
2 x 0.004 x 6 1. x 3 0 0 x ( 5 v ) »
9 . 8 x 3 0 0 / 101.27+98.1 \ 1 0 1 = 7 ( 9 ^
V j / x 007-304)
0.01 x 9 x 8 0 0 ( g s l 4 4 5 y 2
2871"^ 307 x 304 X I U

=32.81 Pa.
Or, v =VT0T.7/14.45 =2.65 m r *
Example 5.2
Sometimes N.V.P. is expressed in terms of motive column that
Two vertical shafts each 6m in diameter and 300m deep are is the height of the air column in the downcast shaft which causes
connected at the bottom by a level 2 x 2.5m in cross-section and the natural ventilating pressure. In other words, motive column
800m long. The average barometric pressure i n the shafts being
is the N.V.P. expressed in terms of the height o f a column of air
101.325 kPa, calculate tjie velocity of flow in the level due to natural
with a.density equal to that of air in the downcast shaft.
ventilation. Temperature measurements in the shafts are as follows:
 327
NATURAL VENTILATION

326 MINK ENVIRONMENT AND VENTILATION of which its

cast shaft undergoes auf o-compression, as a result
ne decreases.
pressure and temperatun increase and specific volm
Or, >mpressed air
(b) Heat is, added from the rocks to the hot and cc
N.V.P g its tempera-
as it travelsj through the nine workings thus increasin
h ^tlli± (5.5) ;es, but pres-
ture. As a result of this, its specific volume increa;
kinst friction,
sure decreases because of the* air doing work ag<
N where /r=height of motive column in m and N.V.P., p and g are
D ncrease in its
(c) In the upcast shaft a i<o-expa;ision leads to an i
expressed in Pa, kg m ~ and m s respectively.
3 -2 1. (d) Finally
specific volume, but pressure and temperature fal
In most cases, results within 2-3 % accuracy are obtained in the e atmosphere
heat is rejected by the a,<r at low temperature to th spheric condi-
calculation of N.V.F. from the temperatures of shaft air-columns,
which acts at the sink anc the air returns to the atmo us completing
but the mean temperatures should be determined carefully. In
tion o f pressure, specific /olume and temperature t h
the upcast shaft, the temperature is very little affected by the sur-
the cycle.
face temperature and a few widely spaced readings give a good aver-
age, i f there is no leakage from the intake at any level. -Downcast
5.5.* The W >rk of N a t u r i Ventilation—P- V Diagran
shafts are affected by variations in surfac- temperature and hence the downcast
temperature measurements should be mace at closer spacing parti- Let us consider a unit mass of dry air entering
shaft and undergoing aito-compression. Assuming j no heat -or
cularly in the upper part of the shaft which is most affected by the r, this process
surface temperature. moisture exchange between the shaft wall and the ai
of auto-compression is a fictional adiabatic, somewh at steeper than
McElroy* states that differences in i<arometnc pressure and
3
4.10 and 5.2.
the reversible adiabatic (rentropic) curve A B in Figs
moisture content of the two air columns aifect the value oi N.V.P.
as calculated from shaft temperatures by not more than 5 % each The flow v/ork of air entering the shaft
in naturally ventilated mines and not more than 10% each (5.6)
in mechanically ventilated deep and hot mines where it may be
necessary to determine the air densities in the two shafts with greater
accuracy. (area O V i A P x i n Fig. 4.10)
Hinsley suggested the use of the P-V diagram for the mine for
87

a more accurate estimation of the power of natural ventilation. The work done on the air by auto-compression J
According to him, computation o f N.V.P. from air densities, how-
soever accurately the densities might have been measured, becomes
anomalous in mechanically ventilated mines, though the error may
not be very apparent i n purely naturally ventilated mines. I t is
WS e PdV
(5.7)

more logical to conceive of natural ventilation in terms of the rate

of work done by the air rather than pressure, since the latter has
no significance without the specification of density which varies ( e a V , A B V in Fifc. 4 10)
ai 8

from place to place in the mine. However, N.V.P. can always be

estimated from the work of natural ventilation with respect to a The l o w work out of the shaft
reference air density. (5.8)

5.5 D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF N.V.P. FROM THERMO- (area O V B : in.. Fig. 4.10)

a 2

D Y N A M I C CONSIDERATIONS / . Total work done on the air in the downcasljI shaft

A mine can be likened to a heat engine with the following cycle :
(a) A i r (the working substance in this cast) descending the down-
328 MINE ENVIRONMENT A N D VENTILATION NATURAL VENTILATION 329

; !! I PdV -P*V,

(5.9)

(area P BAPi in Fig. 4.10. Note that since the work is one of
2

compression done on the air it is —ve.)

[ \d(PV)=lPdV+[ VdP
also, \d{PV)*>*P V -P V t i x l

;. \Pdv+\ Vi i -p v x x

Or, P V +\ V,
x x z =- \

where P —absolute pressure of air,

V ^specific volume (volume per unit mass) and subscripts
1 and 2 represent conditions at the downcast shaft-top and -bottom
v 2 v,
respectively. VOLUME IN
V, SPECIFIC VOLUME IN m kg OF DRY A|R
3

Similarly the work done on the air in the mine workings F'g. 5.2 P~Vindicator diagram for a naturally ventilated mine.
(area ABCD in Fig. 5.2. Here P is taken equal to P since the
x t

PF>--1 VdP (5.10) upcast ?nd downcast shaft tops are assumed at the same elevation.)
When there is no external work done on the air (i.e. there is no
(area P BCP, in Fig. 5.2)
t fan in the ventilation system), the above work is the work of natural
and that in the upcast shaft ventilation due to the addition o f heat in the mine workings and
can be equated to changes in potential and kinetic energy of air
and frictiona! work (see equation 4.6).
Thus from the principle of general energy balance
W.^—\ (5.H)
f 2 • .
- \ = {ht-hi)g + (5.13)
(area P,CDP in Fig. 5.2) 4

where subscripts 3 and 4 give conditions at the upcast shaft-

bottom and -top respectively. (5.14)

The total work done on the air in the mine

Wt-Wj.+W.+W*---^ y dP— Ij ^ VdP-^VdP (5.12) and—\ m (h.-h,) g + + 1 * !S-4 (5.15)

330 MINE E N V I R O N M E N T A N P V E N T I L A T I O N
NATURAL VENTILATION 331

where h ^elevation above a certain datum,

v —velocity of air, ; gj'0.0(1
F -'frictional work',
and g —acceleration due to gravity. where m is the mixing ratio in g k g - of dry air.
1

Combining equations 5.13, 5.14 and 5.15 we have It must be noted that V in this case is the apparent specific volume
of moist air i.e. volume of moist air per unit mass of dry air.
v. -v,
2 2 V r • o
VdP *
2 5.5.2 Natural Ventilation with Mechanical Ventilation
When there is mechanical ventilation aiding natural ventilation,
'32 _ '2
v 2

\
the P-V diagram becomes as shown in Fig. 5.3. Let us consider
2 the case with an exhaust fan at the top of the upcast shaft. Here,
the expansion curve C D extends down to E or, in other words,
the pressure of air at the top of the upcast shaft P is no longer
4

+{h*-hi)g- VdP (5.16) equal to P but less than P „ P — P being the depression created
t t 4

2 by the fan. The air is, however, compressed back by" the fan to P „
Neglecting the kinetic energy terms in equation 5.16and assuming the atmospheric pressure, the compression following the curve
h — h and h =.h
2 3 l i

VdP V dP = W, (5-17)
F ~ " Ji
l 4 =
3
So far we have considered flow of dry air. When moisture is
added in the mine airway, the energy balance equation has to be
modified to take into account the change in the potential energy
of moisture in addition to the changes in the potential and kinetic
energy of air and 'frictional work'. Equations 5.13, 5.14 and 5.15
can then be re-written as

— \ = (h -hdg+g\
t m dh + -^~
V + Fi-% (5.18)
a

- \ = (A, - h ) g+g\1 mdh +

t Ft-* (5.19) • P.

.001 mdh + *« ~ £+ V F _
8 4 (5.20)
t

nd equation 5.17 as

* VdP - gV 0,001 mdh Fig. $.3 Indicator diagram with fan ventilation.

EF. EF is slightly steeper than CE because of the extra work

g^' 0.001 mdh (5.21)
done against the internal friction o f the fan. Referring to
22
332 M I N E ENV1RON-U5NT A N D V E N T I L A T I O N NATURAL VENTILATION 333

Fig. 5.3 the total work done by natural agency as well as gases like methane increases the specific volume, that of heavier
gases like C O , decreases it. Addition of compressed-air makes no
the fan (_ j " VdP - VdP - J * VdP) is given by the area difference in the specific volume. However, in all cases extra work
P ABCD1 EP , out of which the work done by the fan alone
X 4
is done in lifting the additional amount of gas in the upcast shaft
and equation 5.23 has to be modified to take this into account.
iW f = - V dP) is given by the area PiFEP*. So th? work
Or, F,_ ~ -
4 ^VdP - £ VdP - £ VdP - ^ VdP
done by f N.V.P. is given by the area A B C D - D E F , but since
DEF is v cry small it can be neglected and the N.V.P. will then
- g^ 0.001 m dh - g^* 0.001 m dh
be calcula ted from the work done as represented by the area
ABCD c fnly. The energy equation for the compression of - m' g Vh-h )-W z f (5.24)
air in the fan can be written as follows neglecting the frictional where m' is the mass of gas in kg added per kg of dry air.
work in t he fan and change in potential and kinetic energy of air The area of the indicator loop on the P-V diagram gives the
across the fan (see equation 4.4) power of natural ventilation and dividing it by a reference specific
volume of air (usually at the fan inlet) gives the Natural Ventilation
-W r« \ (5.22)
s: Pressure.
Adding ec mation 5.22 to equations 5.18.5 .19 and 5.20 and neglect-
ing changt ;s in kinetic energy we have the general energy equation
for the wr tole process

Fx-i = - \ \

- g J 0.001 mdh - g^* 0.001 m dh - W f (5.23)

5.5.3 Dete rmination of N.V.P. from P-V Diagram

The acc uracy of determination of N.V.P. from the P-V diagram
of the min ie depends on how accurately the P-V diagram is plotted,
'As has be en said earlier, the processes of compression and «;xpan-
sion of ai r involved in an actual mine are not ideal and hence,
theoretical prediction of the P-V diagram can never be very accurate.
However, in existing mines an exact plot of the P-V diagram
can be ma i.de from ac*ual measurement of the absolute pressure by
an aneroi( |i barometer and estimation of apparent specific volume
from baro metric and hygrometric readings. Here again the degree
of accurat :y depends on how far apart readings of P and V are
taken alor ig the mine air circuit.
The app •arent specific volume of air can be calculated from equa-
tion 4.50. In case of substantial addition of other gases in the. mine,
the appar :nt specific volume should take into consideration the V -
partial pr< sssure of these gases too, While the addition of tighter Fig. 5.4 Indicator diagram showing the effect of the dip and rise workings
on natural ventilation.
 NATURAL VENTILATION 335
334 IINE ENVIRONMENT A N D VENTILATION
I 5.6.1 Frttm Pressure and Quantity Measurements with Fan Running
and Fan Stopped
5.5.4 Variations in the P-V I )iagram
With the fan running, the mine resistance
Figs. 5.2 and 5.3 give ths us ual shape of the P-V diagram with
level workings. With dip and rise workings, however, the curve (5.25)
BC does not drop uniformly b ut forms a loop as shown in Fig. 5.4
(BXC for dip workings an< 1 BYC for rise workings). Because and with fan stopped,
of additional generation of na tural ventilation power in dip work-
R = (5.26)
ings, the area of the indicator loop increases while it decreases in
the case of rise workings.
where
When air pressure changes s harply at any point in a mine such as = N.V.P.,
across a regulator or a bocsh ;r fan, there is also a change in the - f a n pressure (fan-drift pressure),
shape of the curve BC as sh< )\vn in Fig. 5.5. The curve B M N C — quantity flowing through the mine with fan stopped
indicates a boosted district with M N renresenting the booster
and — quantity with fan running.
pressure, while the curve B X ) |f*C indicates a regulated district with
Combining equations 5.25 and 5.26, we get
X Y representing the pressure drop across the regulator.
P = P (5.27)
fQr-Qn%

5.6.2 From Pit-bottom Pressures with Fan Running and Fan Stopped
Let p„ be the pit-bottom pressure with fan stopped and p ,
f the
4. I F pit-bottom pressure with fan running.

(5.28)

where R, — shaft resistance.

Similarly
(5-29)

Combining equations 5.28 and 5.29

Pf - Pn+Pf

""ft" - . !
(5.30)

Pf—Pn
5.6.3 From Pressure across a Stopping in Fan Drift
N.V.P. can also be found out by erecting a stopping in the fan-
Fig. 5.5 Indicator diagram sho wing the effect of regulators and boosters drift (in fact in any part of the main circuit of ventilation) and
on natur al ventilation.
measuring the pressure across the stopping with the fan idle, but
5.6 OTHER METHODS C )F D E T E R M I N I N G N.V.P. this will vary from the N.V.P. measured with air flowing ihrough
Other practical methods use* 1 for finding N.V.P. in mines are as
follows.
336 - MINE ENVIRONMENT A N D VENTILATION NATURAL VENTILATION 337

the workings, since in the latter case, the difference in air densities - 7 1 5 (84.8)«-650 (88.3)'
causing natural ventilation will change as a result of the addition of (88.3)'-(84.8) J

a variable quantity of heat from outside depending on surface

= 121.51 Pa.
conditions.
121.51+650
R = = 0.107 N s m - ' . f

5.6.4 From Fan Pressures and Quantities at Two Different Speeds (84.8)'
Another method of estimating N.V.P. is to measure the fan Equivalent orifice
pressure (at the fan drift) and quantity at two different speeds of
A = 1 2 9 = 3.94 m*
the fan. Let P and P b e the fan pressures and Q and Q the
fX / r Y 2
V0.107
quantities at speeds N and N respectively and R, the resistance
x 2

of the mine. Then, (see equation 4.104).

P'+P ft
R = (5.31)
Q* 1
5.7 A R T I F I C I A L A I D S TO N A T U R A L V E N T I L A T I O N
P„ can be found from the above equation.
However, all the above methods need the stopping or speed 5.7.1 Stacks or Chimneys
variation o f the fan. Besides, the following sources of error are Stacks built on the top of upcast shafts aid natural ventilation,
likely to occur: (1) The course of air may change, and the resistance but their application is limited to shallow mines where the length
of workings vary depending on whether the fan is running or is of the stack can be fairly large in comparison to the depth of the
stopped. As a result of this both quantity and pit-bottom pressure shaft.
may be affected. (2) The fan offers a considerable resistance to 3 i
N.V.P. when stopped. This, however, does not occur in the case of 5.7.2 Furnaces
section 5.6.3 where there is no flow of air. (3) Leakage of air round v N.V.P. can be considerably increased by putting furnaces at the
the fan may occur while the fan is running and stop when the fan bottom of upcast shafts. In coal mines where cheap fuel is avail-
stops. This affects the quantity actually flowing through the mine. able, these were quite common before the introduction of fans,
but were later discarded in favour of the latter on account of vari-
Example 5.3 * ous dangers involved in having furnaces underground.
The following are the readings of the fan-drift pressures and
quantities with the fan running at two different speeds. Calculate 5.7.3 Use of Air, Water or Steam Jets and Falling Water
the natural ventilation pressure. Also find the equivalent orifice Jets pointing in the direction of air-flow or water falling along
of the mine. • the direction of air-current helps natural ventilation to some extent
Fan-drift pressure at a speed of 31.4 rad s = 6 5 0 Pa -1
which, though not substantial, aids in maintaining the direction
Fan-drift quantity at a speed of 31.4 rad s = 84.8 m s"" _1 £-» 3 1
of flow when there is a chance of reversal o f air-current.
Fan-drift pressure at a speed of 34.5 rad s = 7 1 5 Pa -l

Fan-drift quantity at a speed of 34.5 rad s = 8 8 . 3 m s- -, 3 1

5.7.4. Surface Winds
Let/>„=N.V.P.
These, i f suitably directed into the mine, aid natural ventilation
and R~ resistance o f the mine.
by adding velocity pressure to the N.V.P. Sometimes, i f the mine
P m + 650 P + 715 exhaust is guided in the direction of surface wind, the latter pro-
R =
(84.8) 3 (88.3)> duces a suction effect aiding natural ventilation. Surface wind
(see equation 5.31) velocities are, however, usually small and vary considerably in
338 MINE ENVIROMNENT A N D V E N T 1 U TION 339
NATURAL VENTILATION

direction and amount and deflection of surface wind into a piine

for aiding natural ventilation should be considered only wh en a
steady flow of wind with little variation o f direction occurs.

Example 5.4
The following data were obtained from an aneroid and h> gro~
meter survey of a mine 600m deep. Calculate the Natural Ven litila-
tion Pressure, the power of the fan and the resistance o f the I Jnine
when a quantity of 150 m s- (as measured at thefaninlet)circui
s 1 iatcs
through the mine. Plot the P-V diagram.

Depth, Eleva- Dry- Wet- Baro- Vapour Mixing Appa rent

m tion, bulb bulb metric pres- ratio, m, spec; Ue
h, m tempe- tempe- pres- sure, gkg- volum e V,
1

rature rature sure, . e, kPa of dry mH eg- 1

T, K T.'K -B.kPa air of d ry

ait

Downcast shaft
0 600 297.0 291.2 100.21 1.688 10.66 0.8<
100 500 296.7 291.5 101.04 1.764 11.05 0.8!
200 400 296.4 291.8 101.88 1.842 11.45 0.8! Fig. Exp. 5.1 P-V diagram for the mine.
300 300 296.1 292.1 102.71 1.920 11.85 0.8-:
400 200 295.8 292.4 103.55 o 2.000 12.25 0.82
•500 100 295.5 292.7 104.38 2.080 12.66 0.82 Considering the compression of air in the fan to be polytropic,
600 0 295.2 293.0 105.22 2.165 13.07 0.82 the polytropic index
Upcast shaft
600 0 304.5 303.3 104.21 4.202 . 26.14 0.87
500 100 304.0 303.0 102.68 4.153 26.22 0.88
400 200 303.5 302.7 101.16 4.140 26.54 0.89
300 300 303.0 302.4 99.62 4.029 26.21 0.91
200 400 302.5 302.1 98.09 3.973 26.26 0.92 — j VdP is estimated from the simple relation
100 500 302.0 301.8 96.57 3.917 26.30 0.93
0 600 301.5 301.5 95.03 3.862 26.35 0.95

Fan outlet
bOO 308.1 303.7 100.21 4.093 26.48 0.921

From the given data (d.b. and w.b. temperatures and baromet xic where n refers to the number of the measuring point. The polytropic
pressures at different depths) the vapour pressure, mixing ra tio
law has not been used here for the computation o f — ^K</P because
and apparent specific volume of air have been calculated with the
help of equations 3.72, 3.67, and 4.50 and listed in the ab< >ve the pressure differences involved are so small that they do not
table. The P-V diagram is plotted in Fig. Exp. 5.1. warrant the involved computation.
 NATURAL VENTILATION 341
340 MINE ENVIRONMENT A N D VENTILATION

From equation 5.18 we have

For the downcast shaft :
0.866+0.858
F =-
lmt y VdP-g^ * 0.001 mdh-g{h -h )t x

-J* VdP =(100.21-101.04)

2 = -4.226+0.07+5.88=1.724 kJ k g " o f dry air 1

neglecting any change in kinetic energy.

0.858 + 0.851
- (101.04- 101.88)
2 J) For the workings :
0.851 -1 0.843
- ( 1 0 1 . 8 8 - 102.71) - (.0S.22-.04.21) f *
2 0 M 2 > M

=0.857 kJ k g - of dry air. 1

0.843 - 0 . 8 3 6
— (102.71 —103.55) Or, F,_3=0.857 kJ k g of dry air taking h **h (see equation 5.19).
- 1 t t

0.836 -r 0.829 For the upcast shaft :

-(103.55-104.38)
2
_ [' M/»-(W.21-l02.68)°" 7 4 + 2 0 M 6

0.829 -rO.822
^(104.38—105.22) 0.886+0.898
+(102.68-101.16)
2
= —4.226 kJ k g - 1 of dry air. o
0.898+0.910
+(101.16-99.62)
g J 0.001 m dh is estimated from Ihe relation o 2
0.910+0.923
g J 0.001 m dh^ 0.001 g *"+ * m m ( h n , ,-/,„ ) +(99.62 - 98.09) 2
Taking g=9.8 m s-* and assuming datum at 600m level, we 0.923+0.936
t-(98.09-96.57) '2
have for the downcast shaft
+(96.57-95.03) 0.936+0.95
g j ' 0.001 m dh=0.0098 £ (500 - 600) = 8.362 kJ k g - of dry air.
1

26.14+26.22
+ (400 - 500) "•° + - A 5 ,, 4 g ^ J.001 m =0.0098 £ ( 1 0 0 - 0 )
26.22+26.54
+(300 - 400) I 1 4 5 -2 1 1 85
+(200-100)
2

+ (200 - 300)
ll.85-f-12.25 +(300 - 200) 26.54+26.21
2 2
12.25+12.66 + (400 - 300) 26.21+26.26
+ (100 - 200)
2 2
+(500-400) 26.26+26.30
+(P-ioo) !i^ii2I]
= -69.7 J k g - - - 0 . 0 7 kJ k g " o f dry air.
1 1
+(600 - 500) 2 6 3 ° t 2 6 - 3 5 ]
g ( A - * i ) « 9 J (0 - 6 0 0 ) = - 5 8 8 0 J k g -
t 1
154.62 J kf-*«0.155 kJ kg- of dry air. 1

= -5.88 kJ k g - of dry air. 1

1
 NATURAL VENTILATION 343
342 M I N E ENVIRONMENT A N D VENTILATION

g ( A - A i ) = 9 . 8 x 600= 5880 J k g - = 5 . 8 8 kJ k g " of dry air.

4 x 1 /.N.Y-P. =5^5=0.161 kPa=161 Pa with respect to the air
• r V = 8 . 3 6 2 - 5 . 8 8 - 0 . 1 5 5 = 2 . 3 2 7 kJ k g " of dry air.
4 1
densf.y at the fan inlet.
" _
f i ' _ / r _ 4 . ^ i . 7 2 4 + 0 . 8 5 7 + 2 . 3 2 7 = 4 . 9 0 3 kJ k g - of
4 = = / i t + i a F 4 = = 1

dry air.
For a flow-rate o f 150 m» s- at the fan inlet (K=0.95 m ' kg" ),
1 1

The fan work (taking polytropic compression with « = 1.654) the mass flow-rate of dry air

= ^ = 1 5 7 . 8 9 5 kg s-».
W t - - (* VdP - " (/> K -P F.)
4 4 6

' J 4 n-1

= L^! . (95.03x0.95-100.21 x 0.92)

4
.".The power o f the fan=4.84x 157.895=764.21 k W .
0.654
The pressure dr«?p in the mine due to frictional work
= -4.84 kJ k g " of dry air. 1

w AP=4.908/0.95=5.166 kPa.
Now from equat on 5.23
.'.The resistance o f the mine
F _«x =-4.226+0.857+8.362+0.07-0.155
=4.908 kJ kgr* o f dry air, since

V ydp— w = o
f

EXERCISE 5

5.1 The following are the barometer and psychrometer readings in

The total w o r k - ^ Vd, - £ Vd, - ^ Vd p

different parts o f a mine. Calculate the natural ventilating pres-

= -4.226+0.857+8.362 sure, i f the shafts are 300m deep.
=4.993 kJ k g - of dry air.
1

Location d.b, tempe- w.b. tempe- Barometer

Also the total work = F \ _ 4 + work of lifting water
rature, K rature, K reading, kPa

= fi-4+ g 0.001 m dh+g J VoOl m dh

Upcast shaft-top 304.5 304.5 101.06
=4.908-0.07+0.155=4.993 kJ k g " of dry air. 1

Upcast shaft-bottom 306 305 104.39

The work of Natural Ventilation
Downcast shaft-top 297 o 288 101.06

- S » - S > Downcast shaft-bottom 301 294.5 104.39

o
=4.993 -4.84=0.153 kJ k g - o f dry air. 1
344 MINE ENVIRONMENT A N D VENTILATION

CHAPTER V I
5.2 The upcast and downcast shafts at a mine are 800m deep
and are similar aerodynamical!/ (of same dimensions, nature MECHANICAL VENTILATION
of lining and equipment). The downcast shaft is used for hoisting
from the bottom level while the upcast shaft from an intermediate Natural ventilation alone is often inadequate arvd unreliable for
level at a depth of 100m from the surface. The flow in the shaft mine ventilation. It is subject to much less control than mechanical
is 6000 rn'min" above the 100m level°and 3000 m ' mia" below
1 1 ventilation. Artificial aids to natural ventilation are inefficient
it. Water gauges at separation doors at 100m level and and often inapplicable. Hence mechanical ventilation is a common
800m level read 125.75mm and 135.9mm respectively while practice in almost all mines today. In the early days, common
the fan-drift water gauge reads 127mm. Calculate the resistance mechanical ventilators were the bellows, paddle wheels or recipro-
of the shafts in Wb. as well as in S.I. Units per 100m and the cating compressors, all of which were limited in capacity. This
N.V.P. at the bottom level. Assume the N.V.P. to be in propor- led to the development of centrifugal fans which were initially of the
tion of the depth of shafts. Take g=9.8 m s~ . J slow-rotating types and hence were extremely large and unwieldy
in size. Today however, the commonly used mine fans are of both
centrifugal and axial-flow types, the latter being more popular.
5.3. The following temperatures were measured in a mine 32,1m
deep. Calculate the quantity of air that will, flow through it due to 6.1 THEORY OF CENTRIFUGAL. FANS
natural ventilation i f the mine has a resistance of 0.24 N s m-".
2 A centrifugal fan essentially consists of an impeller, rotor or wheel
The surface barometer reads 98.66 kPa and the barometric pressure rotating inside a volute casing. The impeller, in turn, consists of
rises by 1.15 kPa per 100m depth. several blades or vanes mounted on a central hub over the driving
shaft. When the impeller rotates, air is drawn into it at the hub
Temperature at the top of the downcast shaft =301 K and is discharged at the periphery into the casing. Fig. 6.1 indi-
Temperature in the intake to the bottommost cates an impeller of a centrifugal fan in which
level workings „ ==302 K
Temperature in the return of the above-mentioned
workings =306 K
Temperature in the surface fan drift * =305.5 K

Assume the mine to be dry.-

5.4 A fan circulates 8500 m* m i n " of air through a mine at a

1

fan drift pressure of 1.25 kPa. The flow through the mine reduces
to only 2900 m ' min* when the fan is stopped. Calculate the
1

natural ventilating pressure.

Fig. 6.1 Velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet

of a centrifugal impeller.