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Network Analysis and Synthesis by Singh (Tooabstractive)

The document covers various topics in network analysis and synthesis, including incidence matrices, transient analysis, Laplace transforms, network functions, two-port networks, Fourier analysis, filters, and network synthesis. It provides detailed explanations, equations, and examples related to the behavior of electrical networks during switching events and the analysis of their responses. Additionally, it includes exercises and objective-type questions for further understanding of the concepts presented.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

27 views393 pages

Network Analysis and Synthesis by Singh (Tooabstractive)

Uploaded by

talaripranathi2006

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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10. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS 10.1

10.1 Introduction 10.1
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.1
10.3 Resistor–Inductor Circuit 10.27
10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.49
10.5 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 10.66
Exercises 10.79
Objective-Type Questions 10.82
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 10.85

11. LAPLACE TRANSFORM AND ITS APPLICATION 11.1

11.1 Introduction 11.1
11.2 Laplace Transformation 11.1
11.3 Laplace Transforms of Some Important Functions 11.2
11.4 Properties of Laplace Transform 11.4
11.5 Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions 11.15
11.6 Waveform Synthesis 11.21
11.7 Inverse Laplace Transform 11.30
11.8 Solution of Differential Equations with Constant Coefﬁcients 11.36
11.9 Solution of a System of Simultaneous Differential Equations 11.39
11.10 The Transformed Circuit 11.42
11.11 Resistor–Inductor Circuit 11.43
11.12 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 11.49
11.13 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 11.54
11.14 Response of RL Circuit to Various Functions 11.60
11.15 Response of RC Circuit to Various Functions 11.68
Exercises 11.79
Objective-Type Questions 11.81
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 11.83
Contents xi

12. NETWORK FUNCTIONS 12.1

12.1 Introduction 12.1
12.2 Driving-Point Functions 12.1
12.3 Transfer Functions 12.2
12.4 Analysis of Ladder Networks 12.5
12.5 Analysis of Non-Ladder Networks 12.15
12.6 Poles and Zeros of Network Functions 12.20
12.7 Restrictions on Pole and Zero Locations for Driving-Point Functions [Common Factors in N(s)
and D(s) Cancelled] 12.21
12.8 Restrictions on Pole and Zero Locations for Transfer Functions [Common Factors in N(s) and
D(s) Cancelled] 12.21
12.9 Time-Domain Behaviour from the Pole-Zero Plot 12.39
12.10 Graphical Method for Determination of Residue 12.42
Exercises 12.50
Objective-Type Questions 12.53
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 12.55

13. TWO-PORT NETWORKS 13.1

13.1 Introduction 13.1
13.2 Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters (Z Parameters) 13.2
13.3 Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters (Y Parameters) 13.8
13.4 Transmission Parameters (ABCD Parameters) 13.18
13.5 Inverse Transmission Parameters (A′B′C′D′ Parameters) 13.24
13.6 Hybrid Parameters (h Parameters) 13.28
13.7 Inverse Hybrid Parameters (g Parameters) 13.33
13.8 Inter-relationships Between the Parameters 13.37
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.63
13.10 T-Network 13.79
13.11 Pi (p )-Network 13.79
13.12 Lattice Networks 13.84
13.13 Terminated Two-Port Networks 13.87
13.14 Image Parameters 13.97
Exercises 13.101
Objective-Type Questions 13.104
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 13.107

14. FOURIER ANALYSIS 14.1

14.1 Introduction 14.1
14.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series 14.1
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.9
14.4 Exponential Fourier Series 14.25
14.5 Average Value of a Periodic Complex Wave 14.33
14.6 RMS Value of Periodic Complex Wave 14.33
14.7 Power Supplied by Complex Wave 14.34
14.8 Fourier Transform 14.37
14.9 Fourier Transforms of Some Useful Functions 14.38
14.10 Fourier Transform of Periodic Function 14.47
14.11 Properties of Fourier Transform 14.50
14.12 Energy Density Spectrum 14.58
Exercises 14.60
Objective-Type Questions 14.62
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 14.64

15. FILTERS AND ATTENUATORS 15.1

15.1 Introduction 15.1
15.2 Classiﬁcation of Filters 15.1
15.3 T-Network 15.1
15.4 p Network 15.4
15.5 Characteristic of Filters 15.6
15.6 Constant-k Low Pass Filter 15.7
15.7 Constant-k High-pass Filter 15.14
15.8 Band-pass Filter 15.18
15.9 Band-stop Filter 15.22
15.10 m-Derived Filters 15.25
15.11 m-Derived Low-Pass Filter 15.28
15.12 m-Derived High-Pass Filter 15.31
15.13 Terminating Half Sections 15.34
15.14 Composite Filter 15.37
15.15 Attenuator 15.40
15.16 Lattice Attenuator 15.41
15.17 T-Type Attenuator 15.42
15.18 p -Type Attenuator 15.45
15.19 Ladder-Type Attenuator 15.47
Exercises 15.48
Objective-Type Questions 15.49
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 15.50

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Whenever a network containing energy storage elements such as inductor or capacitor is switched from one
condition to another, either by change in applied source or change in network elements, the response current
and voltage change from one state to the other state. The time taken to change from an initial steady state
to the ﬁnal steady state is known as the transient period. This response is known as transient response or
transients. The response of the network after it attains a ﬁnal steady value is independent of time and is called
the steady-state response. The complete response of the network is determined with the help of a differential
equation.

10.2 INITIAL CONDITIONS

In solving the differential equations in the network, we get some arbitary constant. Initial conditions are
used to determine these arbitrary constants. It helps us to know the behaviour of elements at the instant of
switching.
To differentiate between the time immediately before and immediately after the switching, the signs ‘–’
and ‘+’ are used. The conditions existing just before switching are denoted as i (0–), v (0–), etc. Conditions
just after switching are denoted as i (0+), v (0+).
Sometimes conditions at t = ∞ are used in the evaluation of arbitrary constants. These are known as final
conditions.
In solving the problems for initial conditions in the network, we divide the time period in the following
ways:
1. Just before switching (from t = –∞ to t = 0–)
2. Just after switching (at t = 0+)
3. After switching (for t > 0)
If the network remains in one condition for a long time without any switching action, it is said to be under
steady-state condition.
1. Initial Conditions for the Resistor For a resistor, current and voltage are related by v(t) = Ri(t). The
current through a resistor will change instantaneously if the voltage changes instantaneously. Similarly, the
voltage will change instantaneously if the current changes instantaneously.
10.2 Network Analysis and Synthesis
2. Initial Conditions for the Inductor For an inductor, current and voltage are related by,
di
v(t ) = L
dt
Voltage across the inductor is proportional to the rate of change of current. It is impossible to change
the current through an inductor by a finite amount in zero time. This requires an infinite voltage across the
inductor. An inductor does not allow an abrupt change in the current through it.
The current through the inductor is given by,
t
1
i(t ) = ∫ v(t )dt + i( )
L0

where i(0) is the initial current through the inductor.

If there is no current flowing through the inductor at t = 0–, the inductor will act as an open circuit at t = 0+.
If a current of value I0 flows through the inductor at t = 0–, the inductor can be regarded as a current source
of I0 ampere at t = 0+.
3. Initial Conditions for the Capacitor For the capacitor, current and voltage are related by,
dv(t )
i( t ) = C
dt
Current through a capacitor is proportional to the rate of change of voltage. It is impossible to change
the voltage across a capacitor by a finite amount in zero time. This requires an infinite current through the
capacitor. A capacitor does not allow an abrupt change in voltage across it.
The voltage across the capacitor is given by,
t
1
v(t ) = ∫ i(t )dt + v( )
C0
where v(0) is the initial voltage across the capacitor.
If there is no voltage across the capacitor at t = 0–, the capacitor will act as a short circuit at t = 0+. If the
capacitor is charged to a voltage V0 at t = 0–, it can be regarded as a voltage source of V0 volt at t = 0+. These
conditions are summarized in Fig. 10.1.

Element with initial conditions Equivalent circuit at t = 0+

R R

L OC

C
SC

I0
I0

V0 V0
+ −
+−

Fig. 10.1 Initial conditions

10.2 Initial Conditions 10.3

Similarly, we can draw the chart for ﬁnal conditions as shown in Fig. 10.2
Element with initial conditions Equivalent circuit at t = ∞
R R

L SC

C
OC

SC
I0

V0 V0 I0
+ − +− OC

Fig. 10.2 Final conditions

4. Procedure for Evaluating Initial Conditions
(a) Draw the equivalent network at t = 0–. Before switching action takes place, i.e., for t = –∞ to t = 0–, the
network is under steady-state conditions. Hence, ﬁnd the current ﬂowing through the inductors iL (0–)
and voltage across the capacitor vC(0–).
(b) Draw the equivalent network at t = 0+, i.e., immediately after switching. Replace all the inductors
with open circuits or with current sources iL(0+) and replace all capacitors by short circuits or voltage
sources vC (0+). Resistors are kept as it is in the network.
(c) Initial voltages or currents in the network are determined from the equivalent network at t = 0+.
di + dv + d 2 i + d 2 v +
(d) Initial conditions, i.e., ( ),
) (0 ), 2 ( )), 2 (0 ) are determined by writing integro-
dt dt dt ddt
differential equations for the network for t > 0, i.e., after the switching action by making use of initial
condition.

Example 10.1 In the given network of Fig. 10.3, the switch is closed at t = 0. With zero current in
di d 2i
the inductor, ﬁnd i, and 2 at t = 0+.
dt dt

10 Ω

100 V 1H
i(t)

Fig. 10.3

Solution
At t = 0–, no current ﬂows through the inductor.

i( ) 0
10.4 Network Analysis and Synthesis
10 Ω
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.4.
At t = 0 + , the inductor acts as an open circuit.
100 V
+
i( ) 0 i( 0+)

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.5. Fig. 10.4

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, 10 Ω

di
100 − 10i
10 − 1 0 …(i)
dt 100 V 1H
i(t)
di
= 100 − 10i …(ii)
dt Fig. 10.5
di + +
At t = 0 + , ( ) = 100 − 10i( ) = 100 − 10( ) = 100 A / s
dt
Differentiating Eq. (ii),

d 2i di
2
= −10
dt dt
d 2i di +
At t = 0 + , 2
(0 + ) 10 (0 ) = −10(100) = −1000 A / s 2
(0
dt dt

Example 10.2 In the network of Fig. 10.6, the switch is closed at t = 0. With the capacitor
di d 2i
uncharged, ﬁnd value for i, and 2 at t = 0+.
dt dt
1000 Ω

100 V 1 μF
i(t)

Fig. 10.6

Solution
At t = 0−, the capacitor is uncharged.

vC ( ) 0
i( ) 0
1000 Ω
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.7.
At t = 0+, the capacitor acts as a short circuit.
100 V v C ( 0+)
+
vC ( )
0
i( 0+)
100
i( + ) = = 0.1 A
1000 Fig. 10.7
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.5

Differentiating Eq. (i),

Fig. 10.8
di
0 − 1000 − 106 i = 0
dt
di 106
=− i …(ii)
dt 1000
+ di + 106 + 106
At t = 0 , ( )=− i( )=− ( .1) /s
dt 1000 1000
Differentiating Eq. (ii),

d 2i 106 di
=−
dt 2 1000 dt
d 2i 106 di + 106
At t = 0 + , 2
(0 + ) = − (0 ) = −
(0 ( 100) = 105 A / s 2
dt 1000 dt 1000

Example 10.3 In the network shown in Fig. 10.9, the switch is closed. Assuming all initial condi-
di d 2i
tions as zero, ﬁnd i, and 2 at t = 0+.
dt dt
10 Ω 1H

10 V 10 μF
i(t)

Fig. 10.9
Solution
At t = 0–,
i( ) 0
vC ( ) 0
10 Ω
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.10.
At t = 0+, the inductor acts as an open circuit and
the capacitor acts as a short circuit. v C ( 0+)
10 V
i( 0+)
+
i( ) 0
+
vC ( ) 0
Fig. 10.10
10.6 Network Analysis and Synthesis

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.11. 10 Ω 1H

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

di 1
t
10 V 10 μF

dt 10 × 10 −6 ∫0
10 − 10i − 1 − i dt = 0 …(i) i(t)

di + Fig. 10.11
At t = 0 + , 10i(0 + )
10 −10 (0 ) − 0 0
dt
di +
(0 ) 10 A / s
dt

Differentiating Eq. (i),

di d 2 i 1
0 10 − 2− i=0
dt dt 10 × 10 6

di + d 2i 1
At t = 0+, 0 10 (0 ) − 2 (0 + ) − 5
i( 0 + ) 0
dt dt 10
d 2i
(0 + ) 10 10 = −100 A / s 2
dt 2

dv
Example 10.4 In the network shown in Fig. 10.12, at t = 0, the switch is opened. Calculate v,
dt
d 2v
and at t = 0+.
dt 2
v(t)

1A 1H 100 Ω

Fig. 10.12
Solution At t = 0–, the switch is closed. Hence, no current ﬂows through the inductor.

iL ( ) 0
v( 0+)
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.13.
At t = 0+, the inductor acts as an open circuit. i L ( 0+)

+ 1A 100 Ω
iL ( ) 0
+
v( ) = 100 × 1 = 100 V
Fig. 10.13
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.7

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.14. v(t)

Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,
t
v 1 1A 1H 100 Ω
100 1 ∫0
+ v dt = 1 …(i)

Differentiating Eq. (i),

1 dv Fig. 10.14
+v =0 …(ii)
100 dt
dv + +
At t = 0+, ( ) = −100 v ( ) = −100 × 100 = −10000 V / s
dt
Differentiating Eq. (ii),

1 d 2 v dv
+ =0
100 dt 2 dt
d 2v dv +
At t = 0+, (0 + ) = −100 (0 ) = −100 × ( 10 4 ) = 106 V / s 2
(0
dt 2 dt
dv
Example 10.5 In the given network of Fig. 10.15, the switch is opened at t = 0. Solve for v,
dt
d 2v
and 2
at t = 0+.
dt
v(t)

10 A 1 kΩ 1 μF

Fig. 10.15

Solution At t = 0–, switch is closed. Hence, the voltage v( 0+)

across the capacitor is zero.
v( ) vC ( )=0
10 A 1 kΩ V C ( 0+)
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.16.
At t = 0+, the capacitor acts as a short circuit.
+ + Fig. 10.16
v( ) vC ( )=0

dv + 10
( )= −6
= 10 × 106 V / s
dt 10

Differentiating Eq. (i),

2
1 dv −6 d v
+ 10 =0
1000 dt dt 2
1 dv + d 2v
At t = 0+, (0 ) 10 −6 2 (0 + ) = 0
1000 dt dt
d 2v 1
2
(0 + ) = − × 10 × 106 = −10 × 109 V / s 2
dt 1000 × 10 6

dv
Example 10.6 For the network shown in Fig. 10.18, the switch is closed at t = 0, determine v,
dt
d 2v
and 2
at t = 0+.
dt

10 A 2Ω 1H 0.5 μF v (t)

Fig. 10.18

Solution At t = 0–, no current ﬂows through the inductor and there is no voltage across the capacitor.
iL ( ) 0
v( ) 0

Differentiating Eq. (i),

1 dv d 2v
+ v + 0 5 × 10 −6 2 = 0
2 dt dt
1 dv + + −6 d 2v
At t = 0 ,
+
(0 ) (0 ) + 0.5 10
(0 2
(0 + ) 0
2 dt ddt
d 2v
2
(0 + ) 20 1012 V /s
/ s2
dt

Example 10.7 In the network shown in Fig. 10.21, the switch is changed from the position 1 to the
di d 2i
position 2 at t = 0, steady condition having reached before switching. Find the values of i, and 2 at
t = 0+. dt dt

1 10 Ω

2
20 V
20 Ω 1H
i(t)

Fig. 10.21 10 Ω

Solution At t = 0–, the network attains steady-state condition. 20 V

Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit. i( 0−)

20
i( )= =2A Fig. 10.22
10
10 Ω
+
At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 10.23.
At t = 0+, the inductor acts as a current source of 2 A. 20 Ω 2A
+ i( 0+)
i( ) 2A

di + d 2i
At t = 0+, −30 (0 ) − 2 (0 + ) = 0
dt dt
d 2i
2
(0 + ) = 1800 A / s 2
dt

Example 10.8 In the network shown in Fig.10.25, the switch is changed from the position 1 to the
di d 2i
position 2 at t = 0, steady condition having reached before switching. Find the values of i, and 2 at
t = 0+. dt dt

1 20 Ω

2
30 V
10 Ω 1 μF
i(t)

Fig. 10.25
20 Ω
Solution At t = 0–, the network attains steady-state condition.
Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
30 V vC( 0−)
vC ( ) 30 V i ( 0−)

i( ) 0
Fig. 10.26
+
At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 10.27. 20 Ω
At t = 0+, the capacitor acts as a voltage source of 30 V.
vC( 0+)
+
vC ( ) 30 V 10 Ω 30 V
i( 0+)
+ 30
i( )=− = −1 A
30
Fig. 10.27
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.28. 20 Ω
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
t 1 μF
1 10 Ω
−10i − 20i −
1 × 10 −6
∫ i dt − 30 = 0 …(i)
i(t) 30 V
0

Differentiating Eq. (i),

Fig. 10.28
di
−30 − 106 i = 0 …(ii)
dt
di +
At t = 0+, −30 ( 0 ) − 10 6 ( 0 + ) = 0
dt
di + 106 ( −1)
(0 ) = = 0.33 × 105 A / s
dt 30
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.11

Differentiating Eq. (ii),

d 2i di
−30 − 106 =0
dt 2 dt
d 2i di +
At t = 0+, −30 2
( 0 + ) − 10 6 (0 ) = 0
dt dt
d 2i 106 × 0 33 × 105
3
(0 + ) = − = −1.1 × 109 A s 2
dt 30

Example 10.9 In the network shown in Fig. 10.29, the switch is changed from the position 1 to the
di d 2i
position 2 at t = 0, steady condition having reached before switching. Find the values of i, and 2 at
t = 0 +. dt dt

1 20 Ω

2
40 V
1 μF
1H
i(t)

Fig. 10.29
20 Ω
Solution At t = 0–, the network attains steady state. Hence, the
capacitor acts as an open circuit.
40 V v C ( 0−)
vC ( ) 40 V i( 0−)

i( ) 0
Fig. 10.30
+
At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 10.31. 20 Ω
At t = 0+, the capacitor acts as a voltage source of 40 V and the
inductor acts as an open circuit. v C ( 0+)
40 V
+
vC ( ) 40 V i( 0+)
+
i( ) 0
Fig. 10.31
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.32. 20 Ω
Writing the KVL equation fo t > 0,
1 μF
t
di 1
−1 − 20i −
dt ∫ i dt − 40 = 0
1 × 10 −6 0
…(i) 1H
i(t) 40 V

di + +
At t = 0+, − ( ) − 20i(( ) − 0 − 40 = 0 Fig. 10.32
dt
di +
( ) = − 40 A / s
dt
10.12 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Differentiating Eq. (i),

d 2i di
− 2
− 20 − 106 i − 0 = 0
dt dt
d 2i di +
At t = 0+, − 2
(0 + ) − 20 (0 ) − 106 i(0 + ) = 0
dt dt
d 2i
2
(0 + ) = 800 A / s 2
dt

Example 10.10 In the network of Fig. 10.33, the switch is changed from the position ‘a’ to ‘b’ at
di d 2i
t = 0. Solve for i, and 2 at t = 0+.
dt dt

a 1 kΩ

b
100 V
0.1 μF 1H
i(t)

Fig. 10.33

Solution At t = 0–, the network attains steady condition. Hence, 1 kΩ

the inductor acts as a short circuit.
100 100 V
i( )= = 0.1 A i ( 0−)
1000
vC ( ) 0
Fig. 10.34
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.35. 1 kΩ
At t = 0+, the inductor acts as a current source of 0.1 A and
the capacitor acts as a short circuit.
v C ( 0+) 0.1 A
+ i( 0+)
i( ) 0 .1 A
+
vC ( ) 0
Fig. 10.35
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.36. 1 kΩ
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
t 0.1 μF
1 di 1H 0.1 A
−
0 1 × 10 −6 ∫ i dt −1000
1000i − 1
dt
=0 …(i) i(t )
0

Fig. 10.36
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.13

di +
At t = 0+, −0 − 1000i(0 + ) − (0 ) = 0
dt
di +
(0 ) = −1000 i (0 + ) = −1000 × 0.1 = −100 A /s
/
dt
Differentiating Eq. (i),

1 di d 2 i
− −7
i − 1000 − =0
10 dt dt 2

di + d 2i
At t = 0+, −107 i(0 + ) − 1000 (0 ) − 2 (0 + ) = 0
dt dt
d 2i
(0 + ) = −107 (0.1) − 1000
0 ( 100) = −99 105 A / s 2
dt 2

Example 10.11 The network of Fig. 10.37 attains steady-state with the switch closed. At t 0, the
dv
switch is opened. Find the voltage across the switch vK and K at t 0 + .
dt
K 1H
vK

2V 1Ω
0.5 F i(t)

Fig. 10.37

Solution: At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. vK( 0−)

10.38. At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state 2V 1Ω
condition. The capacitor acts as an open circuit and the vC( 0−)
i( 0−)
inductor acts as a short circuit.
2 Fig. 10.38
i( )= =2A
1
vC ( ) 0
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.39. 2A
At t = 0 + , the capacitor acts as a short circuit
and the inductor acts as a current source of 2 A. 2V 1Ω
vC( 0+)
+ i( 0+)
i( ) 2A
+
vC ( ) 0 Fig. 10.39
+
vK ( ) 0
10.14 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1
C∫
Also, vK = i dt

dvK i
=
dt C
+
dvK + i( ) 2
At t = 0 + , ( )= = = 4 A /s
dt C 0.5

Example 10.12 In the network shown in Fig. 10.40, assuming all initial conditions as zero, ﬁnd
dii di d 2i d 2 i2 +
i1 (0 + ) i (0 + ), 1 (0 + ), 2 (0 + ), 21 (0 + ) and ( ).
dt dt
d dt dt 2

R1 R2

V C L
i1(t) i2(t)

Fig. 10.40

Solution At t = 0–, all initial conditions are zero.

vC ( ) 0
i1 ( ) 0
i2 ( ) 0

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.41. R1 R2

At t = 0+, the inductor acts as an open circuit and the
capacitor acts as a short circuit. vC( 0+)
V
V
i1 (0 + ) = i1( 0+) i2( 0+)
R1
i2 (0 + ) 0 Fig. 10.41
+
vC (0 ) 0

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.42. R1 R2

Writing the KVL equations for two meshes for t > 0,
t
1 V C L

C ∫0
V R1i1 − (i1 i2 )dt = 0 …(i)
i1(t) i2(t)

1 di
and −
C ∫ (i2 − i1 )dt − R2 i2 − L 2 = 0
dt
…(ii) Fig. 10.42
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.15

From Eq. (ii), at t = 0 + ,

0+
1 + di2 +
−
C ∫ (i2 − i1 )dt − R2i2 (0 )−
dt
(0 ) = 0
0
di2 +
(0 ) = 0
dt
Differentiating Eq. (i),
di1 1
0 − R1 − (i1 i2 ) = 0 …(iii)
dt C
di1 + 1 1
At t = 0 + , 0 1 (0 ) − i1 (0 + ) + i2 (0 + ) 0
dt C C
di 1 V
R1 1 (0 + ) + =0
dt C R1
di1 + V
(00 ) = − 2
dt R1 C
Differentiating Eq. (iii),
d 2 i1 1 dii1 1 di2
− R1 2
− + =0
dt C dt C dt
d 2 i1 1 dii1 + 1 di2 +
At t = 0+, − R1 2
(0 + ) − (0 ) + (0 ) = 0
dt C dt C dt
d 2 i1 V
2
(0 + ) =
dt R13C 2
Differentiating Eq. (ii),
1 di d 2i
− (i2 − i1 ) − R2 2 − L 22 = 0
C dt dt
d 2 i2 R2 di2 + 1 V
At t = 0 ,
+
2
(0 + ) ((00 ) − [i2 (0 + ) i1 (0 + )] =
[i
dt L dt LC R1 LC

Example 10.13 In the network shown in Fig. 10.43, assuming all initial conditions as zero, ﬁnd
2
dii di d i d 2 i2
i1 , i2 1 , 2 , 21 and 2
at t 0 + .
dt dt dt dt
C R2

V R1 L
i1(t) i2(t)

Fig. 10.43
10.16 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Solution At t = 0 − , all initial conditions are zero.

vC ( ) 0
i1 ( ) 0
i2 ( ) 0

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.45. C R2

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

t V R1 L
1
V − ∫ i1 dt R1 (i1 i2 ) = 0 …(i) i1(t) i2(t)
C0

dii2 Fig. 10.45

and − R1 (i2 − i1 ) − R2 i2 − L =0 …(ii)
dt
From Eq. (ii),
dii2 1
= [ R1i1 − ( R1 R2 )i2 ] …(iii)
dt L
dii2 + 1 1⎡ V ⎤ V
At t = 0 + , (0 ) = [ R1i1 (0 + ) ( R1 R2 )i2 (0 + )] = ⎢ R1 − (R
( R1 R2 )0 ⎥ =
dt L L ⎣ R1 ⎦ L
Differentiating Eq. (i),
i1 di1 di2
0 1 1 0
C dt dt
di1 di2 i
= − 1 ...(iv)
dt dt R1C
dii1 di2 + i1 (0 + ) V V
At t = 0 + , (0 ) (0 ) −
(0 = − 2
dt dt R1C L R1 C
Differentiating Eq. (iii),
d 2 i2 1 ⎡ dii1 dii2 ⎤
= R1 − ( R1 R2 )
dt 2 L ⎢⎣ dt dt ⎥⎦
d 2 i2 ⎛ 1 R ⎞
At t = 0 + , (0 + ) = −V ⎜ + 22 ⎟
dt 2 ⎝ R1 LC L ⎠
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.17

Differentiating Eq. (iv),

d 2 i1 d 2 i2 1 dii1
2
= 2
−
dt dt R1C dt
d 2 i1 d 2 i2 1 dii1 + V VR
R 1 ⎛V V ⎞ V 2V VR
R
At t = 0 + , (0 + ) 0+ ) −
((0 (0 ) = − − 22 − ⎜ − 2 ⎟= 3 2− − 22
dt 2
dt 2 R1C dt R1 LC L R1C ⎝ L R1 C ⎠ R1 C R1 LC L

Example 10.14 In the network shown in Fig. 10.46, a steady state is reached with the switch open.
At t = 0, the switch is closed. For the element values given, determine the value of va (0–), vb (0–), va (0+) and
vb (0+).

10 Ω

10 Ω va(t) 20 Ω
vb(t)

5V 2H
10 Ω

Fig. 10.46

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in 10 Ω

Fig. 10.47.
At t = 0–, the network attains steady-state condition. 10 Ω va(0−) 20 Ω
vb(0−)
Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit.

5 5 2
iL ( )= = = A 5V
( ) 7.5 3 iL(0−)

vb ( ) 0
Fig. 10.47
20
va ( ) 5× = 3.33 V
30

+
va ( ) 5 va ( + ) va ( +
) vb ( +
)
+ + =0
10 10 20 Fig. 10.48
10.18 Network Analysis and Synthesis

+ + +
vb ( ) va ( ) vb ( ) 5 2
and + + =0
20 10 3
Solving these two equations,
+
va ( ) 1.9 V
+
vb ( ) 0.477 V

Example 10.15 In the accompanying Fig. 10.49 is shown a network in which a steady state is
reached with switch open. At t = 0, switch is closed. Determine va (0–), va (0+), vb(0–) and vb (0+).

10 Ω

10 Ω va(t) 20 Ω
vb(t)

5V
2F
10 Ω

Fig. 10.49
10 Ω
Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in
Fig. 10.50.
10 Ω va(0−) 20 Ω
At t = 0–, the network attains steady-state vb(0−)
condition. Hence, the capacitor acts as an open
circuit.
5V
va ( ) 5V
vb ( ) 5V
Fig. 10.50
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.51.
At t = 0+, the capacitor acts as a voltage source 10 Ω
of 5 V.
+ 10 Ω va(0+) 20 Ω
vb ( ) 5V vb(0+)
Writing the KCL equation at t = 0+,
10 Ω
+
5V 5V
va ( ) 5 va ( + ) va ( + ) 5
+ + =0
10 10 20
0.. va ( 0 + ) .75 Fig. 10.51
+
va ( ) 3V

Example 10.16 The network shown in Fig. 10.52 has two independent node pairs. If the switch is
dv dv
opened at t = 0. Find v1 , v2 , 1 and 2 at t = 0+.
dt dt
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.19

v1(t) L v2(t)

i(t) R1 R2 C

Fig. 10.52

Solution At t = 0–, no current ﬂows through the inductor and there is no voltage across the capacitor.

iL ( ) 0
vC ( ) v2 ( )=0

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.53. v1(0+) v2(0+)

At t = 0+, the inductor acts as an open circuit and the
iL(0+)
capacitor acts as a short circuit.
i( 0) R1 R2
+
iL ( ) 0
+ +
v1 ( ) R1 ii(( )
+
v2 ( ) 0 Fig. 10.53

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.54. v1(t) L v2(t )

Writing the KCL equation at Node 1 for t > 0,
t
v1 1
R1 L ∫0
+ ( v1 − v2 )dt = i(t ) …(i) i(t) R1 R2 C

Differentiating Eq. (i),

1 dv1 1 di Fig. 10.54
+ ( v1 − v2 ) =
R1 dt L dt
dv1 + ⎡ di + 1 ⎤
At t = 0 + , (0 ) R1 (0 )
(0 R1i(0 + ) ⎥
dt ⎣ ddt L ⎦
Writing the KCL equation at Node 2 for t > 0,
t
1 v2 dv
L ∫0
( v2 v1 )dt + +C 2 = 0 …(ii)
R2 dt

v2 ( 0 + ) dv
At t = 0+, 0+ + C 2 (0 + ) 0
R2 dt
dv2 +
(0 ) 0
dt

Example 10.17 In the network shown in Fig. 10.55, the switch is closed at t = 0, with zero capaci-
dv dv d 2 v2
tor voltage and zero inductor current. Solve for v1 , v2 , 1 , 2 and 2
at t = 0+.
dt dt dt
10.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis
R1

+
iC (t ) iL (t )
v1(t )
L
V C −
+
R2 v2(t )
−

Fig. 10.55

Solution At t = 0–, no current ﬂows through the inductor and there is no voltage across the capacitor.

vC ( ) 0

v1 ( ) 0

v2 ( ) 0

iL ( ) 0

iC ( ) 0

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, v1(t )

L
vC (t ) = v1 (t ) + v2 (t ) …(i) V C vC (t )

R v2(t )
Differentiating Eq. (i),

dvC dv1 dv2

= + …(ii)
dt dt dt
Fig. 10.57
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.21

t
1
C ∫0
Now, vC = iC dt …(iii)

dvC iC
=
dt C
dvC iC ( + ) V
At t = 0+, ( )= = V /s
dt C R1C
diiL
Also v1 L …(iv)
dt
diiL v1
= …(v)
dt L
diiL + v1 ( + )
At t = 0+, ( )= =0
dt L
Also, v2 R2 iL …(vi)
dv2 dii
= R2 L …(vii)
dt dt
dv2 + diiL +
At t = 0+, (0 ) R2 ((00 ) = 0
dt dt
dvC + dv1 dv
(0 ) (0 ) + 2 (0 + )
dt dt dt
dv1 + V
(0 ) = /s
dt R1C

Differentiating Eq. (vii),

d 2 v2 d 2 iL
= R2
dt 2 dt 2
d 2 v2 d 2 iL +
(0 + ) R2 ((00 )
At t = 0+, dt 2 dt

Differentiating Eq. (v),

d 2 iL 1 dv1
2
=
dt L dt

d 2 iL 1 dv1 + 1 V
At t = 0+,
2
(0 + ) = (0 ) =
(0
dt L dt L R1C
d 2 v2 R2V
2
(0 + ) = V / s2
dt R1 LC
10.22 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 10.18 In the network shown in Fig. 10.58, a steady state is reached with switch open. At
t = 0, switch is closed. Find the three loop currents at t = 0+.

2Ω

4Ω i2(t )
0.5 F
6V

i1(t ) 1H 1F
i3(t )

Fig. 10.58

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 2Ω

10.59.
At t = 0–, the network attains steady-state condition.
Hence, the inductor act as a short circuit and the
capacitors act as open circuits. i2(0−) v1(0−)
4Ω
6V
6
i4 (0 ) i1 (0 − ) = =1A
6 i1(0−) v2(0−)
i3 (0−)
i2 (0 ) 0

i3 (0 ) 0
4 Fig. 10.59
v1 (0 ) v2 (0 ) = 6 × =4V
6

Since the charges on capacitors are equal when connected in series,

Q Q2
C1v1 = C2 v2

v1 (0 − ) C2 1
−
= = =2
v2 ( 0 ) C1 0 5
8
v1 (0 − ) = V
3
4
and v2 ( 0 ) = V
3
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.23

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.60. 2Ω

At t = 0+, the inductor is replaced by a current
source of 1 A and the capacitors are replaced by a
8 V
8 4 4Ω + 3
voltage source of V and V respectively. i2(0 )
3 3 6V

8 i1(0+) 4 V
v1 (0 + ) = V 1A
+ 3
3 i3(0 )
4
v2 ( 0 + ) = V
3
Fig. 10.60
8 4
At t = 0+, 6 2i1 (0 + ) − − = 0
3 3
i1 (0 + ) 1 A

Now, i1 (0 + ) i3 (0
(0 + ) = 1
i3 (0 + ) 0
Writing the KVL equation for Mesh 2,
8
−4 [ 2 (0 + ) − 1 (0 + )] − =0
3
8
−4 2 (0 + ) + 4 − = 0
3
1
i2 (0 + ) = A
3

Example 10.19 In the network shown in Fig. 10.61, the switch K is closed at t = 0 connecting a
dii di
voltage V0 sin ω t to the parallel RL-RC circuit. Find (a) i ((00 + ) and
d i2 (0 + ) (b) 1 (0 + ) andd 2 (0 + ).
dt dt
K

i1 (t ) i2 (t )

R R

V0 sinwt
C L

Fig. 10.61
Solution At t = 0 − , no current ﬂows in the inductor and there is no voltage across the capacitor.
vC ( ) 0
i1 ( ) 0
i2 ( ) 0
10.24 Network Analysis and Synthesis

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.62. i1 (0+ ) i2 (0+ )

At t = 0 + , the inductor acts as an open circuit and the capacitor
acts as a short circuit. The voltage source V0 i ω t acts as a short R R
circuit.
i1 (0 + ) 0 vC (0+ )

i2 (0 + ) 0

vC (0 + ) 0

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.63. Fig. 10.62

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

1 i1 (t ) i2 (t )
C∫
V0 i t R i1 − i1 dt = 0 …(i)
R R
dii
and V0 i t R i2 − L 2 = 0 …(ii)
dt V0 sinwt
C L
Differentiating Eq. (i),
dii1 i1
V0 ω ωt − R − =0
dt C
Fig. 10.63
dii1 V0ω i
= cos ω t − 1 …(iii)
dt R RC
dii1 Vω i (0 + ) V0ω
At t = 0 + , (0 ) = 0 cos ω t − 1 =
dt R t = 0+ RC R

From Eq. (ii),

dii2 V0 R
= sin ω t − i2
dt L L
dii2 V0 R
At t = 0 + , (0 ) i t i2 (0 + ) = 0
dt L t = 0+ L

Example 10.20 In the network of Fig. 10.64, the switch K is changed from ‘a’ to ‘b’ at t 0
(a steady state having been established at the position a). Find i1 , i2 and i3 at t = 0 + .

C3 R2 L2
a
K i3
R3
V b
L1 C2
R1 C1
i1
i2

Fig. 10.64
10.2 Initial Conditions 10.25

i3 (0 ) 0
vC3 (0 ) V Fig. 10.65
vC2 (0 ) 0
vC1 (0 ) 0
V R2
+
At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 10.66.
i3(0+)
At t = 0 + , the capacitor C3 acts as a voltage vC3(0+) R3
source of V volts and capacitors C1 and C2 act as
R1 vC2(0+)
short circuts. The inductors act as open circuits. vC1(0+)
i1(0+)
i2(0+)
+ + V
i1 (0 ) (0 ) = −
i2 (0
R1 R2 + R3
Fig. 10.66
i3 (0 + ) 0

Example 10.21 In the network of Fig. 10. 67, the switch K1 has been closed for a long time prior
to t 0. At t 0, the switch K2 is closed. Find v (0 + ) andd iC (0 + ).

K1 K2
i1 10 Ω
iC i2

10 V C vC 10 Ω

Fig. 10.67
i1(0−) 10 Ω
Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown
in Fig. 10.68. At t = 0 − , the network attains iC(0−) i2(0−)
steady-state condition. Hence, the capacitor acts
10 V vC(0−) 10 Ω
as an open circuit.
i1 (0 ) 0
i2 (0 ) 0
Fig. 10.68
iC (0 ) 0
vC (0 ) 10 V
10.26 Network Analysis and Synthesis

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.69. i1(0+) 10 Ω

At t = 0 + , the capacitor acts as a voltage source iC(0+) i2(0+)
of voltage V.
10 V 10 V 10 Ω
+
vC ( ) 10 V vC(0+)

Writing the KVL equation at t = 0 + ,

10 i1 (0 + ) 10
10 −10 0 Fig. 10.69

and 10 i2 (0 + )
10 −10 0
i1 (0 + ) 0
i2 (0 + ) 1A
i1 (0 + ) (0 + ) + i2 (0 + )
iC (0
iC (0 + ) 1 A

Example 10.22 In the network shown in ﬁg. 10.70, a steady state is reached with the switch open.
dii di
At t = 0, the switch is closed. Determine vC (0 ), i1 (0 + )), i2 (0
(0 + ), 1 (0 + ) andd 2 (0 + ).
dt dt

10 Ω
i1(t) i2(t)
20 Ω 20 Ω
100 V
1H 1 μF

Fig. 10.70

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in 10 Ω

Fig. 10.71. i1 (0−) i2 (0−)
At t = 0 − , the network is in steady-state. 20 Ω
Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit and the 100 V
capacitor acts as an open circuit. 20 Ω

20
vC ( ) = 100 × = 66.67 V
20 + 10 Fig. 10.71
66.67
i1 ( )= = 3.33 A
20
i2 ( ) 0 i1(0+) i2(0+)
20 Ω 20 Ω
+ 100 V
At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 10.72.
At t = 0 + , the inductor acts as a current 3.33 A 66.67 A
source of 3.33 A and the capacitor acts as a
voltage source of 66.67 V. Fig. 10.72
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.27

+
vC ( ) 66.67 V
+
i1 ( )
3.33 A
100 − 66.67
i2 ( + ) = = 1.67 A
20

dii1 +
At t = 0 + , (0 + ) = 100 − 20 (3.33)
(0 ) = 100 − 20i1 (0 33.3 A/s
dt
Differentiating Eq. (ii),
di2
0 20 106 2 0
dt
di2 + +
At t = 0 + , 20 (0 ) 106 2 (0
(0 )
dt
di2 + 106
(0 ) = − × 1 67 = −83500 A/s 2
dt 20

10.3 RESISTOR-INDUCTOR CIRCUIT

Consider a series RL circuit as shown in Fig. 10.74. The R
switch is closed at time t = 0. The inductor in the circuit is
initially un-energised.
V L
Applying KVL to the circuit for t > 0,
i(t)
di
V Ri L =0 Fig. 10.74 Series RL circuit
dt
This is a linear differential equation of ﬁrst order. It can be solved if the variables can be separated.
( ) dt L di
L di
= dt
V Ri
Integrating both the sides,
L
− ln (V − Ri ) = t + k
R
10.28 Network Analysis and Synthesis
where ln denotes that the logarithm is of base e and k is an arbitrary constant. k can be evaluated from the
initial condition. In the circuit, the switch is closed at t = 0, i.e., just before closing the switch, the current in
the inductor is zero. Since the inductor does not allow sudden change in current, at t = 0+, just after the switch
is closed, the current remains zero.
Setting i = 0 at t = 0,
L
− ln V = k
R
L L
− ln (V − Ri ) = t − ln V
R R
L
−
R
[ − − ]= t
R
V − Ri − t
=e L
V
R
− t
V − Ri = Ve L
R
− t
Ri = V − Ve t

R
V V − Lt
i= − e for t > 0
R R
The complete response is composed of two parts, the steady-state i(t)
V V
response or forced response or zero state response and transient
R R
R
V − t
response or natural response or zero input response e L .
R t
O
The natural response is a characteristic of the circuit. Its form may
be found by considering the source-free circuit. The forced response Fig. 10.75 Current response of
has the characteristics of forcing function, i.e., applied voltage. Thus, series RL circuit
when the switch is closed, response reaches the steady-state value
after some time interval as shown in Fig. 10.75.
Here, the transient period is defined as the time taken for the current to reach its final or steady state value
from its initial value.
L
The term is called time constant and is denoted by T.
R
L
T=
R
V
At one time constant, the current reaches 63.2 per cent of its final value .
R
1
V V − T t V V −1 V V V
i(T ) = − e = − e = − 0.368 = 0.632
R R R R R R R
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.29

Similarly,
V V 2 V V V
i( T ) e 0.135 = 0.865
R R R R R
V V 3 V V V
i( T ) e 0.0498 = 0.950
R R R R R
V V −5 V V V
i(5T ) = − e = − 0.0067 = 0.993
R R R R R

After 5 time constants, the current reaches 99.33 per cent of its ﬁnal value. The voltage across resistor is

V⎛ − t⎞
R
vR Ri R × ⎜1 − e L ⎟
R⎝ ⎠ v(t)
⎛ − t⎞
R
= V ⎜1 e L ⎟ f t>0 V
VR
⎝ ⎠
VL
Similarly, voltage across inductor is t
O

V d⎛ − t⎞
R
di Fig. 10.76 Voltage response of
vL = =L ⎜1 − e L ⎟ series RL circuit
dt R dt ⎝ ⎠
R
− t
= Ve L for t > 0
Note:
1. Consider a homogeneous equation,
di
+ Pi = 0 where P is a constant.
dt
The solution of this equation is given by,
i (t) = k e−Pt
The value of k is obtained by putting t = 0 in the equation for i (t).
2. Consider a non-homogeneous equation,
di
+ Pi = Q
dt
where P is a constant and Q may be a function of the independent variable t or a constant.
The solution of this equation is given by,
i(t) = e−Pt ∫Q ePt dt + k e−Pt
The value of k is obtained by putting t = 0 in the equation of i(t ).

Example 10.23 In the network of Fig. 10.77, the switch is initially at the position 1. On the steady
state having reached, the switch is changed to the position 2. Find current i(t).
10.30 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1 R1

2
V
R2 L
i (t)

Fig. 10.77

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.78. R1

At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence,
the inductor acts as a short circuit. V
V i ( 0−)
i( )=
R1
Since the inductor does not allow sudden change in current, Fig. 10.78

+ V
i( )=
R1
R1
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.79.
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
V
di R2 L
− R2 i − R1i − L = 0 i(t )
R1
dt
di ( R1 + R2 )
+ i=0 Fig. 10.79
dt L

di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
R1 R2
P=
L
The solution of this differential equation is given by,

i(t ) = k e − Pt
⎛R R ⎞
−⎜ 1 2 ⎟ t
⎝ L ⎠
i( t ) = k e
V
At t = 0, i( ) =
R1
V
= k e0 = k
R1
⎛ R1 R2 ⎞
V −⎜ ⎟t
i( t ) = e ⎝ L ⎠
for t > 0
R1
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.31

Example 10.24 In the network shown in Fig. 10.80, the switch is closed at t = 0, a steady state
having previously been attained. Find the current i (t).

V
i(t) L

Fig. 10.80

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.81. R2

At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition.
Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit. R1

V V
i( )=
R1 R2 i( 0−)

Since the current through the inductor cannot change

instantaneously, Fig. 10.81

+ V
i( )=
R1 R2

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.82.

R1
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
di V
V R1 i L =0 i(t) L
V
dt R1 + R2

di R1 V
+ i=
dt L L Fig. 10.82
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
R1 V
P= , Q=
L L
The solution of this differential equation is given by,

i( t ) = e Pt
∫ QQe
Pt
dt k e − Pt
R1 R R
− t V − L1 t − 1t
=e L
∫L e dt k e L

R
V − 1t
= +ke L
R1
10.32 Network Analysis and Synthesis

V
At t = 0, i( ) =
R1 R2
V V
= +k
R1 R2 R1
VRR2
k=−
R1 ( R1 + R2 )
R
V VRR2 − 1t
i( t ) = − e L
R1 R1 ( R1 + R2 )

V ⎛ − 1t ⎞
R
R2
= ⎜ 1 − e L
⎟ for t > 0
R1 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠

Example 10.25 In the network of Fig. 10.83, a steady state is reached with the switch K open. At
t 0, the switch K is closed. Find the current i(t ) for t 0.

30 Ω 20 Ω

20 V K
1 H
2
10 V
i(t)

Fig. 10.83

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.84. 30 Ω 20 Ω

At t = 0 − , the network has attained steady-state condition.
Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit 20 V

20 + 10
i( )= = 0.6 A 10 V i( 0−)
30 + 20
Since the current through the inductor cannot change
instantaneously, Fig. 10.84
+
i( ) 0.6 A

di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
P Q = 20
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
i( t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −40 t ∫ 0 e 40 t ddt + k e −40 t

20
= + k e −40 t
40
= 0..5 + k e −40 t
At t = 0, i( ) 0.6 A
0.6 = 0.5 + k
k=01

i(( ) = 0.5 + 0.1 e −40t

40
fo t > 0

Example 10.26 The network of Fig. 10.86 is under steady state with switch at the position 1. At
t = 0, switch is moved to position 2. Find i (t).

1 40 Ω

2
50 V 10 V 20 mH
i(t )

Fig. 10.86
40 Ω
−
Solution At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 10.87.
At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition. 50 V
Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit.
i( 0−)
50
i( )= = 1.25 A
40
Fig. 10.87
Since current through the inductor cannot change
instantaneously,
+
i( ) 1.25 A
40 Ω
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.88.
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
di 10 V 20 mH 1.25 A
10 − 40i − 20 × 10 −3 =0
dt i(t)
di
+ 2000i = 500
dt Fig. 10.88
10.34 Network Analysis and Synthesis

di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
P Q = 500
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
i( t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −2000 t ∫ 500 e 2000 t + k e −2000 t

500
= + k e −2000 t
2000
= 0 25 + k e −2000 t
At t = 0, i( ) 1.25 A
1.25 0.25 + k
k =1
i(( ) = 0 25 2000 t
f 0

Example 10.27 In the network of Fig. 10.89, the switch is moved from 1 to 2 at t = 0. Determine i(t).

5Ω
2

20 V 2Ω 0.5 H
i(t)
40 V

Fig. 10.89

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.90.

5Ω
At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence,
the inductor acts as a short circuit. 20 V i( 0−)
20
i( )= =4A
5
Fig. 10.90
Since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
+
i( ) 4A

di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
P Q = 80
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
i( t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −4tt ∫ 80 e 4 t ddt + k e −4 t
80
= + k e −4 t
4
= 20 + k e −4 t
At t 0, i(0) = 4 A
4 = 20 + k
k = −16
i(t ) = 20 − 16 e −4t
4
fo t > 0

Example 10.28 For the network shown in Fig. 10.92, steady state is reached with the switch closed.
The switch is opened at t = 0. Obtain expressions for iL (t) and vL (t).

100 Ω iL(t)

15 V 3000 Ω 90 mH vL(t)

Fig. 10.92

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.93. 100 Ω

At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence, the
inductor acts as a short circuit.
15 V
15 i L ( 0−)
iL ( )= = 0.15 A
100
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously, Fig. 10.93
iL (0 ) = 0.15 A
+

di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
P = 33.33 × 103
The solution of this differential equation is given by,

iL (t ) = k e − Pt

iL (t ) = k e −33.33×10
3
t

At t = 0, iL ( ) 0.15 A
0 15 = k
33 33×103 t
iL ( ) = 0 15 f 0
diiL
Also, vL (t ) = L
dt
d
= 90 × 10 −3 (0.15 e −33 33×10 t )
3

dt
= −90 × 10 −3 × 0.15 × 33.33 × 103 × e −33.33×10
3
t

= −450 e −33.33×10
3
t
for t > 0

Example 10.29 In the network of Fig. 10.95, the switch is open for a long time and it closes at
t = 0. Find i (t).
10 Ω 10 Ω

50 V 0.1 H
10 Ω i(t)

Fig. 10.95
10 Ω 10 Ω

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.96.

At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition.
Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit. 50 V
i( 0−)
50
i( )= = 2.5 A
10 + 10 Fig. 10.96
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i (0+) = 2.5 A
10 Ω 10 Ω
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.97.
For t > 0, representing the network to the left of
the inductor by Thevenin’s equivalent network,
50 V 10 Ω 0.1 H 2.5 A
10
Veq = 50 × = 25 V i(t)
10 + 10
Req = (10 10) + 10 = 15 Ω
Fig. 10.97
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.37

For t > 0, Thevenin’s equivalent network is shown in Fig. 10.98.

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, 15 Ω
di
25 − 15i − 0 1 =0
dt
25 V 0.1 H 2.5 A
di
+ 150i = 250 i(t)
dt
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q, Fig. 10.98
dt
P Q = 250

The solution of this differential equation is given by,

i( t ) = e Pt
∫Q e
Pt
ddt k e − Pt

= e −150 t ∫ 50 e150 t ddt + k e − Pt

250
= + k e −150 t
150
= 1.667 + k e −150 t
At t = 0, i( ) 2.5 A

2.5 = 1.667 + k
k = 0.833

.667 + 0.833 e −150t

i(( ) = 1.667 150
for t > 0

Example 10.30 In Fig. 10.99, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find i (t) for t > 0.

2Ω

10 A 1Ω 2Ω 1H
i (t)

Fig. 10.99

Solution At t = 0–, i( ) 0

Since current through inductor cannot change instantaneously,

+
i( ) 0
10.38 Network Analysis and Synthesis
For t > 0, simplifying the network by source-transformation technique as shown in Fig. 10.100.
2Ω 2Ω

10 A 1Ω 2Ω 1H 10 A 0.67 Ω 1H
i (t) i (t)

(a) (b)
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, 2.67 Ω

di
6.67 2.67i − 1 0
dt 6.67 V 1H
di
+ 2.67 6.67 i (t)
dt
(c)
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt Fig. 10.100
P = 2.67, Q = 6.67
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
i( t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −2.67t ∫ 6.67 e 2.67t ddt + k e −2.67t

6 67
= + k e −2 67t
2 67
= 2 5 + k e −2 67t
At t = 0, i (0) = 0
0 2.5 + k
k = −2 5
i(( ) = 2.5 − 2.5 e −2 67t
= 2.5(1 2 67 t
) f 0

Example 10.31 Find the current i (t) for t > 0.

60 Ω

25 A 140 Ω 20 Ω 0.3 H
i (t)

Fig. 10.101
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.39

Solution At t = 0–, the inductor acts as a short circuit. Simplifying the network as shown in Fig. 10.102.
60 Ω

25 A 140 Ω 20 Ω 25 A 140 Ω 60 Ω
i (0−) −
i (0 )

(a) (b)

Fig. 10.102

140
i( ) 25 ×
25 = 17.5 A
140 + 60
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
+
i( ) 17.5 A
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.103.
60 Ω

25 A 140 Ω 20 Ω 0.3 H 17.5 A

i (t)

Fig. 10.103

Simplifying the network by source transformation as shown in Fig. 10.104,

60 Ω 20 Ω 0.3 H 17.5 A 15 Ω 0.3 H 17.5 A

i (t) i (t)

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.104

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

di
−15i − 0 3 =0
dt
di
+ 50i = 0
dt
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
P = 50
10.40 Network Analysis and Synthesis
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
i(t ) = k e − Pt = k e −50 t
At t = 0, i (0) = 17.5 A
k = 17.5
i(t ) = 17.5 e −50
50 t
f t>0

Example 10.32 In the network of Fig. 10.105, the switch is in position ‘a’ for a long time. At t = 0,
the switch is moved from a to b. Find v2 (t). Assume that the initial current in the 2 H inductor is zero.
1Ω a b
+

1V 1 Ω v2(t)
2H
1H 2

Fig. 10.105
Solution At t = 0–, the switch is in the position a. The network has attained steady-state condition. Hence,
the inductor acts as a short circuit.
Current through the 1 H inductor is given by
1
( ) = =1A
1
v2 ( ) 0
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
+
i( ) 1A
+ 1
v2 ( ) 1× = −0.5 V
2
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.106.
+
Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,
1H 1A 1 Ω v2(t)
t t 2H
1 v 1 2
10∫ v2 dt + 1 + 2 + ∫ v2 d
1 2
dtt = 0 …(i)
−
0
2
Differentiating Eq. (i), Fig. 10.106
dv2 1
v2 + 2 + v2 = 0
dt 2
dv2 3
+ v2 = 0
dt 4
dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = 0,
dt
3
P=
4
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.41

The solution of this differential equation is given by,

3
− t
v2 (t ) = K e − Pt = k e 4

At t = 0, v2 (0) = –0.5 V
−0 5 = k e°
k = −0 5
3
− t
v2 ( ) = −0 5e 4 fo t > 0

Example 10.33 In the network shown in Fig. 10.107, a steady-state condition is achieved with
switch open. At t = 0 switch is closed. Find va (t).

10 Ω
+

3V 5Ω va(t)
0.5 H
−

Fig. 10.107

Solution At t = 0–, the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short
circuit.

iL ( ) 0
5
va ( ) 3× =1V
10 + 5
Since current through inductor cannot change instantaneously,
+
iL ( ) 0
+
va ( ) 1V

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.108.

Writing the KCL equation for t > 0, 10 Ω

t +
1 v v −3
∫
050
va dt + a + a
5 10
=0
3V 5Ω 0.5 H va(t)

−
Differentiating Eq. (i),

dva dv Fig. 10.108

2 a 0 .2 0.1 a 0
dt dt
dva 20
+ va = 0
dt 3
10.42 Network Analysis and Synthesis

dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = 0,
dt
20
P=
3
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
20
− t
va (t ) = k e − Pt = k e 3

At t = 0, va (0) = 1 V
1= k
20
− t
va ( t ) = e 3 fo t > 0

Example 10.34 In the network of Fig. 10.109, determine currents i1 (t) and i2 (t) when the switch
is closed at t = 0.

10 Ω

5Ω
100 V
i2(t) 5Ω
i1(t) 0.01 H

Fig. 10.109

Solution At t = 0–, i1 (0 ) i2 (0 ) = 0
At t = 0 ,
+

i1 (0 + ) 0
100
i2 (0 + ) = = 6 67 A
15

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.110. 10 Ω

Writing the KVL equations for t > 0,
di1 5Ω
100 −10
10( 1 + 2 ) − 5 1 0.01 =0 …(i) 100 V
dt i2(t) 5Ω
and 100 −10
10( 1 + 2 ) − 5 2 0 …(ii) i1(t) 0.01 H

From Eq. (ii),

100 − 10i1 Fig. 10.110
i2 =
15
Substituting in Eq. (i),
dii1
+ 833i1 = 3333
dt
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.43

di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
P Q = 3333
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
i1 (t ) = e ∫ Q e dt
Pt Pt
d ke

= e −833t ∫ 3333 e833t ddt + k e −833t

3333
= + k e −833t
833
= 4 + k e −833t

At t = 0, i1 (0) = 0
0 4+k
k = −4
i1 (t ) = 4 4 e −833t
= 4(1 − e −833t
833t
) fo t > 0
100 − 10i1
i2 (t ) =
15
−833t
100 − 10( 4 − 4 )
=
15
= 4 + 2.67 e −833t fo t > 0

Example 10.35 The switch in the network shown in Fig. 10.111 is closed at t = 0. Find v (t) for
all t > 0. Assume zero initial current in the inductor.

30 Ω

+
10 V − 10 Ω 0.2 H
i1(t)
i2(t)

Fig. 10.111

Solution At t = 0 − , i1 (0 ) 0
i2 (0 ) 0
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i2 (0 + ) 0
10
i1 (0 + ) = = 0 25 A
30 + 10
10.44 Network Analysis and Synthesis

= e −37
37.5t
5t
∫ 5 e ddt + k e
37.5t −37.5t

25
= + k e −37.5t
37.5
= 0.067 + k e −37.5t
At t 0, i2 (0) = 0
0 0.067 + k
k = −0.067
i2 ( ) = 0.067 − 0.067 e −37.5t
di
v2 ( ) = 0 2 2
dt
d
= 0.2 (0.067 − 0.067 e 37 5t
)
dt
5 e −37 5t
= 0 5e fo t > 0

Example 10.36 For the network shown in Fig. 10.113, ﬁnd the current i(t) when the switch is
changed from the position 1 to 2 at t = 0.
40 Ω 1 60 Ω

2
500 V 0.4 H
+
− 10i i(t)

Fig. 10.113
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.45

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.114. 40 Ω 60 Ω

At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state condition. Hence,
the inductor acts as a short circuit.
500 V
500
i( ) = =5A i( 0−)
40 + 60
Since current through the inductor cannot change
Fig. 10.114
instantaneously,
+
i( ) 5A
60 Ω
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.115.
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
di + 0.4 H 5A
10i 60i − 0 4 =0 10i −
dt i (t)
di
+ 125i
125i = 0
dt Fig. 10.115
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
P = 125
The solution of this differential equation is given by,

i(t ) = k e − Pt = k e −125t
At t 0, i(0) = 5 A
5=k
i( t ) = 5 125t
f 0

Example 10.37 For the network shown in Fig. 10.116, ﬁnd the current in the 20 W resistor when
the switch is opened at t 0.

i
30 Ω 20 Ω

50 V
+
i1(t) − 10i i2(t) 2H

Fig. 10.116
i (0 − )
−
Solution At t = 0 , the network is shown in Fig. 30 Ω 20 Ω
10.117.
At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state 50 V
+
condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit. i1(0 − ) − −
− 10i (0 ) i2(0 )
i(0−) = i2(0−)

Fig. 10.117
10.46 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Writing the KVL equations at t = 0 − ,

50 − 30( 1 2 ) − 10i2 = 0
30(( 2 − 1 ) 20
10i2 30 0i2 = 0
Solving these equations,
i1 (0 ) 3.33 A
i2 (0 ) 2.5 A
Since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i2 (0 + ) 2.5 A

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.118. i(t) = i2(t)

30 Ω
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, 20 Ω

di2 +
10i2 30i2 − 20i2 − 2 0
dt − 10i2 i2(t) 2H 2.5 A

di2
+ 20i
20i2 = 0
dt
Fig. 10.118
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
P = 20
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
i2 (t ) = k e − Pt = k e −20 t
At t 0, i2 (0) = 2.5 A
25=k
i2 ( ) = 2 5 e −20
20t
fo t > 0

Example 10.38 In the network of Fig. 10.119, an exponential voltage v(t) = 4 e −3t is applied at
t 0. Find the expression for current i(t). Assume zero current through inductor at t 0.

0.5 Ω

+
4e − 3t − 0.25 H
i(t)

Fig. 10.119

Solution At t = 0 − , i( ) 0
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
+
i( ) 0
10.3 Resistor-Inductor Circuit 10.47

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

3t di
4 0.5 0.25 =0
dt
di
+ 2i 16 e −3t
dt
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
P Q = 16 e −3t
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
i( t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −2tt ∫ 6 e 3t e 2t dt k e 2t

= 16 e −2t ∫ e t dt k e −2t
= −16 e 3t
ke 2t

At t 0, i(0) = 0
0 16 + k
k = 16
i(t ) = −16 e −33 +16
166 e 2t
fo t > 0

Example 10.39 For the network shown in Fig. 10.120, a sinusoidal voltage source
v = 150 sin(500t + θ ) volts is applied at a time when θ = 0. Find the expression for the current i(t).

50 Ω

150 sin(500t + q ) 0.2 H

i(t)

Fig. 10.120
Solution
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

di
150 sin(500t θ ) 50 0.2 =0
dt
di
+ 250i
250i 750 sin(500t + θ )
dt
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
P Q = 750 sin(500t + )
10.48 Network Analysis and Synthesis
The solution of this differential equation is given by,

i t =e e dt e Pt

=e e ke 250 t

⎡ e 250 t
= e −250 t ⎢ {250 sin(500t t+ + k e −250 t
⎣ ( 250) +
2 2

= + + + k e −250
Let Aco .
and A si .
sin = .6 . =1 8
A 1 342
12
and tan −1 = . °
06
it = °) sin t t )+ke 250 t

i = . sn ° +ke 250 t

At t i 0 =0

−63 43° + k
k =1 2
i = + ° +1 2 >0

Example 10.40 For the network shown in Fig. 10.121, ﬁnd the transient current when the switch is
moved from the position 1 to 2 at t 0 The network is in steady state with the switch in the position 1. The
voltage applied to the network is v = + 30 )V

2 200 Ω
150 cos(200t + 30 )
0.5 H

Fig. 10.121

The steady-state current passing through the network when the switch is in the position 1 is
i 0.67 cos( 200t + 3.43°) …(i)

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.123.

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, 200 Ω

di 0.5 H
−200 i − 0 5 =0 i(t)
dt
di
+ 400 i = 0
dt Fig. 10.123
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
P = 400
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
i(t ) = k e − pt
p
= k e −400 t ...(ii)
From Eqs (i) and (ii),
0.67 cos( 200 3.433 ) k e −400 t
0.67 c (3.43°) = k
At t = 0, k = 6 67
i(( ) = 0 67 400 t
f 0

10.4 RESISTOR–CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

Consider a series RC circuit as shown in Fig. 10.124. The switch R
is closed at time t = 0. The capacitor is initially uncharged.
Applying KVL to the circuit for t > 0, V C
1 i(t)
1
C ∫0
V Ri − i dt = 0
Fig. 10.124 Series RC circuit
Differentiating the above equation,
di i
0 0
dt C
di 1
+ i=0
dt RC

This is a linear differential equation of ﬁrst order. The variables may be separated to solve the equation.
di dt
=−
i RC
Integrating both the sides,
1
ln i = − t k
RC
10.50 Network Analysis and Synthesis
The constant k can be evaluated from initial condition. In the circuit shown, the switch is closed at t = 0. Since
the capacitor never allows sudden change in voltage, it will act as short circuit at t = 0+. Hence, current in the
V
circuit at t = 0+ is .
R
V
Setting i = at t = 0,
R
V
ln =k
R
1 V
ln i = −
t ln
RC R
V 1
ln i − l n = − t
R RC
i 1
ln =− t
⎛V ⎞ RC
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
R
1
i − t
= e RC
V
R
1
V − RC t
i= e fo t > 0
R
When the switch is closed, the response decays with time as shown i(t)
in Fig. 10.125(a).
The term RC is called time constant and is denoted by T. V
R
T = RC
After 5 time constants, the current drops to 99 per cent of its initial
value. t
O
The voltage across the resistor is
1 Fig. 10.125(a) Current response
V − t of series RC circuit
vR Ri R e RC
R
1
− t
= Ve RC for t > 0
v(t)
Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor is
V
t VC
1
vC = ∫ i dt
C0 VR
t
1 O
t
1 V − t

C ∫0 R
= e RC
Fig. 10.125(b) Voltage response
of series RC circuit
1
− t
= −Ve RC +k
10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.51

At t = 0, vC (0) = 0
k=V
⎛ −
1 ⎞
t
Hence, vC V ⎜1 − e RC
⎟ f t>0
⎝ ⎠

Example 10.41 The switch in the circuit of Fig. 10.126 is moved from the position 1 to 2 at t = 0. Find vC (t).

1 5 kΩ

2 +
100 V vC(t) 1 μF
50 V
−

Fig. 10.126
5 kΩ
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 10.127.
At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition.
Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit. v C ( 0−)
100 V
vC (0−) = 100 V
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously, Fig. 10.127
vC (0+) = 100 V
5 kΩ
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.128.
Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,
+
dv v + 50 vC(t) 1 μF
1 × 10 −6 C + C =0 50 V
dt 5000 −
dvC
+ 200 vC = 10 4
dt Fig. 10.128
dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = Q,
dt
P Q = 10 4
Solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
vC (t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −200 t ∫ 0 4 e 200 t ddt + k e −200 t

10 4
= + k e −200 t
200
= −50 + k e −200 t
10.52 Network Analysis and Synthesis
At t = 0, vC (0) = 100 V
1 5500 + k
k = 150
vC ( ) = −50 + 150 e −200 t for t > 0

Example 10.42 In the network shown in Fig. 10.129, the switch closes at t = 0. The capacitor is
initially uncharged. Find vC (t) and iC (t).
9 kΩ 4 kΩ iC(t)

+
10 V 1 kΩ vC(t) 3 μF
−

Fig. 10.129
Solution At t = 0−, the capacitor is uncharged. Hence, it acts as a short circuit.

vC ( ) 0
iC ( ) 0

At t = 0+, the network is shown in Fig. 10.130. iT (0 + ) 9 kΩ 4 kΩ iC (0 + )

Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously,
+ 10 V 1 kΩ v C ( 0+)
vC ( ) 0

+ ⎡ 10 ⎤ 10
At t = 0+, iT ( )=⎢ ⎥ = = 1.02 mA
⎣9 k ( ) ⎦ 9.8 k Fig. 10.130
1k
iC ( + ) 1.02 m × = 0.204 mA
1k+4 k

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.131. 9 kΩ 4 kΩ

For t > 0, representing the network to the left of the
capacitor by Thevenin’s equivalent network, +
10 V 1 kΩ vC(t) 3 μF
−
1k
Veq = 10 × =1V
9 k +1 k
Req = (9 k 1 k) + 4 k = 4.9 kΩ Fig. 10.131

For t > 0, Thevenin’s equivalent network is shown in Fig. 10.132. 4.9 kΩ

Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,
dvC v −1 3 μF
3 10 −6 + C =0 1V vC(t)
dt 4 9 × 103
dvC
+ 68.02 vC = 68.02
dt Fig. 10.132
10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.53

dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = Q,
dt
P Q = 68.02
The solution of this differential equation is given by,

vC (t ) = e Pt
∫Q e
Pt
ddt k e − Pt

= e −68.02t ∫ 68.0 e68.02t ddt + k e −68.02t

= 1 + k e −68.02 t
At t 0, vC (0) = 0

0 1+ k
k = −1

vC (t ) = 1 68 02 t
f 0
dvC
iC (t ) = C
dt
d
= 3 10 −6 ( e 68 02 t
)
dt
= 3 10 6
68.02
02e 68.02 t

= 204.06 × 10 −66 e 68.02 t

foor t > 0

Example 10.43 For the network shown in Fig. 10.133, the switch is open for a long time and closes
at t = 0. Determine vC (t).

100 Ω

+
1200 V vC(t) 50 μF
300 Ω −

Fig. 10.133

Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 10.134.

At t = 0–, the network has attained steady-state condition. 100 Ω
Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
vC (0−) = 1200 V 1200 V v C ( 0−)
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously,
vC (0+) = 1200 V Fig. 10.134
10.54 Network Analysis and Synthesis

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.135. 100 Ω

Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,
+
−6 dvC vC vC − 1200 1200 V 300 Ω vC (t) 50 μF
50 × 10 + + =0
dt 300 100 −
dvC
67 vC = 0.24 106
+ 266.67
dt Fig. 10.135
dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = Q,
dt
P Q = 0 24 × 106
The solution of this differential equation is given by,

vC (t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt
Pt Pt
k e − Pt

= e −266.67t ∫ 0. 06 e 266.67t ddt + k e −266 67t

0 24 × 106
= + k e −266.67 t
266.67
= 900 + k e −266.67 t
At t 0, vC (0) = 1200 V
1200 = 900 + k
k = 300
vC (t ) = 900 + 300 e −266 67 t for t > 0

Example 10.44 In Fig. 10.136, the switch is closed at t = 0 Find vC (t) for t > 0.

100 Ω

+
5V 2Ω 1F vC(t)
−

Fig. 10.136

Solution At t = 0−, vC (0−) = 0

Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
vC (0+) = 0
Since the resistor of 2 Ω is connected in parallel with the 100 Ω
voltage source of 5 V, it becomes redundant.
For t > 0, the network is as shown in Fig. 10.137. 5V 1F vC (t)
Writing KCL equation for t > 0,
vC dv
+1 C = 0 Fig. 10.137
100 dt
dv
100 C + vC = 5
dt
10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.55

dvC
+ 0.01vC = 0.05
dt

dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = Q,
dt
P Q = 0.05
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
vC (t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −0.01 ∫ 0.05 e 0.01t ddt + k e 0.01t

0 05
= + k e −0 01t
0 01
= 5 + k e −0 01t
At t 0, vC (0) = 0
0 5+ k
k = −5
vC (t ) = 5 5 e −0 01t
= 5(1 − e −0 01t ) for t > 0

Example 10.45 In the network shown, the switch is shifted to position b at t = 0. Find v (t) for t > 0.

1 F
a 4

b
5V +
2Ω v (t)
2Ω
−

Fig. 10.138
vC( 0−)
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 10.139.
At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition. +
Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit. 5V 2Ω v( 0−)
−
vC (0−) = 5 V
v (0−) = 0
Fig. 10.139
At t = 0+, the network is shown in Fig. 10.140. 5V
At t = 0+, the capacitor acts as a voltage source of 5 V.
5 +
+
i( )=− = −1.25 A 2Ω 2Ω v( 0+)
4 −
+ i( 0+)
v( ) 1.25 × 2 2.5 V

Fig. 10.140
10.56 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 10.46 In the network of Fig. 10.142, the switch is open for a long time and at t = 0, it is
closed. Determine v2 (t).
0.25 Ω
+

6V 1 Ω v2(t )
0.3 F
2

Fig. 10.142

Solution At t = 0−, the switch is open. 0.25 Ω

v2 (0−) = 0 +
Since voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously, 1 Ω
6V 0.3 F v2(t )
2
v2 (0 ) = 0
+

−
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.143.
Writing KCL equation for t > 0, Fig 10.143

v2 dv v −6
+0 3 2 + 2 =0
1 dt 0 25
2
10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.57

dv2
+ 20 v2 = 80
dt

dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = Q,
dt
P Q = 80
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
v(t ) = e ∫ Q e dt
Pt Pt
d ke

= e −20 t ∫ 80 e 20 t ddt + k e −20 t

80
= + k e −20 t
20
v2 t = 4 + k e −20 t
At t 0, v2 (0) = 0

0 4+k
k = −4
v2 (t ) = 4 4 e −20 t
= 4(1 − e −20t
20 t
) for t > 0.

Example 10.47 The switch is moved from the position a to b at t = 0, having been in the position a
for a long time before t = 0. The capacitor C2 is uncharged at t = 0. Find i (t) and v2 (t) for t > 0.

R R1
a b
+

V0 C2 v2 (t)
C1
i(t )
−

Fig. 10.144

Solution At t = 0–, the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence, the capacitor C1 acts as an open
circuit and it will charge to V0 volt.
vC (0−) = V0
1

vC (0−) = 0
2

Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,

vC1 (0 + ) V0
vC2 (0 + ) 0
V0
i( 0 + ) =
R1
10.58 Network Analysis and Synthesis

i di i
− − R1 − =0 Fig. 10.145
C1 dt C2
di 1 ⎛ C1 + C2 ⎞
+ i=0
dt R1 ⎜⎝ C1 C2 ⎟⎠
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
1 ⎛ C1 C2 ⎞
P=
R1 ⎜⎝ C1 C2 ⎟⎠
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
1 ⎛ C1 C2 ⎞
− t
− Pt R1 ⎝⎜ C1 C2 ⎠⎟
i( t ) = k e = ke

V0
At t 0, i(0) =
R1
V0
k=
R1
1 ⎛ C1 C2 ⎞
V − ⎜ C1 C2 ⎟⎠
t
i(t ) = 0 e R1 ⎝
R1
1
V − t C1C2
= 0 e RC where, C =
R1 C1 + C2
t
1
C2 ∫0
v2 ( t ) = i dt

t t
1 V0 − R1C
C2 ∫0 R1
= e dt

V0 ⎛ −
1 ⎞
t
= R1C ⎜1 − e R1C
⎟
R1C2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠

VC ⎛ −
t ⎞
t
= 0 1 ⎜1 − e R1C
⎟ for t > 0
C1 + C2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.59

Example 10.48 For the network shown in Fig.10.146, the switch is opened at t = 0. Find v (t) for
t > 0.
+
K
1
10 A 1Ω F v (t)
2
1
Ω
2
−

Fig. 10.146

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. +

10.147.
At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state condition. 10 A
1
Ω 1Ω v C (0 − ) v(0 − )
Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit. 2

vC(0−) = 0
−

Writing the KCL equation at t = 0 − ,

Fig. 10.147
v( ) v( )
+ = 10
1 1
2
3v(( ) = 10
v( ) 3.33 V
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
+ +
vC ( ) v(
v( ) = 3.33 V
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.148. +
Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,
+ 1
1 dv v 10 A 1Ω F v (t)
+ = 10 − 2
2 dt 1
dv −
+ 2v 20
dt
Fig. 10.148
dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = Q,
dt
P Q = 20
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
v(t ) = e ∫ Q e dt
Pt Pt
d ke

= e −2tt ∫ 0 e 2t dt + k e −2t
20
= + k e −2t
2
= 10 + k e −2t
10.60 Network Analysis and Synthesis

At t 0, v(0) = 3.33 V
3 33 10 + k
k = 6 67
v(( ) = 10 + 6 67 e −2t

Example 10.49 For the network shown in Fig. 10.149, ﬁnd the current i(t) when the switch is
opened at t 0.

10 Ω
i(t)

+
5i
100 V −
10 Ω

4 μF

Fig. 10.149
10 Ω
Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.150.
i( 0−)
At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state condition.
Hence, the capacitor acts as open circuit. +
5i( 0−)
−
100 V 10 Ω
100
i( )= =5A
10 + 10
v C ( 0−)
vC ( ) 100
00 10
0ii(( ) 5i(
i( ) = 100 − 10( ) 5( ) = 25 V
Fig. 10.150
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.151.
v c ( 0+) = 2 5 V
− +
25 + 5 (0
(0 ) −10
10
0i ( 0 ) 0 i( 0+)
i( 0 + ) 5A +
5i( 0+)
−
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.152. 10 Ω
t 25 V
1
25 −
4 10 −6
∫ i dt + 5 10 0 …(i)
0
Fig. 10.151
Differentiating Eq. (i),
di di i(t )
0 0.25 × 106 i + 5 10 0 +
5i
dt dt −
di 10 Ω
+ 50000 i = 0 4 μF
dt
25 V
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt Fig. 10.152
P = 50000
10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.61

The solution of this differential equation is given by,

i(t ) = k e − Pt = k e −50000 t
At t 0, i(0) = 5 A
5=k
i( t ) = 5 50000 t
f 0

Example 10.50 For the network shown in Fig. 10.153, ﬁnd the current i(t) when the switch is
opened at t 0.

10 Ω
i(t)
20 Ω 10 Ω
100 V
+
20i 2 μF
−

Fig. 10.153

10 Ω
Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig.
i(0 −)
10.154. At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state
condition. Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit. 20 Ω 10 Ω
Writing the KVL equation at t = 0 − , 100 V
+ +
10 i(0 ) 20 (0 − ) − 20 i(0 )
100 −10 0 −
20i (0−) vc (0 −)
−
i( 0 ) 2A
Also, 20 i(0 ) 20 (0 ) − 0 C (0 )=0 Fig. 10.154

vC ( ) 40 i(( ) = 40( ) 80 V

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.155. i(0 +)

+ + 10 Ω
From Fig. 10.155, i( ) i2 ( ) 20 Ω

20 i(0 + ) 20 0 + ) 10 i2 (0 + ) 80
0 2 ((0 0 +
20i(0 +)
80 V
− i 2 (0 +)
(0 + ) 20
20 i(0 0 + ) + 10 i(0 + ) 80
0 ((0 0
+
i( ) 1.6 A Fig. 10.155
+
vC ( ) 80 V
i(t)
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.156. 10 Ω
20 Ω
From Fig. 10.156, i(t ) = −i2 (t )
2 μF
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, +
20i
t − i 2 (t) 80 V
1
20i 20i2 10i2
2 10 −6
∫ i2 dt − 80 = 0
0 Fig. 10.156
10.62 Network Analysis and Synthesis
t
1
20i 20i2 + 10i2
2 10 −6
∫ i dt − 80 = 0
0
1
50i
2 10 −6
∫ i dt − 80 = 0 …(i)
Differentiating Eq. (i),
di
50 + 5 105 0
dt
di
+ 1 × 10 4 0
dt
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
P = 1 × 10 4
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
i(t ) = k e − Pt = k e −1×10
4
t

At t 0, i(0) = 1.6 A
16=k
i(( ) = 1 6 e −11 10 4 t
fo t > 0

Example 10.51 In the network of Fig. 10.157, an exponential voltage 4 e −5t is applied at time
t 0. Find the expression for current i(t). Assume zero voltage across the capacitor at t 0.

0.2 Ω

+
4e −5t − 1F
i(t)

Fig. 10.157

Solution At t = 0 − , vC ( ) 0
i( ) 0
At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.158. 0.2 Ω
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
+
vC ( )
0 +
4
− v c (0 + )
4 i(0 + )
i( + ) = = 20 A
0.2
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, Fig. 10.158
t
1
1 ∫0
5t
4 0.2i − i dt = 0 …(i)
10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.63

Differentiating Eq. (i),

di
−20 e −5t − 0 2 −i = 0
dt
di
100 e −5t
+ 5i = −100
dt
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
P Q = −100 e −5t
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
i( t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −5tt ∫ 00 e 5t e5t dt ke 5t

= −100t e −5t + k e −5t

At t 0, i(0) = 20 A
20 = k
i(t ) = −100 t e −55 + 200 e 5t
5
fo t > 0

Example 10.52 In the network shown in Fig. 10.159, the switch is closed at t 0 connecting a
−t
source e to the network. At t 00, v (0) = 0.5 V. Determine v(t).
1Ω
+

Ω 0.5 V+
1
+ 1F v (t )
e −t −
2 −
−

Fig. 10.159

Solution At t = 0 − , v( ) vC ( ) = 0.5 V
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
+ +
v( ) vC ( ) = 0.5 V
Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,
v e−t v dv
+ +1 = 0
1 1 dt
2
dv
+ 3v = e − t
dt
dv
Comparing with the differential equation + Pv = Q,
dt
P Q = e−t
10.64 Network Analysis and Synthesis
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
v(t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −3tt ∫ e t e3t dt k e 3t

= e −3t ∫ e 2t dt + k e −3t
1 −t
= e + k e −3t
2

At t 0, v(0) = 0.5 V
1
05= +k
2
k=0
v(( ) = 0 5 e − t

Example 10.53 In the network shown in Fig. 10.160, a sinusoidal voltage v = 100 sin(500t + θ )
volts is applied to the circuit at a time corresponding to θ = 45°. Obtain the expression for the current i(t).

15 Ω

100 sin (500t + 45° ) 100 μF

i(t)

Fig. 10.160
Solution
Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
t
1
5°) 15i −
100 sin(500t 45
100 × 10 −6
∫ i dt = 0 …(i)
0

Differentiating Eq. (i),

di
( )( ) cos(500t + 45°) − 15 − 10 4 i = 0
dt
di
+ 666.67i
67i = 3333.33 cos
o( )
dt
di
Comparing with the differential equation + Pi = Q,
dt
P Q = 3333.33 cos(500t + 5°)
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
− Pt
i( t ) = e ∫ Q e ddt k e
Pt Pt

= e −666 67t ∫ 3333.33 cos( t ) e666.67t + k e 666.67 t

10.4 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 10.65

⎡ e666.67t ⎤
= 3333.33 e −666.67t ⎢ {666.67 cos(500t + 45°) + 500 sin(500 + 455°)}⎥ + k e −666.67t
⎣ (666.67) + (500)
2 2
⎦
= 3.2 cos(500 + 45°) + 2.4 sin(500t 455 ) k e −666.67t
Let Asin φ 3.2
and A cos φ 2.4
2
A si 2
φ 2
cos φ = ( .2) 2
A cos 2
( . ) 2 = 16
(2
A=4
⎛ 3.2 ⎞
and φ = tan −1 ⎜ = 53.13°
⎝ 2.4 ⎟⎠
i(t ) = 4 sin(
i (53.. ) cos(500t 5°) ccos(( . 3°) si ( t ) + k e −666.67t
= 4 sin(500t 98. 3 ) k e −666.67t
Putting t = 0, in Eq. (i),
100 sin( 45°)) 15 (0) 0 = 0
i(0) 4.71
4.71 = 4 sin(98
in((98.13°) + k
k = 0 75
i(t
(t ) si ( t .13°)) .75 e −666 67t f t>0

Example 10.54 In the network of Fig. 10.161, the switch is moved from the position 1 to 2 at t 0.
The switch is in the position 1 for a long time. Initial charge on the capacitor is 7 10 −4 coulombs. Deter-
mine the current expression i(t), when ω = 1000 rad / s.

2 50 Ω
100 sin (wt + 30°)
50 Ω
20 μF
i(t)

Fig. 10.161

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.162.

At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state condition. 50 Ω

V 100 ∠30° 100 sin (wt + 30° )

I= = = 1.41 ∠75° A i(∞) 20 μF
Z 1
50 − j
1000 × 20 × 10 −6
The steady-state current passing through the network when Fig. 10.162
the switch is in the position 1 is
i 1.41si (1000t + 75°) …(i)
10.66 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Differentiating Eq. (ii), Fig. 10.163

di di 1
−50 − 50 − i=0
dt dt 20 × 10 −6
di
+ 500i = 0
dt
di
Comparing with differential equation + Pi = 0,
dt
P = 500
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
i(t ) = k e − Pt = k e −500 t …(iii)
From Eqs (i) and (ii),
1.41 sin(1000 75 ) k e −500 t
At t = 0, 1.41si (75 ) = k
k = 1 36
i(( ) = 1 36 500 t
f 0

10.5 RESISTOR–INDUCTOR–CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

Consider a series RLC circuit as shown in Fig. 10.164. The R
switch is closed at time t = 0. The capacitor and inductor are
initially uncharged. L
Applying KVL to the circuit for t > 0, V
t i(t) C
di 1
V Ri L − ∫ i dt = 0
dt C 0
Fig. 10.164 Series RLC circuit
Differentiating the above equation,

di d 2i 1
0−R −L 2 − i = 0
dt dt C
d 2i R di 1
+ + i=0
dt 2 L dt LC
This is a second-order differential equation. The auxiliary equation or characteristic equation will be given by,

⎛ R⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
s2 + ⎜ ⎟ s + ⎜ =0
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ LC ⎟⎠
10.5 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 10.67

Let s1 and s2 be the roots of the equation.

2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
s1 = − + ⎜ ⎟ − = −α + α 2 − ω 02 = −α + β
2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
s2 = − − ⎜ ⎟ − = −α − α 2 − ω 02 = −α − β
2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
R
where α=
2L
1
ω0 =
LC
and β α 2 − ω 02
The solution of the above second-order differential equation will be given by,
i(t ) = k1e s t + k2 e s2t
where k1 and k2 are constants to be determined and s1 and s2 are the roots of the equation.
Now depending upon the values of a and w0, we have 3 cases of the response.
Case I When a > w0
R 1
>
i.e., 2L LC i(t)

The roots are real and unequal and it gives an overdamped

response.
In this case, the solution is given by,
i = e–a t (k1 eb t + k2 e–b t) t

or i k1 e s t k2 e s2t for t > 0 Fig. 10.165 Overdamped

The current curve for an overdamped case is shown in Fig. 10.165. response
i(t )
Case II When a = w0
R 1
i.e., =
2L LC
The roots are real and equal and it gives a critically damped t
response.
In this case the solution is given by, Fig. 10.166 Critically damped
response
i e −α t ( k k t ) for t > 0

The current curve for critically damped case is shown in Fig. 10.166.

Case III When a < w0

R 1
i.e., <
2L LC
The roots are complex conjugate and it gives an underdamped response.
10.68 Network Analysis and Synthesis
In this case, the solution is given by,
it
2
where s1 2 0

2 2
Let = − = j d

where j 1
2
and − 2

Hence, i t =e d

−
⎤
⎥+ − )
2 2
−
− for t > 0

The current curve for an underdamped case is shown in Fig. 10.167.

i t)

Fig. 10.167 Underdamped response

Example 10.55 In the network of Fig. 10.168, the switch is closed at t 0 Obtain the expression
for current i t for t >
9Ω 1H

0.05 F
20 V
t)

Fig. 10.168

Solution At t = 0 − , the switch is open.

i ) 0
vC ) 0
Since current through the inductor and voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
i ) 0
vC ) 0
10.5 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 10.69

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.169. 9Ω 1H

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

t 20 V 0.05 F
di 1
dt 0 05 ∫0
i(t )
20 − 9 1 − i dt = 0 …(i)

Differentiating Eq. (i), Fig. 10.169

di d 2 i
0 9 − − 20i = 0
dt dt 2
d 2i di
2
+9 20 0
dt dt
2
( )
)i 0
D1 4, D2 5
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
i(t ) = k1 e −4 t + k2 e 5t
…(ii)
Differentiating Eq. (ii),
di
= −4 k1 e −4 t − 5k2 e 5t
…(iii)
dt
At t 0, i(0) = 0

0 = k1 + k2 …(iv)
di
( ) 4 k1 5k2 …(v)
dt
Putting t = 0 in Eq. (i),

di +
20 − 9 (0 + ) − (0 ) 0 = 0
dt
di +
(0 ) 20 9i(0 + ) 20 A / s
dt
From Eq. (v),
20 = −4 k1 5k2 …(vi)
Solving Eqs (iv) and (vi),
k1 = 20
k2 = 20

i(t ) = 20 e −4t
4t
0e 5t
for t > 0

Example 10.56 In the network shown in Fig. 10.170, the switch is moved from the position 1 to 2
at t 0. The switch is in the position 1 for a long time. Determine the expression for the current i(t ).
10.70 Network Analysis and Synthesis
10 Ω 2H
1
2
20 V 3F
50 V i(t )

Fig. 10.170

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in 10 Ω

Fig. 10.171.
At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state
condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit vC (0−)
20 V
and the capacitor acts as an open circuit. i(0 −)

vC ( ) 20 V
i( ) 0 Fig. 10.171
Since the current through the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instaneously,
+
vC ( ) 20 V
+
i( ) 0

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.172. 10 Ω 2H

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
t
di 1 3F
dt 3 ∫0
20 − 10i − 2 − i dt − 20 = 0 …(i) 20 V
i(t) 20 V

Differentiating Eq. (i),

di d 2i1 Fig. 10.172
0 10 2 2
− i−0 0
dt dt 3
d 2i di 1
+5
+ i=0
dt 2 dt 6
⎛ 2 1⎞
⎜⎝ D + 5 D + ⎟⎠ i = 0
6
D1 0 03 2 4.97
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
i(t ) = k1 e −0.03
03t
+ k2 e 4.97 t
…(ii)
Differentiating Eq. (ii),
di
= −0.03k1 e −0 03t − 4.97k2 e 4.97 t
…(iii)
dt
At t 0, i(0) = 0
0 = k1 + k2 …(iv)
di
( ) 0.03 k1 .97 k2 …(v)
dt
10.5 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 10.71

Putting t = 0 in Eq. (i),

di +
10 i(0 + ) 2
20 −10 (0 ) 0 = 0
dt
di + 20 − 10 i(0 + )
(0 ) = = 10 A / s
dt 2
From Eq. (v),
10 = −0.03
03 k1 4 97 k2 …(vi)
Solving Eqs (iv) and (vi),
k1 = 2 02
k2 = 2 02
i(t ) = 2.02 e 0 03t
03t
.0 e 4.97 t
for t > 0

Example 10.57 In the network of Fig. 10.173, the switch is closed and a steady state is reached in
the network. At t 0, the switch is opened. Find the expression for the current i (t) in the inductor.
10 Ω
i2(t)

100 V 1H 10 μF

Fig. 10.173

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in 10 Ω

Fig. 10.174.
At t = 0 − , the network attains steady-state i2 (0 −)
condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit 100 V vC (0 −)
and the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
100
i2 (0 ) = = 10 A
10 Fig. 10.174
vC (0 ) 0

Since current through the inductor and voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously,

i2 (0 + ) 10 A

vC (0 + ) 0

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.175. i2(t)

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,
1H 10 μF
10 A
t
di 1
dt 10 × 10 −6 ∫0
−1 2 − i dt = 0 …(i)

Fig. 10.175
10.72 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Differentiating Eq. (i),
d 2 i2
− 2
− 105 i = 0
dt
d 2 i2
2
+ 105 i = 0
dt
( D 2 + 05 )i = 0
D = j 316 D = − j 316
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
i2 (t ) = k1 cos 3 6t + k2 s 3 6t …(ii)
Differentiating Eq. (ii),
dii2
= −316 k1 t + 316 k2 cos 3 6t …(iii)
dt
At t 0, i2 (0) = 10 A
10 = k1 …(iv)
dii2
(0) = 316 k2 …(v)
dt
Putting t = 0 in Eq. (i),

di +
− ( )−0 = 0
dt
di +
( )=0
dt
From Eq. (v),
0 = 316 k2
k2 = 0
i2 (t ) = 10 cos 316
316t fo t > 0

Example 10.58 In the network of Fig. 10.176, capacitor C has an initial voltage vc (0 ) of
10 V and at the same instant, current in the inductor L is zero. The switch is closed at time t 0.
Obtain the expression for the voltage v(t ) across the inductor L.

v (t)

+ 1Ω 1
1F H
10 V 4 2
−

Fig. 10.176

Solution At t = 0 − , iL ( ) 0
v( ) vC ( ) = 10 V
10.5 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 10.73

Since current through the inductor and voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
+
iL ( ) 0
+ +
v( ) vC ( ) = 10 V
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.177. v (t )
Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,

dv v 1
t + 1Ω 1
H
dt 1 1 ∫0
1 + + v dt = 0 …(i) 10 V
−
1F 4 2

4 2
Differentiating Eq. (i), Fig. 10.177
d 2v dv
2
+4 + 2v = 0
dt dt
(D2 4 D 2)v = 0
4D
D1 1 D2 3
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
v(t ) = k1 e −tt + k2 e 3t
…(ii)
Differentiating Eq. (iii),
dv
= − k1 e −tt − 3 k2 e 3t
…(iii)
dt
At t 0, v(0) = 10 V
10 = k1 + k2 …(iv)
dv
( ) k1 3 k2 …(v)
dt
Putting t = 0 in Eq. (i),

dv +
( v( ) 0 = 0
) 4 v(
dt
dv +
( ) 40 V / s
dt
From Eq. (v),
−40 = − k1 − 3 k2 …(vi)
Solving Eqs (iv) and (vi),
k1 = −5
k2 = 15
v(t ) = −5 e t
15 e 3t
f t 0

Example 10.59 In the network of Fig. 10.178, the switch is opened at t 0 obtain the expression
for v(t ). Assume zero initial conditions.
10.74 Network Analysis and Synthesis
v (t )

2A 0.5 Ω 0.5 H 1F

Fig. 10.178

Solution At t = 0 − , iL ( ) 0
v( ) vC ( )=0
Since current through the inductor and voltage across the capacitor can not change instantaneously,
+
iL ( ) 0
+ +
v( ) vC ( )=0
For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.179.
v (t)
Writing the KCL equation for t > 0,
t
v 1 dv
+ ∫
0.5 0.5 0
vdt + 1
dt
2 …(i) 2A 0.5 Ω 0.5 H 1F

Differentiating Eq. (i),

dv d 2v Fig. 10.179
2 + 2v
2v + 2 = 0
dt dt
d 2v dv
2
+2 + 2v = 0
dt dt
(D2 2 D 2) v = 0
D 1 j1 D 1 j1
The solution of this differential equation is given by,
v(t ) = e t ( k cos
cos t k2 sin t ) … (ii)
Differentiating Eq. (ii),
dv
= −e t ( k cos
cos t k2 sin t ) e t ( −kk s t + k2 cos t )
dt
= e − t [ − k (cos
(cos t + si t ) + k (cos t − sin t )] …(iii)
At t = 0, v(0) = 0
0 = k1 …(iv)
dv
( ) = − k1 k2 …(v)
dt
Putting t = 0 in Eq. (i),
dv
2 ( 0) + 0 ( 0) = 2
dt
10.5 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 10.75

dv
( ) 2 V /s
dt
From Eq. (v),
2 = −k1 + k2 …(vi)
Solving Eq. (iv) and (vi),
k1 = 0
k2 = 2
v(t ) = 2 e t
i t f t 0
Example 10.60 The network shown in Fig. 10.180, a sinusoidal voltage v = 150 sin(200t + φ ) is
applied at φ = 30°. Determine the current i(t).

10 Ω 0.5 H

150 sin (200t + f) 200 μF

i(t )

Fig. 10.180

Solution Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

t
di 1
dt 200 × 10 −6 ∫0
150 sin( 200t 30°) 10 0.5 − i dt = 0 …(i)

Differentiating Eq. (i),

di d 2i
30000 cos( 200t + 30°) 10 0.5 − 5000i
5000i = 0
dt dt 2
d 2i di
+ 20 + 10000
0 i 60000 cos( 200t + 30°)
dt 2 dt
2
( )i 00t + 30°)
60000 cos( 200 …(ii)
The roots of the characteristic equation are
D 10 j 99 5 D 10 j 99 5
The complimentary function is
iC e −10 t ( K1 c 99 5t + K 2 i 99.5t )
Let the particular function be
iP A cos( 200t 30°) B sin( t+ °)
iP′ 00 A sin( 200t + 30°) + 200 B cos( 200t + 30°)
iP″ 0000 A cos( 200t 30°) i ( 200t + 30°)
B sin(200
10.76 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Substituting these values in Eq. (ii),
30° − 40000 B 200t + ° + −200 A 200t + 0° + 200 cos 200 + 30°
+ + 30 + B sin 200t + 30 60000 cos( 200t + °)

( B 4000 A − + + ) 200t + °)
= + 30°)
Equating the coefﬁcients,
B 4000 A + =0
+ 4000 + = 60000
Solving these equations,
A 1 97
B = 0 26
i t+ ° + + 30°
Let Asin . 7
and A cos . 6
cos = = 3.95
A = 1.987
−1 97
and = tan −1 = −82.48
0 26
i t + 30° + 1. cos( . °) sin( 200 + °)
t + 30° − 82 48 )
− 52 48°)
The solution of the differential equation is given by,
it e k . sin 9. t t 48 ) …(iii)
Differentiating Eq. (iii),
di
k 99 5t
dt
10 k1 os 99 n . t 1 ( ) t . )
At t 0
0 1 in( . °)
k1 1 58 …(iv)
di
−52. )
dt
= 1 5 ) 242.03
226.23 …(v)
10.5 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 10.77

Putting t = 0 in Eq. (i),

di
150 sin(30°)) 10(0) 0.5 ( 0) − 0 0
dt
di
(0) = 150 A / s
dt
From Eq. (v),
150 = 99.5 k2 + 226.23
k2 = −0 77
i(( ) = e −10 t (1
(1.58 s 99.5t − 0.77 si 99.5 ) .987 sin( 200t − 52.
.987 ) fo t > 0
Example 10.61 The switch in the network of Fig. 10.181 is opened at t = 0. Find i (t) for t > 0 if,
1
(a) L = H and C = 1 F (b) L = 1 H and C = 1 F (c) L = 5 H and C = 1 F
2
2Ω L i(t)
+

4V 2Ω C vC (t)

Fig. 10.181

Solution At t = 0–, the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short
circuit and the capacitor acts as an pen circuit.
2
vC ( ) 4× =2V
2 2
i( ) 0

Since current through the inductor and voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
+
vC ( ) 2V
+
i( ) 0
1
Case I When R = 2 Ω, L = H, C = 1 F
2
R 2
α= = =2
2L 1
2×
2
1 1 1
ω0 = = = = 1.414
LC 1 05
×1
2
α > ω0
10.78 Network Analysis and Synthesis
This indicates an overdamped case.
i(t ) = A1 e s1t − A2 e s2t

where, s1 = −α − α 2 − ω 02 = −2 4−2 2− 2 3.414

and s2 = −α + α 2 − ω 02 = −2 2 = −0.586
i(t ) = k1 e −3 414 t + k2 e 0.586 t

At t = 0, i (0) = 0
k1 k2 = 0 …(i)
Also vL(0+) + vC(0+) + vR(0+) = 0

+ + + + +
vL ( ) vR ( ) − vC ( ) 2i( ) vC ( ) = −2 V …(ii)
+ di +
vL ( ) L ( )
dt
di + vL ( + ) 2
( )= =− = −4 A / s
dt L 0.5
Differentiating the equation of i (t) and putting the condition at t = 0,
− 3.414 k1 − 0.586 k2 = −4 …(iii)
Solving Eqs (i) and (iii), we get
k1 = 1.414 and k2 = − 1.414

(t ) = 1. (e −3.414 t e 0.586 t
) for t > 0

Case II When R = 2 Ω, L = 1 H, C =1 F

R 2 2
α= = = =1
2L 2 × 1 2
1 1
ω0 = = =1
LC 1
α ω0

This indicates a critically damped case.

i(t) = e–a t (k1 + k2 t) = e–t (k1 + k2 t)
At t = 0, i(0) = 0

k1 = 0
di +
Also, vL (0 + ) L (0 )
dt
di + vL ( + ) 2
( )= = − = −2 A / s
dt L 1
Exercises 10.79

Differentiating the equation of i(t) and putting the condition at t = 0,

di
= − k1 k2 = −2
dt t =0
k2 = −2
i(t ) = −2t e − t f t>0
Case III When R = 2 Ω, L = 5 H, C = 1 F
R 2
α= = =02
2 L 10
1 1
ω0 = = = 0.447
LC 5
α < ω0
This indicates an underdamped case.
i (t) = e–a t (B1 cos wd t + B2 sin wd t)
where, ωd ω o2 − α 2 = (0.447) 2 − (0.2) 2 = 0 4
s, ± jω d = −0.2 ± j 0.4
i( t ) = e 0 2t
( B1 cos 0 4t
(B B2 sin 0.4t )
Applying the initial condition,
i(0+) = 0
di + vL ( + ) 2
and ( )=− =−
dt L 5
B1 i(0) 0
B2 = −1
i(t ) = −e −0 2t si 0.4t for t > 0

Exercises
10.1 The switch in Fig. 10.182 is moved from the 10.2 The switch K is closed at t = 0 in the
position a to b at t = 0, the network having been network shown in Fig. 10.183. Determine
in steady state in the position a. Determine di d 2i +
dii dii3 + i( + )), (0 + ) (0 ).
i1 (0 + ), i2 (0 + ), i3 (0 + ), 2 (0 + ) (0 ). dt ddt 2
dt dt
1Ω 1H 1Ω
a 1 Ω i1(t )
i2(t) i3(t )

b 1Ω 2Ω V0 1Ω 1F
10 V
i1(t) i(t)
2H 1F

Fig. 10.183
Fig. 10.182
⎡ 1 ⎤
[1.66 A, 5 A, −3.33 A, −3.33 A/s, 2.22 A/s] ⎢0, 2 V0 V0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
10.80 Network Analysis and Synthesis
10.3 In the network of Fig. 10.184, the switch K 10.6 The network shown in Fig. 10.187 is under
is closed at t = 0. At t = 0−, all capacitor steady-state when the switch is closed. At t =
voltages and inductor currents are zero. Find 0, it is opened. Obtain an expression for i (t).
dv dv dv3
v1 , 1 , v2 , 2 , v3 and at t = 0 + . 4 kΩ
ddt dt
d dt
i(t)
K
R1 V1 L1
V3 4A 10 kΩ 4 mH 8 kΩ

R2
+ C3
v (t)
− C1 Fig. 10.187
V2
.857 e −2 ×10 t ]
6
C2 R [ (t )

10.7 The switch in Fig. 10.188 is open for a long

Fig. 10.184
time and closes at t = 0. Determine i (t) for
⎡ 1 (0 + ) ⎤ t > 0.
⎢0, , 0, 0, 0, 0 ⎥
6Ω 3Ω
⎣ C R1 ⎦
i(t )
10.4 In the network at Fig. 10.185, the capacitor C1
is charged to voltage 1000 V and the switch K 240 V 30 Ω
2H
d 2 i2
is closed at t = 0. Find 2
at t = 0 + .
dt
Fig. 10.188
K
2 MΩ
[i(t) = 25(1 − e−4t)]

+ 10.8 In the network shown in Fig. 10.189, the steady

10 μF
−
1000 V 1 MΩ 10 μF state is reached with the switch open. At t = 0,
i1 i2 the switch is closed Find vC (t) for t > 0.

3 kΩ 5 kΩ
Fig. 10.185

⎡ 17 2⎤
⎢ 400000 A / s ⎥ +
⎣ ⎦ 2 kΩ vC (t) 5 μF
1 kΩ −
10.5 In the network shown in Fig. 10.186, switch is
6V
closed at t = 0. Obtain the current i2 (t).
10 Ω Fig. 10.189
[vC(t) = 5e−20t]
50 V 10 Ω 2 μF 10.9 The circuit shown in Fig. 10.190 has acquired
i1(t) i2(t) steady state before switching at t = 0.
(i) Obtain vC (0+), vC (0−), i (0+) and i (0−).
Fig. 10.186 (ii) Obtain time constant for t > 0.
[i2(t) = 5 e–100000t] (iii) Find current i (t) for t > 0.
Exercises 10.81

10.13 In Fig. 10.194, the switch is open until time

t = 100 seconds and is closed for all times
+ 10 kΩ thereafter. Find v (t) for all times greater than
i(t ) 100 if v (100) = −3 V.
vC (t) 2 μF
5 kΩ 5V
8Ω 12 Ω
+
−

Fig. 10.190 5V 6F 2F v( t)
−100 t
[(i) 5 V, 5 V, 1 mA, 0, (ii) 0.01 s, (iii) e mA]
−
10.10 In the network shown in Fig. 10.191, the
switch is initially at the position 1 for a long Fig. 10.194
time. At t = 0, the switch is changed to the
position 2. Find current i (t) for t > 0. ⎡ −
(t )⎤
⎢ v(t ) = 5 − 8e 160 ⎥
1 10 Ω ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

2 10.14 A series RL circuit shown in Fig. 10.195 has

20 V
a constant voltage V applied at t = 0. At what
20 Ω 1H
time does vR = vL.
i (t)

Fig. 10.191
vR 10 Ω
[i (t) = 2 e−30t]
10.11 In the network shown in Fig. 10.192, the 10 V
switch is closed at t = 0. Find v (t) for t > 0. vL 1H

+
Fig. 10.195
1 Ω 1 v (t ) [0.0693 s]
3A 1Ω H
2 3
10.15 In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.196, at time
− t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero
and the switch is moved to the position y. The
Fig. 10.192 switch is kept at position y for 20 seconds
[v(t) = e−t] and then moved to position z and kept in that
10.12 In the network shown in Fig. 10.193, the position thereafter. Find the voltage across the
switch is in the position 1 for a long time and capacitor at t = 30 seconds.
at t = 0, the switch is moved to the position . 10 kΩ y z
Find v (t) for t > 0.
1Ω 1 2 +
+ 10 V 5 kΩ
vC (t) 0.1 μF
−
1V 0.5 Ω 2 H v(t)
1H
Fig. 10.196
−
[0]
Fig. 10.193 10.16 Determine whether RLC series circuit shown
−3 t in Fig 10.197 is underdamped, overdamped or
[v (t) = −0.5 e 4]
10.82 Network Analysis and Synthesis

+ di + or critically damped. Also ﬁnd

critically damped. Also, ﬁnd vL ( )), (0 ) 2
dt di d v
and i (∞). vL ( + )), (0 + ), 2 ( + ) if v(t ) = u(t ).
dt dt
200 Ω 0.1 H
2Ω 1H
+ v (t) −
L + v (t) −
L
+ 10 μF +
200 u(t) + 1 F
− u(t) v(t)
i(t) − 2
−
i(t)

Fig. 10.197
Fig. 10.198
[critically damped, 200 V, 2000 A/s, 0]
10.17 Determine whether RLC circuit of Fig [underdamped 1 V, 1 A/s, 2 V/s2]
10.198 is underdamped, overdamped

Objective-Type Questions
10.1 The voltages vC1 vC2 and vC3 across the (a) eat − ebt (b) eat + ebt
capacitors in the circuit in Fig. 10.199 under (c) aedt − bebt (d) aeat + bebt
steady state are respectively
10.3 The differential equation for the current i(t) in
1H 2F 2H the circuit of Fig. 10.201 is
10 kΩ 2 kΩ
+ −
vC 2 i(t) 2Ω 2H
+ +
+ vC1 1F vC 3
100 V 40 kΩ 3F
− −
−
sin t 1F

Fig. 10.199
Fig. 10.201
(a) 80 V, 32 V, 48 V
(b) 80 V, 48 V, 32 V d 2i di
(a) 2 2
+2 + i ( t ) = sin t
(c) 20 V, 8 V, 12 V dt dt
(d) 20 V, 12 V, 8 V
d 2i di
10.2 In the circuit of Fig. 10.200, the voltage v(t) is (b) 2
+2 + 2i ( t ) = cos t
dt dt
1Ω 1Ω
d 2i di
(c) 2 +2 + i ( t ) = cos t
+ dt 2 dt
eat v ( t) 1H ebt
− d 2i di
(d) +2 + 2i ( t ) = sin t
dt 2 dt
Fig. 10.200
Objective-Type Questions 10.83

10.4 At t = 0+, the current i1 in Fig. 10.202 is (b) i(t )

1 C 1
0.63
2
V
R
R L t
i1(t) 0.5
i2(t ) C
(c) i(t )

Fig. 10.202 0.5

0.31
V V
(a) − (b) −
2R R
t
V 0.5
(c) − (d) zero
4R (d) i(t )

10.5 For the circuit shown in Fig. 10.203, the time 1

constant RC = 1 ms. The input voltage is vi(t) 0.63
= 2 sin 103 t. The output voltage v0(t) is
equal to
t
R 2

Fig. 10.205
vi (t) C vo (t)
10.7 The condition on R, L and C such that the step
response v(t) in Fig. 10.206 has no oscillations
is
Fig. 10.203 L R

(a) sin (103 − 45°) (b) sin (103 t + 45°) +

(c) sin (103 t − 53) (d) sin (103 t + 53°) v(t) C v(t)
−
10.6 For the RL circuit shown in Fig. 10.204, the
input voltage vi(t) = u(t). The current i(t) is
1H
Fig. 10.206

1 L L
vi (t ) 2Ω (a) R≥ (b) R≥
2 C C
i(t)
L 1
(c) R≥2 (d) R=
Fig. 10.204 C LC
10.8 The switch S in Fig. 10.207 closed at t = 0.
(a) i(t ) If v2 (0) = 10 V and vg(0) = 0 respectively,
the voltages across capacitors in steady state
0.5
will be
0.31

t
2
10.84 Network Analysis and Synthesis
v1 (t ) the terminal pair, the time constant of the
system will be
8 μF
1 MΩ i(t )
v2 (t) 2 μF Network of A
linear resistors +
and independent
sources B
−
Fig. 10.207
(a) v2 (∞) = v1 (∞) = 0 (a)

(b) v2(∞) = 2 V, v1 (∞) = 8 V i(t )

(c) v2 (∞) = v1 (∞) = 8 V
4 mA
(d) v2(∞) = 8 V, v1 (∞) = 2 V
10.9 The time constant of the network shown in v( t)
Fig. 10.208 is (0, 0) 8V

R (b)

Fig. 10.210
10 V 2R
C
(a) 3 μs
(b) 12 s
Fig. 10.208 (c) 32 s
(a) 2 RC (b) 3 RC (d) unknown, unless actual network is spec-
iﬁed
1 2 10.12 In the network shown in Fig. 10.211, the circuit
(c) RC (d) RC
2 3 was initially in the steady-state condition with
10.10 In the series RC circuit shown in Fig. 10.209, the switch K closed. At the instant when the
the voltage across C starts increasing when the switch is opened, the rate of decay of current
dc source is switched on. The rate of increase through inductance will be
of voltage across C at the instant just after the
K
switch is closed i.e., at t = 0+ will be
C R
2Ω
2Ω
2V
2H

1V
Fig. 10.211

Fig. 10.209 (a) zero (b) 0.5 A/s

(a) zero (b) inﬁnity (c) 1 A/s (d) 2 A/s
1 10.13 A step function voltage is applied to an RLC
(c) RC (d)
RC series circuit having R = 2 Ω, L = 1 H and C
10.11 The v – i characteristic as seen from the = 1 F. The transient current response of the
terminal pair (A – B) of the network of Fig. circuit would be
10.210(a) is shown in Fig. 10.210(b). If an (a) over damped (b) critically damped
inductance of value 6 mH is connected across (c) under damped (d) none of these
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 10.85

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

10.1 (b) 10.2 (d) 10.3 (c) 10.4 (d) 10.5 (a) 10.6 (b) 10.7 (c)
10.8 (d) 10.9 (d) 10.10 (d) 10.11 (a) 10.12 (d) 10.13 (b)
11
Laplace Transform
and Its Application

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Time-domain analysis is the conventional method of analysing a network. For a simple network with ﬁrst-
order differential equation of network variable, this method is very useful. But as the order of network variable
equation increases, this method of analysis becomes very tedious. For such applications, frequency domain
analysis using Laplace transform is very convenient. Time-domain analysis, also known as classical method,
is difﬁcult to apply to a differential equation with excitation functions which contain derivatives. Laplace
transform methods prove to be superior. The Laplace transform method has the following advantages:
(1) Solution of differential equations is a systematic procedure.
(2) Initial conditions are automatically incorporated.
(3) It gives the complete solution, i.e., both complementary and particular solution in one step.
Laplace transform is the most widely used integral transform. It is a powerful mathematical technique which
enables us to solve linear differential equations by using algebraic methods. It can also be used to solve
systems of simultaneous differential equations, partial differential equations and integral equations. It is
applicable to continuous functions, piecewise continuous functions, periodic functions, step functions and
impulse functions. It has many important applications in mathematics, physics, optics, electrical engineering,
control engineering, signal processing and probability theory.

11.2 LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

The Laplace transform of a function f (t) is deﬁned as
∞
F ( s) = L { f (t )} ∫ f (t ) e
− st
dt
0

where s is the complex frequency variable.

s jω
The function f (t) must satisfy the following condition to possess a Laplace transform,
∞
−σ t
∫ | f (t ) | e dt < ∞
0
11.2 Network Analysis and Synthesis
where s is real and positive.
The inverse Laplace transform L–1 {F ( s )} is
σ + j∞
1
f (t ) = ∫
2π j σ − j∞
F ( s) e st ds
d

11.3 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF SOME IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS

1. Constant Function k
The Laplace transform of a constant function is
∞ ∞
− st
⎡ e − st ⎤ k
L{k} = ∫ ke dt = k ⎢ ⎥ =
0 ⎣ −s ⎦0 s
n
2. Function t
The Laplace transform of f(t) is
∞
L{t } = ∫ t n e − st dt
n

0
dx
Putting st = x, dt =
s
∞ n 1 ∞
⎛ x⎞ dx n +1
L{t } = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ e − x
n
= s n+ ∫x
n
e x dx
d = , s > 0, n + 1 > 0
⎝ s⎠ s s n +1
0 0

If n is a positive integer, n +1 n!
n!
L{t n } =
s n +1
3. Unit-Step Function
The unit-step function (Fig 11.1) is deﬁned by the u (t )
equation,
u(t) = 1 t>0 1
=0 t<0
The Laplace transform of unit step function is
t
∞ ∞ 0
⎡ e − st ⎤ 1
L {u(t )} ∫1 e
− st
dt = ⎢ − ⎥ = Fig. 11.1 Unit-step function
0 ⎣ s ⎦0 s
4. Delayed or Shifted Unit-Step Function u (t − a)
The delayed or shifted unit-step function (Fig 11.2) is deﬁned
by the equation
u (t − a) = 1 t>a
=0 t<a
The Laplace transform of u (t − a) is t
0 a
∞ ∞
⎡ e − st ⎤ e − as
L {u(t a)} = ∫ 1⋅ e st
dt = ⎢ − ⎥ =
Fig. 11.2 Shifted unit-step function
a ⎣ s ⎦a s
11.3 Laplace Transforms of Some Important Functions 11.3

5. Unit-Ramp Function r (t )
The unit-ramp function (Fig 11.3) is deﬁned by the equation
r(t) = t t>0
=0 t<0
The Laplace transform of the unit-ramp function is
t
∞
0
− st 1
L rt =
s2 Fig. 11.3 Unit-ramp function
0

r (t a)
6. Delayed Unit-Ramp Function
The delayed unit-ramp function (Fig 11.4) is deﬁned by the
equation
r (t − a) = t t>a
=0 t<a t
0 a
The Laplace transform of r (t − a) is
as
− st e Fig. 11.4 Delayed unit-ramp function
L r(t a)
a s2
d (t )
7. Unit-Impulse Function
The unit-impulse function (Fig 11.5) is deﬁned by the equation
d (t) = 0 t≠0 1

and ∫ ) dt = 0
t
∞
The Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function is Fig. 11.5 Unit-impulse function
at
L δ =1
0

8. Exponential Function (eat)

The Laplace transform of the exponential function (Fig 11.6) is
t
at − st e t ⎤ 1 0
L e = at
= e dt = − =
0 0
s a ⎦ s
0
Fig. 11.6 Exponential function
9. Sine Function
1
We know that i
2j
The Laplace transform of the sine function is
1 ⎫ 1 1 ⎡ 1 1
L }
j ⎭ j 2 s s2 2

10. Cosine Function

1
We know that co
2
The Laplace transform of the cosine function is
1 1 1⎡ 1 1 s
L e e } +
2 s s+ s 2 2
11.4 Network Analysis and Synthesis
11. Hyperbolic sine function
1
We know that − t
2
The Laplace transform of the hyperbolic sine function is
1 1 1 1
= =
2 2 2 s s+ s2 2

12. Hyperbolic cosine function

1
We know that cosh t e
2
The Laplace transform of the hyperbolic cosine function is
1 1 1 1 s
= + = 2 2
2 2 2 s s s
13. Exponentially Damped Function
Laplace transform of an exponentially damped function e−at f (t) is

L e− t dt = − at − st
= t e d s
0 0
Thus, the transform of the function e f (t) is obtained by putting (s + a) in place of s in the transform of f (t).
−at

L e t L e t
a a −
s a s a
L e − at co t L
+ −

11.4 PROPERTIES OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

11.4.1 Linearity
If f F s) then L f t F ( s)
where a and b are constants.
∞
Proof st
f t f t e dt
0
∞
L f t f t e st
d a t e dt ∫ t e dt a ( s)
0 0 0

Example 11.1 Find the Laplace transform of 4t + si t t

2 3 1 8 3 1
Solution L t s t t 4⋅ + + +
3 2
+9 s−2 3 2
+9 s 2

Example 11.2 Find the Laplace transform of e 3t .

Solution Lt e e t =Lt − e + L1 6t
2
2 1 1 s
+ +
s 36
11.4 Properties of Laplace Transform 11.5

Example 11.3 Find the Laplace transform of ( )2 .

Solution L{(si 2t − cos t ) 2 } i 2 2t cos 2 2t 2 cos 2t si 2t}

L{sin i t} = L{ } L{sin 4t}
L{1 sin
1 4
= − 2
s s + 16

Example 11.4 Find the Laplace transform of cos ( t b) .

Solution L{cos( t b)} L{cos ω t cos b − sin ω t s b} cos {c ω t} s bL{sin ω t}

c bL{cos
s ω
= coss b 2 sin b ⋅ 2
sin
s +ω 2
s + ω2
11.4.2 Time Scaling
1 ⎛ s⎞
If L{ f (t )} F ( s) then L{ }= F⎜ ⎟
a ⎝ a⎠
∞
− st
Proof L{ f (t ∫ f (t ) e dt
0
∞
− st
L{ f ( at )} = ∫ f (aat )e dt
0

dx
Putting at = x, dt =
a
∞ ⎛ x⎞ ∞ ⎛ s⎞
− s⎜ ⎟ dx 1 −⎜ ⎟ x 1 ⎛ s⎞
⎝ a⎠
L f ( at )} ∫ f ( x) e ∫ f ( x ) e ⎝ a ⎠ ddx = F ⎜ ⎟
0
a a0 a ⎝ a⎠

⎛ s 3⎞
Example 11.5 If L{ f (t )} log ⎜ , ﬁnd L{f(2t)}.
⎝ s 1 ⎟⎠

Solution ⎛ s + 3⎞
L{ f (t )} = log ⎜
⎝ s + 1 ⎟⎠
By time-scaling property,
⎛s ⎞
+3
1 ⎜2 ⎟ 1 ⎛ s + 6⎞
L{ f ( 2t )} = log ⎜ log ⎜
2 s ⎟ 2 ⎝ s + 2 ⎟⎠
⎜ + 1⎟
⎝2 ⎠
2
Example 11.6 If L{ f (t )} = 3
e − s , ﬁnd L{ f (3t )} .
s
2
L{ f (t )} = 3
e−s
Solution s
By time-shifting property,
s s s
1 2 − 3 1 54 − 3 18 − 3
L{ f (3t )} = e = e = 3e
3 ⎛ s⎞ 3 3 s3 s
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
3
11.6 Network Analysis and Synthesis

11.4.3 Frequency-Shifting Theorem

If f ( s a)

Proof f t f t te d
0

− st
Le f )} = t s
0 0

Example 11.7 Find the Laplace transform of e t4 .

4
Solution Lt
s5
By frequency-shifting theorem,
4!
Le
(s )5

Example 11.8 Find the Laplace transform of ( )2 et .

2 2 1
Solution L t+ = t +
s s s
By frequency-shifting theorem,
2 2 1
L t+ = 3
+ 2
+
s s 1

Example 11.9 Find the Laplace transform of 4t

in3t .
1 3 3
L t − sin 3t} =
4 4s s
Solution By frequency-shifting theorem,
3 3 3 3 6
Le t} = 2
= 2
s s 4s s s − s s 2 − s + 5)

Example 11.10 Find the Laplace transform of cosh at cos at.

e at e at ⎞ 1 − at
Solution cosh at cos at co at e at os at )
2
s
L{ s } 2
s a2
1 −
L osh cos at e s os at}

By frequency-shifting theorem,
1⎡ s a s a ⎤ 1⎡ s a s a ⎤
L at at ⎢ + 2
2⎣ a a a a ⎦ 2 s + 2 s as
1⎡ a s as + a s2 + 2 s) s3
= ⎢ =
2⎣ a s2 s4 a4
11.4 Properties of Laplace Transform 11.7

11.4.4 Time-Shifting Theorem

If L{ f (t )} a)} = e
F ( s) then L{ f (t a)} as
F ( s)
∞
− st
Proof L{ f (t ∫ f ( t )e dt
0
∞
a)} =
L{ f (t a)} ∫ f (t a) e − st dt
0

Putting t a = x, dt dx
d
When t a, x = 0
t→ , x→∞
∞ ∞ ∞
− st
a)} =
L{ f (t a)} ∫ f ( x )e ( x)
s(a
ddx e as
as
∫ f ( xx))e sx
dx
d e as
∫ f (t ) e dt = e −as
as
F ( s)
0 0 0

Example 11.11 Find the Laplace transform of cos (t a) t > a.

Solution Let f(t) = cos t
s
L{ f (t )} F ( s) =
F( 2
s +1
By time-shifting theorem,
s
L{cos(t a)} e − as 2
s +1

Example 11.12 Find the Laplace transform of e t a

t > a.

Solution Let f (t ) = e t
1
L{ f (t )} F ( s) =
F(
s −1
By time-shifting theorem,
1
L{e t a } = e − as
s −1
⎛ π⎞ π
Example 11.13 Find the Laplace transform of sin t − ⎟ t> .
⎝ 4⎠ 4
Solution Let f (t ) = sin t
1
L{ f (t )} F ( s) =
F( 2
s +1
By time-shifting theorem,
πs
⎧ ⎛ π⎞⎫ − 1
L ⎨si t − ⎟ ⎬ = e 4 2
⎩ ⎝ 4⎠⎭ s +1

Example 11.14 Find the Laplace transform of ( )3 t 1.

11.8 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution Let f(t) = t3
3!
f
s4
By time-shifting theorem,
3
L t e−s
s4
11.4.5 Multiplication by t (Frequency-Differentiation Theorem)
d
If f t F ( s) then L t f )} = − F s
ds
∞
Proof f t e − st dt
0

Differentiating both the sides w.r.t s using DUIS,

∞ ∞
d d ∂
F s = t e dt
ds ds 0 0
∂s

t t e − st dt − t e − st dt = − L ( )}
0 0
d
L ( )} − F
ds

Example 11.15 Find the Laplace transform of t s at.

a
Solution L at} 2
s a2
d d a 2as
L t in at L at =
ds ds s 2 a 2 2

Example 11.16 Find the Laplace transform of t cos 2 t .

1 co 2t 1 1 1 s
Solution L t} = L = }= + 2
2 2 2 s s +4
1 d 1 s 1 1 s − ⋅ ⎤ 1 s2 4
L t os t t =− + =− − + = +
ds 2 ds s s s s s 2

Example 11.17 Find the Laplace transform of t sin3 t .

si t t 1 3 1 3 1 1
Solution L t} L 2 2 2 2
4 4 s s +9 4 s +1 +9
3 d 1 1 3 −2 s 2s 3s
L t in t t =− 2 2
=− 2
+ 2
=
4 ds s s +9 4 (s + 1 s + 9) ⎦ 2
3s s − − 3s s +5 24 s s + 5
= ⋅
2 s 2 ( s s s
11.4 Properties of Laplace Transform 11.9

Example 11.18 Find the Laplace transform of t sin 2t cosh t .

⎧⎪ ⎛ e t e t ⎞ ⎫⎪ 1
Solution L{sin 2t cosh t} L ⎨sini 2t ⎜ ⎟
t
i 2t e −tt sin t}
⎬ = L{e sin
⎩⎪ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎪⎭ 2

1⎡ 2 2 ⎤ 1 1
= ⎢ 2
+ 2 ⎥= 2 + 2
2 ⎣ ( − 1) + 4 ( + 1) + 4 ⎦ s − 2 + 5 s + 2 + 5

d d ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 2s − 2 2s 2
L{{ sin 2t cosh t} L{sin 2t cosh t} = − ⎜ 2 + ⎟⎠ = 2 + 2
ds
d ds ⎝ s 2s + 5 2
s + 2s + 5 ( s − 2 5) 2
( s + 2 5) 2

11.4.6 Division by t (Frequency-Integration Theorem)

∞
F ( s), then L ⎧⎨
f (t ) ⎫
If L{ f (t )} ⎬ = ∫ F ( s) ds
⎩ t ⎭ s
Proof
∞
L { f (t )} F (s
( s)
F(s ∫ f (t ) e
− st
dt
0

Integrating both the sides w.r.t s from s to ∞,

∞ ∞

∫ F ( s) ds ∫ f (t )e
st
dt ds
d
s s 0

Since s and t are independent variables, interchanging the order of integration,

∞ ∞ ⎡∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
⎤ ⎡1 − st ⎤ f (t ) − st
∫ F ( s)ds = ⎢⎢ ∫ f (t )e d ⎥ dt = ∫ ⎢ f (t )e ⎥ dt = ∫
st
ds e dt
s 0 ⎣s ⎦⎥ 0⎣
−t ⎦s 0
t
∞
⎧ f (t ) ⎫
L⎨ ⎬ = ∫ F ( s)ds
⎩ t ⎭ s

1 e−t
Example 11.19 Find the Laplace transform of .
t

Solution 1 1
L{ e t} = −
s s +1
∞ ∞
⎧1 − e − t ⎫ −t ⎛1 1 ⎞ ∞
L⎨ ⎬ = ∫ L 1 e ds = ∫ − ⎟⎠ ds = log s − log(
g s + 1) s
⎩ t ⎭ s ⎝ s s +1
s
∞
⎡ ⎤ ⎛ ⎞
∞
⎡ s ⎤ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎜ 1 ⎟ s s +1
= ⎢log log ⎢ ⎥ = log log ⎜ = − log = log
⎣ s + 1⎦ s 1
⎢1 + ⎥ 1⎟ s +1 s
⎜1+ ⎟
⎣ s ⎦s ⎝ s⎠
11.10 Network Analysis and Synthesis

bt
e e
Example 11.20 Find the Laplace transform of .
t
1 1
Solution Le =
s a s b
∞
e− e − bt 1 1 ∞
L
t
−e d ∫ s a s b
ds = − + s
⎩ s s
∞
⎡a⎤ a
1+ 1+
⎡ s a s s s a s+b
log = log = − og − log = log
s+b b b s+b s a
s 1+ 1+
⎣ s ⎦s s

sinh t
Example 11.21 Find the Laplace transform of .
t
et e t
1 1 1
Solution L t =L =
2 2 s s +1
∞
sinh t 1 1 1 1⎡ s 1
L = = − ds log( s − − + = log
t s s
s s +1 2 s +1 s

1 1⎞
1 1
1
= log s⎥ = 1 − og s 1
− log
s 1 1
= log
s +1
2 1 2 1 2 s +1 s 1
1+ 1+
s ⎦s s

cos h2t sin 2t

Example 11.22 Find the Laplace transform of .
t

cosh t e t
e ⎞ 1 e2 e t
t
Solution L L sin 2t L +L
t 2t ⎭ 2 t t
2
L t} = 2
+4
n 2t 2 s⎤
L = L t =∫ ds = tan −1 = − tan cot
t s s s + 2 s 2 2 2
By ﬁrst shifting theorem,
cosh t t e e 1 1 +2
L L +L cot cot
t 2 t t 2 2 2

11.4.7 Time-Differentiation Theorem: Laplace Transform of Derivatives

If f t F ( s) then
f − f( )
2
f − sf −
11.4 Properties of Laplace Transform 11.11

In general,
f t s ′′F s −
Proof

L f′ t f ′ t e − st dt
0
Integrating by parts,

f t f t e − st s t e − st dt = − f s∫ t e d (0) + sL { t }
0
0 0
Similarly,
f t ′ + sL{ f t} s − f t f′ + f )}
−
In general, L fn t n
−

sin t
Example 11.23 Find L f (t ) and L f ′(t ) of t .
t
Solution
∞
sin t 1 ∞
L f t L = ds an −1 s ta −
s −
s
t s
s s +1 s 2
1 si t
L ′ = − − lim s co s
t →0 t

Example 11.24 Find L f (t ) and L f (t ) of the following function:

t 3 0 t 5
0 t 5.

5 ∞ st 5
− st e −3 − −5
Solution f e t dt = d t= + = − =
s 0
s s s
0
3
f t = − 0 = ⋅ (1 − e − − = − s
s

Example 11.25 Find L f (t ) and L f ′(t ) of f(t) = e −5t sin t .

1
Solution L f t Le t}
s +1
1 0 s
L f′ t − ⋅ 2
s + + 26 + 26

Example 11.26 Find L f (t ) and L f ′(t ) of the following function:

t t 0 t 3
6 t 3
11.12 Network Analysis and Synthesis

3 3 ∞
e − st ⎤
3 st
st e e
Solution L f t e t dt e t dt e dt ⋅ t⎥ +6
0 3 ⎣ − s ⎦0 s2 ⎦0 s
3
−
3 1 3 1
=− − + + = 2 −
s s s s s s s2
1 3s 1
L = f ( 0) = + e 3
s s
11.4.8 Time-Integration Theorem: Laplace Transform of Integral
t
F s
If L f t F s L ∫ t dt
s
0 ⎭
t t
Proof − st
L f t t f t dt
⎩0 0 ⎭
Integrating by parts,
∞
t t
⎛ e − st ⎡ e − st d
t ⎞ 1 1 F
L f t t f t t
s ∫⎢ dt ∫0
t dt dt =
s
=
s
L f }=
s
0 0

t
−
Example 11.27 Find the Laplace transform of ∫e t 3 dt .
0
3! 6
Solution Le t 4
= 4
s s
t
1 6
L e− t L e −2 t 3 = 4
0
s s s+2

t
Example 11.28 Find the Laplace transform of ∫ t cosh t dt .
0

et e t⎞ 1 1 1 1 ⎤ 1 2 1 s2 + 1
Solution L t cosh t L t = te = =
2 ⎭ 2 2 ( s 1) ( ) 2 −
t
1 s 1
L t cosh t dt t cosh t
0
s ss
t

∫ te
4t
Example 11.29 Find the Laplace transform of the sin 3t dt .
0

Solution
d d 3 6s
L t in 3t L t =− 2
ds ds s s
6 4 6 4
L te in t}
[( s + s
11.4 Properties of Laplace Transform 11.13

t
1 6 s+4
L t e− t dt −
= 2
0
s s s + s+ )2

t
Example 11.30 Find the Laplace transform of e t sin 3t dt .
0

d d 3 6s
Solution L t in 3t L t 2
ds ds s + s
t
1 6
L t sin 3t
0
s s +
t
−4 t 6 6
L e ∫t t
[s
0

11.4.9 Initial Value Theorem

If f t F ( s) then lim ( = lim ( s)

s→
Proof We know that,
f − f( )
∞
sF s L f t )} + t e − dt +
0

∞ ∞
lim ( s) lim f′ e − st dt + lim[ t dt + (t )
s s →∞ s →∞ t →0
0 0

11.4.10 Final Value Theorem

If f t F ( s) then lim ( lim ( s)
t s →∞
Proof We know that
f − f( )
∞
sF s L f t )} + t e − dt +
0

st
lim ( s) lim f′ e dt + lim f ′ e st
d = t dt +
s s→ 0
0 0 0

t 0
+ + f (0 im (
t →∞ t →∞
11.14 Network Analysis and Synthesis
t
Example 11.31 Verify the initial and ﬁnal value theorems for t + 1)2 .

Solution f (t ) = e −tt (t ) 2 = e t (t
(t 2 t )
2 2 1
F ( s) = + +
(s ) 3
( s )2 s +1
2s 2s s
sF ( s) = + +
( s 1) 3
( s 1) 2 s +1
lim f (t ) = 1
t →0
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
⎢ 2
⎥
⎢ s s 1 ⎥
lim sF ( s) = lim + + =1
s →∞ s →∞ ⎢ 3 2 1⎥
⎛ 1⎞
⎢ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎛ 1⎞ 1+ ⎥
⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠ s⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ s ⎠ s ⎦
Hence, the initial value theorem is verified.
lim f (t ) = 0
t →∞
lim sF ( ) = 0
s→ 0
Hence, the final value theorem is verified.

Example 11.32 Verify the initial and ﬁnal value theorems for e t (t 2 + cos3t).

Solution f (t ) = e − t (t 2 cos 3t )
2 s +1
F ( s) = 3
+
(s ) ( s )2 + 9
2s s( s )
sF ( s) = +
(s )3 (s )2 + 9
lim f (t ) = 1
t →0
⎡ 2 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ s s ⎥ =1
lim sF ( s) = lim +
s →∞ s →∞ ⎢ 3 2
9⎥
⎢ ⎛⎜1 + ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1⎞
1
⎜⎝ 1 + ⎟ + ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ s ⎠ s⎠ s 2 ⎥⎦
Hence, the initial value theorem is verified.
li ( 2 cos 3t )e − t = 0
lim f (t ) = lim(
t→ t →∞
⎡ 2s s( s + ) ⎤
lim sF ( ) = lim ⎢ + ⎥=0
s→ 0 s→ 0 ⎢ (
⎣ ) 3
( s + 1 ) 2
+ 9 ⎥⎦
Hence, the final value theorem is verified.

Example 11.33 Find the initial and final values of the function whose Laplace transform is
2s+ 1
F(s) = .
s + 6s 2 + 11s+ 6
3
11.5 Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions 11.15

2s + 1
Solution F ( s) = 3
6 s 2 + 11s + 6
s + 6s
2 1
2 +
2s + s s s2
f sF ( s) = lim 3 = lim =0
s →∞ s →∞ s 6 s 2 11s 6 s→∞ 1 + 6 + 11
6s 1
+
6
s s 2 s3
2s2 + s
f sF ( s) = lim 3 =0
s →0 s → 0 s + 6 s 2 + 11s + 6

s+ 6 .
Example 11.34 Find the ﬁnal value of the function whose Laplace transform is I(s)
s =
s(s+
( 3)
s+6
Solution I ( s) =
s( s )
s+6
I( ) li s ( s) = lim =2
s→0 s→0 s + 3

11.5 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

A function f(t) is said to be periodic if there exists a constant T(T > 0) such that (t T ) f (t ), for all
values of t.
f (t T ) f (t T T ) f (t (t T ) = f (t )

In general, f (t nT ) = f (t ) for all t, where n is an integer (positive or negative) and T is the period of the
function.
If f (t) is a piecewise continuous periodic function with period T then
T
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫ f ( t )e
st
−Ts
dt
1− e 0
∞ T ∞
− st − st
∫ f (t(t ) e dt = ∫ f (t )e ∫ f ( t )e
st
Proof L{ f (t dt
d dt
0 0 T
In the second integral, putting t x + T , dt dx
d
When t T, x = 0
t→ , x→∞
T ∞
L{ f (t ∫ (t )e − st ddt + ∫ f ( x T )e − s( x
f (t T)
dx
0 0
T ∞
= ∫ f (tt))e st
ddt e −Ts
T
∫ f ( x )e
sx
dx
0 0
T ∞
= ∫ f ( t )e st
dt e −Ts ∫ f (t )e st
dt
0 0
T
= ∫ f (t )e − st dt + e Ts
L{ f (t )}
0
11.16 Network Analysis and Synthesis
T
( Ts
) L{ f (t )} = ∫ f (t )e − st dt
0
T
1 − st
L{ f (t )} =
1− e −Ts ∫ f ( t )e dt
0

Example 11.35 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.7.
f (t )

t
0 T 2T 3T

Fig. 11.7
Solution The function f (t) is a periodic function with period T.
At
f (t ) = 0<t <t
T
T
1
−Ts ∫
L{ f (t )} = f (t )e st dt
1− e 0
T
1 At
= ∫T
st
−Ts
e dt
1− e 0
T
1 A
= ∫ te − st dt
1 − e −Ts T 0
T
A⎡ e − st e − st ⎤
= ⎢t − 2 ⎥
T (1 e −Ts ) ⎣ − s s ⎦0
A ⎛ e −Ts e −Ts 1 ⎞
= ⎜ −T − 2 + 2⎟
T (1 − e −Ts ) ⎝ s s s ⎠
A⎡ Te −Ts 1 −Ts
⎤
= ⎢ − + (1 − e ) ⎥
T (1 − e −Ts ) ⎣ s s2 ⎦
−Ts
A Ae
= 2−
Ts s(1 e −Ts )

Example 11.36 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.8.
f (t )

t
0 1 2 3
Fig. 11.8
11.5 Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions 11.17

Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2.

(t ) = t 0 t < 1
= 0 1< t < 2
2
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫ f ( t )e
st
−2s
dt
1− e 0

1 ⎡ 1 −stst 2 ⎤
= ⎢ ∫ te ddt + ∫ 0 ⋅ e
st
dt ⎥
1 − e−2s ⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦
1
1 ⎡ e − st e − st ⎤
= ⎢ t− 2 ⎥
1 − e−2s ⎣ −s s ⎦0
1 ⎛ e−s e−s 1 ⎞
= ⎜ −s − 2 + 2 ⎟
1 − e −2 s ⎝ s s ⎠
1
= 2 −2 s
(1 − e − s − se − s )
s (1 − e )

Example 11.37 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.9.
f (t )

t
0 a 2a 3a 4a

Fig. 11.9
Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2a.
t
f (t ) = 0<t a
a
1
= ( a t) a t < 2a
a
2a
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫
st
− 2 as
f (t ) e dt
1− e 0

1 ⎡ a t st 2a
1 ⎤
= ∫ + ∫a
st
⎢ e dt ( 2 a t ) e dt ⎥
1 − e − 2 as ⎢⎣ a a a ⎥⎦
⎧ ⎡ e − st a
e − st ⎤ ⎡ e − st e st ⎤ ⎫⎪
2a
1 ⎪
= 2 as ⎨ ⎢ − s
t− 2 ⎥ +⎢ ( a t) + 2 ⎥ ⎬
a(( ) ⎪⎣ s ⎦0 ⎣ −s s ⎦a ⎪
⎩ ⎭
1 ⎛ e − as 1 e −2 as e − as ⎞
= ⎜− + 2+ 2 − 2 ⎟
a( e −2 as ) ⎝ s 2 s s s ⎠
11.18 Network Analysis and Synthesis

−2e − as + 1 + e −2 as
=
as 2 (1 − e −2 as )
− as 2
( − )
= − as − as
as 2 ( − )( +
)( )
− as
1− e
= 2 − as
as ( + )
as − as
e 2 −e 2
=
⎛ as − as ⎞
a 2 ⎜e 2 e 2 ⎟
as
⎝ ⎠
⎛ as ⎞
tanh ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
=
as 2

Example 11.38 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.10.

f (t )

t
0 a 2a 3a 4a

−1

Fig. 11.10
Solution The function f(t) is periodic with period with period 2a.
f (t ) = 1 0<t a
= −1 a t < 2a
2a
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫
st
− 2 as
f ( t )e dt
1− e 0

1 ⎡ a st 2aa
− st
⎤
= ⎢ ∫
1 − e − 2 as ⎢⎣ 0
e dt
d ∫ e ( ) dt ⎥
⎥⎦
a

⎧ ⎡ e − st ⎤ a ⎡ e − st ⎤ 2 a ⎫
1 ⎪ ⎪
= − 2 as ⎨ ⎢ − s ⎥
+⎢ ⎥ ⎬
1− e ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎦ 0 ⎣ s ⎦ a ⎪⎭
1 ⎛ e − as 1 e −2 as e − as ⎞
= ⎜− + + −
1 − e −2 as ⎝ − s s s s ⎟⎠
(1 − e − as ) 2
=
s(1 + e − as )(1 − e − as )
11.5 Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions 11.19

1 − e − as
=
s(1 + e − as )
as as
−
1 −e e2 2
= ⋅
s ⎛ as
− ⎞
as

⎜e + e 2 ⎟
2
⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ as ⎞
= tanh ⎜ ⎟
s ⎝ 2⎠

Example 11.39 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.11.

f (t )

p t
O 2p 3p
w w w

Fig. 11.11
2π
Solution The function f(t) is known as a half-sine wave rectiﬁer function with period .
ω
π
f (t ) = a si ω t 0<t<
ω
π 2π
=0 <t<
ω ω
The function f(t) is a periodic function.
2π
ω
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫
st
f ( t )e dt
⎛ 2π ⎞
−⎜ ⎟ s 0
⎝ω⎠
1− e
⎛π 2π ⎞
ω ω
1 ⎜ − st ⎟
= ⎜∫ ω + ∫ 0⋅e
st
2π s
a si t e d
dt dt ⎟
−
1− e ω ⎜ 0 π ⎟
⎝ ω ⎠
π
a ⎡ 1 ⎤ω
= 2π s ⎢ 2 ⋅ e − st ( s sinn ω t ω ccos
os ω t ) ⎥
− ⎣s +ω 2
⎦0
1− e ω

a 1 ⎡ −πs ⎤
= ⋅ ⎢ e ω (ω ) + ω ⎥
2π s
− s 2 + ω 2 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
1− e ω
11.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis

⎛ −π s ⎞
aω ⎜1 + e ω ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 1
= ⋅
⎛ −π s ⎞ ⎛ −π s ⎞
s + ω2
2

⎜ 1+ e ω ⎟⎜ 1− e ω ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
aω 1
= ⋅
⎛ −π s ⎞
s + ω2 2

⎜1 − e ω ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Example 11.40 Find the Laplace transform of

f (t ) = t 2 0 t<2
if f (t ) = f (t ).
Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2.
2 2
1 1 − st
L{ f (t )} = ∫e ∫e t 2 dt
st
−2ss
f ((tt ) dt = −2 s
1− e 0 1− e 0
2
1 ⎡ 2 ⎛ e − st ⎞ ⎛ e − st ⎞ ⎛ e − st ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢t ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ − 2t ⎜ 2 ⎟ + 2 ⎜ 3 ⎟⎥
1 − e −2 s ⎢⎣ ⎝ − s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ − s ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0

1 ⎛ e −2 s e 2s e −2 s 2 ⎞
= ⎜ −4 − 4 − 2 + 3⎟
1 − e −2 s ⎝ s s2 s3 s ⎠

=
1
(2 − 2e −2 s
− 4 se 2
4s2e 2s
)
( − e )s − s 3

Example 11.41 Find the Laplace transform of

f (t ) = e t 0 t < 2π
if f (t ) = f (t ).
Solution The function f(t) is a periodic function with period 2p.
2π
1
L{ f (t )} = ∫e
st
− 2π s
f (t ) dt
1− e 0
2π
1 − st t
=
1− e − 2π s ∫e e dt
0
2π
1
∫e
( s)t
= − 2π s
dt
1− e 0
2π
1 ⎡ e( s )t ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
1 − e − 2π s ⎣ 1 − s ⎦0
11.6 Waveform Synthesis 11.21

1 ⎡ e(1−s ) 2π 1 ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥
1 − e − 2π s ⎣ 1− s 1− s⎦

e(1−s ) 2π − 1
=
(1− e −2π s )(1 − s)

Example 11.42 Find the Laplace transform of the function shown in Fig. 11.12.

f (t)

t
T 2T 3T 4T

Fig. 11.12

Solution The function f(t) can be represented in terms of Heaviside unit step function.
f (t ) = [u
[u(t − T ) u(t 2T )] + 2[u
[u(t − 2T ) u(t 3T ) [u(t
(t T ) u(t
u( t t )] + … ∞
= u( t − T ) + u( t − T ) + u( t − T ) + … ∞
L{ f (t )} L {u(t − T ) u(t 2T ) u(t − 3T )
L{u }
1 1 1
= e −Ts + e −2Ts + e −3Ts + …
s s s
1
= ⎡⎣e −Ts + e −2 + e −3Ts + …⎤⎦
s
e −Ts
=
s(1 − e −Ts )

11.6 WAVEFORM SYNTHESIS

Any waveform can be constructed with unit step, unit ramp and unit impulse f (t )
functions, etc. We know the Laplace transforms of these special functions.
Hence, we can ﬁnd the Laplace transform of any function in terms of Laplace
transform of these functions.
A
There is another way of synthesising the waveforms. Any function can
be expressed in terms of a gate function. The gate function is shown in
Fig. 11.13. t
0 T
This function can be expressed in terms of unit-step functions.
f (t ) = Au(t
Au(t ) Au(t T ) Fig. 11.13 Gate function
11.22 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 11.43 Find the Laplace transform of the unit-doublet function.

f (t )
Solution The unit-doublet function d ′(t) is shown in Fig. 11.14.

d
δ() δ( )
dt t
⎧d ⎫ 0
L{{δ ( )} ⎨ δ( )⎬ sL{δ (t )} = s( )
sL s
⎩ dt ⎭

Fig. 11.14

Example 11.44 Find the Laplace transform of a rectangular pulse shown in Fig. 11.15.
f (t )

t
0 T

Fig. 11.15
Solution The rectangular pulse can be constructed from two functions as shown in Fig. 11.16. This function
is known as gate function.
f2 (t )
f1 (t )

1 u (t )
0 T

t −1
0 −u (t − T )

(a) (b)

Fig. 11.16

f ( t ) = f ( t ) + f ( t ) = u( t ) − u( t T )
1 1 −Ts 1
F ( s) = L{u(t )} L{u(t − T )} = − e T = (1 − e −Ts )
s s s

Example 11.45 Find the Laplace transform of a sawtooth waveform shown in Fig. 11.17.
f (t )

t
0 T

Fig. 11.17
11.6 Waveform Synthesis 11.23

Solution The sawtooth waveform can be constructed from three functions as shown in Fig. 11.18.
f1(t)

A r (t) f2(t) f3(t)

T
A

t t t
T 0 T 0 T
0
A
−A u(t − T )
− A r (t − T )
T

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.18
A A
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f (tt)) =
r (t ) − r (t T ) Au(t T )
T T
A A A A 1 −Ts A −Ts
F ( s) = L{r (t )} − L{r (t T )} − AL{u(t − T )} = 2 − e − e
T T Ts T s2 s

Example 11.46 Find the Laplace transform of a triangular waveform shown in Fig. 11.19.
f (t )

t
0 T T
2

Fig. 11.19
Solution The triangular waveform can be constructed from three ramp functions as shown in Fig. 11.20.
f1(t ) f3(t )
f2(t )
2 r (t ) 2 r (t −T )
T T

t t t
0 0 T 0 T
2

−4 r t −T
T 2
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.20
2 4 ⎛ T⎞ 2
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f (tt)) = r(t ) − r t − ⎟ + r(t T )
T T ⎝ 2⎠ T
Ts
2 4 ⎧ ⎛ T ⎞⎫ 2 2 4 − 2
F ( s) = L{r (t )} − L ⎨r ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬ + L {r(t
(t T )} = 2 − 2 e 2 + 2 e −Ts
T T ⎩ ⎝ 2⎠⎭ T Ts T
Ts Ts
11.24 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 11.47 Find the Laplace transform of a trapezoidal pulse shown in Fig. 11.21.

f(t )

t
0 a 2a 3a 4a

Fig. 11.21

Solution The trapezoidal waveform can be constructed from four ramp functions as shown in Fig.11.22.

f1(t )
f2(t )
1
a r (t )

t
0 a
t
0

− a1 r (t − a)

(a) (b)

f3(t )
f4(t )
1
a r (t − 4a)
t
0 3a

t
− a1 r (t − 3a) 0 4a

Fig. 11.22

1 1 1 1
f (t ) = f (tt)) + f (t ) + f3 (t ) + f (t ) = r ( t ) − r ( t a) − r ( t a) + r( )
a a a a
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 − as 1 1 −3as 1 1 −4 s
F ( s) = L{r (t )} − L{r (t a
L{ )} − L{r (t 3a)}
a)} a)} + L{r (t 4 aa)}
)} = − e − e + e
a a a a a s2 a s2 a s2 a s2
1
= 2 (1 − e − as − e −3 + e −4 as )
as
11.6 Waveform Synthesis 11.25

Example 11.48 Find the Laplace transform of a sinusoidal waveform shown in Fig. 11.23.
f (t )

t
0 T
2

Fig. 11.23
Solution The waveform can be constructed from two functions as shown in Fig. 11.24.
f1(t ) f2(t )
A

t t
0 T T 0 T T 3T
2 2 2

(a) (b)

Fig. 11.24

⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) = A si ω t u ( t ) + A si ω t t − ⎟ u t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
2π
where ω=
T
⎧ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞⎫ Aω Aω −
Ts
Aω ⎛ − ⎞
Ts
F ( s) = A L {sin ω t u(t
(t )} AL ⎨si ω t ⎜ t − ⎟ u t − ⎟ ⎬ = 2
u((t + e 2 =
⎜ 1 + e 2
⎟
⎩ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 ⎭ s +ω 2
s +ω
2 2
s + ω2
2
⎝ ⎠

Example 11.49 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.25.
f (t )

t
0 1 2 3

Fig. 11.25
Solution The function f (t ) can be expressed as sum of four step functions.
f (t ) = u(t ) + u(t ) − u(t
( t ) − u( t )

F ( s) = L{u(t )} L{u(t )} − L{u( u(t − 2)} { ( 3)} = 1s + 1s e − s − 1s e −2 − 1s e 3s

=
1
s
( +
11+ − 2
− 3
)
11.26 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 11.50 Determine the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.26.
f (t )

t
0 1 2 3

Fig. 11.26
Solution The function f (t ) can be expressed as sum of four functions as shown in Fig. 11.27.
f1(t )

r (t ) f2(t )

t t
0 0 1

r (t − 1)
(a) (b)

f3(t ) f4(t )

u (t − 2)
1
t
0 3
t
0 2
−2
−2u (t − 3)

(c) (d)
Fig. 11.27
f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f3 (t ) + f (t ) = r (t ) + r (t ) + u(t
(t ) − 2u(t
( )
1 1 1 2
F ( s) { ( )} {r(( )} {u( )} {u(( )} = 2 + 2 e − s + e −2ss − e 3s
s s s s

Example 11.51 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.28.
f (t )

1 2t 2
2(4 − t ) 2
t
0 1 2 3 4

Fig. 11.28
11.6 Waveform Synthesis 11.27

Solution The given parabolic waveform can be constructed from three functions as shown in Fig.11.29.
f1(t )
2t 2u(t ) f2(t ) f3(t )

t t t
0 2 0 2 0 4

− 16 r ( t − 2 )
−2 ( t − 4)2 u(t − 4)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.29
F (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f (t ) = 2tt 2 u(t
u( t ) 6r(t
(
(t
r(t ) (t
(t ) 2 u( t )
2 1 2 4 16
{t 2 u(t )} − 16L{{r (t 2)} 2L{(
F ( s) = 2 L{t L{(t 4) 2 uu((t − 4)} = 2
L{( 3
− 16 2
e −2ss − 2 3
e s
= 3
(1 − e −4 s ) − 2
e 2s
s s s s s

Example 11.52 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform as shown in Fig. 11.30.
f (t )

t
0 1 2

Fig. 11.30
Solution The given waveform can be constructed from four functions as shown in Fig. 11.31.
f1(t ) f2(t )

3r ( t )

t
0 1

t
0 3r ( t −1)

(a) (b)
Fig. 11.31
f3(t) f4(t)

t
0 1 0 2

−1
−2
−u (t − 1) −2u (t − 2)
(c) (d)
Fig. 11.32
11.28 Network Analysis and Synthesis

f (t ) = f (t ) + f (t ) + f3 (t ) + f (t ) = 3rr((t ) − 3r (t ) − u(t
(t ) − 2u(t
u( t )
3 3 1 2
F ( s) = 3L
L{r (t )} 3L{r (t − 1)}
)} − L{u(t 1)} 2L{
L{u(t − 2)} = 2
− 2
e − s − e −ss − e 2s
s s s s

Example 11.53 Find the Laplace transform of the periodic waveform shown in Fig. 11.33.
f (t )

t
0 1 2 3 4

−1

Fig. 11.33

Solution The function f (t ) is a periodic function with period 2.

The function f (t ) can be constructed from three functions by waveform synthesis.
f (t ) = u(t ) − 2u
u(t 1) + u(t 2)
1 2 − s 1 −2 s
F1 ( s) = L{u(t )} 2 L{u(t − 1)}
1)} + L{u(t − 2)} = − e + e
s s s
The Laplace transform of periodic function f (t ) is

1
L{ f (t )} = F1 ( s)
1 − e −2 s
1 ⎛ 1 2 −ss 1 2s ⎞
= ⎜ − e + e ⎟⎠
1 − e −2 s ⎝ s s s

1 ⎛ 1 − 2e − s + e −22 s ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
1 − e −2 s ⎝ s ⎠

(1 − e − s ) 2
=
s(1− e − s )(1 + e − s )

1 1 − e−s
=
s 1 + e−s
s s
−
1 e 2 e 2
= s s
s −
e2 e 2

1 ⎛ s⎞
= tanh ⎜ ⎟
s ⎝ 2⎠
11.6 Waveform Synthesis 11.29

Example 11.54 Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.34.
f (t )

t
0 T 2T 3T

Fig. 11.34
Solution The function f (t ) is a periodic function with period T.
The function f (t ) can be constructed from three functions by waveform synthesis.
A A
f (t ) = r (t ) − r (t T ) Au(t T )
T T
A A A A 1 −Ts A
F1 ( s) = L{r (t )} − L{r (t T )} − A L{u(t T )} = 2 − 2
e Ts − e − Ts
T T Ts T s s
The Laplace transform of the periodic function f (t ) is
1 1 ⎛ A A −Ts A −Ts ⎞
L { f (t )} = F1 ( s ) = ⎜ − e − e ⎟
1 − e −Ts 1 − e − Ts ⎝ Ts 2 T s ⎠

Example 11.55 Find the Laplace transform of periodic waveform shown in Fig. 11.35.
f (t )

t
0 T T
2

Fig. 11.35
Solution The function f (t ) is a periodic function with period T.
The function f (t ) can be constructed from two functions by waveform synthesis.
⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
f (t ) = A si t u(t ) A si ω t ⎜ t − ⎟ u t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Aω ⎛ − ⎞
Ts Ts
⎧ ⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞⎫ ω ω −
F1 ( s) = AL{sin ω t u(t )} AL ⎨sin i ωt t − ⎟ u t − ⎟⎬ = A 2 +A 2 e 2 = 2 ⎜1 + e 2 ⎟
⎩ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠⎭ s + ω2 s + ω2 s + ω2 ⎝ ⎠
The Laplace transform of the periodic function f (t ) is
1
L{ f (t )} = F1 ( s)
1 − e −Ts
Aω ⎛ − ⎞
Ts
1
= ⎜1 + e 2 ⎟
1 − e −Ts s 2 + ω 2 ⎝ ⎠
Ts
−
Aω 1+ e 2
=
s +ω ⎛22
− ⎞⎛
Ts
− ⎞
Ts

⎜1 − e ⎟ ⎜ + e 2 ⎟
2
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
Aω 1
= 2
s + ω2 −
Ts
1− e 2
11.30 Network Analysis and Synthesis

11.7 INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

If L{ f (t )} F ( s) then f (t ) is called inverse Laplace transform of F( s) and symbolically written as

f (t ) = L 1{F ( s)}

where L−1 is called the inverse Laplace transform operator.

Inverse Laplace transform can be found by the following methods:
(i) Standard results
(ii) Partial fraction expansion
(iii) Convolution theorem

11.7.1 Standard Results

Inverse Laplace transforms of some simple functions can be found by standard results and properties of
Laplace transform.

s2 3s+ 4 .
Example 11.56 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
2 s3
s 3s + 4 1 3 4
Solution F ( s) = 3
= − +
s s s 2 s3
1
L {F ( s)} 3t + 2t 2

3s+ 4 .
Example 11.57 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
s2 + 9
3s + 4 3s 4
Solution F ( s) = 2
= 2
+ 2
s +9
s +9 s +9
4
L 1{F ( s)} 3 cos 3t + sin 3t
3
4s+ 15 .
Example 11.58 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
16s 2 − 25
4 s + 15 4 s + 15 1 s 15 1
Solution F ( s) = = = +
2
16 s − 25 ⎛ 25 ⎞ 4 2 25 16 2 25
s −
2
16 ⎜ s 2 − ⎟ s
⎝ 16 ⎠ 16 16
1 5 3 5
L 1{F ( s)} cosh t + sinh t
4 4 4 4
2s+ 2 .
Example 11.59 Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2
s + 2s+ 10
2s + 2 2(s
(s )
Solution F ( s) = 2
= 2
s + 2 s + 10 (s ) +9
⎧ s ⎫
L 1{F ( s)} 2e − t L−1 ⎨ 2 ⎬=2
−t
3t
⎩ s + 9⎭
11.7 Inverse Laplace Transform 11.31

3s + 7
Example 11.60 Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2
.
s 2s 3
3s + 7 3(s
( ) + 10 (s ) 1
Solution F ( s) = 2
= 2
=3 2
+ 10
s 2s − 3 (s ) −4 (s ) 4 (s )2 − 4
⎧ s ⎫ t −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫
L−11{F ( s)} = 3e t L 1 ⎨ 2 ⎬ + 10e L ⎨ 2
t
⎬ = 3e cosh 2 5e t sinh 2t
⎩ s − 4 ⎭ ⎩ s − 4 ⎭

11.7.2 Partial Fraction Expansion

P ( s)
Any function F( s) can be written as where P( s) and Q( s) are polynomials in s. For performing
Q ( s)
partial fraction expansion, the degree of P( s) must be less than the degree of Q( s). If not, P( s) must be
divided by Q( s), so that the degree of P( s) becomes less than that of Q( s). Assuming that the degree of
P( s) is less than that Q( s), four possible cases arise depending upon the factors of Q( s).
Case I Factors are linear and distinct,
P ( s)
F ( s) =
( s a)(s
( s b)
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
F ( s) = +
s+a s b
Case II Factors are linear and repeated,
P ( s)
F ( s) =
( s b) n
( s a)(s
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B B2 Bn
F ( s) = + 1 + + ... +
s + a s b ( s b) 2 ( s b) n

Case III Factors are quadratic and distinct,

P ( s)
F ( s) = 2
(s as b)( s 2 cs d )
By partial-fraction expansion,
As + B Cs + D
F ( s) = 2
+ 2
s + as b s + cs d
Case IV Factors are quadratic are repeated,
P ( s)
F ( s) = 2
(s as b)( s 2 cs d ) n
By partial-fraction expansion,
As + B C1s + D1 C2 s + D2 Cn s + Dn
F ( s) = 2
+ 2
+ 2 2
+ ... + 2
s + as b s + cs d (s cs d ) ( )n
11.32 Network Analysis and Synthesis

s+2
Example 11.61 Find the inverse Laplace transform of .
s( s +1)( s + 3)
s+2
Solution F ( s) =
s( s )(s
)(s
( )
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C
F ( s) = + +
s s +1 s + 3
s+2 2
A sF ( s) s = 0 = =
( s + )(s
)( s + ) s = 0 3
s+2 1
B ( s + ) F ( s) s = −1 = =−
s( s + ) s = −1 2
s+2 1
C ( s + ) F ( s) s = −3 = =−
s( s + ) s = −3 6
2 1 1 1 1 1
F ( s) = − ⋅ − ⋅
3 s 2 s +1 6 s + 3
2 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 1 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 1 −−11 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 2 1 1
L 1{F ( s)} L ⎨ ⎬− L ⎨ ⎬− L ⎨ ⎬= − e − e
3t
3 ⎩s⎭ 2 ⎩ s + 1⎭ 6 ⎩ s + 3⎭ 3 2 6

s 2 .
Example 11.62 Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2
s ( s + 3)
s+2
Solution F ( s) = 2
s (s )
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C
F ( s) = + 2+
s s s+3
s 2 A(
As(s ) + B( s ) + Cs 2
= As 2 + 3 A
As + B Cs 2
Bss + 3 B C
C) s 2
= (A C A + B)
(3A B) s + 3B
Comparing coefﬁcients of s 2 , s1 and s0 ,
A C=0
3A + B = 1
3B = 2
Solving these equations,
1 2 1
A , B= , C=−
9 3 9
1 1 2 1 1 1
F ( s) = + ⋅ − ⋅
9 s 3 s2 9 s + 3
1 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 2 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 1 −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ 1 2 1 −3t
L 1{F ( s)} L ⎨ ⎬+ L ⎨ 2⎬− L ⎨ ⎬= + t− e
9 ⎩s⎭ 3 ⎩s ⎭ 9 ⎩ s + 3⎭ 9 3 9
11.7 Inverse Laplace Transform 11.33

s 2 − 15s − 11 .
Example 11.63 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
1 − 2)2
(s+ 1)(s

5 s 2 15 s − 11
Solution F( s) =
(s )( s
)(s
)( )2

By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C
F ( s) = + +
s + 1 s − 2 ( s )2
2
5 15 11 A( s 2) 2 + B( s + 1)( s 2) C ( s + 1)
= A( s 2 − 4 s 4) B( s 2 s − 2) + C ( s + )
= As 2 − 4 A
Ass + 4 A + Bs 2 − Bs − 2 B + Cs + c
= ( A + B) s2 − ( A + B − C ) s + ( A − 2 B C )

Comparing coefﬁcients of s 2 , s1 and s0 ,

A+ B = 5
4 A + B − C = 15
4 A 2 B + C = −11
Solving these equations,
A=1
B=4
C = −7
1 4 7
F ( s) = + −
s + 1 s − 2 ( s )2
⎧ 1 ⎫ −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫ −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫
L 1{F ( s)} L−1 ⎨ ⎬ + 4L ⎨ ⎬ − 7L ⎨ 2⎬
= e−t + 4 2
− 7te 2t
⎩ s + 1 ⎭ ⎩ s − 2 ⎭ ⎩ ( s − 2) ⎭

3s+ 1
Example 11.64 Find the inverse Laplace transform of .
1 2 + 2)
(s+ 1)(s 2
3s + 1
Solution F( s) =
(s )( s 2
)(s
)( )
By partial-fraction expansion,
A Bs + C
F ( s) = + 2
s +1 s + 2
3s 1 A( s 2 2) ( Bs C )( s 1)
= As 2 + 2 A + Bss 2 Bs Cs
C C
= ( A + B) s2 ( B + C )s + ( + )
11.34 Network Analysis and Synthesis
2 1 0
Comparing coefﬁcients of
0
=3
2 =1
Solving these equations,
2 2 7
3 3 3
2 1 2 s 7 1
F s =−
3 s +1 3 s 2
s +2 2

1 s 7 1 2 2 7
L 1
+ L + L 1
= − e− in 2t
3 s +1 3 2
s +2 3 2
s +2 3 3 3 2

s
Example 11.65 Find the inverse Laplace transform of .
s s

Solution s s s −s − 1⎡ s s
F s = = = −
s s 3⎣ s s 3 s2 + 1 2
+4
s 1 s 1
L L − cos
3 s2 + 1 s 4 3

11.7.3 Convolution Theorem

t
1
If L F t then L F (t u )du
0
t
where ∫ t t)

∞ ∞
Proof F e f u u e − sv v dv e− f v u dv
0 0 00
∞
−
∫ ∫e f v v du
0 0
Putting v t dv dt
When =u
v t→∞
∞ ∞
F s dt ⎥ dt du
0 u 0 0
u
The region of integration is bounded by the lines u 0 and u t.
To change the order of integration, draw a vertical strip which starts
from line u = 0 and terminates on the line u t. Hence, u varies
from 0 to t and t varies from 0 to ∞

∞ t t
F ∫e f =L f (t u ) du
0 0 0 t
u

Fig. 11.36
11.7 Inverse Laplace Transform 11.35

t
Hence, F du
0
Note Convolution operation is commutative, i.e.,
t t
L f (t u )du = u du
0 0 ⎭
1
Example 11.66 Find the inverse Laplace transform of .
(s )(s 1)
1
Solution F s
s s
1 1
Let F s
s+2 s 1
t = e
By convolution theorem,
t
e −3u
t t
t et 3t
L s e du e = (1 e )
0 0
3 3
0

1
Example 11.67 Find the inverse Laplace transform of 2 2
.
s s
1
Solution F s 2 2
s s
Let 1 1
F s = 2
F s
(s ) s2
−t
t
By convolution theorem,
t t
− − t
L s −u u e du − t− u e )
0
0 0

te −
1
Example 11.68 Find the inverse Laplace transform of .
(s 2)(s )2
1
Solution F s = 2
s s
1 1
Let F s = 2
F s
( s 2) s 2
2t
t = =e t
By convolution theorem,
t
t
−2 u t −u
t t
⎡ ue 4
2t e u⎤ ⎛ −te 1⎞
L = t
=e ⎢ e 2t
0 0 0 ⎣ 4 16
0
4 16 16

e 2 e −2 1 2
= − t
4t e
16 4 16 16
11.36 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1 .
Example 11.69 Find the inverse Laplace transform of
s ( s 2 1)
2

1
Solution F ( s) =
s ( s2
2
)
1 1
Let F1 ( s) = 2
F2 ( s) =
s +1 s2
f (t ) = sin
nt f 2 (t ) t
By convolution theorem,
t

∫ sin u (t u ) du = [ t u − u ]0 = t si t
1 t
L {F ( s)} u
0

1
Example 11.70 Find the inverse Laplace transform of .
1 2 + 1)
(s+ 1)(s 1
1
Solution F( s) =
(s )( s 2
)(s
)( )

1 1
Let F1 ( s) = F2 ( s) =
s +1 2 s +1
f (t ) = sin
nt f 2 (t ) e−t
By convolution theorem,
t
⎡ eu ⎤ e−t t
t t
−t
∫ ∫e
1 t u u t
L {F ( s)} ue d
du sin u du e ⎢ (sin u cos u ) ⎥ = [e (sin t − cos t ) +1]
0 1 ⎣2 ⎦0 2
1 1
= (sin t − cos t ) + e − t
2 2

11.8 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

The Laplace transform is useful in solving linear differential equations with given initial conditions by using
algebraic methods. Initial conditions are included from the very beginning of the solution.

Linear Laplace Algebraic

differential
transform equation
equation

Solution of Solution of
Inverse
differential algebraic
Laplace equation
equation
transform
11.8 Solution of Diﬀerential Equations with Constant Coeﬃcients 11.37

dy
Example 11.71 Solve + 22y = e -3t , y(0) = 1.
dt

Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the sides,

1
sY ( s) − y(
y( ) + 2Y ( s) =
s+3
1
sY ( s) 1 2Y ( s) = [ y(0)) ]
s+3
1 s+4
( s )Y ( s) = +1 =
s+3 s+3
s+4
Y ( s) =
( s + 2)( 3)
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
Y ( s) = +
s+2 s+3
s+4
A ( s + ) Y ( s) s = −2 = =2
s + 3 s = −2
s+4
B ( s + ) Y ( s) s = −3 = = −1
s + 2 s = −3
2 1
Y ( s) = −
s+2 s+3
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides.
y(t ) = 2e −2t e 3t

Example 11.72 Solve y ″ + y = t , y(0 ) 1, y ′(0 ) = 0 .

Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the sides,
1
[ 2 ( s)) y(0) y ′(0)] + Y ( ) = 2
s
1
s 2Y ( ) − s + Y ( ) = 2 [∵ y(
y( ) 1, y ′(0) = ]
s
1 s3 + 1
( 2 )Y ( ) = 2 + s = 2
s s
3
s +1 s 1 s s2 +
+11 − s 2 s 1 1
Y( ) = 2 2 = 2 + 2 2 = 2
+ 2 2
= 2 + 2− 2
s ( ) s + 1 s ( s + 1) 1 ( s + 1) s 1 s s +1
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides,
y(t ) = cos t t sin t

Example 11.73 Solve y ″ + y = t 2 2t , y(0 ) 4, y ′(0 ) = −2.

Solution Taking Laplace transform of both sides,

2 2
⎡ s 2Y ( s) sy
⎣ s ( 0) y ′(0) ⎤⎦ + [ sY ( s) +y ( 0) ] =
s3 s 2
2 2
s 2Y ( s) 4s
4 s 2 + sY ( s) − 4 = 3 + 2
s s
11.38 Network Analysis and Synthesis

2 2 2
= 3
+ 2
+ s + s
s3
2 4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
Y = + + + − = 4+
s s 2
s s 2
s s 4 s s s +1 s s s +1
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides,
t3
yt 2 + 2e − t
3
Example 11.74 Solve y = 0 y′ 0 0
Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the sides,
sY s 0 + s
s Y s s y0 ′ 0]
( s
1
Y s 2
s +4
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides,
1
y t = sin 2t
2
Example 11.75 Solve 0 0 0
Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the sides,
sY s 0 + s 0 + s = e−s
sY s sY s =
−s
( )Y e
−s
e e−s 1 1
Y e−s
s +3 +2 2 s s+2 s s+2
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides,
−
yt t

Example 11.76 Solve = y 0 1

Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the sides,
e −2 s
s Y s 0 + s =
s
−2 s
e
s Y s Y ( s) [ y( ′ 1]
s
−2 s
e
1
s
2
e 1 e 2 1 s 1
Y( = − 2 2
s s +4 4 s s s +4
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides,
1 1 1
yt = − (t ut t
4 4
11.9 Solution of a System of Simultaneous Diﬀerential Equations 11.39

11.9 SOLUTION OF A SYSTEM OF SIMULTANEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

The Laplace transform can also be used to solve two or more simultaneous differential equations. The Laplace
transform method transforms the differential equations into algebraic equations.
dx
Example 11.77 Solve + y = sin t .
dt
dy
+ x = cos t
dt
where x(0) = 0 and y(0) = 2.
Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the equations,
1
sX ( s) − x(
x ( ) + Y ( s) =
s2 + 1
1
sX ( s) Y ( s) = …(i)
s2 + 1
s
and sY ( s) − y(
y ( ) + X ( s) =
s2 + 1
s
sY ( s) X ( s) = +2
s2 + 1
2s2 + s + 2
sY ( s) X ( s) = …(ii)
s2 + 1
Multiplying Eq. (i) by s,
s
s 2 X ( s) + sY ( s) = 2
…(iii)
s +1
Subtracting Eq. (iii) from Eq. (ii),
2
( )X( ) 2
2
X ( s) = − 2
…(iv)
s −1
Substituting X ( s) in Eq. (i),
1 s
Y ( s) = 2
+2 2
…(v)
s +1 s −1
Taking inverse Laplace transform of Eqs (iv) and (v),
x(t ) = −2 sinh t
and y(t ) = sin t 2 cosh t

dx
Example 11.78 Solve − y et
dt
dy
+ x = sin t
dt
where x(0) = 1 and y(0) = 0.
11.40 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the equations,
1
x ( ) − Y ( s) =
sX ( s) x(
s −1
1 s
sX ( s) Y ( s) = +1 = …(i)
s −1 s −1
1
and sY ( s) − yy(( ) + X ( s) = 2
s +1
1
sY ( s) X ( s) = 2 …(ii)
s +1
Multiplying Eq. (i) by s,
s2
s 2 X ( s) sY ( s) = …(iii)
s −1
Adding Eqs (ii) and (iii),
2 1 s2
( )X( ) = +
s2 + 1 s −1
1 s2
X( ) = 2
+
( )2 ( )( 2
)
1 1⎛ 1 s 1 ⎞
= + ⎜ + 2 + 2 ⎟ …(iv)
( 2
+1) 2 ⎝ s − 1 s +1
2
+ 1 s + 1⎠
Substituting X(s) in Eq. (i),
s s s3 s
Y ( s) = sX ( s) − = 2 − −
s − 1 (s ) (s(s )( s
)(s 2
) s −1
s s
Y ( s) = 2 −
(s ) 2 ( s 1)( s 2 + 1)
1⎛ 1
s s 1 ⎞
= − ⎜ − 2 + 2 ⎟ …(v)
2
(s + ) 2 s − 1 s + 1 s + 1⎠
⎝ 2

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of Eqs. (iv) and (v),

1 1 t 1
x(t ) =(sin t t cos t ) (e cos t s n t ) = (e t cos t + 2 sin t t cos t )
2 2 2
1 1 t 1
and y(t ) = t sin t (e cos t sin t ) (t sin t e t + cos
cos t sin t )
2 2 2

dx
Example 11.79 Solve + 55x - 2y = t
dt
dy
+2
2x + y = 0
dt

where x(0) = 0 and y(0)

0 = 0.
11.9 Solution of a System of Simultaneous Diﬀerential Equations 11.41

Solution Taking Laplace transform of both the equations,

1
sX s x +5X s − =
s2
1
Y( ) …(i)
s2
and sY s + 2X s + s =0
2 1 ( s) 0 …(ii)

1
Multiplying Eq. (i) by ( 1),
2
1 s +1
1X − 1 Y( ) = …(iii)
2 2s2
Adding Eqs (ii) and (iii),
s +1
X s = 2 2
…(iv)
s s
Substituting X(s) in Eq. (ii),
2
Y s =− 2 2
…(v)
s s
s +1
Now, X s 2 2
s s
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C D
X s 2
+ + 2
s s s
As s + s+ +C s+ s s …(vi)

= s+ + s + + + + Ds 2
+ + Bs 2 + 6 Bs + + + s2
= + s + + s + + s+ B
3 2
Comparing coefﬁcients of s1 s0 ,
=0
6 3 =0
A B =1
9B 1
Solving these equations,
1 1 1 2
= C D=−
27 9 27 9
11.42 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
X ( s) =
⋅ + ⋅ 2− ⋅ − ⋅
27 s 9 s 27 s + 3 9 ( s ) 2
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides,
1 1 1 −3t 2 3t
x(t ) = + t e − te
27 9 27 9
Similarly,
−2 A B C D 4 1 2 1 4 1 2 1
Y ( s) = 2 = + + + = ⋅ − ⋅ − ⋅ − ⋅
s ( s ) 2 s s 2 s + 3 ( s ) 2 27 s 9 s 2 27 s + 3 9 ( + 3) 2
Taking inverse Laplace transform of both the sides,
4 2 4 −3t 2 3t
y(t ) = − t e − te
27 9 27 9

11.10 THE TRANSFORMED CIRCUIT

Voltage–current relationships of network elements can also be represented in the frequency domain.
1. Resistor For the resistor, the v–i relationship in time domain is
v (t) = R i (t)
The corresponding frequency–domain relation are given as
V (s) = RI (s)
The transformed network is shown in Fig 11.37.
i (t) I (s)
+ +

v (t) R V (s) R

− −

Fig. 11.37 Resistor

2. Inductor For the inductor, the v–i relationships in time domain are
di
v(t ) = L
dt
t
1
i(t ) = ∫ v(t ) dt + i( )
L0
The corresponding frequency-domain relation are given as
V ( s) = Ls I ( s) − L i( )
1 i( )
I ( s) = V ( ss)) +
Ls s
The transformed network is shown in Fig 11.38.
i (t ) I (s) I (s)
+ + +
i (0)
Ls
v (t) V (s) V (s) Ls i (0)
s
−
Li (0)
+
− − −

Fig. 11.38 Inductor

11.11 Resistor–Inductor Circuit 11.43

3. Capacitor For capacitor, the v−i relationships in time domain are

t
1
v(t ) = ∫ i(t ) dt + v( )
C0
dv
i( t ) = C
dt
The corresponding frequency–domain relations are given as
1 v( )
V ( s) = I ( s) +
Cs s
I ( s) = CsV ( s) − Cv( )
The transformed network is shown in Fig 11.39.
i (t) I (s) I (s)
+ + +
1
Cs
V (s) 1
v (t) C V (s) Cv (0)
Cs
+ v (0)
− s
− − −

Fig. 11.39 Capacitor

11.11 RESISTOR–INDUCTOR CIRCUIT

Consider a series RL circuit as shown in Fig. 11.40. The switch is closed at time t = 0.
R

V L
i (t)

Fig. 11.40 RL circuit

For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.41.
Applying KVL to the mesh, R
V
− RI ( s) Ls I ( s) = 0
s
V
V s Ls
I (s)
I ( s) = L
⎛ R⎞
s s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠ Fig. 11.41 Transformed network
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
I ( s) = +
s R
s+
L
V
L V
A sI ( s) |s = 0 = s × =
⎛ R⎞ R
s s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠ s=0
11.44 Network Analysis and Synthesis

V
⎛ R⎞ ⎛ R⎞ L V
B s + ⎟ I ( s) = s+ ⎟ × =−
⎝ L⎠ R ⎝ L ⎠ ⎛ R⎞ R
s= − s s+ ⎟
L
⎝ L⎠ s= −
R
L

V ⎛−V ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟
R⎠
I ( s) = R +
s R
s+
L
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
R
V V − Lt
i( t ) =− e
R R
V⎡ − t⎤
R
= ⎢1 − e L ⎥ f t>0
R⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣

Example 11.80 In the network of Fig. 11.42, the switch is moved from the position 1 to 2 at t = 0,
steady-state condition having been established in the position 1. Determine i (t) for t > 0.

1 1Ω

2
10 V
1Ω 1H
i (t)

Fig. 11.42
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.43. At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state
condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit. 1Ω
10
i( )=
= 10 A
1
10 V
Since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
i (0−)

i (0+) = 10 A
Fig. 11.43
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.44.
1
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
− I ( s) − I ( s) − sI ( s) + 10 = 0
I ( s ) ( s + ) = 10
1 s
10 I (s)
I ( s) =
s+2 10
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
i (t) = 10e−2t for t > 0 Fig. 11.44
11.11 Resistor–Inductor Circuit 11.45

Example 11.81 The network of Fig. 11.45 was initially in the steady state with the switch in the
position a. At t = 0, the switch goes from a to b. Find an expression for voltage v (t) for t > 0.
2Ω a b
+

2V 1Ω 1H v (t)
2H

Fig. 11.45 2Ω
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.46. At
t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state condition. Hence, the
inductor of 2H acts as a short circuit. 2V
2 i (0−)
i( ) = = 1 A
2
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously, Fig. 11.46
i (0+) = 1 A
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.47. +
Applying KCL at the node for t > 0, 2s
1 s V (s)
V ( s) + 2 V ( s) V ( s)
+ + =0 2
2s 1 s −
⎛ 3⎞ 1
V ( s) ⎜ 1 + ⎟ = −
⎝ 2s ⎠ s Fig. 11.47
1
−
V ( s) = s =− 2 =− 1
2s + 3 2 3 s +1 5
2s
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
v (t) = − e−1.5 t for t > 0

Example 11.82 In the network of Fig. 11.48, the switch is opened at t = 0. Find i(t).
10 Ω

3Ω
36 V 6Ω
0.1 H i (t)

Fig. 11.48 iT (0−) 10 Ω

Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.49. At t = 0–,
the switch is closed and steady-state condition is reached. Hence, 3Ω
the inductor acts as a short circuit. 6Ω
36 V
36 36 iL (0−)
iT ( ) = = =3A
10 + ( ) 10 + 2
6
iL ( ) 3 × =2A
6 3 Fig. 11.49
11.46 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
iL(0+) = 2 A 3
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.50.
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
0.1s 6
−0. − 0.1s ( ) − 3 ( ) − 6I ( s) = 0
0. ( ) + ( ) = 0.2
I(s)
0.2
02 2
I( ) = =
0.1 9 s + 90 Fig. 11.50
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
i(t) = 2e−90 t for t > 0

Example 11.83 The network shown in Fig. 11.51 has acquired steady-state with the switch closed
for t < 0. At t = 0, the switch is opened. Obtain i (t) for t > 0.

10 Ω 4Ω

36 V 4Ω 2H
i (t)

Fig. 11.51
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.52. At t = 0−, the switch is closed and the network has
acquired steady-state. Hence, the inductor acts as a
10 Ω 4Ω
short circuit.
36 36 iT (0− )
iT ( ) = = =3A
10 + ( ) 10 + 2
36 V 4Ω
4
i( ) 3 × = 1.5 A
4 4 i (0− )
Since current through the inductor cannot change
instantaneously, Fig. 11.52
i(0+) = 1.5 A
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.53. 4
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
−4I ( s ) − 4I (s ) − 2sI ( s ) + 3 = 0 2s
8 ( ) + 2sI ( s) = 3 4
I (s)
3 15 3
I ( s) = =
2s + 8 s + 4
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, Fig. 11.53
i(t) = 1. 5e−4 t for t > 0

Example 11.84 In the network shown in Fig. 11.54, the switch is closed at t = 0, the steady-state
being reached before t = 0. Determine current through inductor of 3 H.
11.11 Resistor–Inductor Circuit 11.47

2H 2Ω

1V 2Ω 3H

i1 (t) i2 (t)

Fig. 11.54
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.55. At t = 0−,
steady-state condition is reached. Hence, the inductor of 2 H acts
as a short circuit.
1 2Ω
i1 (0 ) = A 1V
−
2 i1 (0 )
i2 (0 ) 0
Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously,
Fig. 11.55
1
i1 (0 + ) = A
2
+
i2 (0 ) 0 1
2s 2
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.56.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
1 1
2 3s
− 2 s 1 ( ) 1 2[ 1 ( ) 2 ( )] 0 s
s I1 (s) I2 (s)
1
( 2 + 2s) I1 ( s) 2 2 ( s) = 1 +
s
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, Fig. 11.56
−2 [I2(s) − I1(s)] − 2I2(s) − 3s I2 (s) = 0
−2I1(s) + (4 + 3s) I2(s) = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
1
2 + 2s 1 +
s 2 1
−2 ( s 1) ( s + 1)
0 s s + 1 s + 1 3
I 2 ( s) = = = = =
2 + 2s −2 ( 4 3s) − 4 s(3s 2 + 7s
( 2 2 s)(4 7 s 2 ) 3s ⎛ s + 1 ⎞ ( s + 2 ) s ( s + 2 ) ⎛ s + 1 ⎞
−2 4 + 3s ⎝ ⎟ ⎟
3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C
I 2 ( s) = + +
s s+2 1
s+
3
1
( s +1)
3 1
A s I 2 ( s) s = 0 = =
⎛ 1⎞ 2
( s + 2) s + ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ s=0
1
(s + )
3 1
B ( s + ) I 2 ( s) S = −2 = =−
⎛ 1⎞ 10
s s+ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ s = −2
11.48 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1
( s +1)
⎛ 1⎞ 2
C s + ⎟ I 2 ( s) s = − 1 = 3 =−
⎝ 3⎠ 3 s ( s + 2) 5
1
s= −
3
11 1 1 2 1
I 2 ( s) = − −
2 s 10 s + 2 5 1
s+
3
Taking inverse Laplace transform
1
1 1 2 − t
i2 (t ) = − e −2t − e 3 for t > 0
2 10 5

Example 11.85 In the network of Fig. 11.57, the switch is closed at t = 0 with the network previ-
ously unenergised. Determine currents i1(t).
10 Ω 1H

1H
100 V 10 Ω
i1 (t) i2 (t) 10 Ω

Fig. 11.57
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.58.
10 s

s
100
s 10
I1 (s) I2 (s) 10

Fig. 11.58
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
100
10 I1 ( s) sI1 ( s) 10 [ I1 s
−10I I2 s ] = 0
s
100
0
( s 20) I1 ( s) 100 I 2 ( s) =
s
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
−10 [ − ] − s I 2 ( s) −10
100 I 2 ( s) = 0
−10 I1 ( ) + ( s + 200) I 2 ( s) = 0
By Cramer’s rule,
100
−10
s 100
0 s 20 ( s 20)
s 100( ) 100( )
I1 ( s) = = = =
s + 20 −10 ( s 20) − 100 s(( 2
2
) s(( )( )
−10 s + 20
11.12 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 11.49

By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C
I1 ( s) = + +
s s + 10 s + 30
100( s 20) 2
20
A s I1 ( s) |s 0 = =
( s 10)(s( s 30) s= 0 3
100( s + 20)
B ( s + 10) I1 ( s) |s 10 = = −5
s( s + 30) s=−10
100( ) 5
C ( s + 30) I1 ( ) |s=−30 = =−
s(( ) s =−30
3
20 1 5 5 1
I1 ( ) = − −
3 s s + 10 3 s + 30
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
20 5 30 t
i1 (t ) = − 5e −10 t e
3 3
Similarly,
100
s + 20
s 1000
−10 0 s 1000 1000
I 2 ( s) = = = =
s + 20 −10 ( s 20) 100 s( s + 40 s + 300) s( s +10)( s + 30)
2 2

−10 s + 20
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C
I 2 ( s) = + +
s s + 10 s + 30
1000 10
A sI 2 ( s) |s 0 = =
( s 10)(s( s 30) s = 0 3
1000
B=( s −10 =
) I 2 ( ) |s= = −5
s(( ) s = −10
11000 5
C ( ) I 2 ( ) |s= −30 = =
s( s 10) s = −30 3
10 1 5 5 1
I 2 ( s) = − +
3 s s + 10 3 s + 30
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
10 5
i2 (t ) = − 5e −10 t e 30 t
fo t > 0
3 3
R
11.12 RESISTOR–CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
Consider a series RC circuit as shown in Fig. 11.59. The switch is
closed at time t = 0. V C
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.60. i (t)
Applying KVL to the mesh,
V 1
− RI ( s) − I ( s) = 0 Fig. 11.59 RC circuit
s Cs
11.50 Network Analysis and Synthesis

⎛ 1⎞ V
⎜⎝ R + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = R
Cs s
V V V
I ( s) = = s s = R V 1
1 C +1
RCs 1 s Cs
R+ s+ I (s)
Cs Cs RC
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
1 Fig. 11.60 Transformed network
V − RC t
i( t ) = e fo t > 0
R

Example 11.86 In the network of Fig. 11.61, the switch is moved from a to b at t = 0. Determine
i (t) and vc (t).
1Ω a b 1Ω
+

10 V 3F vc (t)
6F
i (t)

Fig. 11.61
Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 11.62. At t = 0–, the network has attained steady-state
condition. Hence, the capacitor of 6 F acts as an open circuit.
v6 F (0−) = 10 V 1Ω
i (0 ) = 0
−

v3 F (0−) = 0
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change 10 V v6F (0 − )
instantaneously, −
i (0 )
v6 F (0 ) = 10 V
+

v3 F (0+) = 0 Fig. 11.62

For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in 11.63.
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
10 1 1 1
− I ( s) − I ( s) − I ( s) = 0
s 6s 3s
1 1 10 1
I ( s) + I ( s) + I ( s) = 6s
6s 3s s 1 V (s)
c
3s
10 60 10 I
I ( s) = = = 10 (s)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 6 s + 3 s + 0.5 s
s ⎜1 + + ⎟
⎝ 6 s 3s ⎠
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, Fig. 11.63
i(t) = 10e −0.5t
for t > 0
Voltage across the 3 F capacitor is given by
1 10
Vc ( s) = I ( s) =
3s 3s(s
( .5)
11.12 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 11.51

By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
Vc ( s) = +
s s + 0.5
10 20
A Vc ( s) s = 0 =
sV =
3(s
( .5) s = 0 3
10 20
B ( s + .5)Vc ( s) s = −0.5 = =−
3s s = −0.5 3
20 1 20 1
Vc ( s) = −
3 s 3 s + 0.5
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
20 20 −0.5t
vc (t ) = − e
3 3
20
= ( e 0 5t ) f t>0
3

Example 11.87 The switch in the network shown in Fig. 11.64 is closed at t = 0. Determine the
voltage cross the capacitor.
10 Ω

10 V 10 Ω 2 F vc (t)

Fig. 11.64
Solution At t = 0−, the capacitor is uncharged.
vc(0−) = 0
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
vc(0+) = 0 10
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.65.
Applying KCL at the node for t > 0,
10 1 Vc (s)
10 10
Vc ( s) − s 2s
s + Vc ( s) + Vc ( s) = 0
10 10 1
2s
Fig. 11.65
1
2 Vc ( ) 0.2 Vc ( s) =
2V
s
1 05
Vc ( s) = =
s( 2 0.2) s( s 0.1)
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
Vc ( s) = +
s s + 0.1
0.5 0.5
A Vc ( s) s = 0 =
sV = =5
s + 0.1 s = 0 0.1
11.52 Network Analysis and Synthesis

0.5 0.5
B ( s + .1)Vc ( s) s = −0.1 = =− = −5
s s = −0.1 0.1
5 5
Vc ( s) = −
s s + 0.1
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
vc ( t ) = 5 − 5e −0 1t for t > 0

Example 11.88 In the network of Fig. 11.66, the switch is closed for a long time and at t = 0, the
switch is opened. Determine the current through the capacitor.
v (t)
i1 (t) i2 (t)
0.5 F
2A 1Ω
1Ω

Fig. 11.66
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.67. At t = 0−, the switch is closed and steady-state
condition is reached. Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
vc (0−) = 0
v (0 − )

vc (0 − )

2A 1Ω
1Ω

Fig. 11.67
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, V (s)
vc (0+) = 0 I1(s) I2(s)
2
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.68. s
Applying KVL to two parallel branches, 2
s 1
2 1
I1 ( s) + I1 ( s) = I 2 ( s)
s
Applying KCL at the node for t > 0,
2 Fig. 11.68
= I1 ( s) + I 2 ( s)
s
2 2
I1 ( s) + I1 ( ss)) = − I1 ( s)
s s
2 2
I1 ( s) + 2 I1 ( s) =
s s
2
1
I1 ( s) = s =
2 s +1
+2
s
11.12 Resistor–Capacitor Circuit 11.53

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

i1 ( t ) = e − t for t > 0

Example 11.89 In the network of Fig. 11.69, the switch is moved from a to b, at t = 0. Find v(t).

a 4Ω

b +
6V
1F v (t) 2Ω
2Ω −

Fig. 11.69
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.70. At t = 0−, steady-state condition is reached. Hence,
the capacitor acts as an open circuit. 4Ω
2
v( ) 6× =2V
4 2 +
6V v (0−) 2Ω
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change −
instantaneously,
v (0+) = 2 V
Fig. 11.70
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.71.
4 V (s)
Applying KCL at the node for t > 0,
2 1
V ( s) − s
V ( s) s + V ( s) = 0
+ 2 2
6 1 2 2
s
s
⎛2 ⎞
V ( s ) ⎜ + s⎟ = 2 Fig. 11.71
⎝3 ⎠
2
V ( s) =
2
s+
3
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
2
− t
v ( t ) = 2e 3 fo t > 0

Example 11.90 The network shown in Fig. 11.72 has acquired steady-state at t < 0 with the switch
open. The switch is closed at t = 0. Determine v (t).
2Ω
+

2Ω 1F 1F v (t)
4V

Fig. 11.72
11.54 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.73. At 2Ω
t = 0–, steady-state condition is reached. Hence, the capacitor of
1 F acts as an open circuit.
2 4V 2Ω v (0−)
v( ) 4× =2V
2 2
Since voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
v(0+) = 2 V Fig. 11.73
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.74.

1
s 1 v (s)
4
2 s
s 2
s

Fig. 11.74
Applying KCL at the node for t > 0,
4 2
V ( s) − V ( s) −
s+ V ( s ) s + V ( s) = 0
+
2 2 1 1
s s
2
2 sV ( s) V ( s) = + 2
s
2
+2
2s + 2 2 2 2 1
V ( s) = s = = − = −
2 s + 1 s( s ) s 2 s + 1 s s + 0.5
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

v ( t ) = 2 − e −0 5t fo t > 0

11.13 RESISTOR–INDUCTOR–CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

Consider a series RLC circuit shown in Fig. 11.75. The switch is closed at time t = 0.

L
V
i (t) C

Fig. 11.75 RLC circuit

For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.76.
11.13 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 11.55

Applying KVL to the mesh, R

V 1
− RI ( s) Ls I ( s) − I ( s) = 0 Ls
s Cs V
s
⎛ 1⎞ V I (s) 1
⎜⎝ R + Ls + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = Cs
Cs s
⎛ LCs RCs + 1⎞
C 2 RCs V Fig. 11.76 Transformed network
⎜ ⎟ I ( s) =
⎝ Cs ⎠ s
V V V
I ( s) = s = L = L
LCs 2
C + RCs + 1 s 2 + R 1 ( s − s )( s − s2 )
s+
Cs L LC

⎛ R⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
where s1 and s2 are the roots of the equation s 2 + ⎜ ⎟ s + ⎜ = 0.
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ LC ⎟⎠
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
s1 = − + ⎜ ⎟ − = −α + α 2 − ω 02 = −α + β
2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
2
R ⎛ R⎞ 1
s2 = − − ⎜ ⎟ − = −α − α 2 − ω 02 = −α − β
2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
R
where α=
2L
1
ω0 =
LC

and β α 2 − ω 02
By partial-fraction expansion, of I(s),
A B
I ( s) = +
s s1 s s2
V
A ( s s ) I ( s) s = L
s1
s1 s2
V V
B ( s − s ) I ( s) s = L =− L
s2
s2 s1 s1 s2
V ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
I ( s) = −
L( s s ) ⎣ s − s1 s − s2 ⎥⎦
⎢
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
V ⎡e s t
i( t ) = e s2t ⎤⎦ = k1 e s t + k2 e s2t
L( s s )⎣
where k1 and k2 are constants to be determined and s1 and s2 are the roots of the equation.
11.56 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Now depending upon the values of s1 and s2, we have 3 cases of the response.
Case I When the roots are real and unequal, it gives an overdamped response.
R 1
>
2L LC
> 0
In this case, the solution is given by
i t) = e e t

or it for t > 0
Case II When the roots are real and equal, it gives a critically damped response.
R 1
2L LC
= 0
In this case, the solution is given by
i(t) = e−at (k1 + k2 t) for t > 0
Case III When the roots are complex conjugate, it gives an underdamped response.
R 1
<
2L LC
< 0
In this case, the solution is given by
it
2
where s1 2 = − 0

2 2 2 2
Let = = j d

where j 1
2 2
and −
Hence
dt
it e
⎡ −
e + −
2 2j
−
− for t > 0

Example 11.91 The switch in Fig. 11.77 is opened at time t = 0. Determine the voltage v(t) for t > 0.
+

2A 0.5 Ω 0.5 H 0.5 F v()

Fig. 11.77
11.13 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 11.57

Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.78. At t = 0−, the network has attained steady-state
condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit and the capacitor acts as an open circuit.

+
iL (0 − )

2A 0.5 Ω v (0 − )

Fig. 11.78

iL(0−) = 0
v(0−) = 0
Since current through the inductor and voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
iL(0+) = 0
v(0+) = 0
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.79.
Applying KCL at the node for t > 0,
+
V ( s) V ( s) V ( s) 2
+ + =
0.5 0.5s 1 s 2 1
0.5s s 0.5 0.5s V(s)
0.5s
2 2
2V ( s) + V ( s) + 0.. sV ( s) =
s s −
2
4 4 Fig. 11.79
V ( s) = s = =
2
+ 0.5s + 2 s2 + 4s + 4 (s )2
s
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
v ( t ) = 4tt e −2t for t > 0

Example 11.92 In the network of Fig. 11.80, the switch is closed and steady-state is attained. At
t = 0, switch is opened. Determine the current through the inductor.
. Ω
2.5

5V 200 μF 0.5 H

Fig. 11.80

Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig. 11.81. At t = 0–, the switch is closed and steady-state
condition is attained. Hence, the inductor acts as a short circuit and the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
Current through inductor is same as the current through the resistor.
11.58 Network Analysis and Synthesis

5 2.5 Ω
iL ( )= =2A
2.5
5V vc (0−)
Voltage across the capacitor is zero as it is connected in parallel
iL (0−)
with a short.
vc (0−) = 0
Fig. 11.81
Since voltage across the capacitor and current through the
inductor cannot change instantaneously,
iL (0+) = 2 A
vc (0+) = 0 0.5s
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.82. 1
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, 200 × 10−6s
I (s) 1

1
− I ( s) − 0.5s I ( s) + 1 = 0
200 × 10 −6 s Fig. 11.82
I ( s)
0.5s I ( s) − 1 + 5000 =0
s
1 2s
I ( s) = = 2
5s +
0.5
5000 s + 10000
s

Taking inverse Laplace transform,

i ( t ) = 2 cos 100t fo t > 0

Example 11.93 In the network shown in Fig. 11.83, the switch is opened at t = 0. Steady-state con-
dition is achieved before t = 0. Find i(t).

0.5 H

1V 1F 1Ω

i (t)

Fig. 11.83

Solution At t = 0−, the network is shown in Fig 11.84. At

t = 0−, the switch is closed and steady-state condition is achieved.
Hence, the capacitor acts as an open circuit and the inductor acts as
a short circuit. 1Ω
1V
vc (0−) = 1 V
i (0−)
i (0−) = 1 A
Since current through the inductor and voltage across the
capacitor cannot change instantaneously, Fig. 11.84
11.13 Resistor–Inductor–Capacitor Circuit 11.59

vc(0+) = 1 V 0.5s 0.5

i(0+) = 1 A
1
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.85. s
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, 1
1 I(s)
1 1 s
− I ( s) − 0.5s I ( s) 0.5 I ( s) = 0
s s
1 1 Fig. 11.85
0.5 + = I ( s) + 0.5 s I ( s) I ( s)
s s
⎡ 1 ⎤ 1
I ( s) ⎢1 + + 0.5s ⎥ = 0.5 +
⎣ s ⎦ s
s+2 (s ) 1 s +1 1
I ( s) = 2 = = +
2 s 2 ( s ) 1 ( s +1) + 1 ( s + 1) 2 + 1
s + 2s 2 2

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

i ( t ) = e −tt cos t + e t si t for t > 0

Example 11.94 In the network shown in Fig. 11.86, the switch is closed at t = 0. Find the currents
i1(t) and i2(t) when initial current through the inductor is zero and initial voltage on the capacitor is 4 V.
1Ω

1Ω 1Ω
10 V

i2 (t) +
i1 (t) 1H 4V 1F
−

Fig. 11.86

Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.87.

10 1 1
s
1
I1 (s) I2 (s) s
s 4
s

Fig. 11.87
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
10
− I1 ( s) (1 )[ 1 2 ] 0
s
10
( s 2) I1 ( ) ( 1) I 2 ( s) =
s
11.60 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
1 4
−( + ) [ − ] − I2(
) − I2( ) − = 0
s s
⎛ 1⎞ 4
−( + ) I1 ( ) + s + 2 + ⎟ I 2 ( s) = −
⎝ s⎠ s
By Cramer’s rule,
10
−(s
( s 1)
s
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ s + 2 s 1⎞
2
4 1 ⎛ 4⎞ 10 4
− s+ 2+ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ − ( s + 1) ⎜ ⎟ (s
s + 1) 2
( s + 1)
s s s ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ 2 s
I1 ( s) = = = s
s+2 ( s 1) ⎛ s + 2s
2
2 s 1⎞ ( s +1) 2

1 ( s + 2 ) ⎜ ⎟ − ( s + 1) 2 ( s + 2) − ( s + 1) 2
−(s
( s 1) s + 2 + ⎝ s ⎠ s
s
10 4
( s +1) −
s 2 s 3s + 5
= =
( s +1) s(( )
( s + 2) −( )
s
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
I1 ( s) = +
s s +1
3s 5
A sI1 ( s) |s 0 = =5
s + 1 s=0
3s + 5
B ( s 1) I1 ( s) |s 1= = −2
s s = −1
5 2
I1 ( s) = −
s s +1
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
i1 ( t ) = 5 2e − t fo t > 0
Similarly,
10
s+2
s
4
−(s
( s 1) −
s 3s 1 3s 3 − 2 3( + 1) − 2 3 2
I 2 ( s) = = = = = −
s+2 ( s 1) ( s 1) 2
( +1) 2
( +1) 2 s + 1 ( +1) 2
1
−(s
( s 1) s + 2 +
s
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
3e t 2te t
i2 (t ) = 3e fo t > 0

11.14 RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUIT TO VARIOUS FUNCTIONS

+
Consider a series RL circuit shown in Fig. 11.88. When the switch is closed at t = 0, i( ) i(
i( ) = 0.
11.14 Response of RL Circuit to Various Functions 11.61

v (t) + L
−
i(t)

Fig. 11.88 RL circuit

R
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.89.
Applying KVL to the mesh,
V ( s) − R I (s
( s) Ls I ( s) = 0
V (s) + Ls
V ( s) 1 V ( s) −
I ( s) = = I (s)
R Ls L R
s+
L
(a) When the unit step signal is applied, Fig. 11.89 Transformed network
v ( t ) = u( t )
Taking Laplace transform,
1
V ( s) =
s
1
1 s
I ( s) =
L R
s+
L
1 1
=
L ⎛ R⎞
s s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠
By partial-fraction expansion,
⎛ ⎞
1⎜A B ⎟
I ( s) = ⎜ +
L s R⎟
⎜ s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠

1 L
A s I ( s) s=0 = =
R R
s+
L s=0
⎛ R⎞ 1 L
B s + ⎟ I ( s) s = − R = =−
⎝ L⎠ L s s= − R R
L
⎛ ⎞
1⎜L1 L 1 ⎟
I ( s) = ⎜ −
L Rs R R⎟
⎜ s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠
⎛ ⎞
1 ⎜1 1 ⎟
= ⎜ −
R s R⎟
⎜ s+ ⎟
⎝ L⎠
11.62 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
⎛ R⎞
1 −⎜ ⎟ t
⎝ L⎠
i( t ) = [ e ] f t>0
R
(b) When unit ramp signal is applied,
v(t ) = r (t ) = t for t > 0
Taking Laplace transform,
1
V ( s) =
s2
1 1
I ( s) =
L ⎛ R⎞
s2 s + ⎟
⎝ L⎠
By partial-faction expansion,
1 1 A B C
= + 2+
L ⎛ R⎞ s s
s+
R
s2 s + ⎟
⎝ L⎠ L
1 ⎛ R⎞ ⎛ R⎞
= As s + ⎟ + B s + ⎟ + Cs 2
L ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
Putting s = 0,
1
B=
R
R
Putting s = − ,
L L
C=
R2
Comparing coefﬁcients of s2,
A C=0
L
A C=−
R2
L 1 1 1 L 1
I ( s) = − 2 + 2
+ 2
R s Rs R s+ R
L
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
⎛ R⎞
1
L L −⎜ ⎟ t
i( t ) = − 2 + t + 2 e ⎝ L ⎠
R R R
⎛ R⎞
1 L −⎜ ⎟ t
⎝ L⎠
= t− 2[ e ] f t>0
R R
(c) When unit impulse signal is applied,
v(t ) = δ (t )
Taking Laplace transform,
V ( s) = 1
1 1
I ( s) =
L R
s+
L
11.14 Response of RL Circuit to Various Functions 11.63

Taking inverse Laplace transform,

⎛ R⎞
1 −⎜ ⎟ t
i( t ) = e ⎝ L ⎠ fo t > 0
L

Example 11.95 At t = 0, unit pulse voltage of unit width is applied to a series RL circuit as shown
in Fig. 11.90. Obtain an expression for i(t).
v (t ) 1Ω

v (t) +
1 − 1H
i (t)
t
0 1

Fig. 11.90

Solution
v(t ) = u ( t ) − u ( t − 1)
1 e −ss 1 − e s
V ( s) = − =
s s s
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.91. 1
Applying KVL to the mesh,
V ( s) − I ( s) − sI ( s) = 0
V ( s) +
I ( s) = V (s) − s
s +1 I (s)
1 − e−s
=
s( s ) Fig. 11.91
−s
1 e
= −
s( s ) s( s + 1)
1 1 e−s e−s
= − − +
s s +1 s s +1
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
i(t ) = u(t ) − e −tt u(t ) u(t
u( t ) e (t )
u(t
(t )
( t −1)
=( t
e )u(t
(t ) [ e ] (t − 1) f >0

Example 11.96 For the network shown in Fig. 11.92, determine the current i(t) when the switch is
closed at t = 0. Assume that initial current in the inductor is zero.
5Ω

r (t − 3) + 2H
−
i(t)
11.64 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Fig. 11.92 5

Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.93.

Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, e−3s + 2s
−3 s s2 − I (s)
e
− 5 I ( s) − 2 s I ( s) = 0
s2
e −3s Fig. 11.93
5 I ( s) + 2 s I ( s) =
s2
e −3s 0 5 e −3s
I ( s) = =
s 2 ( 2 s + 5) s2 ( 2.5)
By partial-fraction expansion,
05 A B C
= + 2+
2
s ( 2.5) s s s+2 5
0.5 ((ss 2.55)) B( 2.5) Cs 2
= As 2 + 2.5 A C 2
2.5 B Cs
=( )s2 .5 A + B))
( .5 .5 B
2 0
Comparing coefﬁcients of s , s and s ,
A C=0
2 5A + B = 0
2.5 B = 0.5
Solving these equations,
A = −0 08
B=02
C = 0 08
⎛ 0.08 0.2 0.08 ⎞
I ( s) = e −3s − + 2 + ⎟
⎝ s s s + 2 5⎠
e −33 e 3s e −3s
= −0.08 + 0.2 2 + 0.08
s s s + 2.5
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
2 ( t 3)
i(t ) = −0.. u(t − 3) .2r (t ) + 0. e u(t − 3)

Example 11.97 Determine the expression for vL (t) in the network shown in Fig. 11.94. Find vL(t)
when (i) vs(t) = d (t), and (ii) vs(t) = e−t u(t).
5Ω

+ 1 v (t )
Vs (t )
− 2H L

Fig. 11.94
11.14 Response of RL Circuit to Various Functions 11.65

Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.95.

By voltage-division rule,
s 5

2 s +
VL ( s) = Vs ( s) × = Vs ( s)
s s + 10
+5 + s V (s )
2 Vs (s ) 2 L
−
(a) For impulse input,
−
Vs ( s) = 1
s s + 10 − 10 10
VL ( s) = = = 1− Fig. 11.95
s + 10 s + 10 s + 10
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
(t ) 10e −10 t u(t )
VL (t ) = δ (t for t > 0

(b) For vs (t ) = e − t u(t ),

1
Vs ( s) =
s +1
s
VL ( s) =
(s ))(s
(s )
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
VL ( s) = +
s + 10 s + 1
s 10
A (s )VL ( s) s = −10 = =
s + 1 s = −10 9
s 1
B (s )VL ( s) s = −1 = =−
s + 10 s = −1 9
10 1 1 1
VL ( s) = −
9 s + 10 9 s + 1
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
10 −10 t 1 t
vL (t ) = e u(t u( t ) e u( t )
9 9
⎛ 10 −10 t 1 t ⎞
= e e ⎟ u( t ) for t > 0
⎝ 9 9 ⎠

Example 11.98 For the network shown in Fig. 11.96, determine the current i (t) when the switch is
closed at t = 0. Assume that initial current in the inductor is zero.
2Ω

+
2d (t − 3) 1H
−
i (t)

Fig. 11.96
11.66 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.97. 2

Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,

3s
2e 2 I ( s) sI ( s) = 0 +
2e−3s − s
−3 s
2 ( s) s ( s) 2e I (s)

2e −3s
I ( s) =
s+2
Fig. 11.97
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
i(t ) = 2ee −2(t(t( )
(
u(t ) fo t > 0

Example 11.99 Determine the current i(t) in the network shown in Fig. 11.98, when the switch is
closed at t = 0.
10 Ω

50 sin 25 t 5H

i (t)

Fig. 11.98
10
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in
Fig. 11.99.
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, 1250
5s
1250 s 2 + 625
2
− 10I
10 I ( s) − 5 ( ) 0 I (s)
s + 625
250
I ( s) = 2
( s + 625)( s + 2) Fig. 11.99
By partial-fraction expansion,
As + B C
I ( s) = +
2
s + 625 s+2
250 = ( As B)( s ) + C ( s2 )
= ( A C )s2 ( A + B) s ((2 B C)
Comparing coefﬁcients,
A C=0
2A + B = 0
2B C = 250
Solving the equations,
A = −0.397
B = 0.795
C = 0.397
−0.397 s + 0.795 0.397 0.397 s 0.795 0.397
I ( s) = + =− 2 + 2 +
2
s + 625 s+2 s + 625 s + 625 s + 2
11.14 Response of RL Circuit to Various Functions 11.67

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

i(t ) = −0.397 cos 25t 0.032 si 25t + 0.397e −2t fo t > 0

Example 11.100 Find impulse response of the current i(t) in the network shown in Fig. 11.100.

i1 (t) 1Ω

i (t)

+ 1Ω
d (t) −
2H

Fig. 11.100

Solution The transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.101. I1 (s) 1

1(( s ) 2 s + 1 I (s)
Z ( s) = =
2s + 1 + 1 2s + 2
1 + 1
V ( s) 1 2s 2 −
I1 ( s) = = = 2s
Z ( s) 2 s 1 2s 1
2s 2
By current-division rule,
Fig. 11.101
1 1 2s + 2 1 1 1
I ( s) = I1 ( s) × = × = =
2 s + 2 2 s + 2 2 s + 1 2 s + 1 2 s + 0.5
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
1
i(t ) = e −0.5t u(t(t ) fo t > 0
2

Example 11.101 The network shown in Fig. 11.102 is at rest for t < 0. If the voltage
v(t ) = u(t ) cos t Aδ (t ) is applied to the network, determine the value of A so that there is no transient term
in the current response i(t).
1Ω

v (t) 2H
i (t)

Fig. 11.102
v(t ) = u(t ) cos t Aδ (t )
s
V ( s) = 2 +A
s +1
11.68 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.103. 1

Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
s
V ( s) = 2 sI (s
( s) I ( s) = 2
+A V (s) 2s
s +1 I (s)
s A ( s2 )
A(s K K s + K3
I ( s) = = 1 + 22
⎛ 1⎞ 1 s +1
2 ⎜ s + ( s2 ) s +
⎝ 2⎠ 2 Fig. 11.103

The transient part of the response is given by the ﬁrst term. Hence, for the transient term to vanish, K1 = 0.
−1 ⎛ 5⎞
+ A⎜ ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 ⎝ 4⎠
K1 s + ⎟ I ( s) s = − 1 =
⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎛ 5⎞
2⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠

When K1 = 0
5 1
A=
4 2
2
A= =04
5

11.15 RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUIT TO VARIOUS FUNCTIONS

Consider a series RC circuit as shown in Fig. 11.104.
R

v (t) +
− C
i (t)

Fig. 11.104 RC circuit

For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.105. R

Applying KVL to the mesh,

1 V (s) +
1
V ( s) − RI ( s) − I ( s) = 0 − Cs
Cs I (s)
V ( s) sV ( s)
I ( s) = =
+ R R⎛s +
1 1 ⎞
⎝ ⎟
Cs RC ⎠ Fig. 11.105 Transformed network

(a) When unit step signal is applied,

v ( t ) = u( t )
11.15 Response of RC Circuit to Various Functions 11.69

Taking Laplace transform,

1
V ( s) =
s
1
s×
s 1
I ( s) = =
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
R s+ ⎟ R s+ ⎟
⎝ RC ⎠ ⎝ RC ⎠
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
1
1 − RC t
i( t ) = e fo t > 0
R
(b) When unit ramp signal is applied,
v(t ) = r (t ) = t
Taking Laplace transform,
1
V ( s) =
s2
1 1
2
s×
I ( s) = s = R
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
R s+ ⎟ s s+ ⎟
⎝ RC ⎠ ⎝ RC ⎠
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
I ( s) = +
s 1
s+
RC
1
A s I ( s) = R =C
s=0
1
s+
RC s=0
1
⎛ 1 ⎞
B s+ ⎟ I ( s) s = − 1 = R = −C
⎝ RC ⎠ R
RC s
1
s= −
RC
C C
I ( s) = −
s 1
s+
RC
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
1
− t
i(t ) = C Ce RC fo t > 0
(c) When unit inpulse signal is applied,
v(t) = d (t)
11.70 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Taking Laplace transform,
V ( s) = 1
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
− s+
I ( s) =
s
= RC RC = ⎜1 − RC ⎟
1
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ R⎜ 1 ⎟
R s+ ⎟ R s + ⎟ ⎜ s + ⎟
⎝ RC ⎠ ⎝ RC ⎠ ⎝ RC ⎠
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
1⎡ 1 − RC t ⎤
1
i( t ) = ⎢δ (t ) − e ⎥ fo t > 0
R⎢ RC ⎥⎦
⎣

Example 11.102 A rectangular voltage pulse of unit height and T-seconds duration is applied to
a series RC network at t = 0. Obtain the expression for the current i(t). Assume the capacitor to be initially
uncharged.
v (t )
R

1 +
v (t) − C

t i (t)
0 T

(a) (b)

Fig. 11.106
R
Solution v(t) = u(t) − u(t − T)
1 e −sTsT
1 − e − sT
V ( s) = − =
s s s 1
V (s) +
− Cs
For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.107. I (s)
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
1 Fig. 11.107
V ( s) − RI ( s) − I ( s) = 0
Cs
1 ⎡ ⎤
s
V ( s) R 1 − e − sT 1⎢ 1 e − sT ⎥
I ( s) = = V ( s) = = ⎢ − ⎥
R+
1
s+
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ R⎢
+
1
+
1 ⎥
R s+ ⎟ s s
Cs RC ⎝ R ⎠
RC ⎣ RC RC ⎦
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
⎡ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
1 ⎢ − ⎜⎝ RC ⎟⎠ t −⎜ ⎟ (t T)
i( t ) = e u(t ) e ⎝ RC ⎠
u(t u( t T ) ⎥ fo t > 0
R⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Example 11.103 For the network shown in Fig. 11.108, determine the current i(t) when the switch
is closed at t = 0 with zero initial conditions.
11.15 Response of RC Circuit to Various Functions 11.71

3Ω

2r (t − 2) +
− 1F
i (t)

Fig. 11.108
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.109. 3
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
2e −2 s 1 2e−2s + 1
− 3 I ( s) − I ( s) = 0 − s
s2
s2 s I(t)

⎛ 1⎞ 2e −2 s
⎜⎝ 3 + ⎟ I ( s ) = Fig. 11.109
s⎠ s2
2e −2 s 0 67e −2 s
I ( s) = =
⎛ 1 ⎞ s( s + 0.33)
s2 ⎜ 3 + ⎟
⎝ s⎠
By partial-fraction expansion,
0 67 A B
= +
s(( 0.33) 0.33
0 67
A= =2
s + 0 33 s = 0
0 67
B= = −2
s s = −0 33

⎛2 2 ⎞ e −2 s e 2s
I ( s) = e −2 s − = 2 − 2
⎝ s s + 0.33 ⎟⎠ s s + 0.33
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
i(t ) = 2u(t
u( t ) − 2ee −0. ((tt − 2 )
u( t
u(t ) fo t > 0

Example 11.104 For the network shown in Fig. 11.110, determine the current i(t) when the switch
is closed at t = 0 with zero initial conditions.
5Ω

d (t) +
− 2F
i (t)

Fig. 11.110
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.111.
11.72 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
1
1 5 I ( s) − I ( s) = 0
2s
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ 5 + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = 1
2s
5
1
I ( s) =
1
5+
2s + 1
1 −
2s 2s
= I(s)
10 s + 1
0 2s
= Fig. 11.111
s+0 1
0.2( s + 0.1 − 0.1)
=
s+0 1
⎛ 01 ⎞
= 0 2 1−
⎝ s + 0 1⎟⎠
0 02
= 0 2−
s + 0.1
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
0. δ (t )
i(t ) = 0. .02 e −0.1t u(t )

Example 11.105 For the network shown in Fig. 11.112, ﬁnd the response v0 (t).

2Ω
+

1 + 1
F vo (t)
vs (t) = cost u(t ) −
2 4

Fig. 11.112
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.113.
2
1 s
Vs ( s) = +
2 s2 + 1
By voltage-division rule, + 4
Vs (s)
4 − s Vo (s)
2V ( s) s
Vo ( s) = Vs ( s) × s = s = 2 −
4 s+2 (s )( s
)(s
)( )
2+ Fig. 11.113
s
By partial-fraction expansion,
As + B C
Vo ( s) = +
2
s +1 s+2
s ( As B)( s ( s2
) + c(s )
2
s ( A C ) s + ( 2 A B) s + ( )
11.15 Response of RC Circuit to Various Functions 11.73

Comparing coefﬁcient of s2, s and s0,

A C=0
2A + B = 1
2B C = 0
Solving the equations,
A=04
B=02
C = −0 4
0.4 s + 0.2 0.4 0.4 s 02 04
Vo ( s) = − = + −
s2 + 1 s + 2 s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s + 2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
2t
i(t ) = 0.4 cos t 0.2 si t − 0.4e fo t > 0

Example 11.106 Find the impulse response of the voltage across the capacitor in the network
shown in Fig. 11.114. Also determine response vc (t) for step input.
2Ω 1H

+
v (t) + 1 F vc (t)
− −

Fig. 11.114
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.115.
2 s
By voltage-division rule,
1
Vc ( s) = V ( s) × s + 1
+ Vc (s )
1 V (s) − s
2+ s+ −
s
V ( s) V ( s)
= 2 =
s + 2s + 1 ( s )2 Fig. 11.115

(a) For impulse input,

V ( s) = 1
1
Vc ( s) =
(s )2
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
vc (t ) = te − t u(t ) for t > 0
(b) For step input,
1
V ( s) =
s
1
Vc ( s) =
s( s )2
11.74 Network Analysis and Synthesis
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C
Vc ( s) = + +
s s + 1 ( s )2
1 = A( s ) 2 + Bs(s
Bs( s ) Cs
C
= A( s 2 s ) B ( s 2 + s ) Cs
= ( A B) s2 ( A B C )s A

Comparing coefﬁcient of s2, s1 and s0,

A=1
A+ B = 0
B A = −1
2A + B + C = 0
C A − B = −2 + 1 = −1
1 1 1
Vc ( s) = − −
s s + 1 ( s )2
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
vc (t ) = u(t ) − e −tt u(t ) te t u(t )
=( e t
t t )utt
te f t>0

Example 11.107 For the network shown in Fig. 11.116, determine the current i(t) when the switch
is closed at t = 0 with zero initial conditions.

5Ω

1H
5r (t − 1) +
−
i (t) 1
F
6

Fig. 11.116

Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.117.

Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
5
5e − s 6
− 5I
5 I ( s) − sI ( s) − I ( s) = 0
s2 s
6 5e − s 5e−s +
s
5 I ( s) + sI ( s) + I ( s) = 2 −
s s s2 6
I (s)
−ss s s
5e 5e
I ( s) = =
2
s( s + s + ) s( s + ))(s
(s + ) Fig. 11.117
11.15 Response of RC Circuit to Various Functions 11.75

By partial-fraction expansion,
1 A B C
= + +
s( s 3)( 2) s s + 3 2
1 1
A= =
( s 3)( 2) s = 0 6
1 1
B= =
s( s 2) s = −3 3
1 1
C= =−
s( s + 3) s = −2 2
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ 5 e−s 5 e−s 5 e−s
5e − s ⎢ +
I ( s) = 5e − ⎥= + −
⎣ 6 s 3( 3) 2( s 2) ⎦ 6 s 3 s+3 2 s+2
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
5 5 5
i( t ) = u( t ) + e −3(t(t( )
u( t
u(t ) e 2(t
(t )
u( t ) f t>0
6 3 2

Example 11.108 For the network shown in Fig. 11.118, the switch is closed at t = 0. Determine
the current i(t) assuming zero initial conditions.
2Ω 1H

sin t 0.5 F
i(t)

Fig. 11.118
Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.119.
Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0, 2 s

1 2
2
− 2I
2 I ( s) − s I ( s) − I ( s) = 0
s +1 s 1 2
s2 + 1 s
⎛ 2⎞ 1
⎜⎝ 2 + s + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = 2
I (s)
s s +1
s Fig. 11.119
I ( s) = 2 2
( s + 1)( s 22ss + 2)
By partial-fraction expansion,
As + B Cs + D
I ( s) = 2
+ 2
s +1 s + 2s + 2
s ( As B)( s 2 s ) + (CCs D )( s 2
((Cs
C )
3 2
= As + 2 As 2 As + Bs + 2 Bs + 2 B + Cs3 + Cs + Ds 2 + D
2

= ( A + C ) s3 + ( 2 A )s2 (2 A + 2 B + C )s + (2 B + D)
11.76 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Comparing coefﬁcients of s3, s2, s1 and s0,
A C=0
2A + B + D = 0
2A 2B + C = 1
2B + D = 0
Solving these equations,
A = 0.2, B = 0.4, C = −0.2, D = −0.8
0.2 s + 0.4 0.2 s + 0.8
I ( s) = 2
−
s +1+1 s2 + 2s + 2
0.2 s 0.4 0.2 s + 0.2 0.6
= 2 + 2 −
s + 1 s + 1 ( +11) 2 (1) 2
0.2 s 0.4 0.2( s + 1) 06
= 2
+ 2
− −
s +1
+1 + 1 ( + 1) + 1 ( + 1) 2 + 1
s +1 2

Taking inverse Laplace transform,

0.2 cos t 0.4 si t − 0.2 e −tt cos t − 0.6 e

i(t ) = 0. t
si t
= 0.2 cos t 0.4 si t − e − t ( .2 cos t + 0.6 sin t ) fo t > 0

Example 11.109 For the network shown in Fig. 11.120, the switch is closed at t = 0. Determine
the current i(t) assuming zero initial conditions in the network elements.

5Ω 1H

+
6e−2t − 0.25 F
i(t)

Fig. 11.120

Solution For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in Fig. 11.121.

Applying KVL to the mesh for t > 0,
6 4 5 s
− 5I
5 I ( s) − s I ( s) − I ( s) = 0
s+2 s
⎛ 4⎞ 6
⎜⎝ 5 + s + ⎟⎠ I ( s) = 6 + 4
s s+2 s+2 − s
I (s)
6s
I ( s) = 2
( s + 2)( ) Fig. 11.121
6s
=
( )(
)( )( )
11.15 Response of RC Circuit to Various Functions 11.77

By partial-fraction expansion,
A B C
I ( s) = + +
s + 2 s +1 s + 4
6s
A (s ) I ( s) |s = −2 = =6
( s )( )( s ) s = −2
)(s
6s
B ( s + 1) ( s) |s = −1 = = −2
( + 2)( + 4) s = −1
6s
C = ( + 4) I ( ) |s = −4 = = −4
( + 2)( s + 1) s = −4
6 2 4
I ( s) = − −
s + 2 s +1 s + 4
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
i(t ) = 6e −2t u(t
(t ) 2e t u(t ) − 4 e −4 t u(t
u(t
u( (t ) f t>0

Example 11.110 The network shown has zero initial conditions. A voltage vi(t) = d (t) applied to two
terminal network produces voltage vo(t) = [e−2 t + e−3 t] u(t). What should be vi(t) to give vo(t) = t e−2 t u(t)?

+ +
vi (t ) Network vo (t )
− −

Fig. 11.122
Solution For vi(t) = d (t),
Vi ( s) = 1
2t 3t
vo (t ) = [e
[e ]u(t ) e
1 1
Vo ( s) = +
s+2 s+3
Vo ( s)
System function H ( s) =
Vi ( s)
1 1 2 +5
= + = …(i)
s + 2 s + 3 ( s + 2)( + 3)
For vo (t ) = te −2t u(t ),
1
Vo ( s) =
(s )2
From Eq. (i),
Vo ( s) 1 ( s )(s
)( ) (s )
Vi ( s) = = × =
H ( s) ( s ) 2 2s + 5 ( s .5)( s + 2)
2(s
By partial-fraction expansion,
A B
Vi ( s) = +
s + 2 s + 2.5
A=1
B = −0.5
1 0.5
Vi ( s) = −
s + 2 s + 2.5
11.78 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
vi (t ) = e −22tt 0.5e 2.5t
for t > 0

Example 11.111 A unit impulse applied to two terminal black box produces a voltage
vo(t) = 2e −e . Determine the terminal voltage when a current pulse of 1 A height and a duration of 2 seconds
−t −3t

is applied at the terminal.

+
is (t) Black box vo (t )
−

Fig. 11.123

Solution vo (t ) = 2e −tt e 3t is (t )
2 1
Vo ( s) = −
s +1 s + 3
When is (t ) = δ (t ), 1
t
I s ( s) = 1 0 2

Vo ( s) = Z ( s) I s ( s) …(i) Fig. 11.124

Vo ( s) 2 1
Z ( s) = = −
I s ( s) s + 1 s + 3
When is (t) is a pulse of 1 A height and a duration of 2 seconds then,
is (t ) = u(t ) − u(t )
−2 s
1 e
I s ( s) = −
s s
From Eq. (i),
⎡ 2 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 e −2 s ⎤
Vo ( s) = ⎢ − ⎥⎢ − s ⎥
⎣ s + 1 s + 3⎦ ⎣ s ⎦
2 1 2e −2 s e −2 s
= − − +
s( s ) s( s ) s( ) s(( )
⎡1 1 ⎤ 1 ⎡1 1 ⎤ −2 s ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ e −2 s ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= 2⎢ − ⎥ − ⎢ − ⎥ − 2 e ⎢ − ⎥ + −
⎣ s s + 1⎦ 3 ⎣ s s + 3 ⎦ ⎣ s s + 1⎦ 3 ⎣ s s + 3 ⎥⎦

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

1 3t (t
(t ) 1 −3
3( − 2 )
[u(t ) e t u(t )]
v(t ) = 2[u [u
u((t ) e u(t )] − 2[[uu(t − 2) e u(t − 2)] + [ (t − 2) − (t − 2)]
3 3
for t > 0
Exercises 11.79

Exercises
1
⎛ 1 − cos 2t ⎞ Ω
11.1 Find L{ f ′(t )} of f (t ) = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ v (t ) 8
t

⎡ ⎛ s2 + 4 ⎞ ⎤ 1
` ⎢ s log ⎜ ⎟⎥ 10 A Ω 1F
⎢ ⎜⎝ s ⎟⎠ ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦
11.2 Find Laplace transform of the follwoing
function: Fig. 11.127
f (t ) = t + 1 0 2 [v(t) = 1 + 4 e−10t]
=3 t>2 11.6 The circuit of Fig. 11.128, has been in the
⎡1 2s ⎤ condition shown for a long time. At t = 0,
⎢ s (1 e )⎥ switch is closed. Find v(t) for t > 0.
⎣ ⎦
5Ω
11.3 For the network shown in Fig 11.125, the
switch is closed at t = 0. Find the current i1(t)
for t > 0. 20 V v (t ) 2F 3Ω
100 Ω

Fig. 11.128
50 Ω
100 V 4H [v(t) = 7.5 + 12.5 e−(4/15)t]
i1 (t )
11.7 Figure 11.129 shows a circuit which is in the
steady-state with the switch open. At t = 0, the
Fig. 11.125 switch is closed. Determine the current i (t).
[i1(t) = 3 − e−25 t] Find its value at t = 0.114 μ seconds.
800 Ω
11.4 Determine the current i(t) in the network of
Fig. 11.126, when the switch is closed at t = 0. i (t )
The inductor is initially unenergized.
12 V 400 Ω 0.001 μF 200 Ω
2Ω

i (t )

2Ω Fig. 11.129
2Ω
6
[i(t) = 0.00857 + 0.01143 e−8.75 × 10 t, 0.013 A]
0.5 H 11.8 Find i(t) for the network shown in Fig.
24 V
11.130.
i (t ) 10 Ω
Fig. 11.126
[i(t) = 4(1 − e−6t)]
1F 0.5 F
11.5 In the network of Fig. 11.127, after the switch
50 V
has been in the open position for a long time, 5Ω 5Ω
it is closed at t = 0. Find the voltage across the
capacitor.
Fig. 11.130
11.80 Network Analysis and Synthesis
[i(t) = 0.125 e−0.308t + 3.875 e−0.052t] 10 Ω 1H 2H
11.9 Determine v(t) in the network of Fig. 11.131
where iL(0−) = 15 A and vc(0−) = 5 V.
10 V 20 Ω 30 Ω
0.5 H
+

0.33 Ω
10 V 1 F v (t ) Fig. 11.134
[i(t) = 0.1818 − 0.265 e−13.14t + 0.083 e−41.86t ]
−
11.13 The network shown in Fig. 11.135 is in steady
Fig. 11.131 state with s1 closed and s2 open. At t = 0, s1
[v(t) = 10 − 10e−t + 5e−2t] is opened and s2 is closed. Find the current
11.10 The network shown in Fig. 11.132 has acquired through the capacitor.
steady state with the switch at position 1 for 2Ω 2H s1 s2
t < 0. At t = 0, the switch is thrown to the
position 2. Find v(t) for t > 0.

2Ω 1 2 10 V 3H 1 μF
+

3Ω

2V v (t ) Fig. 11.135
0.5 F [i(t) = 5 cos (0.577 × 103 t)]
1H
11.14 In the network shown in Fig. 11.136, ﬁnd
− currents i1(t) and i2(t) for t > 0.
10 Ω
Fig. 11.132
[v(t) = 4e−t − 2 e−2t]
11.11 In the network shown in Fig. 11.133, the
switch is closed at t = 0. Find current i1(t) for 50 V 0.2 F 40 Ω
t > 0. i1 (t ) i2 (t )

3Ω 1H 1Ω

Fig. 11.136
1
20 V 1 Ω i (t ) 3
F [i1(t) = 5 e−0.625t, i2(t) = 1 − e−0.625t ]
i1 (t ) 2
11.15 For the network shown in Fig. 11.137, ﬁnd
currents i1(t) and i2(t) for t > 0.
5Ω
Fig. 11.133
[i1(t) = 5 + 5e−2t − 10e−3t]
11.12 In the network shown in Fig. 11.134, the 5Ω
50 V 20 μF
switch is closed at t = 0. Find the current
through the 30 Ω resistor. i1 (t ) i2 (t )
0.1 H

Fig. 11.137
Objective-Type Questions 11.81

7Ω 1H
101e −100.5t 0.05e 99
⎡ i1 (t ) = 0.101
.101e 99499.5t ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣i2 (t ) = 5 5.05e −100.5t + 0.05e −9949.5t ⎥⎦
+ 1 F v (t )
5 cos 2t
11.16 In the network shown in Fig. 11.138, the − 2
switch is opened at t = 0, the steady state
having been established previously. Find i(t)
for t > 0. Fig. 11.140
3Ω
⎡ 6 −tt 9 6t 3 21 ⎤
i (t )
⎢ v(t ) = − 5 e e + cos 2t s i 2t ⎥
⎣ 10 10 10 ⎦
5Ω 1.8 H
10 V 11.19 For the network shown in Fig. 11.141,
determine v(t) when the input is
0.1 F 3.5 Ω
(i) an impulse function [e−t u(t)]
(ii) i(t) = 4e−t u(t) [4t e−t u(t)]
Fig. 11.138 +
[i(t) = 1.5124e−2.22t + 3.049e−2.5t]
i (t ) 1Ω 1F v (t )
11.17 Find the current i(t) in the network of Fig.
11.139, if the switch is closed at t = 0. Assume
initial conditions to be zero. −

20 Ω
Fig. 11.141
i (t )
11.20 For a unit-ramp input shown in Fig. 11.142,
10 Ω 15 Ω ﬁnd the response vc(t) for t > 0.
5A
10 Ω
2.5 H
1H

r (t ) 10 F vc (t )
Fig. 11.139
[i(t) = 3 + 0.57e−7.14 t]
11.18 In the network shown in Fig. 11.140, ﬁnd the Fig. 11.142
voltage v(t) for t > 0. [vc(t) = −100 u(t) + 100e−0.01t u(t) + tu(t)]

Objective-Type Questions
11.1 If the Laplace transform of the voltage across 1
1 (c) A (d) 1A
a capacitor of value F is 2
2
1 11.2 The response of an initially
Vc ( s) = 2 relaxed linear constant parameter
s +1
network to a unit impulse applied at
the value of the current through the capacitor t = 0 is 4 e−2t u(t). The response of this network
at t = 0+ is to a unit-step function will be
(a) 0 (b) 2 A
11.82 Network Analysis and Synthesis
(a) 2[1 − e −2t] u(t) 0.1 μF −2Ω
−j
(b) 4[e−t − e–2t] u(t)
(c) sin 2t
3V vi 1 kΩ vo
(d) (1 − 4 e−4t) u(t)
11.3 The Laplace transform of a unit-ramp t
function starting at t = a is 2s
Fig. 11.144
1 e − as
(a) (b) 11.7 A 2 mH inductor with some initial current can
( )2 ( s + a) 2
be represented as shown in Fig. 11.145. The
e − as a value of the initial current is
(c) 2
(d)
s s2 I (S)
−+
11.4 The Laplace transform of eat cos a t is equal 0.002s 1mV
to Fig. 11.145
s −α (a) 0.5 A (b) 2 A
(a)
( s − α )2 + α 2 (c) 1 A (d) 0
s+α 11.8 A current impulse 5 d (t) is forced through
(b) a capacitor C. The voltage vc(t) across the
( s − α )2 + α 2
capacitor is given by
1
(c) (a) 5t (b) 5 u(t) − C
( )2
(d) none of the above 5 5u(t )
(c) t (d)
11.5 The circuit shown in Fig. 11.143 has initial C C
current i(0−) = 1 A through the inductor and 11.9 In the circuit shown in Fig. 11.146, it is desired
an initial voltage vc(0−) = −1 V across the to have a constant direct current i(t) through
capacitor. For input v(t) = u(t), the Laplace the ideal inductor L. The nature of the voltage
transform of the current i(t) for t ≥ 0 is source v(t) must be
1Ω 1H i (t )
+

v (t ) 1F v (t ) L
i (t )
−

Fig. 11.143 Fig. 11.146

s s+2 (a) a constant voltage
(a) 2
(b) 2
s + s +1 s + s +1 (b) a linearly increasing voltage
(c) an ideal impulse
s−2 s−2
(c) (d) (d) as exponential increasing voltage
s2 + s + 1 s2 + s + 1
11.10 When a unit-impulse voltage is applied to an
11.6 A square pulse of 3 volts amplitude is applied inductor of 1 H, the energy supplied by the
to an RC circuit shown in Fig. 11.144. The source is
capacitor is initially uncharged. The output
(a) ∞ (b) 1 J
voltage v0 at time t = 2 seconds is
(a) 3 V (b) −3 V 1
(c) J (d) 0
(c) 4 V (d) −4 V 2
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 11.83

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

11.1 (c) 11.2 (a) 11.3 (c) 11.4 (a) 11.5 (b) 11.6 (b)
11.7 (a) 11.8 (d) 11.9 (c) 11.10 (c)
13
Two-Port Networks

13.1 INTRODUCTION
A two-port network has two pairs of terminals, one pair at
the input known as input port and one pair at the output I1 I2
known as output port as shown in Fig. 13.1. There are + +
four variables V1, V2, I1 and I2 associated with a two-port V1 Two-port network V2
network. Two of these variables can be expressed in terms − −
of the other two variables. Thus, there will be two dependent
variables and two independent variables. The number of Fig. 13.1 Two-port network
possible combinations generated by four variables taken
two at a time is 4C2, i.e., six. There are six possible sets of equations describing a two-port network.

Table 13.1 Two–port parameters

Variables
Parameter Equation
Express In terms of
Open-Circuit Impedance V1, V2 I1, I2 V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2
Short-Circuit Admittance I1, I2 V1, V2 I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2
Transmission V1, I1 V2, I2 V1 = AV2 − BI2
I1 = CV2 − DI2
Inverse Transmission V2, I2 V1, I1 V2 A′ V1 B′ I1
I2 C ′ V1 D ′ I1
Hybrid V1, I2 I1, V2 V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
Inverse Hybrid I1, V2 V1, I2 I1 = g11 V1 + g12 I2
V2 = g21 V1 + g22 I2
13.2 Network Analysis and Synthesis

13.2 OPEN-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS (Z PARAMETERS)

The Z parameters of a two-port network may be deﬁned by expressing two-port voltages V1 and V2 in terms
of two-port currents I1 and I2.
( , V2 ) f ( I1 , )
V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
In matrix form, we can write
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤
⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
[V ] [ Z ] [ I ]
The individual Z parameters for a given network can be deﬁned by setting each of the port currents equal
to zero.
Case 1 When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0
V
Z11 = 1
I1 I 2 = 0
where Z11 is the driving-point impedance with the output port open-circuited. It is also called open-circuit
input impedance.
Similarly,
V
Z 21 = 2
I1 I 2 = 0
where Z21 is the transfer impedance with the output port open-circuited. It is also called open-circuit forward
transfer impedance.
Case 2 When input port is open-circuited, i.e., I1 = 0
V1
Z12 =
I2 I1 = 0
where Z12 is the transfer impedance with the input port open-circuited. It is also called open-circuit reverse
transfer impedance.
Similarly,
V
Z 22 = 2
I 2 I1 = 0
I1 I2
where Z22 is the open-circuit driving-point impedance
+ +
with the input port open-circuited. It is also called open Z11 Z22
circuit output impedance.
V1 V2
As these impedance parameters are measured with + + Z I
Z12I2
either the input or output port open-circuited, these are − − 21 1
− −
called open-circuit impedance parameters.
The equivalent circuit of the two-port network in Fig. 13.2 Equivalent circuit of the two-port
terms of Z parameters is shown in Fig. 13.2. network in terms of Z parameter

13.2.1 Condition for Reciprocity I1 I2

A network is said to be reciprocal if the ratio of excitation +

Vs Network I2′
−
at one port to response at the other port is same if excitation
and response are interchanged.
(a) As shown in Fig. 13.3, voltage Vs is applied at the Fig. 13.3 Network for deriving condition
input port with the output port short-circuited. for reciprocity
13.2 Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters (Z Parameters) 13.3

i.e., V1 Vs
V2 = 0
I2 I2 ′
From the Z-parameter equations,
Vs Z11 I1 Z12 I 2 ′
0 = Z 21 I1 − Z 22 I 2 ′
Z
I1 = 22 I 2 ′
Z 21
Z 22
Vs Z11 I 2 ′ Z12 I 2 ′
Z 21
Vs Z Z − Z12 Z 21
= 11 22
I2 ′ Z 21
(b) As shown in Fig. 13.4, voltage Vs is applied at the I1
I2
output port with input port short-circuited.
I1′ +
i.e., V2 Vs Network
− Vs
V1 = 0
I1 I1 ′ Fig. 13.4 Network for deriving condition for
From the Z-parameter equations, reciprocity
0 = − Z11 I1 ′ + Z12 I 2
Vs = − Z 221 I1 ′ + Z 222 I 2
Z
I 2 = 111 I1 ′
Z112
Z
Vs Z 21 I1 ′ Z 22 11 I1 ′
Z12
Vs Z11Z 22 − Z12 Z 21
=
I1 ′ Z12
Hence, for the network to be reciprocal,
Vs Vs
=
I1 ′ I 2 ′
i.e., Z12 Z 21

13.2.2 Condition for Symmetry

For a network to be symmetrical, the voltage-to-current ratio at one port should be the same as the voltage-
to-current ratio at the other port with one of the ports open-circuited.
(a) When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0
From the Z-parameter equation,
Vs Z11 I1
Vs
= Z11
I1
(b) When the input port is open-circuited, i.e., I1 = 0
From the Z-parameter equation,
Vs Z 22 I 2
Vs
= Z 22
I2
Hence, for the network to be symmetrical,
13.4 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Vs Vs
=
I1 I 2
i.e., Z11 Z 22

Example 13.1 Test results for a two-port network are (a) I1 = 0.1 Æ 0é A, V1 = 5.2 Æ 50é V,
V2= 4.1 Æ-25é V with Port 2 open-circuited (b) I = 0.1 Æ 0é A, V = 3.1 Æ−80é V, V =4.2 Æ 60é V, with Port 1
2 1 2
open-circuited. Find Z parameters.
Solution
V 5 2∠50° V1 3 1∠ − 80°
Z11 = 1 = = 52 ∠50
∠50° Ω, Z112 = = = 31 ∠ 80° Ω
I1 I 2 = 0 0 1∠0° I2 I1 = 0 0.1∠0°
V2 4.1∠ − 25° V2 4.2∠60°
Z 221 = = = 41 ∠ − 25° Ω, Z222 = = = 42 ∠60° Ω
I1 I2 =0 0 1∠0° I2 I1 = 0 0 1∠0°
Hence, the Z-parameters are
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡52∠50° 31∠ − 80°⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 =⎢
Z 22 ⎦ ⎣ 41∠ − 25° 42∠60° ⎥⎦
⎥

Example 13.2 Find the Z parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.5.
Z1 Z3
I1 I2
+ +

V1 Z2 V2

− −

Fig. 13.5
Solution
First Method
Case 1 When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 ( Z1 + Z 2 ) I1
V1
Z11 = = Z1 Z 2
I1 I2 = 0

Also V2 Z 2 I1
V2
Z 21 = = Z2
I1 I2 = 0
Case 2 When the input port is open-circuited, i.e., I1 = 0.
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 ( Z 2 + Z3 ) I 2
V2
Z 22 = = Z2 Z3
I2 I1 = 0
13.2 Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters (Z Parameters) 13.5

Also V1 Z2 I 2
V1
Z12 = = Z2
I2 I1 = 0
Hence, the Z-parameters are
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ Z1 Z 2 Z2 ⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 =
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z 2 Z 2 + Z3 ⎥⎦
Second Method
The network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 13.6.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 Z1 I1 Z 2 ( I1 I2 ) Z1 Z3
= ( Z1 Z 2 ) I1 Z 2 I 2 …(i)
+ +
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 Z3 I 2 Z 2 ( I1 I2 ) V1 Z2 V2
I1 I2
= Z 2 I1 + ( Z 2 Z3 ) I 2 …(ii)
− −
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Z-parameter
equations, Fig. 13.6
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ Z1 Z 2 Z2 ⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 =
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z 2 Z 2 + Z3 ⎥⎦

Example 13.3 Find Z-parameter for the network shown in Fig. 13.7.
I1 1Ω 2Ω 1H I2
+ +

V1 2F 1Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.7
Solution The transformed network is shown in Fig. 13.8.
Z1 = 1
1 2 s
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ (1) + +
2s 1 Z1
Z2 = = 1 Z3
V2
1 2s 1 V1 1 Z
+1 2s 2
2s − −
Z3 s + 2
From deﬁnition of Z-parameters, Fig. 13.8
V1 1 2s 2 V1 1
Z11 = = Z1 Z2 = 1 + = , Z12 = = Z2 =
I1 I2 0 2s 1 2s 1 I2 I1 = 0 2s 1
V2 1 V2 1 2 2 5s + 3
2 =
Z 21 = Z2 = Z 222 = = Z 2 + Z3 = +s+2 =
I1 I2 = 0 2s 1 I2 I1 = 0 2s 1 2s 1
13.6 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 13.4 Find Z-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.9.
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
+ +

V1 2Ω 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.9
Solution The network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 13.10.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 3I1 2 I 3 …(i)
1Ω 1Ω
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
+ +
V2 2 I 2 2 I 3 …(ii)
Applying KVL to Mesh 3, 2Ω 2Ω V2
V1
−2 1 + 2 I 2 + 5 3 =0 I1 I3 I2
2 2 − −
I3 =I1 − I 2 …(iii)
5 5
Fig. 13.10
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
4 4
V1 = 3I1 I1 I2
5 5
11 4
= I1 I2 …(iv)
5 5
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
4 4
V2 2I 2 + I1 I2
5 5
4 6
= I1 I2 …(v)
5 5
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (v) with Z-parameter equations,
⎡11 4 ⎤
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎢ 5 5 ⎥
=
⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 4 6 ⎥⎥
⎣ 5 5⎦

Example 13.5 Find the Z-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.11.
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
+ +

V1 1H 1H V2

− −

Fig. 13.11
13.2 Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters (Z Parameters) 13.7

Solution The transformed network is shown in Fig. 13.12.

Applying KVL to Mesh 1, 1 1
V1 ( s + 1) I1 sI 3 …(i) + +
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 ssII 2 sI 3 …(ii) V1 s s V2

Applying KVL to Mesh 3, I1 I3 I2

− −
− sI1 + sI 2 + ( 2 s + 1) I 3 = 0
s s Fig. 13.12
I3 = I1 − I2 …
2s 1 2s 1 (iii)
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
⎛ s s ⎞
V1 ( s + 1) I1 s⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝ 2s 1 2s 1 ⎠
⎛ s 2 + 3s
3s 1⎞ ⎛ s2 ⎞
=⎜ +
⎟ 1 ⎜ 2 s + 1⎟ I 2
I …(iv)
⎝ 2s 1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛ s s ⎞
V2 s 2
sI s⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝ 2s 1 2s 1 ⎠
⎛ s2 ⎞ ⎛ s2 + s ⎞
=⎜ +
⎟ 1 ⎜ 2s 1⎟ I 2
I …(v)
⎝ 2 s 1⎠ ⎝ ⎠

Comparing Eqs (iv) and (v) with Z-parameter equations,

⎡ s 2 + 3s
3s 1 s2 ⎤
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎢ 2 s +11 2s 1 ⎥
2s
⎥
⎢⎣ Z 21 =⎢
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ s 2 s2 + s ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 s 1 2 s 1 ⎥⎦

Example 13.6 Find the open-circuit impedance parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.13.
Determine whether the network is symmetrical and reciprocal.
4Ω

I1 1Ω 3Ω I2
+ +

V1 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.13
13.8 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 13.14.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
4Ω
V I + I2 0
V …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V I + I2 0 1Ω I3 3Ω
V …(ii) + +
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
V 2Ω V
− 2+ − − = I1 I
I − + I 0
1 3 Fig. 13.14
− I2 …(iii)
8 8
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
1 3
V − I2
8 8
23 19
…(iv)
8 8
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
1 3
V − I2
8
19 31
…(v)
8 8
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (v) with Z-parameter equations,
23 19 ⎤
Z Z12 ⎤ 8 8
Z Z 22 19 31
8 8⎦
Since Z11 ≠ Z22, the network is not symmetrical.
Since Z12 = Z21, the network is reciprocal.

13.3 SHORT-CIRCUIT ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS (Y PARAMETERS)

The Y parameters of a two-port network may be deﬁned by expressing the two-port currents I1 and I2 in terms
of the two-port voltages V1 and V2.
2 ( ,
V
V
In matrix form, we can write
I1 ⎡Y Y ⎤ ⎡V ⎤
I2 Y Y V
I Y V
13.3 Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters (Y Parameters) 13.9

The individual Y parameters for a given network can be deﬁned by setting each of the port voltages equal to
zero.
Case 1 When the output port is short-circuited, i.e., V2 = 0
I
Y11 = 1
V1 V2 = 0
where Y11 is the driving-point admittance with the output port short-circuited. It is also called short-circuit
input admittance.
Similarly,
I
Y21 = 2
V1 V2 = 0
where Y21 is the transfer admittance with the output port short-circuited. It is also called short-circuit forward
transfer admittance.
Case 2 When the input port is short-circuited, i.e., V1 = 0
I
Y12 = 1
V2 V1 = 0
where Y12 is the transfer admittance with the input port short-circuited. It is also called short-circuit reverse
transfer admittance.
Similarly,
I
Y22 = 2
V2 V1 = 0
where Y22 is the short-circuit driving-point admittance with the input port short-circuited. It is also called the
short circuit output admittance.
As these admittance parameters are measured with either input or output port short-circuited, these are
called short-circuit admittance parameters.
The equivalent circuit of the two-port network in terms of Y parameters is shown in Fig. 13.15.
I1 I2
2
+ +

V1 Y11 Y12V2 Y21V1 Y22 V2

− −

Fig. 13.15 Equivalent circuit of the two-port network in terms of Y-parameters

Condition for Reciprocity

(a) As shown in Fig. 13.16, voltage Vs is applied at input port with the output port short-circuited.
i.e, V1 Vs
V2 = 0 I1 I2
I2 I 2′ +
Network I2′
From the Y-parameter equation, − Vs
− I 2′ Y21 Vs
I2 Fig. 13.16 Network for deriving condition
= −Y21
Vs for reciprocity
13.10 Network Analysis and Synthesis
(b) As shown in Fig. 13.17, voltage Vs is applied at output port with the input port short-circuited.
i.e, V2 Vs
V1 = 0
I1 I2
I1 I1′
From the Y-parameter equation, I ′ +
1 Network Vs
−
− I1′ Y12 Vs
I1′
= −Y12
Vs Fig. 13.17 Network for deriving condition for
Hence, for the network to be reciprocal, reciprocity
I 2′ I1′
=
Vs Vs
i.e, Y12 Y21

13.3.2 Condition for Symmetry

(a) When the output port is short-circuited, i.e., V2 = 0.
From the Y-parameter equation,
I1 Y11 Vs
Vs 1
=
I1 Y11
(b) When the input port is short-circuited, i.e., V1 = 0.
From the Y-parameter equation,
I 2 Y22 Vs
Vs 1
=
I 2 Y22
Hence, for the network to be symmetrical,
Vs Vs
=
I1 I 2
i.e., Y11 Y22

Example 13.8 Find Y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.18.

I1 1Ω 3 3Ω I2
+ +

V1 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.18
Solution
First Method
Case 1 When the output port is short-circuited, i.e., V2 = 0 as shown in Fig. 13.19,
2×3 6 11
Req = 1 + = 1+ = Ω
2+3 5 5
11 I1 1Ω 3Ω I2
Now, V1 I1
5 +

I 5
Y11 = 1 = V1 2Ω
V1 V2 = 0 11
2 2 5 2 −
Also, I2 ( I1 ) = − × V1 V1
5 5 11 11
Fig. 13.19
I 2
Y21 = 2 =−
V1 V2 = 0 11
Case 2 When the input port is short-circuited, i.e., V1 = 0 as shown in Fig. 13.20,
1× 2 2 11
Req = 3 + = 3+ = Ω I1 1Ω 3Ω I2
1+ 2 3 3
11 +
Now V2 I2
3 V2
2Ω
I 3
Y22 = 2 =
V2 V1 = 0 11 −
2 2 3 2
Also I1 ( I 2 ) = − × V2 V2 Fig. 13.20
3 3 11 11
I 2
Y12 = 1 =−
V2 V1 = 0 11

Hence, the Y-parameters are

⎡ 5 2⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤
= 11 11
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 2 3 ⎥⎥
−
⎣ 11 11 ⎦
Second Method (Refer Fig. 13.18)
V1 V3
I1 =
1
= V1 V3 …(i)
13.12 Network Analysis and Synthesis

V2 V3
I2 =
3
V2 V3
= − …(ii)
3 3
Applying KCL at Node 3,
V3
I1 I2 = …(iii)
2
Substituting Eqs (i) and (ii) in Eq. (iii),
V V V
V1 V3 + 2 − 3 = 3
3 3 2
V2 11
V1 + = V3
3 6
6 2
V3 V1 + V 2 …(iv)
11 11
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (i),
6 2
I1 = V1 V1 V2
11 11
5 2
= V1 V2 …(v)
11 11
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii),
V 1⎛ 6 2 ⎞
I 2 = 2 − ⎜ V1 V2 ⎟
3 3 ⎝ 11 11 ⎠
2 3
= − V1 V2 …(vi)
11 11
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ 5 2⎤
− ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ 11 11
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 2 3 ⎥
⎢− ⎥
⎣ 11 11 ⎦

Example 13.9 Find Y-parameters of the network shown in Fig. 13.21.

I1 2Ω V3 2Ω I2
+ +

1Ω

V1 V2

3V2

− −

Fig. 13.21
Solution From Fig. 13.21,
V1 V3
I1 =
2
1 1
= V1 V3 …(i)
2 2
13.3 Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters (Y Parameters) 13.13

V2 V3
I2 =
2
1 1
= V2 V3 …(ii)
2 2
Applying KCL at Node 3,
I1 I 2 + 3 V2 0 …(iii)
Substituting Eqs (i) and (ii) in Eq. (iii),
V1 V3 V2 V3
+ + 3V
3 V2 0
2 2
2 V3 V1 7 V2
1 7
V3 V1 + V2 …(iv)
2 2
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (i),
1 1 ⎛1 7 ⎞
I1 V1 − ⎜ V1 V2 ⎟
2 2 ⎝2 2 ⎠
1 7
= V1 V2 …(v)
4 4
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii),
1 1 ⎛1 7 ⎞
I2V2 − ⎜ V1 V2 ⎟
2 2 ⎝2 2 ⎠
1 5
= − V1 V2 …(vi)
4 4
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ 1 7⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ 4 4
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 5⎥
⎢− − ⎥
⎣ 4 4⎦

Example 13.10 Determine Y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.22. Determine whether
the network is symmetrical and reciprocal.
I1 1Ω 3 2Ω 2 I2
+ +

V1 2Ω 4Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.22
Solution From Fig. 13.31,
V1 V3
I1 =
1
= V1 V3 …(i)
Applying KCL at Node 3,
V3 V3 − V2
I1 = +
2 2
V2
= V3 − …(ii)
2
13.14 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2 V2 − V3
I2 = +
4 2
3 V
= V2 − 3 …(iii)
4 2
Substituting Eq. (i) in Eq. (ii),
V2
V1 V3 = V3 −
2
V V
V3 = 1 + 2 …(iv)
2 4
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii),
V1 V2 V2
I1 = + −
2 4 2
V V
= 1− 2 …(v)
2 4
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (iii),
3 1 ⎛V V ⎞
I2 V2 − ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟
4 2⎝ 2 4 ⎠
V1 V …(vi)
+ 2
=−
4 8
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ 1 1⎤
− ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ 2 4
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 5 ⎥
⎢− ⎥
⎣ 4 8 ⎦
Since Y11 ≠ Y22, the network is not symmetrical.
Since Y12 = Y21, the network is reciprocal.

Example 13.11 Determine the short-circuit admittance parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.23.
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
+ +

V1 1F 1F V2

− −

Fig. 13.23
I1 1 3 1 2 I2
Solution The transformed network is shown in Fig. 13.24.
+ +
From Fig. 13.24,
1 1
V1 V3 V1 s s V2
I1 =
1 −
−
= V1 V3 …(i)
Fig. 13.24
13.3 Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters (Y Parameters) 13.15

Applying KCL at Node 3,

V3 (V3 V2 )
I1 = +
1 1
s
= ( s 1) V3 V2 …(ii)
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2 (V2 V3 )
I2 = +
1 1
s
= ( s 1) V2 V3 …(iii)
Substituting Eq. (i) in Eq. (ii),
V1 V3 = ( s 1) V3 V2
( s 2) V3 = V1 V2
1 1
V3 = V1 + V2 …(iv)
s+2 s+2
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii),
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
I1 ( s + 1) V1 + V2 V2
⎝s+2 s+2 ⎠
s +1 1
= V1 V2 …(v)
s+2 s+2
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (iii),
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
I2 ( s + 1) V2 − ⎜ V1 + V2 ⎟
⎝s+2 s+2 ⎠

1 s 2 + 3s
3s 1
=−
V1 + V2 …(vi)
s+2 s+2
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ s +1 1 ⎤
⎢ −
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ s+2 s+2 ⎥
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢− 1 s 2 + 3s
3s 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ s + 2 s + 2 ⎥⎦

Example 13.12 Determine Y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.25.
1 1
F F
I1 2 2 I2
+ +

V1 1H 1H V2

− −

Fig. 13.25
13.16 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The transformed network as shown in Fig. 13.26.
From Fig. 13.26, I1 2 3 2 2 I2
V V s s
I1 = 1 3 + +
2
s V1 s s V2
s s
= V1 − V3 …(i) − −
2 2
Applying KCL at Node 3, Fig. 13.26
s V s
(V1 V3 ) = 3 + (V
(V3 V2 )
2 s 2
s 1 s s s
V3 + V3 + V3 = V1 + V2
2 s 2 2 2
s2 s2
V3 = V1 + V2 …(ii)
2( s 2 1) ((ss 2 1)
Substituting Eq. (ii) in Eq. (i),
s s ⎡ s2 s2 ⎤
I1 = V1 − ⎢ 2 V1 + 2
V2 ⎥
2 2 ⎣ 2( s 1) 2( s 1) ⎦
⎡s s3 ⎤ s3
=⎢ − 2 ⎥ V1 − V2
⎣ 2 4( s 1) ⎦ 4( s 2 1)
s3 + 2 s s3
= V1 − V2 …(iii)
4( s 2 1) 4( s 2 1)
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2 s
I2 = + (V2 V3 )
s 2
s2 + 2 s
= V2 V3 …(iv)
2s 2
Substituting Eq. (ii) in Eq. (iv),
s2 + 2 s ⎡ s2 s2 ⎤
I2 = V2 − ⎢ 2 V1 + 2
V2 ⎥
2s 2 ⎣ 2( s 1) 2( s 1) ⎦

s3 ⎡ s2 + 2 s3 ⎤
=− V1 + ⎢ − ⎥ V2
4( s 2 1) ⎣ 2s 4( s 2 1) ⎦

s3 s4 + 6 2 4
=− V1 + V2 …(v)
4( s 2 1) 4 s( s 2 1)
Comparing Eqs (iii) and (v) with Y-parameter equation,
⎡ s3 + 2 s s3 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ 4( s 2 1) 4( s 2 1) ⎥
⎢⎣Y21 =
Y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ s3 s4 + 6s2 + 4 ⎥
⎢− ⎥
⎢⎣ 4( s 2 1) 4 s( s 2 1) ⎥⎦
13.3 Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters (Y Parameters) 13.17

Example 13.13 Obtain Y-parameters of the network shown in Fig. 13.27.

1
s

I1 1 1 3 1 2 I2
+ +

V1 1 V2
s

− −

Fig. 13.27

Solution
Applying KCL at Node 1,
V1 V3 V1 V2
I1 = +
1 1
s
= ( s 1) V1 s V2 − V3 …(i)

Applying KCL at Node 2,

V2 V3 V2 V1
I2 = +
1 1
s
= ( s 1) V2 s V1 − V3 …(ii)

Applying KCL at Node 3,

V3 V3 V1 V3 V2
+ + =0
1 1 1
s
( s 2) V3 V1 V2 0
1 1
V3 = V1 + V2 …(iii)
s+2 s+2
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
I1 ( s + 1) V1 sV
V2 V1 + V2 ⎟
⎝s+2 s+2 ⎠
⎡ ( s +11)( s 2) − 1⎤ ⎡ s ( s + 2) 1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ V1 ⎢ ⎥ V2
⎣ ( s + 2) ⎦ ⎣ ( s + 2) ⎦
⎛ s 2 + 3s
3s 1⎞ ⎛ s 2 + 2s
2 s 1⎞
=⎜ ⎟ V −
1 ⎜ ⎟ V2 …(iv)
⎝ s+2 ⎠ ⎝ s+2 ⎠
13.18 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
I2 ( s + 1) V2 s V1 V1 + V2 ⎟
⎝s+2 s+2 ⎠
⎡ s ( s + 2) 1 ⎤ ⎡( )(
)( ) − 1⎤
= −⎢ ⎥ V1 + ⎢ ⎥ V2
⎣ ( s + 2) ⎦ ⎣ ( ) ⎦
⎛ s 2 + 2 s + 1⎞ ⎛ s 2 + 3s + 1⎞
= −⎜ +
⎟ 1 ⎜ s + 2 ⎟ V2
V …(v)
⎝ s+2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (v) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ s 2 + 3s
3s 1 2 s 1) ⎤
( s 2 + 2s
−
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ s+2 s+2
⎥
⎢⎣Y21 =⎢ ⎥
Y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ( s 2 + 2ss 1) s2 + 3 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ − s+2 s+2 ⎥⎦

13.4 ΤRANSMISSION PARAMETERS (ABCD PARAMETERS)

The transmission parameters or chain parameters or ABCD parameters serve to relate the voltage and current
at the input port to voltage and current at the output port. In equation form,
( , I1 ) f (V2 , )
V1 AV
AV2 BI B 2
I1 CV V2 DI
D 2
Here, the negative sign is used with I2 and not for parameters B and D. The reason the current I2 carries a
negative sign is that in transmission ﬁeld, the output current is assumed to be coming out of the output port
instead of going into the port.
In matrix form, we can write
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤
⎢⎣ I1 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ⎥⎦
⎡A B⎤
where matrix ⎢ is called transmission matrix.
⎣C D ⎥⎦
For a given network, these parameters are determined as follows:
Case 1 When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0
V
A= 1
V2 I 2 = 0
where A is the reverse voltage gain with the output port open-circuited.
I
Similarly, C= 1
V2 I 2 = 0
where C is the transfer admittance with the output port open-circuited.
Case 2 When output port is short-circuited, i.e., V2 = 0
V
B=− 1
I 2 V2 = 0
where B is the transfer impedance with the output port short-circuited.
I
Similarly, D=− 1
I 2 V2 = 0
where D is the reverse current gain with the output port short-circuited.
13.4 Τransmission Parameters (ABCD Parameters) 13.19

13.4.1 Condition for Reciprocity

(a) As shown in Fig. 13.28, voltage Vs is applied at the input port with the output port short-circuited.
i.e., V V 1 s I1 I2
V2 = 0
+
I 2′ I2 − Vs
Network I2′
From the transmission parameter equations,
Vs B I 2′ Fig. 13.28 Network for deriving condition for
Vs reciprocity
= B
I 2′
(b) As shown in Fig. 13.29, voltage Vs is applied at the output port with the input port short-circuited.

i.e., V2 Vs I1
I2
V1 = 0 +
I1′ Network Vs
I1′ I1 −

13.4.2 Condition for Symmetry

(a) When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0.
From the transmission-parameter equations,
Vs AV V2
I1 CV V2
Vs A
=
I1 C
(b) When the input port is open-circuited, i.e., I1 = 0.
From the transmission parameter equation,
CVVs = DI 2
Vs D
=
I2 C
13.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Hence, for network to be symmetrical,
Vs Vs
=
I1 I 2
i.e., A D

Example 13.14 Find the transmission parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.30.
I1 1Ω 2Ω I2
+ +

V1 5Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.30
Solution
First Method
Case 1 When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0.
V1 6 I1
and V2 I1
V1 6 I1 6
A= = =
V2 I2 = 0 5 I1 5
I1 1
C= =
V2 I2 = 0 5
Case 2 When the output port is short-circuited, i.e., V2 = 0, as shown in Fig. 13.31,
5× 2 10 17 I1 1Ω 2Ω I2
Req = 1 + = 1+ = Ω
5+ 2 7 7 +
17
Now V1 I1 V1 5Ω
7
5 5 −
and I2 ( I1 ) = − I1
7 7
17 Fig. 13.31
I1
V 17
B=− 1 =− 7 = Ω
I 2 V2 = 0 5 5
− I1
7
I1 7
D=− =
I 2 V2 = 0 5
Hence, the transmission parameters are
⎡ 6 17 ⎤
⎡A B⎤ ⎢5 5 ⎥
⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 7 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣5 5 ⎦
13.4 Τransmission Parameters (ABCD Parameters) 13.21

Second Method (Refer Fig. 13.37)

Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 6 I1 5 I 2 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 I1 7 I 2 …(ii)
Hence,
51 2 7I 2
1 7
I1 V2 − I 2 …(iii)
5 5
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
⎛1 7 ⎞
V1 6 V2 − I 2 I2
⎝5 5 ⎠
6 17
= V2 I2 …(iv)
5 5
Comparing Eqs (iii) and (iv) with transmission parameter equations,
⎡ 6 17 ⎤
⎡A B⎤ ⎢5 5 ⎥
⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 7 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣5 5 ⎦

Example 13.15 Obtain ABCD parameters for the network shown in Fig 13.32.
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
+ +

V1 2Ω 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.32
Solution The network is redrawn as shown in Fig 13.33.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1, 1Ω 1Ω
V1 3I1 2 I 3 …(i)
+ +
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 2 I 2 2 I 3 …(ii) V 2Ω 2Ω V2
1
Applying KVL to Mesh 3, I1 I3 I2
−2 ( 3 − 1 ) − 3 − 2 ( 3 + 2 ) = 0
− −
5 3 = 2 I1 − 2 I 2
2 2 Fig. 13.33
I 3 = I1 − I 2 …(iii)
5 5
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
⎛2 2 ⎞
V1 3I1 2 ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
11 4
= I1 I2 …(iv)
5 5
13.22 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛2 2 ⎞
V2 2I 2
2 ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
4 6
= I1 I2
5 5
4 6
I1 V2 − I 2
5 5
5 3
I1 V2 − I 2 …(v)
4 2
Substituting Eq. (v) in Eq. (iv),
11 ⎛ 5 3 ⎞ 4
V2 − I 2
V1 I2
5 ⎝4 2 ⎠ 5
11 5
= V2 I2 …(vi)
4 2
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with ABCD parameter equations,
⎡11 5⎤
⎡A B⎤ ⎢ 4 2⎥
⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 5 3 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎣4 2⎦

Example 13.16 Determine the transmission parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.34.
I1 1 1 2 I2
+ +

s 1
V1 s V2

− −

Fig. 13.34

Solution
Applying KCL at Node 1,
V1
I1 = + (V1 V2 )
s
s +1
= V1 V2 …(i)
s
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2
I2 = + (V2 V1 )
1
s
= ( s 1) V2 V1
V1 ( s + 1) V2 I 2 …(ii)
13.4 Τransmission Parameters (ABCD Parameters) 13.23

Substituting Eq. (ii) in Eq. (i),

s +1
I1 −I
s
⎡ ( s + 1) 2 ⎤ s +1
⎢ 1 V
⎣ s ⎦ s
2
s 1 s +1
= V − 2 …(iii)
s s
Comparing Eqs (ii) and (iii) with ABCD parameter equations,
s+ −
⎡A B⎤ 2
= s 1 s +1
C D
s s

Example 13.17 Find transmission parameters for the two-port network shown in Fig. 13.35.
I1 10 Ω 1.5 V I

+ +

V 25 Ω 20 Ω V
I1 I I
−

Fig. 13.35

Solution Applying KVL to Mesh 1,

+ 25 ( )
= …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V + I3
I …(ii)
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
− ( − )+ − 2+ =0
+ − ) − 20 I 2 − 0
+ − 20 =0
82 − 20 I 2
I3 0 94 …(iii)
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
− 25 0 9 I I2
…(iv)
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
I + 20 0 9 I I2
18 I …(v)
From Eq. (v),
V − 0 81I 2 …(vi)
13.24 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Substituting Eq. (vi) in Eq. (iv),
V1 11. (0 0 3 V2 − 0.81I 2 ) 6 I 2
= 0.61V
61 V2 3 32 I 2 …(vii)
Comparing Eqs (vi) and (vii) with ABCD parameter equations,
⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ 0.61 −3.32⎤
⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣0.053 −0.81⎥⎦

13.5 INVERSE TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS (A�B�C�D� PARAMETERS)

The inverse transmission parameters serve to relate the voltage and current at the outport port to the voltage
and current at the input port. In equation form,
( , I 2 ) f (V1 , )
V2 A′ V1 B′ I1
I 2 C ′ V1 D ′ I1
In matrix form, we can write
⎡V2 ⎤ ⎡ A′ B′ ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C ′ D ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I1 ⎥⎦
⎡ A′ B′ ⎤
where matrix ⎢ is called the inverse transmission matrix.
⎣C ′ D ′ ⎥⎦
For a given network, these parameters are determined as follows:
Case 1 When the input port is open-circuited, i.e., I1 = 0
V
A′ = 2
V1 I1 = 0
where A′ is the forward voltage gain with the input port open-circuited.
I
Similarly, C′ = 2
V1 I1 = 0
where C ′ is the transfer admittance with the input port open-circuited.
Case 2 When the input port is short-circuited, i.e., V1 = 0
V
B′ = − 2
I1 V1 = 0
where B′ is the transfer impedance with the input port short-circuited.
Similarly,
I
D′ = − 2
I1 V1 = 0
where D′ is the forward current gain with the input port short-circuited.

13.5.1 Condition for Reciprocity

I1 I2
(a) As shown in Fig 13.36, voltage Vs is applied at
input port with the output port short-circuited. +
Vs Network I2′
−
i.e., V1 Vs
V2 = 0 Fig. 13.36 Network for deriving condition
I2 I2 ′ for reciprocity
13.5 Inverse Transmission Parameters (A′B′C′D′ Parameters) 13.25

From the inverse transmission parameter equations,

0 = A′ Vs − B′ I1
− I 2 ′ = C ′ Vs D ′ I1
I 2 ′ A′ D ′ − B ′C ′
=
Vs B′
(b) As shown in Fig 13.37, voltage Vs is applied at the output port with the input port short-circuited.
i.e., V2 Vs I1
I2
V1 = 0
I1 I1 ′ I1′ +
Network
− Vs
From the inverse transmission parameter equations,
Vs B′ I1 ′
A′ Fig. 13.37 Network for deriving condition for
I2 = Vs reciprocity
B′
I1 ′ 1
=
Vs B′
Hence, for the network to be reciprocal,
I 2 ′ I1 ′
=
Vs Vs
i.e., A′ D ′ − B′C ′ = 1

13.5.2 Condition for Symmetry

The condition for symmetry is obtained from the Z-parameters.
V D′
Z11 = 1 =0=
I1 I 2 = 0 C′
Similarly,
V A′
Z 22 = 2 =0=
I 2 I1 = 0 C′
For symmetrical network
Z11 Z 22
A′ D ′

Example 13.18 Find the inverse transmission parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.38.
I1 1Ω 2Ω
+ +

V1 3Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.38
Solution
First method
Case 1 When the input port is open-circuited, i.e., I1 = 0
V1 3I 2
V2 I2
13.26 Network Analysis and Synthesis

V2 5
A′ = =
V1 I1 = 0 3
I2 1
C′ = =
V1 I1 = 0 3

Case 2 When the input port is short-circuited, i.e., V1 = 0 as shown in Fig. 13.39.
By current division rule, I1 1Ω 2Ω I2
3
I1 I2 +
4
I 4 3Ω V2
D′ = − 2 =
I1 V1 = 0 3
3 1 3 11 −
Req = 2 + = 2+ = Ω
3 1 4 4 Fig. 13.39
11 11 ⎛ 4 ⎞ 11
V2 I 2 = ⎜ − ⎟ I1 I1
4 4 ⎝ 3⎠ 3
V 11
B′ = − 2 = Ω
I1 V1 = 0 3
Second Method Refer Fig. 13.38.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 = 4I1 + 3I2 ...(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 = 3I1 + 5I2 ...(ii)
Hence, 3I2 = V1 − 4I1
1 4
I2 V1 − I1 …(iii)
3 3
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛1 4 ⎞
V2 3I1 5 ⎜ V1 I1 ⎟
⎝3 3 ⎠
5 11
= V1 I1 …(iv)
3 3
Comparing Eqs (iii) and (iv) with inverse transmission parameter equations,
⎡ 5 11⎤
⎡ A′ B′ ⎤ ⎢ 3 3 ⎥
⎢⎣C ′ D ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣3 3 ⎦

Example 13.19 Find the inverse transmission parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.40
I1 2Ω I2
+ +

V1 2Ω 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.40
13.5 Inverse Transmission Parameters (A′B′C′D′ Parameters) 13.27
Solution The network is redrawn as shown in Fig 13.41.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1, I1 2Ω I2

V1 2 I1 2 I 3 …(i) + +

Applying KVL to Mesh 2,

V1 2Ω 2Ω V2
V2 2I 2 2I3 …(ii)
I1 I3 I2
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
− −
−2 1 + 2 I 2 + 6 =0
3
1 1 Fig. 13.41
I 3 = I1 − I 2 …(iii)
3 3
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
⎛1 1 ⎞
V1 2 I1 2 ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝3 3 ⎠
4 2
= I1 I2 ...(iv)
3 3
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛1 1 ⎞
V2 2I 2 2 ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝3 3 ⎠
2 4
= I1 I2 ...(v)
3 3
Rewriting Eq. (iv),
2 4
I2 V1 − I1
3 3
3
I2 V1 − 2 I1 ...(vi)
2
Substituting Eq. (vi) in Eq. (v),
2 4⎛3 ⎞
V2 I1 + ⎜ V1 2 I1 ⎟
3 ⎝
3 2 ⎠
= 2V
2V1 2 I1 ...(vii)
Comparing Eq. (vi) and (vii) with inverse transmission parameter equations,
⎡2 2⎤
⎡ A′ B′ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣C ′ = 3
D ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2⎥
⎣2 ⎦

Example 13.20 Find the inverse transmission parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.42.
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
+ +

V1 2Ω 1Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.42
13.28 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 13.43.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1, I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
V1 3I1 2 I 3 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, + +
V2 I 2 + I 3 …(ii)
Applying KVL to Mesh 3, V1 2Ω 1Ω V2

−2 1 + 2 + 4 I 3 = 0 I1 I3 I2
− −
1 1
I 3 = I1 − I 2 …(iii)
2 4 Fig. 13.43
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
⎛1 1 ⎞
V1 3I1 2 ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝2 4 ⎠
1 …(iv)
= 2 I1 I2
2
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
1 1
V2 I2 + I1 I2
2 4
1 3
= I1 I2 …(v)
2 4
Rewriting Eq. (iv),
1
I2 V1 − 2 I1
2
I2 2 1 4 I1 ...(vi)
Substituting the Eq. (vi) in Eq. (v),
1 3
V2 I1 + ( 2V1 4 1 )
2 4
3 5
= V1 I1 ...(vii)
2 2
Comparing Eqs (vi) and (vii) with inverse transmission parameter equations,
⎡3 5⎤
⎡ A′ B′ ⎤ ⎢
⎢⎣C ′ =
D ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 2⎥
⎣2 4 ⎥⎦

13.6 HYBRID PARAMETERS (h PARAMETERS)

The hybrid parameters of a two-port network may be deﬁned by expressing the voltage of input port V1 and
current of output port I2 in terms of current of input port I1 and voltage of output port V2.
( , I 2 ) f ( I1 , )
V1 h11 I1 h12 V2
I 2 h21 I1 h22 V2
In matrix form, we can write
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ h21 h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦

The individual h parameters can be deﬁned by setting I1 = 0 and V2 = 0.

13.6 Hybrid Parameters (h Parameters) 13.29

Case 1 When the output port is short-circuited i.e., V2 = 0

V
h11 = 1
I1 V2 = 0
where h11 is the short-circuit input impedance.
I2
h21 =
I1 V2 = 0
where h21 is the short-circuit forward current gain.
Case 2 When the input port is open-circuited, i.e., I1 = 0
V
h12 = 1
V2 I1 = 0
where h12 is the open-circuit reverse voltage gain.
I
h22 = 2
V2 I1 = 0
where h22 is the open-circuit output admittance.
Since h parameters represent dimensionally an impedance, an admittance, a voltage gain and a current
gain, these are called hybrid parameters.
The equivalent circuit of a two-port network in terms of hybrid parameters is shown in Fig 13.44.
h11 I2
I1
+ +

+
V1 h12V2 h21I1 h22 V2
−

− −

Fig. 13.44 Equivalent circuit of the two-port network in terms of h-parameters

13.6.1 Condition for Reciprocity

(a) As shown in Fig. 13.45, voltage Vs is applied at the input port and the output port is short-circuited.
i.e., V1 Vs
V2 = 0 I1 I2
I2 ′ I2 +
From the h-parameter equations, Vs Network I2′
−
Vs h11 I1
− I 2 ′ h21 I1 Fig. 13.45 Network for deriving condition
Vs h for reciprocity
= − 11
I2 ′ h21
I1
(b) As shown in Fig. 13.46, voltage Vs is applied I2
at the output port with the input port short- +
I1′ Network Vs
circuited. −
i.e., V1 = 0
V2 Vs Fig. 13.46 Network for deriving condition for
I1 I1 ′ reciprocity
13.30 Network Analysis and Synthesis
From the h-parameter equations,
0 = h11
1 I1 + h12
12 Vs
h12 Vs = − h111 1I = h1111 I1 ′
Vs h111
=
I1 ′ h112
Hence, for the network to be reciprocal,
Vs Vs
=
I 2 ′ I1 ′
i.e., h21 h12

13.6.2 Condition for Symmetry

The condition for symmetry is obtained from the Z-parameters.
V h I +h V V
Z11 = 1 = 11 1 12 2 = h11 h12 2
I1 I 2 0 I1 I2 = 0 I1
But with I2 = 0,
0 = h21
2 I1 + h222 2 V2
V2 h
= − 221
I1 h22
h h h h −h h Δh
Z11 h11 − 12 21 = 11 22 12 21 =
h22 h22 h22
where Δh = h11h22 − h12 h21
Similarly,
V
Z 22 = 2
I 2 I1 = 0
With I1 = 0,
I 2 h22 V2
V2 1
Z 22 = =
I2 I1 = 0 h22
For a symmetrical network, Z11 Z 22

Δh 1
i.e., =
h22 h22
i.e., Δh = 1
i.e., h11 h22 − h12 h21 = 1

Example 13.21 In the two-port network shown in Fig. 13.47, compute h-parameters from the
following data:
(a) With the output port short-circuited:V
V1 2 V I1 1 A, I 2 A
(b) With the input port open-circuited:V
V1 10 V V2 50 V , I 2 A
I1
I2
+ +
V1 Two-port network V2
− −

Fig. 13.47
13.6 Hybrid Parameters (h Parameters) 13.31
Solution
V1 25 V1 10
h11 = = = 255 Ω, h12 = = = 0.2
I1 V 1 V2 I1 = 0 50
2= 0
I2 2 I2 2
h21 = = = 2, h222 = = = 0.04
I1 V2 = 0 1 V2 I1 = 0 50
Hence, the h-parameters are
⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎡ 25 0 2 ⎤
⎢⎣ h 21 h22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ 2 0.04 ⎥⎦

Example 13.22 Determine hybrid parameters for the network of Fig. 13.48.
Determine whether the network is reciprocal.
I1 1Ω 2Ω I2

+ +

V1 2Ω 4Ω V2
I1 I3 I2
− −

Fig. 13.48
Solution
First Method
Case 1 When Port 2 is short-circuited, i.e., V2 = 0 as shown in Fig. 13.49,
2×2
Req = 1 + = Ω I1 1Ω 2Ω I2
2+2
+
Now, V1 2I1
V 2Ω 4Ω
h11 = 1 =2Ω V1
I1 V2 = 0
2 I1 −
Also, I2 I1 × =−
2 2 2
Fig. 13.49
I 1
h21 = 2 =−
I1 V2 = 0 2
Case 2 When Port 1 is open-circuited, i.e., I1 = 0 as shown in Fig. 13.50,
( + )×4
Req = = Ω
2+2+4 I1 = 0 1Ω 1Ω I2
V1 2I y
+ ly lx +
I
Iy = 2
2 V1 2Ω 4Ω V2
V2 4 I x
I − −
Ix = 2
2
Fig. 13.50
13.32 Network Analysis and Synthesis

I2
2I y 2×
V 2 =1
h12 = 1 = =
V2 4I x I 2
I1 = 0 4× 2
2
I2 2I x 1
h22 = = =
V2 I1 = 0 4I x 2
Hence, the h-parameters are
⎡ 1⎤
2
⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎢ 2⎥
=
⎢⎣ h21 h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 1 1 ⎥⎥
−
⎣ 2 2⎦
Second Method (Refer Fig. 13.48)
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 3I1 2 I 3 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 4I2 4I3 …(ii)
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
−2 ( 3 − 1 ) − 2I3 − 4 ( 3 + 2) =0
8 3 = 2 I1 − 4 I 2
I I
I3 = 1 − 2 …(iii)
4 2
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
⎛I I ⎞
V1 3I1 2⎜ 1 − 2⎟
⎝4 2⎠
5
= I1 I2 ...(iv)
2
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛I I2⎞
V2 4I2 4⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝4 2⎠
= 4I
4 I 2 I1 2 I 2
= I1 + 2 I 2
1 1
I 2 = − I1 + V2 ...(v)
2 2
Substituting Eq. (v) in Eq. (iv),
5 1 1
I1 − I1 V1 V2
2 2 2
1
= 2 I1 V2 ...(vi)
2
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with h-parameter equations,
⎡ 1⎤
⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎢ 2 2⎥
=⎢
⎢ h21
⎣ h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 1 ⎥⎥
−
⎣ 2 2⎦
Since h12 = − h21, the network is reciprocal.
13.7 Inverse Hybrid Parameters (g Parameters) 13.33

Example 13.23 Find h-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.51.
1 1
F F
I1 2 2 I2
+ +

V1 1H 1H V2

− −

Fig. 13.51
Solution As solved in Example 13.12, derive the equations for I1 and I2 in terms of V1 and V2.
s3 + 2 s s3
I1 = V1 − V2 …(i)
4( s 2 1) 4( s 2 1)
s3 s 4 + 6s
6s2 4
I2 = − 2
V1 + 2
V2 …(ii)
4( s 1) 4ss( s 1)
From Eq. (i),
4( s 2 1) s2
V1 = I1 + V2 …(iii)
s ( s 2 + 2) s2 2
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq (ii),
s3 ⎡ 4( s 2 1) s2 ⎤ s 4 + 6s
6s2 4
I2 = − ⎢ I1 + V 2⎥ + V2
4( s 2 1) ⎣ s( s 2 + 2) s 2 2 ⎦ 4 s( s 2 + 1)
s2 2( 2
+ 1)
=− 2
I1 + 2
V2 …(iv)
s +2 s(( + 2)
Comparing Eqs (iii) and (iv) with h-parameter equations,
⎡ 4( s 2 1) s2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎢ s( s 2 + 2) s2 2 ⎥
⎢ h21 =
⎣ h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ s2 2( s 2 1) ⎥
⎢− 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ s + 2 s( s 2 + 2)
2 ⎥⎦

13.7 INVERSE HYBRID PARAMETERS (g PARAMETERS)

The inverse hybrid parameters of a two-port network may be deﬁned by expressing the current of the input
port I1 and voltage of the output port V2 in terms of the voltage of the input port V1 and the current of the
output port I2.
( , V2 ) f (V1 , )
I g11 V g12 I 2
V g21 V g22 I 2
In matrix form, we can write
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ g g12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤
⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ g g22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
The individual g parameters can be deﬁned by setting V1 = 0 and I2 = 0.
13.34 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Case 1 When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0
I1
g11 =
V1 I2 = 0
where g11 is the open-circuit input admittance.
V
g21 = 2
V1 I 2 = 0
where g21 is the open-circuit forward voltage gain.
Case 2 When the input port is short-circuited, i.e., V1 = 0
I1
g12 =
I 2 V1 = 0
where g12 is the short-circuit reverse current gain.
V
g22 = 2
I 2 V1 = 0
where g22 is the short-circuit output impedance.
The equivalent circuit of a two-port network in terms of inverse hybrid parameters is shown in
Fig. 13.52.
g22
I2 I2
+ +

+
V1 g11 g12I2 g V V2
− 21 1

− −

Fig. 13.52 Equivalent circuit of two-port network in terms of g-parameters

13.7.1 Condition for Reciprocity

(a) As shown in Fig. 13.53, voltage Vs is applied at the input port and the output port is short-circuited,
i.e., V1 Vs I1 I2
V2 = 0
I2 ′ I2 +
Vs Network I2′
−
From the g-parameter equation,
g Vs = g I 2 ′
Vs g Fig. 13.53 Network for deriving condition for
= 22 reciprocity
I 2 ′ g21
(b) As shown in Fig. 13.54, voltage Vs is applied at the output port with the input port short-circuited,
i.e., V1 = 0
V2 Vs I1
I2
I1 I1 ′
From the g-parameter equations, I1′ +
Network
− Vs
− I ′ g12 I 2
V g22 I 2
Fig. 13.54 Network for deriving condition for
Vs g22
=− reciprocity
I1 ′ g12
13.7 Inverse Hybrid Parameters (g Parameters) 13.35

Hence, for the network to be reciprocal,

Vs Vs
=
I 2 ′ I1 ′
i.e., g g12

13.7.2 Condition for Symmetry

The condition for symmetry is obtained from the Z-parameters.
V 1
Z11 = 1 =
I I 2 = 0 g11
Similarly,
V2
Z 22 =
I2 I1 = 0
0 = g V1 + g I 2
g
V1 = − 12 I 2
g11
⎛ g ⎞
V g21 − 12 ⎟ I g22 I 2
⎝ g11 ⎠
V2 g g22 − g g21
Z 22 = =
I2 I1 = 0 g11
For a symmetrical network, Z11 Z 22 .
1 g g − g12 g21
i.e., = 11 22
g11 g11
i.e., g g22 − g g21 = 1
Table 13.2 Conditions for reciprocity and symmetry
Parameter Condition for Reciprocity Condition for Symmetry
Z Z12 Z 21 Z11 Z 22
Y Y12 Y21 Y11 Y22
T AD − BC = 1 A D
T′ A′ D ′ − B′C ′ = 1 A′ D ′
h h12 h21 h11 h22 − h12 h21 = 1
g g g21 g g22 − g g21 = 1

Example 13.24 Find g-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.55.
I1 1Ω 2Ω I2
+ +

V1 3Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.55
13.36 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution
First Method
Case 1 When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 4 I1
I1 1
g11 = =
V1 I2 = 0 4
Also V2 3 I1
V2 3 I1 3
g21 = = =
V1 I2 = 0 4 I1 4

Case 2 When the input port is short-circuited, i.e., V1 = 0 as shown in Fig. 13.56.
By current division rule,
3
I1 I2
4 I1 1Ω 2Ω I2
I1 3 +
g12 = =−
I 2 V1 = 0 4
3Ω V2
3 ×1 3 11
Req = 2 + = 2+ = Ω −
3 +1 4 4
11
V2 I2 Fig. 13.56
4
V 11
g22 = 2 = Ω
I 2 V1 = 0 4
Second Method (Refer Fig. 13.55).
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 4 I1 3 I 2 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 3 I1 5 I 2 …(ii)
Hence, 4 1 1 3 I2
1 3
I1 V1 − I 2 …(iii)
4 4
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛1 3 ⎞
V1 − I 2
V2 3 I2
⎝4 4 ⎠
3 11
= V1 I2 …(iv)
4 4
Comparing Eqs (iii) and (iv) with g-parameter equations,
⎡1 3⎤
− ⎥
⎡g g12 ⎤ ⎢ 4 4
=
⎢⎣ g g22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 3 11 ⎥⎥
⎣4 4 ⎦
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.37

Example 13.25 Find g-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.57.
5I1

I1 1Ω I2
+ 1Ω +

V1 1Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.57
Solution The network is redrawn using source transformation as shown in Fig. 13.58.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1, 5I1
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
V1 1 I1 1 ( I1 I 2 ) = 0 − +
V1 2 I1 + I 2 …(i) + +

Applying KVL to Mesh 2, V1 1Ω V2

V2 5 I1 1 I 2 1 ( I 2 I1 ) 0
− −
V2 6 I1 2 I 2 …(ii)
Hence, 2 I1 V1 − I 2 Fig. 13.58
1 1
I1 V1 − I 2 …(iii)
Substituting Eq (iii) in Eq. (ii), 2 2
⎛1 1 ⎞
V2 6 V1 − I 2 2 I2
⎝2 2 ⎠
= 3 V1 − I 2 …(iv)
Comparing Eqs (iii) and (iv) the g- parameter equations,
⎡1 1⎤
⎡g g12 ⎤ ⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ g =
g22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 2
⎣3 1 ⎥⎦

13.8 INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE PARAMETERS

When it is required to find out two or more parameters of a particular network then finding each parameter
will be tedious. But if we find a particular parameter then the other parameters can be found if the inter-
relationship between them is known.

13.8.1 Z-parameters in Terms of Other Parameters

1. Z-parameters in Terms of Y-parameters We know that
1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2
I2 Y21
21 V1 Y22 V2
By Cramer’s rule,
I1 Y12
I2 Y22 Y I Y I Y Y
V1 = = 22 1 12 2 = 22 I1 − 12 I 2
Y11 Y12 Y11Y22 − Y12Y21 ΔY ΔY
Y21 Y22
13.38 Network Analysis and Synthesis

where ΔY = Y11Y22 − Y12Y21

Comparing with V1 Z11I1 Z12 , I 2 ,
Y
Z11 = 22
ΔY
Y
Z12 = − 12
ΔY
Y11 I1
Y21 I 2 Y Y
Also, V2 = = 11 I 2 − 21 I1
ΔY ΔY ΔY
Comparing with V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2 ,
Y
Z 22 = 11
ΔY
Y
Z 21 = − 21
ΔY
2. Z-parameter in Terms of ABCD Parameters We know that
V1 AAV
V2 BBI 2
I1 CVV2 DI
D 2
Rewriting the second equation,
1 D
V2 = I1 + I 2
C C
Comparing with V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2 ,
1
Z 21 =
C
D
Z 22 =
C
⎡1 D ⎤ A ⎡ AD ⎤ A ⎡ AD − BC ⎤
Also, V1 A I1 + I 2 B 2=
BI I1 + B I 2 = I1 + ⎢ ⎥ I2
⎣C C ⎦ C ⎣ C ⎦ C ⎣ C ⎦
Comparing with V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2 ,
A
Z11 =
C
AD − BC
Z12 =
C
3. Z-parameters in Terms of A�B�C�D� Parameters We know that
V2 A′ V1 B′ I1
I 2 C ′ V1 D ′ I1
Rewriting the second equation,
D′ 1
V1 = I1 + I 2
C′ C′
Comparing with V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2 ,
D′
Z11 =
C′
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.39

1
Z12 =
C′
⎡ D′ 1 ⎤ ⎡ A′ D ′ − B′C ′ ⎤ A′
Also, V2 A′ I1 + I2 B′ I1 = ⎢ ⎥ I1 + I2
⎣ C′ C′ ⎦ ⎣ C′ ⎦ C′
Comparing with V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2 ,
A′ D ′ − B′C ′ ΔT ′
Z 21 = =
C′ C′
A′
Z 22 =
C′
4. Z-parameters in Terms of Hybrid Parameters We know that
V1 h11 I1 h12 V2
I 2 h21 I1 h22 V2
Rewriting the second equation,
h 1
V2 = − 21 I1 + I2
h22 h22
Comparing with
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2 ,
h21
Z 21 = −
h22
1
Z 22 =
h22
⎡ h 1 ⎤ h h h ⎡ h1 h222 − h12 21 ⎤
1 h2 h
Also, V1 h11 I1 h12 ⎢ − 21 I1 + I2 h11 I1 + 12 I 2 − 12 21 I1 = ⎢ 11 ⎥ I1 + 112 I 2
⎣ h22 h22 ⎦ h22 h22 ⎣ h222 ⎦ h222
Comparing with V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2 ,
h11h22 − h12 h21 Δh
Z11 = =
h22 h22
h
Z12 = 12
h22
5. Z-parameters in Terms of Inverse Hybrid Parameters We know that
I g11 V g12 I 2
V g 21 V g22 I 2
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
1 g
V1 = I1 − 12 I 2
g11 g11
Comparing with V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2 ,
1
Z11 =
g11
g
Z12 = − 12
g11
⎡ 1 g ⎤ g21 ⎡ g g22 − g g21 ⎤
Also V g21 ⎢ I1 − 12 I g 22 I 2 = I1 + ⎢ ⎥ I2
⎣ g11 g11 ⎦ g11 ⎣ g11 ⎦
13.40 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Comparing with V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2 ,
g21
Z 21 =
g11
g g22 − g g21 Δg
Z 22 = =
g11 g11

13.8.2 Y-parameters in Terms of Other Parameters

1. Y-parameters in terms of Z-parameters We know that
V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
By Cramer’s rule,
V1 Z12
V2 Z 22 Z V Z12 V2 Z Z
I1 = = 22 1 = 22 V1 − 12 V2
Z11 Z12 Z11 Z 22 − Z12 Z 21 ΔZ ΔZ
Z 21 Z 22
where ΔZ = Z11 Z 22 − Z12 Z 21
Comparing with I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2 ,
Z 22
Y11 =
ΔZ
Z
Y12 = − 12
ΔZ
Z11 V1
Z 21 V2 Z V Z12V1 Z Z
Also, I2 = = 11 2 = − 21 V1 + 11 V2
ΔZ ΔZ ΔZ ΔZ
Comparing with I 2 Y2211 V1 Y22 V2 ,
Z 21
Y21 = −
ΔZ
Z11
Y22 =
ΔZ
2. Y-parameters in Terms of ABCD Parameters We know that
V1 AV
AV2 B
BI 2
I1 CV
V2 DI
D 2
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
1 A
I2 = V1 + V2
B B
Comparing with I2 Y21
21 V1 Y22 V2 ,
1
Y21 = −
B
A
Y22 =
B
⎡ 1 A ⎤ D ⎡ BC − AD ⎤
Also, I1 CV
V2 D ⎢ − V1 + V2 ⎥ = V1 + ⎢ ⎥ V2
⎣ B B ⎦ B ⎣ B ⎦
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.41

Comparing with I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2 ,

D
Y11 =
B
BC − AD AD − BC ΔT
Y12 = =− =−
B B B
3. Y-parameters in Terms of A�B�C�D� Parameters We know that
V2 A′V1 B′ I1
I 2 C ′V1 D ′ I1
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
A′ 1
I1 = V1 − V2
B′ B′
Comparing with I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2 ,
A′
Y11 =
B′
1
Y12 = −
B′
⎡ A′ 1 ⎤ ⎡ A′D ′ − B′C ′ ⎤ D′
Also, I2 C ′V1 D ′ ⎢ V1 V2 ⎥ = − ⎢ ⎥ V1 + V2
⎣ B′ B′ ⎦ ⎣ B′ ⎦ B′
Comparing with I2 Y2211 V1 Y22 V2 ,
⎡ A′D ′ − B′C ′ ⎤ ΔT ′
Y21 = − ⎢ ⎥ =−
⎣ B′ ⎦ B′
D′
and Y22 =
B′
4. Y-parameters in Terms of Hybrid Parameters We know that
V1 h11 I1 h12 V2
I2 h21 I1 h22 V2
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
1 h
I1 = V1 − 12 V2
h11 h11
Comparing with I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2 ,
1
Y11 =
h11
h
Y12 = − 12
h11
⎡ 1 h ⎤ h ⎡h h − h h ⎤
Also I2 h21 ⎢ V1 − 12 V2 h22V2 = 21 V1 + ⎢ 11 22 12 21 ⎥ V2
⎣ h11 h11 ⎦ h11 ⎣ h11 ⎦
Comparing with I2 Y2211 V1 Y22 V2 ,
h21
Y21 =
h11
h h −h h Δh
Y22 = 11 22 12 21 =
h11 h11
13.42 Network Analysis and Synthesis
5. Y-parameters in Terms of Inverse Hybrid Parameters We know that
I g11 V g12 I 2
V g21 V g22 I 2
Rewriting the second equation,
g 1
I 2 = − 21 V1 + V2
g22 g22
Comparing with I 2 Y2121 V1 Y22 V2 ,
g21
Y21 = −
g22
1
Y22 =
g22
⎡ g 1 ⎤ ⎡ g g22 − g g21 ⎤ g
Also, I g11 V g12 ⎢ − 21 V1 + V2 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ V1 + 12 V2
⎣ g22 g22 ⎦ ⎣ g22 ⎦ g22
Comparing with I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2 ,
g g22 − g g21 Δg
Y11 = =
g22 g22
g
Y12 = 12
g22

13.8.3 ABCD Parameters in Terms of Other Parameters

1. ABCD Parameters in Terms of Z-parameters We know that
V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
Rewriting the second equation,
1 Z
I1 = V2 − 22 I 2
Z 21 Z 21
Comparing with I1 CV V2 D DI 2 ,
1
C=
Z 21
Z
D = 22
Z 21
⎡ 1 Z ⎤ Z11 Z Z
Also, V1 Z11 ⎢ V2 − 22 I 2 12 I 2 =
Z12 V2 − 22 11 I 2 Z12 I 2
⎣ Z 21 Z 21 ⎦ Z 21 Z 21
Z ⎡ Z Z − Z12 Z 21 ⎤
= 11 V2 − ⎢ 11 22 ⎥ I2
Z 21 ⎣ Z 21 ⎦
Comparing with V1 AV2 B
AV BI 2 ,
Z
A = 11
Z 21
Z Z − Z12 Z 21 ΔZ
B = 11 22 =
Z 21 Z 21
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.43
2. ABCD Parameters in terms of Y-parameters We know that
I1 Y11
11 V1 Y12 V2
I2 Y2211 V1 Y22 V2
Rewriting the second equation,
Y22 1
V1 = − V2 + I2
Y21 Y21
Comparing with V1 AV
AV2 BIB 2,
Y
A = − 22
Y21
1
B=−
Y21
Also, ⎡ Y 1 ⎤ ⎡Y Y − Y Y ⎤ Y
I1 Y11 ⎢ − 22 V2 + I 2 Y1122 V2 = ⎢ 12 21 11 22 ⎥ V2 + 111 I 2
⎣ Y21 Y21 ⎦ ⎣ Y21 ⎦ Y221
Comparing with I1 CV V2 DID 2,
Y Y −Y Y ΔY
C = 12 21 11 22 = −
Y21 Y21
Y
D = − 11
Y21
3. ABCD Parameters in terms of A�B�C�D� Parameters We know that
V2 A′V1 B′ I1
I 2 C ′V1 D ′ I1
By Cramer’s rule,
V2 B′
I 2 D′ D′ B′
V1 = = V2 I2
A′ B′ ΔT ′ ΔT ′
C ′ D′
where ΔT ′ = A′ D ′ − B′C ′
Comparing with V1 AV AV2 BI B 2,
D′
A=
ΔT ′
B′
B=
ΔT ′
A′ V2
C′ I2 C′ A′
Also, − I1 = =− V2 + I2
ΔT ′ ΔT ′ ΔT ′
C′ A′
I1 = V2 − I2
ΔT ′
ΔT ΔT ′
Comparing with I1 CV V2 DI D 2,
C′
C=
ΔT ′
A′
D=
ΔT ′
13.44 Network Analysis and Synthesis
4. ABCD Parameters in Terms of Hybrid Parameters We know that
V1 h11 I1 h12 V2
I 2 h21 I1 h22 V2
Rewriting the second equation,
h 1
I1 = − 22 V2 + I2
h21 h21
Comparing with I1 CV V2 D DI 2 ,
h
C = − 22
h21
1
D=−
h21
⎡ 1 h ⎤ ⎡h h − h h ⎤ h
Also, V1 h11 ⎢ I 2 − 22 V2 h12 V2 = ⎢ 12 21 11 22 ⎥ V2 + 11 I 2
⎣ h21 h21 ⎦ ⎣ h21 ⎦ h21
Comparing with V1 AVAV2 BI B 2,
h h −h h Δh
A = 12 21 11 22 = −
h21 h21
h
B = − 11
h21
5. ABCD Parameters in Terms of Inverse Hybrid Parameters We know that
I g11 V g12 I 2
V g21 V g22 I 2
Rewriting the second equation,
1 g
V1 = V2 − 22 I 2
g21 g21
Comparing with V1 AVAV2 BI B 2,
1
A=
g21
g
B = 22
g21
⎡ 1 g ⎤ g11 ⎡ g g22 − g g21 ⎤
Also, I g11 ⎢ V2 − 22 I g12 I 2 = V2 − ⎢ ⎥ I2
⎣ g21 g21 ⎦ g21 ⎣ g21 ⎦
Comparing with I1 CV
V2 D DI 2 ,
g
C = 11
g21
g g22 − g g21 Δg
D= =
g21 g21
13.8.4 A�B�C�D� Parameters in Terms of Other Parameters
1. A�B�C �D� Parameters in Terms of Z-parameters We know that
V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.45

Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,

1 Z
I2 = V1 − 11 I1
Z12 Z12
Comparing with I2 C ′V1 D ′ I1 ,
1
C′ =
Z12
Z
D ′ = 11
Z12
⎡ 1 Z ⎤ Z 22 Z Z
Also, V2 Z 21 I1Z 22 ⎢ V1 − 11 I1 12 I1 +
Z12 V1 − 22 11 I1
⎣ Z12 Z12 ⎦ Z12 Z12
Z ⎡ Z Z − Z12 Z 21 ⎤
= 22 V1 − ⎢ 11 22 ⎥ I1
Z12 ⎣ Z12 ⎦
Comparing with V2 A′ V1 B′ I1 ,
Z 22
A′ =
Z12
Z Z − Z12 Z 21 ΔZ
B′ = 11 22 =
Z12 Z12
2. A�B�C �D� Parameters in Terms of Y-parameters We know that
I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2
I2 Y2211 V1 Y22 V2
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
Y11 1
V2 = − V1 + I1
Y12 Y12
Comparing with V2 A′V1 B′ I1 ,
Y
A′ = − 11
Y12
1
B′ = −
Y12
⎡ Y 1 ⎤ ⎡ Y12 Y21 − Y11 Y22 ⎤ Y
Also, I2 Y2211 V1 Y22 ⎢ − 11 V1 + I1 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ V1 + 222 I1
⎣ Y12 Y12 ⎦ ⎣ Y12 ⎦ Y112
Comparing with I 2 C ′V1 D ′ I1 ,
Y Y −Y Y ΔY
C ′ = 12 21 11 22 = −
Y12 Y12
Y
D ′ = − 22
Y12

3. A� B� C � D� Parameters in Terms of ABCD Parameters We know that

V1 AV2
AV B
BI 2
I1 CV
V2 DI
D 2
13.46 Network Analysis and Synthesis
By Cramer’s rule,
V1 B
I1 D D B
V2 = = V2 I2
A B ΔT ΔT
C D
where ΔT = AD − BC
Comparing with V2 A′V1 B′ I1 ,
D
A′ =
ΔT
B
B′ =
ΔT
A V1
C I1 C A
Also, −I2 = =− V1 + I1
ΔT ΔT ΔT
C A
I2 = V1 − I1
ΔT ΔT
Comparing with I 2 C ′ V1 D ′ I1 ,
C
C′ =
ΔT
A
D′ =
ΔT
4. A� B� C � D� Parameters in Terms of Hybrid Parameters We know that
V1 h11 I1 h12 V2
I2 h21 I1 h22 V2
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
1 h
V2 = V1 − 11 I1
h12 h12
Comparing with V2 A′ V1 B′ I1 ,
1
A′ =
h12
h
B′ = 11
h12
⎡ 1 h ⎤ h ⎡h h − h h ⎤
Also, I2 h21 I1 h22 ⎢ V1 − 11 I1 ⎥ = 22 V1 + ⎢ 11 22 12 21 ⎥ I1
⎣ h12 h12 ⎦ h12 ⎣ h12 ⎦
Comparing with I2 C ′ V1 D ′ I1 ,
h22
C′ =
h12
⎡ h h − h h ⎤ Δh
D ′ = ⎢ 11 22 12 21 ⎥ =
⎣ h12 ⎦ h12
5. A� B� C� D� parameters in Terms of Inverse Hybrid Parameters We know that
I g11 V g12 I 2
V g 21 V g22 I 2
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.47

Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,

g11 1
I2 = − V1 + I1
g12 g12
Comparing with I2 C ′ V1 D ′ I1 ,
g11
C=−
g12
1
D′ = −
g12
⎡ g 1 ⎤ ⎡ g g22 − g g21 ⎤ g
Also, V g21 V g22 ⎢ − 11 V1 + I1 ⎥ = − ⎢ ⎥ V2 + 22 I1
⎣ g12 g12 ⎦ ⎣ g12 ⎦ g12
Comparing with V2 A′ V1 B′ I1 ,
⎡ g g22 − g g21 ⎤ Δg
A′ = − ⎢ ⎥ =−
⎣ g12 ⎦ g12
g
B′ = 22
g12

13.8.5 Hybrid Parameters in Terms of Other Parameters

1. Hybrid Parameters in terms of Z-parameters We know that
V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
Rewriting the second equation,
Z 21 1
I2 = − I1 + V2
Z 22 Z 22
Comparing with I2 h21 I1 h22 V2 ,
Z 21
h21 = −
Z 22
1
h22 =
Z 22
⎡ Z 1 ⎤ ⎡ Z Z − Z12 Z 21 ⎤ Z
Also, V1 Z11 I1 Z12 ⎢ − 21 I1 + V2 ⎥ = ⎢ 11 22 ⎥ I1 + 112 V2
⎣ Z 22 Z 22 ⎦ ⎣ Z 22 ⎦ Z 222
Comparing with V1 h11 I1 h12 V2 ,
Z11 Z 22 − Z12 Z 21 ΔZ
h11 = =
Z 22 Z 22
Z
h12 = 12
Z 22
2. Hybrid Parameters in terms of Y-parameters We know that
I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2
I 2 Y21
21 V1 Y22 V2
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
1 Y
V1 = I1 − 12 V2
Y11 Y11
13.48 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Comparing with V1 h11 I1 h12 V2 ,

1
h11 =
Y11
Y
h12 = − 12
Y11
⎡ 1 Y ⎤ ⎡Y Y − Y Y ⎤ Y
Also, I2 Y21 ⎢ I1 − 12 V2 Y22 V2 = ⎢ 11 22 12 21 ⎥ V2 + 21 I1
⎣ Y11 Y11 ⎦ ⎣ Y11 ⎦ Y11
Comparing with I2 h21 I1 h22 V2 ,
Y22
h21 =
Y11
Y Y −Y Y ΔY
h22 = 11 22 12 21 =
Y11 Y11
3. Hybrid Parameters in Terms of ABCD Parameters We know that
V1 AVAV2 BI B 2
I1 CV V2 DI D 2
Rewriting the second equation,
1 C
I2 = I1 + V2
D D
Comparing with I 2 h21 I1 h22 V2 ,
1
h21 = −
D
C
h22 =
D
⎡ 1 C ⎤ B ⎡ AD − BC ⎤
Also, V1 AV
AV2 B ⎢ − I1 + V2 ⎥ = I1 + ⎢ ⎥ V2
⎣ D D ⎦ D ⎣ D ⎦
Comparing with V1 h11 I1 h12 V2 ,
B
h11 =
D
AD − BC ΔT
h12 = =
D D
4. Hybrid Parameters in Terms of A�B�C�D� Parameters We know that
V2 A′ V1 B′ I1
I 2 C ′ V1 D ′ I1
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
B′ 1
V1 = I1 + V2
A′ A′
Comparing with V1 h11 I1 h12 V2 ,
B′
h11 =
A′
1
h12 =
A′
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.49

⎡ B′ 1 ⎤ ⎡ A′ D ′ − B′ C ′ ⎤ C′
Also, I2 C′ I1 + V2 D ′ I1 = − ⎢ ⎥ I1 + V2
⎣ A′ A′ ⎦ ⎣ A′ ⎦ A′
Comparing with I2 h21 I1 h22 V2 ,
⎡ A′ D ′ − B′C ′ ⎤ ΔT ′
h21 = − ⎢ ⎥ =−
⎣ A′ ⎦ A′
C′
h22 =
A′
5. Hybrid Parameters in Terms of Inverse Hybrid Parameters We know that
I g11 V g12 I 2
V g 21 V g22 I 2
By Cramer’s rule,
I g12
V g 22 g g
V1 = = 22 I1 − 12 V2
g g12 Δg Δg
g g22
where Δg = g11 g − g12 g21
Comparing with V1 h11 I1 h12 V2 ,
g22
h11 =
Δg
g
h12 = − 12
Δg
g I1
g V2 g21 g
Also, I2 = =− I1 + 11 V2
Δg Δg Δg
Comparing with I2 h21 I1 h22 V2 ,
g21
h21 = −
Δg
g11
h22 =
Δg

13.8.6 Inverse Hybrid Parameters in Terms of Other Parameters

1. Inverse Hybrid Parameters in Terms of Z-parameters We know that
V1 Z11 I1 Z12 I 2
V2 Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
1 Z
I1 = V1 − 12 I 2
Z11 Z11
Comparing with I g11 V g12 I 2 ,
1
g11 =
Z11
13.50 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Z12
g12 = −
Z11
⎡ 1 Z ⎤ Z 21 ⎡ Z Z − Z12 Z 21 ⎤
Also, V2 Z 21 ⎢ V1 − 12 I 2 22 I 2 =
Z 22 V1 + ⎢ 11 22 ⎥ I2
⎣ Z11 Z11 ⎦ Z11 ⎣ Z11 ⎦
Comparing with V g21 V g22 I 2 ,
Z 21
g21 =
Z11
Z Z − Z12 Z 21 ΔZ
g22 = 11 22 =
Z11 Z11
2. Inverse Hybrid Parameters in Terms of Y-parameters We know that
I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 V2
I 2 Y21
21 V1 Y22 V2
Rewriting the second equation,
Y 1
V2 = − 21 V1 + I2
Y22 Y22
Comparing with V g21 V g22 I 2 ,
Y21
g21 = −
Y22
1
g22 =
Y22
⎡ Y 1 ⎤ ⎡Y Y − Y Y ⎤ Y
Also, I1 Y1111 V1 Y12 ⎢ − 21 V1 + I 2 ⎥ = ⎢ 11 22 12 21 ⎥ V1 + 112 I 2
⎣ Y22 Y22 ⎦ ⎣ Y22 ⎦ Y222
Comparing with I g11 V g12 I 2 ,
Y11 Y22 − Y12 Y21 ΔY
g11 = =
Y22 Y22
Y
g12 = 12
Y22
3. Inverse Hybrid Parameters in Terms of ABCD Parameters We know that
V1 AV
AV2 BIB 2
I1 CVV2 DID 2
Rewriting the ﬁrst equation,
1 B
V2 = V1 + I 2
A A
Comparing with V g21 V g22 I 2 ,
1
g21 =
A
B
g22 =
A
⎡1 B ⎤ C ⎡ AD − BC ⎤
Also, I1 C V1 + I 2 D 2 = V1
DI ⎢ ⎥ I2
⎣A A ⎦ A ⎣ A ⎦
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.51

Comparing with I g11 V g12 I 2 ,

C
g11 =
A
⎡ AD − BC ⎤ ΔT
g12 = − ⎢ ⎥ =−
⎣ A ⎦ A
4. Inverse Hybrid Parameters in Terms of A�B�C�D� Parameters We know that
V2 A′ V1 B′ I1
I2 C ′ V1 D ′ I1
Rewriting the second equation,
C′ 1
I1 = V1 − I2
D′ D′
Comparing with I g11 V g12 I 2 ,
C′
g11 =
D′
1
g12 = −
D′
⎡ C′ 1 ⎤ ⎡ A′ D ′ − B′C ′ ⎤ B′
Also, V2 A′ V1 B′ ⎢ V1 I2 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ V1 + I2
⎣ D′ D′ ⎦ ⎣ D′ ⎦ D′
Comparing with V g21 V g22 I 2 ,
⎡ A′ D ′ − B′C ′ ⎤ ΔT ′
g21 = ⎢ ⎥ = D′
⎣ D′ ⎦
B′
g22 =
D′
5. Inverse Hybrid Parameters in Terms of Hybrid Parameters We know that
V1 h11 I1 h12 V2
I2 h21 I1 h22 V2
By Cramer’s rule,
V1 h12
I 2 h22 h h
I1 = = 22 V1 − 12 I 2
h11 h12 Δh Δh
h21 h22
where Δh = h11 h22 − h12 h21
Comparing with I g11 V g12 I 2 ,
h22
g11 =
Δh
h
g12 = − 12
Δh
h11 V1
h21 I 2 h h
Also, V2 = = − 21 V1 + 11 I 2
Δh Δh Δh
Comparing with V g21 V g22 I 2 ,
13.52 Network Analysis and Synthesis

h21
g21 = −
Δh
h11
g22 =
Δh
Table 13.3 Inter-relationship between parameters
ΔX = X11 X 22 − X12 X 21

In terms of
[Z] [Y] [T] [T �] [h] [g]
Z11 Z12 Y22 Y12 A ΔT D′ 1 Δh h12 1 g12
− . −
ΔY ΔY C C C′ C′ h22 h22 g11 g11
[Z]
Z 21 Z 22 Y21 Y11 1 D ΔT ′ A′ h21 1 g21 Δg
− −
Δ ΔY C C C′ C′ h22 h22 g11 g11
Z 22 Z12 Y11 Y12 D ΔT A′ 1 1 h112 Δg
Δ g12
− − − −
ΔZ ΔZ B B B′ B′ h111 h111 g22 g22
[Y]
Z 21 Z11 Y21 Y22 1 A ΔT ′ D′ h21 Δh g21 1
− − −
Δ ΔZ B B B′ B′ h11 h11 g g22

Z11 ΔZ Y22 1 A B D′ B′ Δh h11 1 g22

− − − −
Z 21 Z 21 Y21 Y21 ΔT ′ ΔT ′ h21 h21 g21 g21
[T]
1 Z 222 ΔY Y11 C D C′ A′ h22 1 g11 Δg
− − − −
Z 221 Z 221 Y21 Y21 ΔT ′ ΔT ′ h21 h21 g21 g21

Z 22 ΔZ Y11 1 D B A′ B′ 1 h111 Δg g22

− − − −
Z12 Z12 Y12 Y12 ΔT ΔT h112 h112 g12 g12
[T ′]
1 Z111 ΔY Y22 C A C′ D′ h22 Δh g11 1
− − − −
Z112 Z112 Y12 Y12 ΔT ΔT h12 h12 g g12

ΔZ Z12 1 Y112 B ΔT B′ 1 h11 h12 g22 g12

− −
Z 22 Z 22 Y111 Y111 D D A′ A′ Δg Δg
[h]
Z 21 1 Y21 ΔY 1 C ΔT ′ C′ h21 h22 g21 g11
− − − −
Z 22 Z 22 Y11 Y11 D D A′ A′ Δg Δg

1 Z112 ΔY Y12 C ΔT C′ 1 h22 h12 g g12

− − − −
Z111 Z111 Y22 Y22 A A D′ D′ Δh Δh
[g]
Z 21 ΔZ Y21 1 1 B ΔT ′ B′ h21 h11 g g22
− −
Z11 Z11 Y22 Y22 A A D′ D′ Δh Δh

Example 13.26 The Z parameters of a two-port network are Z11 = 20 W, Z22 = 30 W, Z12 = Z21
= 10 W. Find Y and ABCD parameters.
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.53
Solution
ΔZ = Z11 Z 22 − Z12 Z 21 = ( 20)(30) − (10)(10) = 500
Y-parameters
Z 22 30 3 Z12 10 1
Y11 = = = , Y12 = − =− =−
ΔZ 500 50 ΔZ 500 50
Z 10 1 Z111 20 2
Y21 = − 21 = − =− , 22
2 = = =
ΔZ 5
500 50 ΔZ 500 50
Hence, the Y-parameters are
⎡ 3 1⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎡ 11 12 ⎤
Y Y 50 50
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 2 ⎥
⎢− ⎥
⎣ 50 50 ⎦
ABCD parameters
Z11 20 ΔZ 500
A= = = 2, B= = = 50
Z 21 10 Z 21 10
1 1 Z 30
C= = = 0.1, D = 22 = =3
Z 21 10 Z 21 10
1
Hence, the ABCD parameters are
⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ 2 50 ⎤
⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣0 1 3 ⎥⎦

Example 13.27 Currents I1 and I2 entering at Port 1 and Port 2 respectively of a two-port network
are given by the following equations:
I 1 0 V1 − 0.2V2
I2 0 2V1 + V2
Find Y, Z and ABCD parameters for the network.
Solution
I1 I1
Y11 = = 0.5 , Y12 = = −0 2
V1 V2 0 V2 V1 = 0
I2 I2
Y21 = = −0.2 , Y22 = =1
V1 V2 = 0 V2 V1 = 0
Hence, the Y-parameters are
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎡ 0.5 −0.2⎤
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ −0 2 1 ⎥⎦
Z-parameters
ΔY = Y11 Y22 − Y12 Y21 = (0.5)(1) − ( −0.2)( −0.2) = 0.46
Y22 1 Y12 ( −0.2)
Z11 = = = 2.174 Ω, Z12 = − =− = 0.434
3 Ω
ΔY 0 46 ΔY 0 46
Y2 ( −0.2) Y 05
Z 21 = − 21 =− = 0.434 Ω, Z 222 = 111 = = 1.087 Ω
ΔY 0 46 ΔY 0 46
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ 2.174 0.434 ⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 =
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.434 1.087 ⎥⎦
13.54 Network Analysis and Synthesis
ABCD parameters
Y22 1 1 1
A= − =− = 5, B=− =− =5
Y21 −0 2 Y21 −0 2
ΔY 0 46 Y 05
C=− =− = 2.3, D = − 11 = − =25
Y21 −0 2 Y21 −0 2
Hence, the ABCD parameters are
⎡A B⎤ ⎡ 5 5⎤
⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ 2.3 2.5⎥⎦

1 ⎛ Z 22
2 Z ⎞
Example 13.28 Using the relation Y = Z−1, show that | |= + 111 ⎟ .
2 ⎝ Y111 Y222 ⎠
Solution We know that
Y Z −1
⎡ Z 22 Z ⎤
− 12 ⎥
i.e., ⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ ΔZ ΔZ
=
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ Z 21 Z11 ⎥⎥
−
⎣ ΔZ ΔZ ⎦
| Z | Z11 Z 22 Z12 Z 21
⎛ ⎞
1 ⎛ Z 222 Z111 ⎞ 1 ⎜ Z 222 Z111 ⎟ 1 1
+ = + Z)
= ( ΔZ + ΔZ ( ΔZ ) = ΔZ Z11 Z12 Z12 Z 21
2 ⎜⎝ Y111 Y222 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎜ Z 222 Z111 ⎟ 2 2
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
ΔZ ΔZ
1 ⎛ Z 22 Z11 ⎞
| |= +
2 ⎝ Y11 Y22 ⎟⎠

Example 13.29 For the network shown in Fig 13.59, ﬁnd Z and Y-parameters.
I1 2Ω I2
+ +

V1 1Ω 2Ω 3I2 V2

− −

Fig. 13.59
Solution The network is redrawn by source transformation technique as shown in Fig 13.60.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 I1 − I 3 …(i) 2Ω
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, + +
V2 2( I 2 I 3 ) 6 I 2
= −4 I 2 2 I 3 …(ii) V 2Ω
1 1Ω V2
Applying KVL to Mesh 3, I1 I3 I2
−
−( − ) − 2 I 3 − 2( + ) + 6 I 2 = 0 +
6I2
5 I 3 = I1 + 4 I 2 − −
1 4
I 3 = I1 + I 2 …(iii) Fig. 13.60
5 5
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.55

Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),

1 4
V1 I1 − I1 I2
5 5
4 4
= I1 I2 …(iv)
5 5
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛1 4 ⎞
V2 4I2 + 2 I1 I2 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
2 12
=
I1 I2 …(v)
5 5
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (v) with Z-parameter equations,
⎡4 4⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ 5 5
⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 2 12 ⎥
⎢ − ⎥
⎣5 5⎦
Y-parameters
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ 40 8
ΔZ = Z11 Z 22 − Z12 Z 21 = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = − =−
⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ 255 5
12 4
− −
Z 22 3 Z 1
Y11 = = 5 = , Y12 = − 12
= 5 =−
ΔZ 8 2 ΔZ 8 2
− −
5 5
2 4
−
Z 1 Z111 1
Y21 = − 21 = 5 = , 22 =
2 = 5 =−
ΔZ 8 4 ΔZ 8 2
− −
5 5
Hence, the Y-parameters are
⎡3 1⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ 2 2
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢ − ⎥
⎣4 2⎦

Example 13.30 Find Z and h-parameters for the network shown in Fig 13.61.
4I1
I1 2Ω 2Ω I2
+−
+ +

V1 2Ω 2Ω V2
I1 I3 I2
− −

Fig. 13.61
Solution Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 2 I1 2( I1 I 3 )
= 4I
4 I1 2 I 3 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 2 I 2 2( I 2 I 3 )
= 4I
4 I 2 2I3 …(ii)
13.56 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
−2( 3 − 1 ) − 4 I1 − 2( 3 + 2) = 0
I1 + I 2 = −2 I 3 …(iii)
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
V1 = 4 I1 I1 I 2
= 5 I1 I 2 …(iv)
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
4 I 2 − I1 I 2
V2
= − I1 3I 2 …(v)
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (v) with Z-parameter equations,
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ 5 1⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 =
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1 3⎥⎦
h-parameters
ΔZ = Z11 Z 22 − Z12 Z 21 = (5) (3) − (1) ( −1) = 15 + 1 = 16
ΔZ 16 Z12 1
h11 = = Ω, h12 = =
Z 22 3 Z 22 3
Z 1 1 1
h21 = − 21 = , h22 = =
Z 22 3 Z 22 3
Hence, the h-parameters are
⎡16 1⎤
⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎢ 3 3⎥
=
⎢⎣ h22 h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 1 1 ⎥⎥
⎣3 3⎦

Example 13.31 Find Y and Z-parameters for the network shown in Fig 13.62.
1Ω
I1 2 3 1Ω 2 I2
+ +

1Ω V2
V1 2V1 2

− −

Fig. 13.62
Solution Applying KCL at Node 3,
2( 1 3) 2V1 ( 3 2)
V
V3 = 2 …(i)
3
Now,
I1 2V1 + (V3 V2 )
V
= 2V1 + 2 − V2
3
2
= 2V1 V2 …(ii)
3
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.57

I2 2V2 + (V2 V3 )
V
= 3V2 − 2
3
8
= V2
3 …(iii)
Comparing Eqs (ii) and (iii) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ 2⎤
⎢ 2 − ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ 3
=
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 8 ⎥⎥
0
⎣ 3 ⎦
Z-parameters
⎛ 8⎞ 16
ΔY = Y11 Y22 − Y12 Y21 = ( 2) ⎜ ⎟ − 0 =
⎝ 3⎠ 3
8 ⎛ 2⎞
Y22 1 Y12 ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ 1
3
Z11 = = 3 = Ω, Z12 = − =− = Ω
ΔY 16 2 ΔY 16 8
3 3
Y21 0 Y111 2 3
Z 21 = − =− = 0, Z 222 = = = Ω
ΔY 16 ΔY 16 8
3 3
Hence, the Z-parameters are
⎡1 1⎤
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎢ 2 8⎥
=
⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 3 ⎥⎥
0
⎣ 8⎦
Example 13.32 For the network shown in Fig 13.63, ﬁnd Y and Z-parameters.
1 3 V1 2
I1 1Ω I2
+−
+ +

V1 2Ω 1Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.63
Solution Applying KCL at Node 1,
V1 V1 − 3V1 V2
I1 = +
2 1
3
= − V1 V2 …(i)
2
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2 V2 + 3V1 V1
I2 = + …(ii)
1 1
= 2V
2V1 2V2
13.58 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ 3 ⎤
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ − −1⎥
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 2
⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
Z-parameters
⎛ 3⎞
ΔY = Y11 Y22 − Y12 Y21 = ⎜ − ⎟ ( 2) − ( −1) ( 2) = −3 + 2 = −1
⎝ 2⎠
Y22 2 Y12 ( −1)
Z11 = = = −2 Ω, Z12 = − =− = −1 Ω
ΔY −1 ΔY ( −1)
3
−
Y21 2 Y 3
Z 21 = − =− = Ω, Z 222 = 111 = 2 = Ω
ΔY ( −1) ΔY −1 2
Hence, the Z-parameters are
⎡ −2
2 1⎤
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎢
⎢⎣ Z 21 = 3⎥
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ 2⎦

Example 13.33 Find Z-parameters for the network shown in Fig 13.64. Hence, ﬁnd Y and h-parameters.
0.9 I1

I1 1Ω I2
+ 10 Ω +

V1 1Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.64

Solution The network is redrawn by source transformation technique as shown in Fig 13.65.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
9I1
V1 2 I1 + I 2 …(i) I1 1Ω 10 Ω I2
−+
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, + +

V2 9 I1 10 I 2 1( I1 + I 2 ) V1 1Ω V2
= 10 I1 11I 2 …(ii)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Z-parameter equations, − −

⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ 2 1 ⎤ Fig. 13.65

⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣10 11⎥⎦
Y-parameters
ΔZ = Z11 Z 22 − Z12 Z 21 = ( 2) (11) − (1) (10) = 22 − 10 = 12
Z 22 11 Z12 1
Y11 = = , Y12 = − =−
ΔZ 12 ΔZ 12
Z 10 5 Z11 2 1
Y21 = − 21 = − = − , Y22 = = =
ΔZ 12 6 ΔZ 12 6
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.59

Hence, the Y-parameters are

⎡ 11 1⎤
−
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ 12 12 ⎥
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 5 1 ⎥⎥
⎢−
⎣ 6 6 ⎦
h-parameters
ΔZ 12 Z12 1
h11 = = Ω, h12 = =
Z 22 11 Z 22 11
Z 10 1 1
h21 = − 21 = − , h22 = =
Z 22 11 Z 22 11
1
Hence, h-parameters are
⎡ 12 1⎤
⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎢ 11 11⎥
⎢⎣ h21 h22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 10 1 ⎥
⎢− ⎥
⎣ 11 11⎦

Example 13.34 Find Y and Z-parameters of the network shown in Fig 13.66.
1 1Ω 2V1 2
I1 I2
−+
+ +

V1 1Ω 2V2 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.66
Solution Applying KCL at Node 1,
V1 3V1 − V2
I1 2V2 = +
1 1
I1 4V1 3V2 …(i)
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2 V2 − 2V1 V1
I2 =
+
2 1
= −3V1 1 V2 …(ii)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎡ 4 3⎤
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ −3 1.5⎥⎦
Z-parameters
ΔY = Y11Y22 − Y12Y21 = ( 4) (1.5) − ( −3)( −3) = −3
Y22 15 Y12 ( −3)
Z11 = =− = −0.5 Ω, Z12 = − =− = −1 Ω
ΔY 3 ΔY −3
Y ( −3) Y 4 4
Z 21 = − 21 = − = −1 Ω, 22
2 = 111 = − = − Ω
ΔY −3 ΔY 3 3
Hence, the Z-parameters are
⎡ −0 5 −1 ⎤
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎢
⎢⎣ Z 21 = 4⎥
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ −1 − ⎥
⎣ 3⎦
13.60 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 13.35 Determine Y and Z-parameters for the network shown in Fig 13.67.

I1 1 2Ω 2 I2
+ +

V1 1Ω 2Ω 3I1 V2

− −

Fig. 13.67
Solution Applying KCL at Node 1,
V1 V1 − V2
I1 = +
1 2
= 1.5V1 0 5V2 …(i)
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2 V V
+ 3I1 + 2 1
I2 =
2 2
V2 V V
= + 3 (1.5V1 0. V2 ) + 2 1
2 2
= 0.55V2 + 4 5V1 − 1.5
5V2 + 0 5V2 − 0 5V1
= 4 V1 − 0 5V2 …(ii)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with the Y-parameter equation,
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎡1.5 −0.5⎤
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ 4 0.5⎥⎦
Z-parameters
ΔY = Y11Y22 − Y12Y21 = (1.5)( −0.5) − ( −0.5)( 4) = 1.25
Y22 05 Y12 05
Z11 = =− = −0.4 Ω, Z12 = − = =04Ω
ΔY 1.25 ΔY 1.25
Y 4 Y 15
Z 21 = − 21 = − = −3.2 Ω, 22 = 111 = = 1.2 Ω
ΔY 1.25 ΔY 1.25
Hence, the Z-parameters are
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ −0.4 0.4 ⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 =
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −3.2 1.2 ⎥⎦

Example 13.36 Determine the Y and Z-parameters for the network shown in Fig 13.68.

I1 1 0.5 Ω 3 1Ω 2 I2
+ +

V1 1Ω 2V1 0.5 Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.68
13.8 Inter-relationships between the Parameters 13.61

Solution Applying KCL at Node 1,

V1 V1 − V3
I1 = +
1 0.5
= 3V
3V1 2V3 …(i)
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2 V2 − V3
I2 = +
05 1
= 3V2 V3 …(ii)
Applying KCL at Node 3,
V3 V1 V V
+ 2V1 + 3 2 = 0
05 1
1
V3 V2 …(iii)
3
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eqs (i) and (ii),
2
3V1 − V2
I1 …(iv)
3
8
I 2 0V1 + V2 …(v)
3
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (v) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ 2⎤
3 − ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ 3
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 8 ⎥
⎢0 ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
Z-parameters
⎛ 8⎞
ΔY Y11Y22 Y12Y21 = (3) ⎜ ⎟ − 0 = 8
⎝ 3⎠
8 2
Y22 3 1 Y12 1
Z11 = = = Ω, Z12 =− = 3= Ω
ΔY 8 3 ΔY 8 12
2
Y12 1 Y11 3
Z 21 = − = 3= Ω, Z 22 = = Ω
ΔY 8 12 Δ 8
YΔ
Hence, the Z-parameters are
⎡1 1 ⎤
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎢ 3 12 ⎥
=
⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 3 ⎥⎥
0
⎣ 8⎦

Example 13.37 Determine Z and Y-parameters of the network shown in Fig. 13.69.
I1 4Ω 2Ω I2
+ +

+ −
V1 0.05I2 10V1 V2
− +

− −

Fig. 13.69
13.62 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 − 4I1 − 0.05 I2 = 0
V1 = 4I1 + 0.05I2 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 − 2I2 + 10V1 = 0
V2 = 2I2 − 10V1 ...(ii)
Substituting Eq. (i) in Eq. (ii),
V2 = 2I2 − 40I1 − 0.5I2
= −40I1 + 1.5I2 ...(iii)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (iii) with Z-parameter equations,
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ 4 0.05⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ −40 1 5 ⎥⎦
Y-parameters
ΔZ Z11Z 22 Z12 Z 21 = ( 4)(1.5) − (0.05)( −40) = 8
Z 15 Z 0 05
Y11 = 22 = , Y12 = − 112 = −
ΔZ 8 ΔZ 8
Z 221 ( −40) 40 Z111 4
Y221 = − =− = , Y222 = =
ΔZ 8 8 ΔZ 8
Hence, the Y-parameters are
⎡1.5 0.05 ⎤
⎢ −
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤
= 8 8 ⎥
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 4 ⎥⎥
⎢ 40
⎣ 8 8 ⎦

Example 13.38 Determine Z and Y-parameters of the network shown in Fig. 13.70.

2V3

3I2
I1 1Ω I3 2Ω I2
+−
+ +

+
V1 2Ω V3 V2
I1 − I2
− −

Fig. 13.70
Solution Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 − 1I1 − 3I2 − 2(I1 + I2) = 0
V1 = 3I1 + 5I2 ...(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 − 2(I2 − I3) − 2(I1 + I2) = 0
V2 − 2I2 + 2I3 − 2I1 − 2I2 = 0
V2 = 2I1 + 4I2 − 2I3 …(ii)
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.63

Writing equation for Mesh 3,

I3 = 2V3 ...(iii)
From Fig. 13.70,
V3 = 2(I1 + I2)
I3 = 2V3 = 4I1 + 4I2 ...(iv)
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii),
V2 = −6I1 − 4I2 ...(v)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (v) with Z-parameter equations,
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ 3 5⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ −66 4 ⎥⎦
Y-parameters
ΔZ = Z111 Z22 − Z112 Z221 = ( )(− )( ) − ( )(−
)( ) = 18
Z 4 2 Z 5
Y11 = 22 = − = − , Y112 = − 12 = −
ΔZ 18 9 ΔZ 18
Z 21 ( −66) 1 Z11 3
Y21 = − =− = , 22 =
2 =
ΔZ 18 3 ΔZ 18
Hence, Y-parameters are
⎡ 2 5⎤
− − ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎢ 9 18
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 18 ⎦

13.9 INTERCONNECTION OF TWO-PORT NETWORKS

We shall now discuss the various types of interconnections of two-port networks, namely, cascade, parallel,
series, series-parallel and parallel-series. We shall derive the relation between the input and output quantities
of the combined two-port networks.

13.9.1 Cascade Connection

1. Transmission Parameter Representation Figure 13.71 shows two-port networks connected in
cascade. In the cascade connection, the output port of the ﬁrst network becomes the input port of the
second network. Since it is assumed that input and output currents are positive when they enter the
network, we have
I1 ′ I2
I1 I2 I1′ I2′
+ + + +
V1 N1 V2 V1′ N2 V2′
− − − −

Fig. 13.71 Cascade Connection

Let A1,B1,C1,D1 be the transmission parameters of the network N1 and A2,B2,C2,D2 be the transmission
parameters of the network N2.
For the network N1,
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ A1 B1 ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤
⎢⎣ I1 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C1 D1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ⎥⎦ ...(13.1)
13.64 Network Analysis and Synthesis
For the network N2,
⎡V1 ′ ⎤ ⎡ A2 B2 ⎤ ⎡ V2 ′ ⎤
⎢⎣ I1 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C2
...(13.2)
D2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ′ ⎥⎦
Since V1′ V2 and I 2′ I 2 , we can write
⎡ V2 ⎤ ⎡ A2 B2 ⎤ ⎡ V2 ′ ⎤
⎢⎣ − I 2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C2 D2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ′ ⎥⎦
...(13.3)

Combining Eqs (13.1) and (13.3),

⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ A1 B1 ⎤ ⎡ A2 B2 ⎤ ⎡ V2 ′ ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ V2 ′ ⎤
⎢⎣ I1 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C1 D1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C2 D2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ′ ⎥⎦
⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ A1 B1 ⎤ ⎡ A2 B2 ⎤
Hence, ⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C1 D1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C2 D2 ⎥⎦ ...(13.4)

Equation 13.4 shows that the resultant ABCD matrix of the cascade connection is the product of the
individual ABCD matrices.
2. Inverse Transmission Parameter Representation Figure 13.72 shows two-port networks
connected in cascade. Since it is assumed that input and output currents are positive when they enter the
network, we have
−I1′ = I2
I1 I2 I1′ I2′
+ + + +
V1 N1 V2 V1′ N2 V2′
− − − −

Fig. 13.72 Cascade connection

Let A1′ B1′ , C1′ D1′ be the transmission parameters of the network N1 and A2′ B2′ , C2′ D2′ be the
transmission parameters of the network N2.
For the network N1,
⎡V2 ⎤ ⎡ A1 ′ B1 ′ ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤
⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C1 ′ D1 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I1 ⎥⎦
...(13.5)

For the network N2,

⎡V2 ′ ⎤ ⎡ A2 ′ B2 ′ ⎤ ⎡ V2 ′ ⎤
⎢⎣ I 2 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C2 ′ D2 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I1 ′ ⎥⎦
...(13.6)

Since V1′ V2 and − I1′ I 2 , we can write

⎡V2 ′ ⎤ ⎡ A2 ′ B2 ′ ⎤ ⎡V2 ⎤
⎢⎣ I 2 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C2 ′ D2 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
...(13.7)

Combining equations (13.5) and (13.7),

⎡V2 ′ ⎤ ⎡ A2 ′ B2 ′ ⎤ ⎡ A1 ′ B1 ′ ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤ ⎡ A′ B′ ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤
⎢⎣ I 2 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C2 ′ D2 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C1 ′ D1 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I1 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C ′ D ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I1 ⎥⎦
⎡ A′ B′ ⎤ ⎡ A2 ′ B2 ′ ⎤ ⎡ A1 ′ B1 ′ ⎤
⎢⎣C ′ D ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣C2 ′ D2 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C1 ′ D1 ′ ⎥⎦
Hence, ...(13.8)

Equation 13.8 shows that the resultant A′B′C′D′ matrix of the cascade connection is the product of the
individual A′B′C′D′ matrices.
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.65

Example 13.39 Two identical sections of the network shown in Fig. 13.73 are connected in cas-
cade. Obtain the transmission parameters of the overall connection.
I1 2Ω 2Ω I2
+ +

V1 1Ω 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.73

Example 13.40 Determine ABCD parameters for the ladder network shown in Fig. 13.75.
I1 2Ω 2H I2
+ +

V1 2F 1F 1Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.75
Solution The above network can be considered as a cascade connection of two networks N1 and N2.
The network N1 is shown in Fig. 13.76.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
I1 2 2s I2
⎛ 1⎞ 1
V1 = 2 + I1 + I 2 …(i) + +
⎝ 2s ⎠ 2s
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, 1
V1 V2
2s
1 ⎛ 1⎞
V2 = I1 2 s + ⎟ I 2 …(ii)
2s ⎝ 2s ⎠ − −
From Eq. (ii),
I1 = 2s V2 − (4s2 + 1) I2 ...(iii) Fig. 13.76
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
⎛ 1⎞ 1
V1 = 2 + [2ss V2 ( 4 s 2 1) I 2 ] + I 2
⎝ 2s ⎠ 2s
= ( 4s 8s 2 2 s + 2) I 2
4 s 1)V2 − (8s …(iv)
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (iii) with ABCD parameter equations,
⎡ A1 B1 ⎤ ⎡ 4 s 1 8s 8s 2 2 s + 2 ⎤
=
⎢⎣C1 D1 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 s ⎥
⎣ 4s2 + 1 ⎦
The network N2 is shown in Fig. 13.77.
I1′ I2′ I1′ I2′
+ + + +

1 Z(s) = 1
V1′ s 1 V2′ V1′ V2′
s+1

− − − −

(a) (b)

Fig. 13.77
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
1 1
V1 ′ = I1 ′ + I2 ′ …(i)
s +1 s +1
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
1 1
V2 ′ = I1 ′ + I2 ′ …(ii)
s +1 s +1
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.67

From Eq. (ii),

I 2′ …(iii)
Also, …(iv)
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (iii) with ABCD parameter equations,
⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤
s +1 1
Hence, overall ABCD parameters are
A B⎤ ⎡ s s + s + 2⎤ ⎡ 1 0⎤ s s + s + 2⎤
= =
C D s 2
+1 s +1 1 4 s +

13.9.2 Parallel Connection

Figure13.78 shows two-port networks connected in parallel. In the parallel connection, the two networks
have the same input voltages and the same output voltages.

I I1′ I I
+ +
V N V
− −

I1 I

Fig. 13.78 Parallel connection

Let be the Y-parameters of the network N1 and 2 be the Y-parameters

of the network N2.
For the network N1,
⎡ I1 ′ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡V ⎤
I2 ′ V
For the network N2,
I1 ″ ⎤ ⎤ V⎤
=
I2 ″ V

For the combined network,

⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎡Y ⎤ V⎤ Y Y ⎤ V⎤
Hence, = = =
I2 I ″ V Y Y V
Thus, the resultant Y-parameter matrix for parallel connected networks is the sum of Y matrices of each
individual two-port networks.

Example 13.41 Determine Y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.79.
13.68 Network Analysis and Synthesis
3Ω

I1 2Ω 2Ω I2
+ +

V1 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.79
Solution The above network can be considered as a parallel connection of two networks, N1 and N2.
The network N1 is shown in Fig. 13.80.
Applying KCL at Node 3, 3
I1′ 2Ω 2Ω I2′
V3
I1 ′ I 2 ′ = …(i) + +
2
From Fig. 13.80, V2
V1 2Ω
V1 V3
I1 ′ = …(ii)
2 − −
V V
I2 ′ = 2 3 …(iii) Fig. 13.80
2
Substituting Eqs (ii) and (iii) in Eq (i),
V1 V3 V2 V3 V3
+ =
2 2 2
3V3 V1 + V2
V V
V3 = 1 + 2 ...(iv)
3 3
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii),
V 1 ⎛ V1 V2 ⎞
I1 ′ = 1 − + ⎟
2 2⎝ 3 3 ⎠
1 1
= V1 V2 …(v)
3 6
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (iii),
V 1 ⎛ V1 V2 ⎞
I2 ′ = 2 − + ⎟
2 2⎝ 3 3 ⎠
1 1
= − V1 V2 …(vi)
6 3
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ 1 1⎤
⎢ − ⎥ I1′′ 3Ω I2′′
⎡Y11 ′ Y12 ′ ⎤ 3 6
⎢⎣Y21 ′ Y22 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ + +
⎢− 1 1 ⎥
⎣ 6 3 ⎦ V1 V2
The network N2 is shown in Fig. 13.81.
V V 1 1 − −
I1 ″ I 2 ″ = 1 2 = V1 V2
3 3 3 Fig. 13.81
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.69

Hence, the Y-parameters are

⎡ 1 1⎤
− ⎥
⎡Y11 ″ Y12 ″ ⎤ ⎢ 3 3
⎢⎣Y21 ″ Y22 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢− ⎥
⎣ 3 3 ⎦
The overall Y-parameters of the network are
⎡ 1 1 1 1⎤ ⎡ 2 1⎤
+ − − ⎥ ⎢ − ⎥
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎡ Y11 ′ Y11 ″ Y12 ′ Y12 ″ ⎤ ⎢ 3 3 6 3 = 3 2
= =
⎢⎣Y21 Y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Y21 ′ Y21 ″ Y22 ′ Y22 ″ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 1 1 1 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 1 2 ⎥⎥
− − + −
⎣ 6 3 3 3 ⎦ ⎣ 2 3 ⎦

Example 13.42 Find Y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.82
I1 2Ω I2
+ +
1Ω 0.5 Ω

V1 0.5 Ω 0.5 Ω V2

2Ω

− −

Fig. 13.82
Solution The above network can be considered as a parallel combination of two networks N1 and N2.
The network N1 is shown in Fig. 13.83.
Applying KCL at Node 1,
V1 V1 − V2
I1 ′ = +
1 2 I1′ 1 2Ω 2 I2′
3 1 + +
= V1 V2 …(i)
2 2
V1 1Ω 0.5 Ω V2
Applying KCL at Node 2,
V2 V2 − V1 − −
I2 ′ = +
05 2
1 5 Fig. 13.83
= − V1 V2 …(ii)
2 2 I1′′ 0.5 Ω 3 0.5 Ω I2′′
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Y-parameter equation, + +
⎡ 3 1⎤
− ⎥
⎡Y11 ′ Y12 ′ ⎤ ⎢ 2 2 V1 2Ω V2
⎢⎣Y21 ′ Y22 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 5 ⎥⎥
⎢−
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ − −

Example 13.43 Find Y-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.85.
1F 1F

I1 2Ω 2Ω I2
+ +

V1 1Ω 2F V2

− −

Fig. 13.85
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.71

Solution The above network can be considered as a parallel connection of two networks, N1 and N2.
The network N1 is shown in Fig. 13.86.
I1 ′ 2Ω 2Ω I2′ I1′ 2 3 2 I2′
+ + + +

V2 1 V2
V1 2F V1
2s

− − − −

(a) (b)

Fig. 13.86

Applying KCL at Node 3,

I1 ′ I 2 ′ = 2 s V3 …(i)
V1 V3
From Fig. 13.86, I1 ′ =
2

1 1 …(ii)
= V1 − V3
2 2
V2 − V3
I2 ′ =
2
1 1
= V2 − V3 …(iii)
2 2
Substituting Eq. (ii) and Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
V1 V3 V2 V3
− + − = ( 2 s) V3
2 2 2 2
V V
( 2 s 1)V3 = 1 + 2
2 2
1 1
V3 = V1 + V2 …(iv)
2( 2 s + 1) 2( 2 s + 1)
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii),
V 1⎡ 1 1 ⎤
I1 ′ = 1 − ⎢ V1 + V2 ⎥
2 2 ⎣ 2( 2 s + 1) 2( 2 s + 1) ⎦
⎛ 4s 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ V1 − ⎜ V2 …(v)
⎝ 8s 4 ⎠ ⎝ 8s + 4 ⎟⎠
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (iii),
V2 1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
I2 ′ =
− ⎢ V1 V2 ⎥
2 2 ⎣ 2( 2 s + 1) 2( 2 s + 1) ⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 4s 1⎞
= −⎜ ⎟ V1 + ⎜ V2 …(vi)
⎝ 8s 4 ⎠ ⎝ 8s + 4 ⎟⎠
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ 4s 1 1 ⎤
⎢ −
⎡Y11 ′ Y12 ′ ⎤
= 8s 4 8s 4 ⎥
⎢⎣Y21 ′ Y22 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 4 s 1 ⎥⎥
⎢− 1
⎣ 8s 4 8s 4 ⎦
13.72 Network Analysis and Synthesis
The network N2 is shown in Fig. 13.87.
1 1
I1′′ 1F 1F I2′′ I1′′ s 3 s I2′′
+ + + +

V1 1Ω V2 V1 1 V2

− − − −

(a) (b)

Fig. 13.87

Applying KCL at Node 3,

I1 ″ I 2 ″ = V3 …(i)
From Fig. 13.87,
V1 V3
I1 ″ =
1
s
= sV
V1 − sV
V3 …(ii)
V V
I2 ′ = 2 3
1
s
= sV
V2 − sV
V3 …(iii)
Substituting Eqs (ii) and (iii) in Eq. (i),
V1 − sV
sV V3 + sV V2 − sVV3 = V3
( 2 s 1)V3 = sV V1 + sV
V2
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞
V3 = V1 + ⎜ V2
⎝ 2 s 1⎟⎠
…(iv)
⎝ 2 s 1⎠
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (ii),
⎡⎛ s ⎞ s ⎤
I1 ″ sV V1 s ⎢⎜ ⎟⎠ V1 + V2 ⎥
⎝
⎣ 2s 1 ( 2 s 1) ⎦
⎡ s( s + 1) ⎤ ⎛ s2 ⎞
=⎢ −
⎥ 1 ⎜ 2 s 1⎟ V2
V …(v)
⎣ 2s 1 ⎦ ⎝ ⎠
Substituting Eq. (iv) in Eq. (iii),
⎡⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ ⎤
I2 ″ sV
V2
s ⎢⎜ ⎟ V1 + V2
⎣⎝ 2 s 1⎠ ⎝ 2 s 1⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ s2 ⎞ ⎡ s( s + ) ⎤
= −⎜ ⎟ V1 + ⎢ ⎥ V2 …(vi)
⎝ 2 s 1⎠ ⎣ 2s + 1 ⎦
Comparing Eqs (v) and (vi) with Y-parameter equations,
⎡ s( s + 1) ⎛ s2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ − ⎜ 2 s 1⎟ ⎥
⎡Y11 ″ Y12 ″ ⎤ ⎢ 2 s 1 ⎝ ⎠⎥
⎢⎣Y21 ″ Y22 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎥
⎢− s s( s + ) ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 s 1⎟⎠ 2 s + 1 ⎥⎦
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.73

Hence, the overall Y-parameters of the network are

+ +
⎢ −
⎡Y Y ⎤ Y ⎤ 4 2s + 1 4 2s + 1
Y Y Y +
⎢−
4 2s + 1 42 1

13.9.3 Series Connection

Figure 13.88 shows two-port networks connected in series. In a series connection, both the networks carry
the same input current. Their output currents are also equal.
I1 + + I2
+ V V ′ +
N

V V
+ +
V ′′ N V ′′

Fig. 13.88 Series connection

Let 22
be the Z-parameters of the network N1 and 22 be the
Z-parameters of the network N2.
For the network N1,
V′ I1
= 12
V ′ 22 I2
For the network N2,
V″ 12 I1
V ″ 22 I2
For the combined network + =
⎡V ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ Z 12 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎡Z Z12 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤
Hence,
V 21 22 ″ I2 Z Z 22 I 2
Thus, the resultant Z-parameter matrix for the series-connected networks is the sum of Z matrices of each
individual two-port network.

Example 13.44 Two identical sections of the network shown in Fig. 13.89 are connected in series.
Obtain Z-parameters of the overall connection.
I1 2Ω 2Ω I
+ +

V 1Ω V

Fig. 13.89
13.74 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 = 3I1 + I2 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 = I1 + 3I2 …(ii)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Z-parameter equations,
⎡ Z11 ″ Z12 ″ ⎤ ⎡3 1⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 ″ Z 22 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣1 3⎥⎦
Hence, Z-parameters of the overall connection are
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡3 1⎤ ⎡3 1⎤ ⎡6 2⎤
⎢⎣ Z 21 = + =
Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 3⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 3⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 6 ⎥⎦

Example 13.45 Determine Z-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.90.
L L

+ +
C

V1 V2
L
C C
− −

Fig. 13.90
Solution The above network can be considered as a series connection of two networks, N1 and N2.
The network N1 is shown in Fig. 13.91.
I1 Ls Ls I2
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
+ +
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
V1 ′ Lss +
L I1 + ⎜ ⎟ I 2 …(i)
⎝ Cs ⎠
C ⎝ Cs ⎠ V1′ 1 V2′
Cs
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
− −
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
V2 ′ = I1 Ls + ⎟ I 2
L …(ii)
⎝C
Cs ⎠ ⎝ Cs ⎠ Fig. 13.91
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Z-parameter equations,
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ Ls +
⎡ Z11 ′ Z12 ′ ⎤
= Cs Cs ⎥
⎢⎣ Z 21 ′ Z 22 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1⎥
⎢ 1 Ls + ⎥
L
⎣ Cs Cs ⎦ I1 I2
The network N2 is shown in Fig. 13.92.
+ +
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
⎛ 1⎞ Ls V2′′
V1 ″ Lss +
L I1 ( Ls) I 2 …(i) V1′′
⎝ Cs ⎠
C 1 1
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, Cs Cs
− −
⎛ 1⎞
V2 ″ ( Ls) I1 + Ls + ⎟ I 2 …(ii) Fig. 13.92
⎝ Cs ⎠
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.75

Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Z-parameter equations,

⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ Ls + Ls ⎥
⎡ Z11 ″ Z12 ″ ⎤ Cs
⎢⎣ Z 21 ″ Z 22 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1⎥
⎢ Ls Ls + ⎥
⎣ Cs ⎦
Hence, the overall Z-parameters of the network are,

⎡ 2 1 ⎤
2 Ls + Ls +
⎡ Z11 Z12 ⎤ ⎡ Z11 ′ Z11 ″ Z12 ′ Z12 ″ ⎤ ⎢ Cs Cs ⎥ = ⎛ Ls + 1 ⎞ ⎡ 2 1 ⎤
= =
⎢⎣ Z 21 Z 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z 21 ′ Z 21 ″ Z 22 ′ Z 22 ″ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 1 2 ⎥⎥ ⎝ ⎟
Cs ⎠ ⎢⎣1 2⎥⎦
Ls + 2 Ls +
⎣ Cs Cs ⎦

13.9.4 Series-Parallel Connection

Figure 13.93 shows two networks connected in series-parallel. Here, the input ports of two networks are
connected in series and the output ports are connected in parallel.
I1 + I2′ I2
+ V1′ +
N1
−
V1 V2
+ I2′′

V1′′ N2
− −
−

Fig. 13.93 Series-parallel connection

Let h11 ′, h12 ′, h21 ′, h22 ′ be the h-parameters of the network N1 and h11 ″, h12 ″, h21 ″, h22 ″ be the h-parameters
of the network N2.
For the network N1,
⎡V1 ′ ⎤ ⎡ h11 ′ h12 ′ ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤
⎢⎣V2 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ h21 ′ h22 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦
For the network N2,
⎡V1 ″ ⎤ ⎡ h11 ″ h12 ″ ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤
⎢⎣ I 2 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ h21 ″ h22 ″ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦

For the combined network, V1 V1 ′ + V1 ″ d I2 = I2 ′ I2 ″

⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡ V1 ′ V1 ″ ⎤ ⎡ h11 ′ h11 ″ h12 ′ h12 ″ ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤

⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ I 2 ′ I 2 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ h21 ′ h21 ″ h22 ′ h22 ″ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ h21
Hence,
h22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦
Thus, the resultant h-parameter matrix is the sum of h-parameter matrices of each individual two-port
networks.

Example 13.46 Determine h-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.94.
13.76 Network Analysis and Synthesis
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
+ +

2Ω
1Ω 1Ω

V1 V2
1Ω 1Ω

2Ω

− −

1Ω 1Ω

Fig. 13.94
Solution The above network can be considered as a series-parallel connection of two networks N1 and N2.
The network N1 is shown in Fig. 13.95.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
V1 = 4I1 + 2I2 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, + +
V2 = 2I1 + 4I2 …(ii)
Rewriting Eq. (ii)
V1 2Ω V2
4 2 2 I1 + V2
1 1
I2 I1 + V2 …(iii)
2 4 − −
Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
1Ω 1Ω
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
V1 4 I1 2 ⎜ − I1 V2 ⎟
⎝ 2 4 ⎠ Fig. 13.95
1
= 3I1 V2 …(iv)
2
Comparing Eqs (iii) and (iv) with h-parameters equations,
⎡ 1⎤
⎢ 3
⎡ h11 ′ h12 ′ ⎤
= 2⎥
⎢⎣ h21 ′ h22 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢− 1 1 ⎥
⎣ 2 4⎦
For network N2, h-parameters will be same as the two networks are identical.
⎡ 1⎤
3
⎡ h11 ″ h12 ″ ⎤ ⎢ 2⎥
⎢⎣ h21 ″ h22 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢− ⎥
⎣ 2 4⎦
Hence, the overall h-parameters of the network are
⎡ 1⎤ ⎡ 1⎤
⎡ h11 h12 ⎤ ⎡ h11 ′ h12 ′ ⎤ ⎡ h11 ″ h12 ″ ⎤ ⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎡ 6 1⎤
2 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ h21 h22 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ h21 ′ h22 ′ ⎥⎦ + ⎢⎣ h21 ″ h22 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 1 ⎥ + ⎢ 1 1 ⎥ = ⎢ −1 1 ⎥
⎢− ⎥ ⎢− ⎥ ⎣ 2⎦
⎣ 2 4⎦ ⎣ 2 4⎦
13.9 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 13.77

13.9.5 Parallel–Series Connection

Figure 13.96 shows two networks connected in parallel–series. Here the input ports of two networks are
connected in parallel and the output ports are connected in series.
I1 I1′ + I2
+ V2′ +
N1
−
V1 V2
I1′′ +
N2 V2′′
− −
−

Fig. 13.96 Parallel–series connection

Let g ′ g12 ′, g ′ g22 ′ be the g-parameters of the network N1 and g ″ g12 ″, g ″ g22 ″ be the
g-parameters of the network N2,
For the network N1,
⎡ I1 ′ ⎤ ⎡ g ′ g12 ′ ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤
⎢⎣V2 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ g ′ g22 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
For the network N2,
⎡ I1 ″ ⎤ ⎡ g ″ g12 ″ ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤
⎢⎣V2 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ g ″ g22 ″ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
For the combined network, I1 I1 ′ + I1 ″ d V2 = V2 ′ V2 ″
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ′ I1 ″ ⎤ ⎡ g ′ + g11 ″ g ′ + g12 ″ ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤
Hence, ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣V2 ′ V2 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢⎣ g ′ + g21 ″ g ′ + g22 ″ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
⎡g g12 ⎤ ⎡V1 ⎤
=⎢
⎣g g22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
Thus, the resultant g-parameter matrix is the sum of the g-parameter matrices of each individual two-port
network.

Example 13.47 Determine the g-parameters for the network shown in Fig. 13.97.

I1 3Ω 3Ω I2
+ +

1Ω 1Ω

V1 V2
3Ω 3Ω

1Ω 1Ω

− −

Fig. 13.97
13.78 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The above network can be considered as a parallel series connection of two networks N1 and N2.
The network N1 is shown in Fig. 13.98.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
V1 = 4I1 − I3 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, I1 3 Ω 3 Ω I2

V2 = I2 + I3 …(ii) + +
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
− I1 + I 2 + 5 I 3 = 0 V1 1Ω 1Ω V2
I1 I3 I2
1 1
I 3 = I1 − I 2 …(iii) − −
5 5
Substituting Eq (iii) in Eq (i), Fig. 13.98
⎛1 1 ⎞
V1 4 I1 − ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
19 1
= I1 I2 …(iv)
5 5
Substituting Eq (iii) in Eq (ii),
⎛1 1 ⎞
V2 I 2 + ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
1 4
= I1 I2 …(v)
5 5
Rewriting Eq (iv),
19 1
I1 V1 − I 2
5 5
5 1
I1 V1 − I 2 …(vi)
19 19
Substituting Eq (vi) in Eq (v),
1⎛ 5 1 ⎞ 4
V2 V1 − I 2 I2
5 ⎝ 19 19 ⎠ 5
1 15
= V1 I2 …(vii)
19 19
Comparing Eqs (vi) and (vii) with g-parameters equation,
⎡5 1⎤
− ⎥
⎡ g ′ g12 ′ ⎤ ⎢19 19
⎢⎣ g ′ g22 ′ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 15 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣19 19 ⎦
For the network N2, g-parameters will be same as the two networks are identical.
⎡5 1⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎡ g ″ g12 ″ ⎤ 19 19
⎢⎣ g ″ g22 ″ ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 15 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣19 19 ⎦
Hence, the overall g-parameters of the network are
⎡5 1⎤ ⎡5 1 ⎤ ⎡10 2⎤
− ⎥ ⎢ − −
⎡g g12 ⎤ ⎡ g ′ g12 ′ ⎤ ⎡ g ″ g12 ″ ⎤ ⎢19 19 + 19 19 ⎥ = ⎢19 19 ⎥
= + =
⎢⎣ g g22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ g ′ g22 ′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ g ″ g22 ″ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢ 1 15 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 1 15 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 2 30 ⎥⎥
⎣19 19 ⎦ ⎣19 19 ⎦ ⎣19 19 ⎦
13.11 PI (p )-Network 13.79

13.10 T-NETWORK
Any two-port network can be represented by an equivalent T network as shown in Fig 13.99.
The elements of the equivalent T network may be expressed in terms of Z-parameters.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1,
ZA ZB
V1 Z A I ZC ( I1 I 2 ) I1 I2

= ( Z A ZC ) I1 ZC I 2 ...(13.9) + +

Applying KVL to Mesh 2,

V1 ZC V2
V2 Z B I ZC ( I 2 I1 )
= ZC I + ( Z B ZC ) I 2 ...(13.10) − −
Comparing Eqs (13.9) and (13.10) with Z-parameter
Fig. 13.99 T-Network
equations,
Z11 Z A + ZC
Z12 ZC
Z 21 ZC
Z 22 Z B + ZC
Solving the above equations,
ZA Z11 Z12 = Z11 Z 21
ZB Z 22 − ZZ 21 = Z 22 Z12
ZC Z12 = Z 21

13.11 PI (o )-NETWORK
Any two-port network can be represented by an equivalent pi (p) network as shown in Fig. 13.100.
Applying KCL at Node 1,
I1 YAV1 YB (V1 V2 )
1 YB 2
= (YA YB )V1 YBV2 ...(13.11) I1 I2

Applying KCL at Node 2, + +

I2 YCV YB (V2 V1 )
= −YBV1 + (YB YC )V2
...(13.12) V1 YA YC V2

Comparing Eqs (13.11) and (13.12) with

Y-parameter equations, − −

Y11 YA + YB
Y12 YB Fig. 13.100 p-network
Y21 YB
Y22 YB + YC
Solving the above equations,
YA Y11 Y12 = Y11 Y21
YB Y12 = −Y21
YC Y22 + Y12 Y22 + Y21
13.80 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 13.48 The Z-parameters of a two-port network are: Z11 = 10 W, Z12 = Z21 = 5 W, Z22 = 20 W.
Find the equivalent T-network.
Z1 Z3
I1 I2
Solution The T-network is shown in Fig 13.101
Applying KVL to Mesh 1, + +
V1 = (Z1 + Z2)I1 + Z2 I2 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2, V1 Z2 V2
V2 = Z2I1 + (Z2 + Z3)I2 …(ii)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Z parameter equations,
− −
Z11 Z1 + Z 2 = 10
Z12 Z 2 = 5 Fig. 13.101
Z 21 Z 2 = 5
Z 22 Z 2 + Z3 = 20
Solving the above equations,
Z1 = 5 Ω
Z2 = 5 Ω
Z3 = 15 Ω

Example 13.49 Admittance parameters of a pi network are Y11 = 0.09 , Y12 = Y21 = −0.05 and
Y22 = 0.07 . Find the values of Ra, Rb and Rc.

Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Y-parameter equations,

1 1
Y11 = + = 0 09
Ra Rb
1
Y12 = − = −0 05
Rb
1
Y21 = − = −0 05
Rb
1 1
Y22 = + = 0.007
Rb Rc
13.11 PI (p )-Network 13.81

Solving the above equations,

Ra = 25 Ω
Rb = 20 Ω
Rc = 50 Ω

Example 13.50 Find the parameters YA, YB and YC of the equivalent p network as shown in
Fig. 13.103 to represent a two-terminal pair network for which the following measurements were taken:
(a) With terminal 2 short-circuited, a voltage of 10 ∠ 0° V applied at terminal pair I resulted in
I1 = 2.5 ∠ 0° A and I2 = −0.5 ∠ 0° A.
(b) With terminal 1 short-circuited, the same voltage at terminal pair 2 resulted in I2 = 1.5 ∠ 0° A
and I1 = −1.1 ∠−20° A.

I1 1 YB 2 I2
1 2
+ +

V1 YA YC V2

− −
1′ 2′

Fig. 13.103
Solution Since measurements were taken with either of the terminal pairs short-circuited, we have to
calculate Y-parameters ﬁrst.
I 2 5∠0°
Y11 = 1 = = 0 25
V1 V2 = 0 10 ∠0°
I2 −0 5∠0°
Y21 = = = −0.05
V1 V2 = 0 10 ∠0°
I2 1.5∠0°
Y222 = = = 0.15
V2 V1 = 0 10 ∠0°
Applying KCL at Node 1,
I1 YAV1 YB (V1 V2 )
= (YA YB )V1 YBV2 …(i)
Applying KCL at Node 2,
I2 YCV YB (V2 V1 )
= −YBV1 + (YB YC )V2 …(ii)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with the Y-parameter equation,
Y11 YA + YB = 0 25
Y12 Y21 = −YB = −0 05
Y22 YB + YC = 0 15
Solving the above equation,
YA = 0 20
YB = 0 05
YC = 0 10
13.82 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 13.51 A network has two input terminals (a, b) and two output terminals (c, d) as shown
in Fig. 13.104. The input impedance with c and d open-circuited is (250 + j100) ohms and with c and d
short-circuited is (400 + j 300) ohms. The impedance across c and d with a and b open-circuited is 200
ohms. Determine the equivalent T-network parameters.
ZA ZB
a c

b d

Fig. 13.104
Solution The input impedance with c and d open-circuited is
ZA + ZC = 250 + j100 …(i)
The input impedance with c and d short-circuited is,
Z Z
Z A + B C = 400 + j 300 …(ii)
Z B ZC
The impedance across c and d with a and b open-circuited is
ZB + ZC = 200 …(iii)
Subtracting Eq. (i) from (ii),
Z B ZC
−Z 1 0 j 200 …(iv)
Z B ZC
From Eq. (iii),
ZB = 200 − ZC …(v)
Subtracting the value of ZB in the equation (iv) and simplifying,
ZC = (100 − j200) Ω …(vi)
From Eqs (i) and (vi),
ZA = (150 + j300) Ω
From Eqs (iii) and (vi),
ZB = (100 + j200) Ω

Example 13.52 Find the equivalent p-network for the T-network shown in Fig. 13.105.
I1 2Ω 2.5 Ω I2
+ +

V1 5Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.105
13.11 PI (p )-Network 13.83

Solution Figure 13.106 shows T-network and p-network.

ZA ZB Z3

ZC Z1 Z2

T-network (Star network) p-network (Delta network)

Fig. 13.106

For converting a T-network (star network) into an equivalent p-network (delta network), we can use star-
delta transformation technique.
Z A ZC 2 5 5.5 Ω
Z1 Z A + ZC + = 2 5+ = 11 Ω
ZB 25
Z Z 2 2 .5
Z3 Z A + Z B + A B = 2 + 2.5 + =5 5Ω
ZC 5 11 Ω 13.75 Ω
Z Z 2 5×5
Z 2 = Z B + ZC + B C = 2 5 + 5 + = 13.75 Ω
ZA 2
The equivalent p-network is shown in Fig. 13.107. Fig. 13.107

Example 13.53 For the network shown in Fig. 13.108. Find the equivalent T-network.
8Ω

I1 1Ω I3 4Ω I2

+ +

V1 2Ω V2
I1 I2
− −

Fig. 13.108

Solution Applying KVL to Mesh 1,

V1 3I1 2 I 2 I3 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 2 I1 6 I 2 4I3 …(ii)
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
13I 3 I1 + 4 2 0
1 4
I3 I1 − I 2 …(iii)
13 13
13.84 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Substituting the Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i),
1 4
V1 3I1 2 I 2 I1 + I 2
13 13
38 30
= I1 I2 …(iv)
13 13
Substituting the Eq. (iii) in Eq. (ii),
⎛1 4 ⎞
V2 2 I1 6 I 2 4 I1 − I 2 ⎟
⎝ 13 13 ⎠
30 62
= I1 I2 …(v)
13 13
The T-network is shown in Fig. 13.109.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1, I1 ZA ZB I2
V1 ( Z A + ZC ) I1 + ZC I 2 …(vi) + +
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 ZC I ( Z B + ZC ) I 2 …(vii) V V2
1 ZC
Comparing Eqs (iv) and (v) with Eqs (vi) and (vii),
38 − −
ZA ZC =
13
30 Fig. 13.109
ZC =
13
62
ZB ZC =
13
Solving the above equations,
8
ZA = Ω
13
32
ZB = Ω
13
30
ZC = Ω
13

13.12 LATTICE NETWORKS

A lattice network is one of the common two-port networks, shown in Fig. 13.110. It is used in ﬁlter sections
and is also used as attenuator. This network can be represented in terms of z-parameters.
I1 ZA I2
+ +

ZB ZB
V1 V2

− −

Fig. 13.110 Lattice network

13.12 Lattice Networks 13.85

The lattice network can be redrawn as a bridge network as shown in Fig. 13.111. This lattice network is
symmetric and reciprocal. The current I1 divides equally between the two arms of the bridge.
When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0 I1
I1
I1 +
V1 = ( Z A Z B ) 2
2 ZA I1
ZB
2
V1 ZA ZB
Z11 = =
I1 I 2 = 0 2
+ −
V1 V2
I I I
Also V2 = 1 Z B − 1 Z A = 1 ( Z B ZA ) I2
2 2 2
V Z ZA
Z 21 = 2 = B ZB ZA
I1 I 2 = 0 2 −
Since the network is symmetric,
ZA ZB Fig. 13.111 Bridge network
Z11 Z 22 =
2
ZB ZA
Z12 Z 21 =
2
Solving the above equations,
Z A Z11 Z12
Z B Z11 + Z12
The lattice network can be represented in terms of other two-port network parameters, with the help of
inter-relationship formulae of various parameters.

Example 13.54 Find the lattice equivalent of a symmetrical T network shown in Fig. 13.112.
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2
+ +

V1 2Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.112

Solution Applying KVL to Mesh 1,

V1 3I1 2 I 2 …(i)
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 2 I1 3I 2 …(ii)
Comparing Eqs (i) and (ii) with Z-parameter equations,
Z11 = 3 Ω
Z12 = 2 Ω
Z 21 = 2 Ω
Z 22 = 3 Ω
13.86 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Since Z11 = Z22 and Z12 = Z21, the network is symmetric and reciprocal. The parameters of lattice network
are
Z A Z11 Z12 = 3 − 2 = 1 Ω
Z B Z11 + Z12 = 3 + 2 = 5 Ω
The lattice network is shown in Fig. 13.113.
I1 1Ω I2
+ +

5Ω 5Ω
V1 V2

− −

1Ω

Fig. 13.113

Example 13.55 Find the lattice equivalent of a symmetric p-network shown in Fig. 13.114.
I1 5Ω I2
+ +

V1 10 Ω 10 Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.114
Solution The network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 13.115.
Applying KVL to Mesh 1, 5Ω
I1 I2
V1 10 I1 − 10 I 3 …(i)
+ +
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
V2 10 I 2 + 10 I 3 …(ii) V1 10 Ω 10 Ω V2
I1 I3 I2
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
−10 I1 +10
10 I 2 + 25 I 3 = 0 − −
2 2
I3 = I − I 2 …(iii) Fig. 13.115
5 5
Substituting Eq (iii) in Eq (i),
⎛2 2 ⎞
V1 10 I1 − 10 ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
= 6 I1 4 I 2 …(iv)
Substituting Eq (iii) in Eq (ii),
⎛2 2 ⎞
V2 10 I 2 + 10 ⎜ I1 I2 ⎟
⎝5 5 ⎠
= 4 I1 6 I 2 …(v)
13.13 Terminated Two-Port Networks 13.87

Comparing the Eqs (iv) and (v) with Z-parameter equations,

Z11 = 6 Ω
Z12 = 4 Ω
I1 2Ω I2
Z 21 = 4 Ω
+ +
Z 22 = 6 Ω
Since Z11 = Z22 and Z12 = Z21, the network is 10 Ω 10 Ω
V1 V2
symmetric and reciprocal. The parameters of
lattice network are
ZA Z11 Z12 = 6 − 4 = 2 Ω − −
ZB Z11 + Z12 = 6 + 4 = 10 Ω 2Ω

The lattice network is shown in Fig. 13.116. Fig. 13.116

13.13 TERMINATED TWO-PORT NETWORKS

13.13.1 Driving-Point Impedance at Input Port

A two-port network is shown in Fig. 13.117. The output port of the network is terminated in load impedance
ZL. The input impedance of this network can be expressed in terms of parameters of two-port network
parameters.
I1 I2
+ +
Two-
V1 port V2 ZL
network
− −

From Fig. 13.117,

V2 ZL I 2
V2 1
I2 = − = −YLV2 where YL =
ZL ZL
−YLV2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2
Y21
V2 = − V1
Y22 + YL
⎛ Y21 ⎞ Y Y Y Y −Y Y +Y Y
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12 ⎜ − ⎟ V1 = Y11V1 − 21 12 V1 = 11 22 12 21 11 L V1
⎝ Y22 + YL ⎠ Y22 + YL Y22 + YL
V1 Y22 YL
Zin = =
I1 Y11Y22 − Y12Y21 + Y11YL
When output port is open-circuited, i.e., YL = 0
Y22
Zin =
Y11Y22 − Y12Y21
When output port is short-circuited, i.e., YL = ∞,
Y22
+1
YL 1
Zin = lim =
YL →∞ Y11Y22 − Y12Y21 Y11
+ Y11
YL
3. Input Impedance in Terms of Transmission Parameters We know that
V1 AV
AV2 BV V2
I1 CV
V2 D DI 2
From Fig. 13.117,
V2 ZL I 2
I1 CZZ L I 2 DI 2 = (CZ L + D ) I 2
I1
I2 = −
CZ L + D
⎛ I1 ⎞ ⎛ AZ L + B ⎞
V1 A AZZL I2 − B = − = I1
⎝ CZ L D ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ CZ L + D ⎟⎠
V AZ L + B
Zin = 1 =
I1 CZ L + D
13.13 Terminated Two-Port Networks 13.89

If the output port is open-circuited, i.e., ZL = ∞,

A
Zin =
C
If the output port is short-circuited, i.e., ZL = 0,
B
Zin =
D
4. Input Impedance in Terms of Hybrid Parameters We know that
V1 h11 I1 h12V2
I 2 h21 I1 h22V2
V2 ZL I2
I 2 h21 I1 h22 Z L I 2
h21
I2 = IL
1 + h22
2 ZL
h Z
V2 = − 21 L I1
1 + h22 Z L
Substituting the value of V2 in V1,
⎡ − h21Z L ⎤ ⎡ (h h − h h )Z h11 ⎤
V1 h11 I1 h12 ⎢ I L ⎥ = ⎢ 11 22 12 21 L ⎥ I1
⎣1 h22 Z L ⎦ ⎣ 1 + h22
2 ZL ⎦
V ( h1 h222 − h12
1 h221 ) Z L h111
Zin = 1 = 11
I1 1 + h22
2 ZL
If the output port is open-circuited, i.e., ZL = ∞,
h11h22 − h12 h21
Zin =
h22
If the output port is short-circuited, i.e., ZL = 0,
Zin = h11

13.13.2 Driving-Point Impedance at Output Port

A two-port network is shown in Fig. 13.118. The input port is terminated in load impedance ZL. The output
impedance of this network can be expressed in terms of two port network parameters.
I1 I2
+ +
Two-
ZL V1 port V2
network
− −

Fig. 13.118 Terminated two-port network

1. Output Impedance in terms of Z-parameters We know that
V1 Z11I1 Z12 I 2
V2 Z 21I1 Z 22 I 2
13.90 Network Analysis and Synthesis

From Fig. 13.118,

V1 Z L I1
− I1Z1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I 2
⎛ Z12 ⎞
I1 = − I2
⎝ Z L Z11 ⎟⎠

⎛ Z12 ⎞ ⎛ Z Z ⎞ ⎛ Z Z − Z12 Z 21 + Z 22 Z L ⎞
V2 Z 21 − I 2 + Z 22 I 2 = I 2 ⎜ Z 22 − 21 12 ⎟ = ⎜ 11 22 ⎟⎠ I 2
⎝ Z L + Z11 ⎟⎠ ⎝ Z L + Z11 ⎠ ⎝ Z11 + Z L
V2 Z11Z 22 − Z12 Z 21 + Z 22 Z L
Z0 = =
I2 Z11 + Z L
If the input port is open-circuited, i.e., ZL = ∞,
Z0 = Z22
If the input port is short-circuited, i.e., ZL= 0,
Z11Z 22 − Z12 Z 21
Z0 =
Z11
2. Output Impedance in Terms of Y-parameters We know that
I1 Y1111V1 Y12V2
I2 Y21
21V1 Y22V2
From Fig. 13.118,
V1 Z L I1
V
I1 = − 1 = −YLV1
ZL
−YLV1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
⎛ Y12 ⎞
V1 = − V2
⎝ YL Y11 ⎟⎠
⎛ Y12 ⎞ ⎡ Y Y ⎤ ⎡Y Y − Y Y + Y Y ⎤
I2 Y21 − V2 Y22V2 V2 ⎢Y22 − 21 12 ⎥ = V2 ⎢ 11 22 12 21 L 22 ⎥
⎝ YL Y11 ⎟⎠ ⎣ YL Y11 ⎦ ⎣ YL + Y11 ⎦
V2 YL + Y11
Z0 = =
I 2 Y11Y22 − Y12Y21
21 Y Y222
If input port is open-circuited, i.e., YL = 0,
Y11
Z0 =
Y11Y22 − Y12Y21
If input port is short-circuited, i.e., YL = ∞,
1
Z0 =
Y22
3. Output Impedance in Terms of ABCD Parameters We know that
V1 AV
AV2 BI
B 2
I1 CV
V2 DI
D 2
13.13 Terminated Two-Port Networks 13.91

From Fig. 13.118,

V1 Z L I1
V1 AVV2 BI 2
= −ZL =
I1 CV
V2 DI 2
V2 (CZ L A) = I ( DZ L B)
V D L+B
DZ
Z0 = 2 =
I 2 CZ L + A
If input port is open-circuited, i.e., ZL = ∞,
D
Z0 =
C
If input port is short-circuited, i.e., ZL = 0,
B
Z0 =
A
4. Output Impedance in Terms of h-parameters We know that
V1 h11I1 h12V12
I2 h21I1 h22V2
From Fig.13.118,
V1 Z L I1
− I1Z L = h11 I1 + h22V2
⎛ h12 ⎞
I1 = − V2
⎝ h11 Z L ⎟⎠
⎛ h12 ⎞ ⎡ h1 h222 − h12 21 + h22
1 h2 2 ZL ⎤
I 2 h21 − ⎟ V2 + h222V2 = V2 ⎢ 11 ⎥
⎝ h11 + Z L ⎠ ⎣ 1 + ZL
h11 ⎦
V h11 Z L
Z0 = 2 =
I 2 h11h22 − h12 h21 + h22 Z L
If input port is open-circuited, i.e., ZL = ∞,
1
Z0 =
h22
If input port is short-circuited i.e., ZL = 0,
h11
Z0 =
h11h22 − h12 h21

Example 13.56 Measurements were made on a two-terminal network shown in Fig. 13.119.
1 I1 I2 2
+ +

V1 Network V2 RL

− −
1′ 2′

Fig. 13.119
13.92 Network Analysis and Synthesis
(a) With terminal pair 2 open, a voltage of 100 ∠0° V applied to terminal pair 1 resulted in
I1 ° A V2 2 ∠0° V
(b) With terminal pair 1 open, the same voltage applied to terminal pair 2 resulted in
I2 ° A V1 50 ∠0° V
Write mesh equations for this network. What will be the voltage across a 10-W resistor connected across
Terminal pair 2 if a 100 ∠0° V is connected across terminal pair 1?
Solution Since measurements were done with either of the terminal pairs open-circuited, we have to
calculate Z-parameters ﬁrst.
V1 100 ∠0°
Z11 = = = 10 Ω
I1 I 2 =0 10 ∠0°
V2 25∠0°
Z 21 = = = 2 5Ω
I1 I 2 =0 10 ∠0°
V2 100 ∠0°
Z 22 = = =5Ω
I2 I1 = 0 20 ∠0°
V1 50 ∠0°
Z112 = = = 2 5Ω
I2 I1 = 0 20 ∠0°
Putting these values in Z-parameter equations,
V1 10 I1 + 2 5 I 2 …(i)
V2 2 I1 + 5 I 2 …(ii)
When a 10-Ω resistor is connected across terminal pair 1,
V1 100 ∠0° V
V2 RL I 2 10 I 2
Substituting values of V1 and V2 in Eqs (i) and (ii),
100 = 10I1 + 2.5I2
and −10I2 = 2.5I1 + 5I2
2.5I1 = −15I2
I1 = −6I2
100 = −60I2 + 2.5I2
100
I2 = − = −1.74 A
57.5
Voltage across the resistor = −I2RL = −10(−1.74) = 17.4 V

Example 13.57 The Z-parameters of a two-port network shown in Fig. 13.120 are Z11 = Z22 = 10 W,
Z21 = Z22 = 4 W. If the source voltage is 20 V, determine I1,I2,V2 and input impedance.
I1 I2
+ +
+
Vs V1 Network V2 5Ω
−
− −

Fig. 13.120
13.13 Terminated Two-Port Networks 13.93
Solution
V1 Vs = 20 V
V2 20 I 2
The two-port network can be represented in terms of Z-parameters.
V1 10 I1 + 4 I 2 …(i)
V2 4 I1 10 I 2 …(ii)
−20 I 2 = 4 1 + 10 I 2
4 1 = −3300 I 2
I1 = −77 5 I 2
Substituting the value of I1 in Eq. (i),
V1 10( . I 2 ) + 4I
4I2 71 I 2
20 = −71 I 2
I 2 = −0.28 A
I1 = −7.5( −00.28) 2.1 A
V2 = −20( −00.28) 56 V
V1 20
Input impedance Zi = = = 9 52 Ω
I1 2.1

Example 13.58 The Z-parameters of a two-port network shown in Fig. 13.121 are, Z11 = 2 W,
V I V
Z12 = 1 W, Z21 = 2 W, Z22 = 5 W. Calculate the voltage ratio 2 , current ratio − 2 and input impedance 1 .
Vs I1 I1
I1 I2
+ +
+
Vs V1 Network V2 5Ω
−
− −

Fig. 13.121

Solution The two-port network can be represented in terms of Z-parameters.

V1 2 I1 + I 2 …(i)
V2 2 I1 5 I 2 …(ii)
When the 5 Ω resistor is connected across port-2,
V2 I2 …(iii)
Applying KVL to the input port,
Vs 1I1 − V1 = 0
V1 Vs + I1 …(iv)
Substituting values of V1 and V2 in Eqs (i) and (ii),
Vs I1 = 2 I1 I2
Vs 3I1 + I 2 …(v)
13.94 Network Analysis and Synthesis
and −5 2 = 2 I1 + 5 I 2
0 = 2 I1 +10
10
0I2 …(vi)

Solving Eqs (v) and (vi), we get

Vs 1
0 10 5
I1 = = Vs
3 1 14
2 10
3 Vs
0 0 1
I2 = = − Vs
3 1 14
2 10
I 1
− 2 =
I1 5
⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 5
V2 2 I1 5 I 2 2 Vs + 5 − Vs Vs
⎝ 14 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 14 ⎠ 14
V2 5
=
Vs 14
⎛ 5 ⎞ 1 9
V1 2 I1 + I 2 2 Vs − Vs Vs
⎝ 14 ⎟⎠ 14 14
V1 9
= Ω
I1 5

Example 13.59 The following equations give the voltages V1 and V2 at the two ports of a two-port
network shown in Fig. 13.122.
V1 5 I 1 2 I 2
V2 2 I 1 + I 2
A load resistor of 3 W is connected across port 2. Calculate the input impedance.
I1 I2
+ +
Two-
V1 port V2 3Ω
network
− −

Fig. 13.122
Solution From Fig. 13.122,
V2 = −3I2 ...(i)
Substituting Eq. (i) in the given equation,
−3 2 = 2I1 + I 2
I
I2 = − 1 (ii)
2
Substituting the Eq. (ii) in the given equation.
V1 5 I1 I1 4 I1
V
Input impedance Zi = 1 = 4 Ω
I1
13.13 Terminated Two-Port Networks 13.95

Example 13.60 The y-parameters for a two-port network shown in Fig. 13.123 are given as, Y11
= 4 , Y22 = 5 , Y12 = Y21 = 4 . If a resistor of 1 W is connected across port-1 of the network then ﬁnd the
output impedance.
I1 I2
+ +
V1 1Ω Network V2
− −

Fig. 13.123
Solution The two-port network can be represented in terms of Y-parameters.
I1 4V1 4V2 …(i)
I 2 4V1 5V2 …(ii)
When the 1-Ω resistor is connected across port-1 of the network,
V1 1I1 = − I1
I1 V1
Substituting value of I1 in Eq (i),
−V1 = 4V1 + 4V2
−5V1 = 4V2
4
V1 = − V2
5
Substituting value of V1 in Eq (ii),
⎛ 4 ⎞ 9
I2 V2 + 5V2
4 V2
⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ 5
V 5
Output impedance Z0 = 2 = Ω
I2 9

Example 13.61 The following equation gives the voltage and current at the input port of a two-
port network shown in Fig. 13.124.
V1 5V2 3I 2
I1 6V2 2 I 2
A load resistance of 5 W is connected across the output port. Calculate the input impedance.
I1 I2
+ +
Two-
V1 port V2 5Ω
network
− −

Fig. 13.124
Solution From Fig. 13.124,
V2 = −5I2
Substituting the value of V2 in the given equations,
V1 ( I 2 ) − 3I
3I 2 28 I 2
I1 6( I 2 ) − 2I2I 2 32 I 2
V −28 I 2 7
Input impedance Zi = 1 = = Ω
I1 −32 I 2 8
13.96 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 13.62 The ABCD parameters of a two-port network shown in Fig. 13.125 are A = 2.5,
B = 4 W, C = 1 , D = 2. What must be the input voltage V1 applied for the output voltage V2 to be 10 V
across the load of 10 W connected at Port 2?
I1 I2
+ +
V1 Network V2 10 Ω

− −

Fig. 13.125
Solution The two-port network can be represented in terms of ABCD parameters.
V1 = 2.5 V2 − 4I2 …(i)
I1 = V2 − 2I2 …(ii)
When the 10 Ω resistor is connected across Port 2,
V2 10 I 2 = 10 ...(iii)
I 2 = −1A
V1 = 2.5(
5(10) − 4( 1) = 29 V

Example 13.63 The h-parameters of a two-port network shown in Fig. 13.126 are h11 = 4 W, h12 = 1,
h21 = 1, h22 = 0.5 . Calculate the output voltage V2 when the output port is terminated in a 3 W resistance
and a 1 V is applied at the input port.
I1 I2
+ +
+ Network
1V − V1 V2 3Ω

− −

Fig. 13.126

Solution
V1 = 1 V
V2 3 I2
The two-port network can be represented in terms of h-parameters.
V1 4 I1 + V2 ...(i)
I 2 I1 + 0 5 V2 …(ii)
I 2 I1 + 0.5( −3I 2 )
2 5 I 2 I1
Substituting the value of V1 and I1 in Eq (i),
1 4( 2.5 I 2 ) 3 I 2
1 7I 2
1
I2 = A
7
⎛ 1⎞ 3
V2 = −3 ⎜ ⎟ = − V
⎝ 7⎠ 7
13.14 Image Parameters 13.97

Example 13.64 The h-parameters of a two-port network shown in Fig. 13.127 are h11 = 1 W,
h12 = −h21 = 2, h22 = 1 . The power absorbed by a load resistance of 1 W connected across port-2 is
100W. The network is excited by a voltage source of generated voltage Vs and internal resistance 2 W.
Calculate the value of Vs.
2Ω I1 I2
+ +

Vs + Network
− V1 V2 2Ω

− −

Fig. 13.127
Solution The two-port network can be represented in terms of h-parameters.
V1 I1 + 2 V2 …(i)
I2 2 I1 + V2 …(ii)
When the 1 Ω resister is connected across port-2,
V22
= 100
1
V2 = 10 V
V2 1I2 10
I 2 = −10 A
Substituting values of I2 and V2 in Eq (ii),
−10 = −2 1 + 10
I1 = 10 A
Applying KVL to the input port,
Vs 2 I1 − V1 = 0
Vs 2 I1 − ( I1 2V2 ) = 0
Vs 3 I1 − 2V2 = 0
Vs 3 I1 + 2V2 = 3(10) + 2( ) = 50 V

13.14 IMAGE PARAMETERS

If the driving-point impedance at port 1, with impedance Zi2 connected across port 2, is Zi1 and driving-point
impedance at port 2, with impedance Zi1 connected across the port 1, is Zi2 then Zi1 and Zi2 are known as image
impedances of the network. These are also known as image parameters.
The image parameters can be expressed in terms of ABCD parameters. Figure 13.128 shows a two-port
network terminated in Zi2 at Port 2.
I1 I2
V1 AV
AV2 B I2 + +
I1 CV
V2 D I2 V1 Network V2 Zi 2

V2 Zi 2 I 2 − −
V1 AV
V2 B I2 − A Zi 2 I 2 B I2 − A Zi2
i2 − B
Zi1 = = = = Fig. 13.128 Terminated two-port
I1 CV
V2 D I 2 −CC Zi2
i2 I2 D I 2 −C Zi2i2 − D network
13.98 Network Analysis and Synthesis

A Zi 2 + B I1 I2
= ...(13.13)
C Zi 2 + D + +

Similarly, if the two-port network is terminated in Zi1 at port Zi1 V1 Network V2

1 as shown in Fig. 13.129 then − −
V1 Zi1 I1
Fig. 13.129 Terminated two-port network
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞
V1 I1 ⎜
V2 ⎝ AD − BC ⎠ ⎝ AD − BC ⎟⎠
Zi 2 = =
I2 ⎛ C ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞
V1 ⎜ −I …(from Cramer’s rule)
⎝ AD − BC ⎟⎠ 1 ⎜⎝ AD − BC ⎟⎠
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞
− Zi1 I1 ⎜ ⎟ − I1 ⎜
⎝ AD − BC ⎠ ⎝ AD − BC ⎟⎠ − DZi1 − B
= =
⎛ C ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞ −CZi1 − A
− Zi1 I1 ⎜ −I
⎝ AD − BC ⎟⎠ 1 ⎜⎝ AD − BC ⎟⎠
DZi1 + B
= …(13.14)
CZi1 + A
Solving Eqs (13.13) and (13.14),
AB
Zi1 =
CD
BD
Zi 2 =
AC
The image impedances Zi1 and Zi2 do not deﬁne a network completely. A third parameter image transfer
constant f is also used to deﬁne the network. f can also be expressed in terms of ABCD parameters. Let the
network be terminated in impedance Zi2 at Port 2.

V2 Zi 2 I 2
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞
V1 AV2
AV B I2 AV
V2 B⎜ 2 ⎟ = A+ V2
⎝ − Zi 2 ⎠ ⎝ Zi 2 ⎟⎠
I1 CV
V2 D I2 C Zi I 2 − D I 2 = −(C Zi 2 + D ) I 2
V1 B AC ABCD
C AD + ABCD
C
= A+ = A+ B = A+ =
V2 Zi 2 BD D D
I1 BD ABCD
C C + AD AD + ABCD
ABCD C
− = C Zi 2 + D = C +D= +D= =
I2 AC A A A
C )2
V1 I1 ( AD + ABCD
Hence, − = = ( AD + BC ) 2
V2 I 2 AD
V1 I1
− = AD + BC
V2 I 2
= AD + AD − 1 (∵ AD − BC = 1)
13.14 Image Parameters 13.99

Let h φ , then
cosh h AD i hφ
A − 1 = sinh
AD − 1 BC
hf =
tanh =
AD AD
BC
h −1
f = tanh
AD
V1 I1
Also − = cosh f + si h f = ef
V2 I 2
V1 I1 1 ⎛ V I ⎞
f = log − loge − 1 1 ⎟
= log
V2 I 2 2 ⎝ V2 I 2 ⎠

Relationship between Image parameters and the Open-circuit and Short-Circuit

Impedances
Open and short-circuit impedance parameters can be expressed in terms of ABCD parameters.
V1 AV
AV2 B I2
I1 CV
V2 D I2
When the output port is open-circuited, i.e., I2 = 0,
V1 AV2
AV
I1 CV
V2
Hence, the impedance measured at input port with output port open-circuited is
V1 A
Zoc1 = =
I1 C
When the output port is short-circuited, i.e., V2 = 0,
V1 = −BI2
I1 = −DI2
Hence, the impedance measured at input port with output port short-circuited is
V1 B
Z sc 1 = =
I1 D

Similarly the impedance measured at output port with input port open-circuited and short-circuited are
D
Zoc2 =
C
B
Z sc2 =
A
The ratio of short-circuit to open-circuit impedance at the two ports is
Z sc1 Z sc2 BC
= =
Zoc1 Zoc2 AD
13.100 Network Analysis and Synthesis
The image parameters can also be expressed in terms of open circuit and short-circuit impedances.
AB
Zi1 = = Zoc1 Z sc1
CD
BD
Zi 2 = = Zoc2 Z sc2
AC
BC
C Z sc1 Z ssc2
nh −11
f = tan = tannh 1
= tanh −1
AD Zoc
o1 Zooc2

6 17 1
Example 13.65 The ABCD parameters of a two-port network are given as, A ,B= ,C = ,
7 5 5 5
D = . Find the image parameters.
5
Solution

⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 17 ⎞
AB ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
5 5
Zi1 = = = 3 82 Ω
CD ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
5 5
⎛ 17 ⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞
BD ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
5 5
Zi 2 = = = 4.45 Ω
AC ⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
5 5
⎛ 17
1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
BC ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ 17
5 5
nh −11
f = tan = tan
nh 1
= tannh −1 = 0.75°
AD ⎛ 6⎞ ⎛ 7⎞ 42
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
5 5

Example 13.66 Find the image parameters of the network shown in Fig. 13.130.
I1 30 Ω 20 Ω I2
+ +

V1 10 Ω V2

− −

Fig. 13.130

Solution Zoc1 = 30 + 10 = 40 Ω
10 × 20
Z sc1 = 30 + = 36.67 Ω
10 + 20
Zi Zoc1 Z sc1 = 40 × 36.67
6 = 38.3 Ω
Exercises 13.101

Zoc2 = 20 + 10 = 30 Ω
10 × 30
Z sc2 = 20 + = 27.5 Ω
10 + 30
Zi Zoc2 Z sc2 = 30 × 27.5 = 28.72 Ω
Z 1 36.67
nh −11
f = tan anh −1
= tan = 1 91°
Zoc1 40

Example 13.67 Find image parameters for the lattice two-port network shown in Fig. 13.131.
2Ω

4Ω 4Ω

2Ω

Fig. 13.131
Solution The network is redrawn as shown in Fig. 13.132.
2 4
Zoc1 Zoc2 = ( 2 + 4) || ( 2 + 4) = 3 Ω
Z sc1 Z sc2 = ( 2 || 4) + ( 2 || 4) = 2 67 Ω
Zi1 = Zoc1 Z sc1 = (3)(2
( 2.67) = 2.83 Ω
4 2
Zi Zoc2 Z sc2 = (3)( 2.67) = 2.83 Ω
Z 2 67
f = tan
nh 1
ta h −1 = 1 76°
Zoc1 3 Fig. 13.132

Exercises
13.1 Determine Z-parameters for the network 13.2 Find Z-parameters for the network shown in
shown in Fig. 13.133. Fig. 13.134.
I1 1Ω 1Ω I2 I1 1F 2F I2
+ + + +

V1 2Ω 0.5 Ω V2 V1 2H 2H V2

− −
− −
Fig. 13.134
Fig. 13.133
⎡ 4s4 + 6s2 + 1 4 s3 ⎤
⎡13 2⎤ ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢ 7⎥ Z = ⎢ 4 s +3 s 4s2 + 1 ⎥
Z=⎢7
⎢2 3 ⎥⎥ ⎢ 4s 4 s3 + 2 s ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣7 7⎦ ⎣ 4s2 + 1 4s2 + 1 ⎦
13.102 Network Analysis and Synthesis
13.3 Find Y-parameters of the network shown in 2i
Fig 13.135.
I1 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω I2 i 8Ω
+ + + +
4Ω
V1 1Ω 1Ω V2
V1 2Ω V2
− −
− −
Fig. 13.135
⎡ 0.36 −0.033⎤ Fig. 13.138
Y =⎢
⎣ −0.033 −0.36 ⎥⎦ ⎡ 3 1⎤
⎢ 20 − 20 ⎥
Y =⎢
13.4 Find Y-parameters for the network shown in
⎢− 1 1 ⎥⎥
Fig. 13.136. ⎣ 4 4 ⎦
I1 3Ω 1H I2 13.7 Show the ABCD parameters of the network
+ +
shown in Fig. 13.139.
I1 1F 1F I2
V1 2F 2Ω 1F V2
+ +
− − 1H
V1 V2
Fig. 13.136
− −
⎡10 s + 13s + 2
2
2 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥ Fig. 13.139
Y =⎢ 5s + 6 5s + 6 ⎥
⎢ 2 5s 2 + 6 s + 5 ⎥ ⎡1 + s 2 1 + 2s2 ⎤
⎢⎣ − 5s + 6 5s + 6 ⎥⎦
⎢
⎡ A B ⎤ ⎢ s2 s3 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 1 + s2 ⎥
13.5 Find Y-parameters for the network shown in ⎢ ⎥
Fig. 13.137. ⎣ s s2 ⎦
1F 13.8 Find ABCD parameters for the network shown
I1 4 I2
in Fig. 13.140.
+ +
I1 4Ω 8Ω 6Ω I2
V1 2Ω 1F 2H 1Ω V2 + +
3

− − V1 1Ω 2Ω V2

Fig. 13.137
− −
⎡ 7s + 6 s ⎤
⎢ 12 − ⎥ Fig. 13.140
4
Y =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ −s s + 4s + 2 ⎥ ⎡ 27 206 ⎤
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ ⎡A B⎤ ⎢ ⎥
4s ⎢⎣C D ⎥⎦ = ⎢11 42 ⎥
⎣2 ⎦
13.6 Find Y-parameters for the network shown in
Fig. 13.138. 13.9 For the network shown in Fig. 13.141,
determine parameter h21.
Exercises 13.103

2I1 2Ω 2Ω

I1 1Ω I2
I1 2Ω 2Ω I2
+ +
1F + +

V1 1Ω V2 V2
V1 1Ω 1Ω

− −
− −

Fig. 13.141 Fig. 13.144

⎡ −( 2 + s ) ⎤ ⎡ 3 1⎤
⎢ h21 = 1 + s ⎥ ⎢ 4 − 4⎥
⎣ ⎦ Y =⎢ ⎥
13.10 Determine Y and Z-parameters for the ⎢− 1 3 ⎥
network shown in Fig. 13.142. ⎣ 4 4 ⎦
I1 2Ω I2 13.13 Two identical sections of the network shown
in Fig. 13.145 are connected in parallel.
+ +
Obtain Y-parameters of the connection.
V1 2Ω 1Ω 2I1 V2 I1 1Ω 2Ω I2
+ +
− −
V1 2Ω 4Ω V2
Fig. 13.142

[Y11 1 , Y12 0.5 , Y21 1.5 , Y22 0.5 − −

2 2 6 4 ⎤ Fig. 13.145
Z11 Ω, Z12 = Ω, Z 21 = − Ω, Ω
5 ⎥⎦
22
5 5 5 ⎡ 1⎤
⎢ 1 − ⎥
13.11 For the bridged T, R-C network shown in Y =⎢ 2
Fig. 13.143 determine Y-parameters using ⎢− 1 5 ⎥⎥
interconnections of two-port networks. ⎣ 2 4 ⎦
1
2F 13.14 Determine Y-parameters using interconnection
of two-port networks for the network shown in
1Ω Fig. 13.146.
I1 1Ω 2 I2
1Ω 1Ω
+ +
I1 2Ω I2
V1 1 V2
F
2 + +
V1 2Ω V2
− − − −
1Ω 1Ω
Fig. 13.143 2 2

⎡ s 2 + 8s + 8 ( s 2 + 6 s + 8) ⎤ Fig. 13.146
⎢ − ⎥
2( s + 6) 2( s + 6) ⎥ ⎡ 3.1 −0.9⎤
Y =⎢ Y =⎢
⎢ ( s 2 + 6 s + 8) s 2 + 100s + 8 ⎥ ⎣ −0.9 3.1 ⎥⎦
⎢− ⎥
⎣ 2( s + 6) 2( s + 6) ⎦ 13.15 Determine the transmission parameters of
13.12 For the network of Fig. 13.144, ﬁnd the network shown in Fig. 13.147 using the
Y-parameters using interconnection of two-port concept of interconnection of two two-port
networks. networks.
13.104 Network Analysis and Synthesis
1H 1H 1H Determine the h-parameters of the overall
network.
3Ω 3Ω
1F 1F

1Ω 1Ω
Fig. 13.147
⎡1 3s 2 + s 4 3 4 s3 + s5 ⎤
⎢ 3 ⎥
⎣ 2s s 1 + 3s 2 + s 4 ⎦ Fig. 13.149
13.16 Two networks shown in Fig. 13.148 are ⎡ 15 1⎤
⎢ 2 − ⎥
connected in series. Obtain the Z-parameters 2
⎢ 1 5 ⎥⎥
of the resulting network. ⎢−
1Ω 1Ω ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
13.18 The h-parameters of a two-port network
shown in Fig. 13.150 are h11 = 2 Ω, h12 = 4, h21
2Ω = −5, h22 = 2 . Determine the supply voltage
Vs if the power dissipated in the load resistor
of 4 Ω is 25 W and Rs = 2 Ω.
Rs = 2 Ω I1 I2
(a)
+ +
+
10 Ω 20 Ω Vs V1 Network V2 4Ω
−
− −

5Ω
Fig. 13.150
[58 V]
13.19 The Z-parameters of a two-port network are
Z11 = 2.1 Ω, Z12 = Z21 = 0.6 Ω, Z22 = 1.6 Ω. A
(b) resistor of 2 Ω is connected across port 2. What
Fig. 13.148 voltage must be applied at port 1 to produce a
current of 0.5 A in the 2 Ω resistor.
⎡18 7 ⎤
⎢⎣ 7 28⎥⎦ [6 V]
13.20 If a two-port network has Z11 = 25 Ω, Z12 = Z21 =
13.17 Two identical sections of the network shown 20 Ω, Z22 = 50 Ω, ﬁnd the equivalent T-network.
in Fig. 13.149 are connected in series-parallel. [10 Ω, 30 Ω, 20 Ω]

Objective-Type Questions
13.1 The open-circuit impedance matrix of the ⎡ −2 1⎤ ⎡ −2 −8⎤
(a) ⎢ (b) ⎢
⎣ −8 3⎥⎦ 3 ⎥⎦
two-port network shown in Fig. 13.151 is
⎣1
2Ω
⎡0 1⎤ ⎡2 1⎤
(c) ⎢ (d) ⎢
⎣1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣ −1 3 ⎥⎦
1Ω 3I1 13.2 Two two-port networks are connected in
cascade. The combination is to be represented
as a single two-port network. The parameters
are obtained by multiplying the individual
Fig. 13.151
Objective-Type Questions 13.105

(a) z-parameter matrix (a) −0.2 mho (b) 0.1 mho

(b) h-parameter matrix (c) −0.05 mho (d) 0.05 mho
(c) y-parameter matrix
13.7 The Z-parameters Z11 and Z21 for the two-
(d) ABCD parameter matrix
port network in Fig. 13.154 are,
13.3 For a two-port network to be reciprocal I1 2Ω I2
(a) z11 = z22 (b) y21 = y12 + +

(c) h21 = −h12 (d) AD − BC = 0 4Ω

V1 V2
13.4 The short-circuit admittance matrix of a two- −
10V1
⎡ 1⎤ +
⎢0 − 2⎥ − −
port network is ⎢ ⎥ . The two-port
⎢1 0 ⎥ Fig. 13.154
network is ⎣2 ⎦
6 16 6 4
(a) − Ω, Ω (b) Ω, Ω
11 11 11 11
(a) non-reciprocal and passive 6 16 4 4
(b) non-reciprocal and active (c) Ω, Ω (d) Ω, Ω
(c) reciprocal and passive 11 11 11 11
(d) reciprocal and active 13.8 The impedance parameters Z11 and Z12 of a
two-port network in Fig. 13.155.
13.5 A two-port network is shown in Fig. 13.152.
2Ω 2Ω 3Ω
The parameter h21 for this network can be
given by
I1 R R I2
1Ω 1Ω
+ +

V1 R V2
Fig. 13.155
− − (a) 2.75 Ω, 0.25 Ω (b) 3 Ω, 0.5 Ω
(c) 3 Ω, 0.25 Ω (d) 2.25 Ω, 0.5 Ω
Fig. 13.152
13.9 The h parameters of the circuit shown in Fig.
1 1 13.156.
(a) − (b)
2 2 10 Ω

3 3
(c) − (d)
2 2
20 Ω
13.6 The admittance parameter Y12 in the two-port
network in Fig. 13.153.
20 Ω

Fig. 13.156

5Ω 10 Ω ⎡ 0.1 0.1⎤ ⎡10 −1 ⎤

(a) ⎢ (b) ⎢
⎣ −0.1 0.3⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0.05⎥⎦

⎡30 20 ⎤ ⎡10 1 ⎤
(c) ⎢ (d) ⎢
Fig. 13.153 ⎣ 20 20 ⎥⎦ ⎣ −1 0.05⎥⎦
13.106 Network Analysis and Synthesis
13.10 A two-port network is represented by ABCD A AD
⎡V ⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤ (a) (b)
parameters given by ⎢ 1 ⎥ = ⎢ . C BC
⎣ I1 ⎦ ⎣C D ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − I 2 ⎥⎦
AB D
If port 2 is terminated by RL, then the input (c) (d)
DC C
impedance seen at port 1 is given by 13.15 A two-port network is symmetrical if
A BR
BRL RL + C
AR (a) Z11 Z22 − Z12 Z21 = 1
(a) (b) (b) AD − BC = 1
C DR
DRL RL + D
BR
(c) h11 h22 − h12 h21 = 1
RL + A
DR B AR
RL (d) Y11 Y22 − Y12 Y21 = 1
(c) (d)
RL + C
BR D CR
CRL 13.16 For the network shown in Fig. 13.158
admittance parameters are Y11 = 8 mho, Y12 =
13.11 In the two-port network shown in Fig. 13.157,
Y21 = −6 mho and Y22 = 6 mho. The value of
Z12 and Z21 are respectively
YA, YB and YC (in mho) will be respectively
(a) 2, 6, −6 (b) 2,6,0
re ro (c) 2,0,6 (d) 2,6,8
bI 1
YC

Fig. 13.157
YA YB
(a) re and b r0 (b) 0 and −b r0
(c) 0 and b r0 (d) re and −b r0

13.12 If a two-port network is passive, then we Fig. 13.158

have, with the usual notation, the following
relationship for symmetrical network 13.17 The impedance matrices of two two-port
⎡ 3 2⎤ ⎡15 5 ⎤
(a) h12 = h21 networks are given by ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ .
(b) h12 = −h21 ⎣ 2 3⎦ ⎣ 3 25⎥⎦
(c) h11 = h22 If these two networks are connected in series,
(d) h11h22 − h12h21 = 1 the impedance matrix of the resulting two-
13.13 A two-port network is deﬁned by the following
port network will be
pair of equations I1 = 2V1 +V2 and I2 = V1 + V2.
Its impedance parameters (Z11, Z12, Z21, Z22) ⎡3 5 ⎤ ⎡18 7 ⎤
(a) ⎢ (b) ⎢
are given by ⎣ 2 25⎥⎦ ⎣ 7 28⎥⎦
(a) 2, 1, 1, 1 (b) 1, −1, −1, 2
⎡15 2⎤
(c) ⎢ (d) inderminate
(c) 1, 1, 1, 2 (d) 2, −1, −1, 1 ⎣ 5 3⎥⎦
13.14 A two-port network has transmission 13.18 If the p network and T network are equivalent,
⎡A B⎤ then the values of R1, R2 and R3 (in ohms) will
parameters ⎢ . The input impedance
⎣C D ⎥⎦ be respectively
of the network at port 1 will be (a) 6, 6, 6 (b) 6, 6, 9
(c) 9, 6, 9 (d) 6, 9, 6
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 13.107

16 Ω 1Ω 1
3F

24 Ω 24 Ω 2H

Fig. 13.160

R1 R2 ⎡ 2s 1 2s ⎤ ⎡ 2s 1 2s ⎤
(a) ⎢ 3⎥ (b) ⎢ 3⎥
⎢ 2s 2s + ⎥ ⎢ −2 s 2 s + ⎥
⎣ s⎦ ⎣ s⎦
⎡ 3 ⎤
⎡ 2s 1 2s ⎤ ⎢ 2s + 2
R3 2s ⎥
(c) ⎢ 3 ⎥ (d) ⎢
⎢ −2 s 2 s + ⎥ ⎢ 2s 3⎥
⎣ s⎦ 2s + ⎥
⎣ s⎦
Fig. 13.159 13.21 With the usual notations, a two-port
13.19 For a two-port symmetrical bilateral network, resistive network satisﬁes the conditions
if A = 3 and B = 1, the value of the parameter 3 4
C will be A D= B C . The Z11 of the network is
2 3
(a) 4 (b) 6
5 4
(c) 8 (d) 16 (a) (b)
3 3
13.20 The impedance matrix for the network
shown in Fig. 13.160 is 2 1
(c) (d)
3 3

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) , (c) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c)
8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a)
15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (a) 21. (b)
14
Fourier Analysis

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Any arbitrary periodic function can be represented by an inﬁnite series of sinusoids of harmonically related
frequencies. This representation is known as Fourier-series representation. The Fourier representation of
periodic functions is extended to nonperiodic functions by letting the fundamental period T tend to inﬁnity,
and this Fourier method of representing nonperiodic functions as a function of frequency is called Fourier
transform. The Fourier representation of functions is also known as frequency-domain representation. The
Fourier-series representation can be obtained only for periodic functions, but the Fourier-transform technique
can be applied to both periodic and nonperiodic functions to obtain the frequency-domain representation of
functions. The information about magnitude and phase of various frequency components can be obtained by
Fourier analysis. The plot of magnitude versus frequency is called magnitude spectrum, and the plot of phase
versus frequency is called phase spectrum.

14.2 TRIGONOMETRIC FOURIER SERIES

Any periodic function f (t) can be expressed into an infinite trigonometric series if it satisfies the following
conditions:
1. It is well defined and single valued, except possibly at a finite number of points.
2. It has a finite number of discontinuities in the period T.
3. It has a finite number of positive and negative maxima in the period T.
These conditions are known as Dirichlet’s conditions.
Any function f (t) which is periodic and satisfies the Dirichlet’s condition, can be represented in terms of
sine and cosine functions.
f (t ) = a0 + a1 cos ω t a2 cos
cos 2 t … an cos n t + b t+b t+ i n ωt + …
+ bn sin
∞ ∞ …(14.1)
= a0 + ∑ an cos ω t + ∑ bn sin
si n ω t
n =1 n =1

where the coefﬁcients a0, an and bn are given by,

T
1
T ∫0
a0 = f (t ) dt
14.2 Network Analysis and Synthesis
T
2
T ∫0
an = f (t ) cos n ω t dt

T
2
T ∫0
bn = f (t ) sin n ω t dt

14.2.1 Evaluation of Fourier Coefﬁcients

1. Evaluation of a0 Integrating Eq. (14.1) w.r.t. t,

T T T
⎛ ∞ ⎞ T ∞
⎛ ⎞
∫ f (t ) dt = a ∫ dt ∫⎝∑ n a cos n ω t ⎟
⎠
dt + ∫ ⎜ ∑ bn s n ωt ⎟ dt
0 0 0 n =1 0 ⎝ n =1 ⎠
= a0 T + 0 + 0
⎡ T ⎤
⎢∵ ∫ sin n ω t dt = 0 for all n ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ T ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ and ∫ cos n ω t dt = 0 f ≠ 0⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
T
1
a0 = ∫ f (t ) dt
T0

2. Evaluation of an Multiplying Eq. (14.1) by cos n wt and integrating w.r.t t between the limits 0 and T,
T T T ∞ T ∞

∫ f (t ) cos n ω t dt ∫ a0 cos n ω t dt ∫ cos n ω t ∑ an cos n ω t dt + ∫ cos n ω t ∑ bn n ω t dt

0 0 0 n =1 0 n =1

T
= 0+ an + 0
2
T
2
an =
T ∫ f (t ) cos n ω t dt
0

3. Evaluation of bn Multiplying Eq. (14.1) by sin n wt and integrating w.r.t t between the limits 0 and T,
T T T ∞ T ∞

∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt ∫ a0 sin
i n ω t dt ∫ sin n ω t ∑ an cos n ω t dt + ∫ sin n ω t ∑ bn n ω t dt
0 0 0 n =1 0 n =1

T
= 0+0+ bn
2
T
2
bn =
T ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt
0

14.2.2 Complex Fourier Spectrum

A Fourier series expansion of a periodic function is equivalent to resolving the function in terms of its
components of various frequencies. A periodic function with period T has frequency components of angular
14.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series 14.3

2π
frequencies w, 2w, 3w,… nw where ω = . Thus, the periodic function f (t) possesses its spectrum of
T
frequencies, known as line spectrum.
The spectrum exists only at w, 2w, 3w,… etc. Thus, the spectrum is not a continuous curve but exists only
at some discrete values of w. The line spectrum is the plot which shows the variation of magnitude and phase
of the function w.r.t n.
(i) Magnitude Spectrum It is a plot of magnitude cn versus nw where cn = an2 + bn2 .
bn
(ii) Phase Spectrum It is a plot of phase angle fn versus nw where φn = tan −1 .
an
Example 14.1 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.1. Draw the
magnitude and phase spectrum.
f(t)

t
0 p 2p 3p

Fig. 14.1
Solution T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
f (t ) = A 0 < t < π
= 0 π < < 2π
The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is
∞ ∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n t + ∑ bn s n ωt
n =1 n 1
n=
T
1
a0 = ∫ f (t ) dt
T0
1 ⎡π 2π ⎤
= ⎢ ∫ A dt + ∫ 0 dt ⎥
2π ⎢⎣ 0 π ⎥⎦
A π
= [t ]0
2π
A
= (π − 0)
2π
A
=
2
T
2
an = ∫ f (t ) cos n ω t dt
T0

2 ⎡π 2π ⎤
= ⎢∫ A n t dt
d ∫ d⎥
0 dt [ ω = 1]
2π ⎢⎣ 0 π ⎥⎦
14.4 Network Analysis and Synthesis
π
A ⎡ si n t ⎤
=
π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ 0
A ⎡1 ⎤
= (sin nπ − sin ) ⎥
π ⎢⎣ n ⎦
=0 si nπ = 0]
[ sin
T
2
bn = ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt
T0
π 2π
2 ⎡ ⎤
2π ⎢⎣ ∫0 ∫
= ⎢ A n t dt
d d⎥
0 dt [ ω = 1]
π ⎥⎦
π
A ⎡ cos n t ⎤
= −
π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ 0
A
=
nπ
[− + ]
A
= [ −( −1)) n + ]
nπ
⎧ 0 if n is even
⎪
bn = ⎨ 2 A
⎪⎩ nπ if n is odd
∞
A A
f (t ) =
2
+ ∑ nπ sin n ω t
n=1
n= odd

A 2A 2A
= + i ωt +
sin si 3 ω t + ……
sin
2 π 3π
The magnitude and phase spectrum are shown in Fig. 14.2.

cn fn
2A
p
A
2 2A
p
3p
2

nw nw
0 w 2w 3w 4w 0 w 2w 3w 4w

Fig. 14.2

Example 14.2 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.3. Draw the
magnitude and phase spectrum.
14.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series 14.5

f(t)

t
0 2p 4p

Fig. 14.3

Solution T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
A
f (t ) = t 0 t < 2π
2π
The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is
∞ ∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n t + ∑ bn s nω t
n =1 n 1
n=
T
1
a0 = ∫ f (t ) dt
T0
2π
1 A
=
2π ∫ 2π t dt
0
2π
A ⎡t2 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
4π 2 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 0

A ⎡ 4π ⎤ 2
= ⎢ − 0 ⎥
4π 2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
A
=
2
T
2
T ∫0
an = f (t ) cos n ω t dt

2π
2 A
=
2π ∫ 2π t cos n t dt
d [∵ ω = 1]
0
2π
A
=
2π 2
∫ t cos n t dt
0
2π
A ⎡ ⎛ sin n t ⎞ ⎛ cos n t ⎞ ⎤
= t
2 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ − (1) ⎜ − ⎟⎥
2π ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎦ 0
14.6 Network Analysis and Synthesis

A ⎡ ⎛ sin nπ ⎞ 2 nπ cos 0 ⎤
= ⎢ 2π ⎜ ⎟+ − ⎥
2π 2 ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ n 2
n2 ⎦
A ⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡∵sin 2 π = 0 ⎤
= 0+ 2 − 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2π ⎣ ⎣cos 2 nπ = 1 ⎦
2
n n ⎦
=0
T
2
bn = ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt
T0
2π
2 A
=
2π ∫ 2π t sin n dt
d [∵ ω = 1]
0
2π
A
=
2π 2
∫ t si n t dt
0
2π
A ⎡ ⎛ cos n t ⎞ ⎛ sin n t ⎞ ⎤
= t −
2 ⎢ ⎝ ⎟⎠ − (1) ⎜⎝ − 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
2π ⎣ n n ⎦0
A ⎡ ⎛ cos nπ ⎞ i 2 nπ sin 0 ⎤
= 2 ⎢
−2π ⎜ ⎟+ − 2 ⎥
2π ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ n2 n ⎦
A ⎡ 2π ⎤ ⎡∵ cos 2 nπ 1⎤
= ⎢− ⎥ ⎢⎣ sin 2 π 0 ⎥⎦
2π 2 ⎣ n ⎦
A
=−
nπ
A ∞ A
f (t ) = +∑− sin n ω t
2 n =1 n π
A A A
= − sin ω t sin 2 ω t − ……
2 π 2π
The magnitude and phase spectrum are shown in Fig. 14.4.

cn fn

A A
2 p A p
2p 2

nw nw
0 w 2w 0 w 2w

Fig. 14.4
14.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series 14.7

Example 14.3 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.5.

f (t )

p t
0 2p 3p

Fig. 14.5
Solution T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
f (t ) = A si ω t
f (t ) = A si t 0<t <π
=0 π < t < 2π
The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is
∞ ∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n t + ∑ bn s nω t
n =1 n 1
n=
T
1
T ∫0
a0 = f (t ) dt

π 2π
1 ⎡ ⎤
= ⎢∫ + ∫ 0 dt ⎥
2π ⎢⎣ 0 π ⎥⎦
A
= [ − cos t ]π0
2π
A
= [ − cos π + cos 0]
2π
A
= [1 + 1] [ cos π = −1]
2π
A
=
π
T
2
an = ∫ f (t ) cos n ω t dt
T0
π 2π
2 ⎡ ⎤
2π ⎢⎣ ∫0 ∫
= ⎢ A t n t dt + 0 dt ⎥ [∵ ω = 1]
π ⎥⎦
A ⎡π ⎤ ⎡∵ 2 cos A si B ⎤
= ⎢∫ { + − − } dt ⎥ ⎢ = sin ( A + B) si ( A B ) ⎥
2π ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦
π
A ⎡ cos ( n + 1) t cos ( n ) t ⎤
= ⎢− +
2π ⎣ n +1 n − 1 ⎥⎦ 0
14.8 Network Analysis and Synthesis

⎡ cos ( n + 1)π c ( n − 1)π cos 0 cos 0 ⎤

A
= ⎢− + + −
2π
⎣ n +1 n −1 n + 1 n − 1 ⎥⎦
−1) n +1 ( −1) n −1
A ⎡ (− 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢− + + − ⎥
2π ⎣ n +1
+1 n −1 n +1
+ 1 n − 1⎦

A ⎡ −( −1) n −( −1) n 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ ( −1)1 = −1⎤

= ⎢− + + − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2π ⎣ n + 1 n −1 n + 1 n − 1⎦ ⎣( −1)
1
1⎦
A ⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
= ( 1) n ⎜ − +⎜ −
⎢
2π ⎣ ⎝ n + 1 n − 1⎠ ⎝ n + 1 n − 1⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎟

A⎡ n ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢( −1) ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
2π⎣ n −1 n −1 ⎦
A ⎛ 2 ⎞
= − 2 ⎟ ⎡⎣( −1) n 1⎤⎦
2π ⎝ n − 1⎠
A ⎡( − ) n + 1⎤
=−
π (n − ) ⎣
2 ⎦

⎧ 2A
⎪− if n is even
an = ⎨ π ( n2 − )
⎪⎩ 0 if n is odd
T
2
bn = ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt
T0
π 2π
2 ⎡ ⎤
2π ⎢⎣ ∫0 ∫
= ⎢ A t n t dt + 0 dt ⎥ [∵ ω = 1]
π ⎥⎦
A ⎡π ⎤
= ⎢∫ { − − + } dt ⎥
2π ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
π
A ⎡ sin ( n − 1)t sin ( )t ⎤
= ⎢ −
2π ⎣ n − 1 n + 1 ⎥⎦ 0
A ⎡ sin ( n − 1) π si ( n +1
+ 1) π sin 0 sin 0 ⎤
= ⎢ − − +
2π ⎣ n −1 n +1 n − 1 n + 1 ⎥⎦
A ⎡sin ( n − 1) π = 0 ⎤
= [0 ] n ≠1 ⎢⎣sin ( n + 1) π = 0 ⎥⎦
2π
=0
For n = 1,
π
2
2π ∫0
b1 A sin t si t dt

π
A
= ∫ sin 2 t dt
π0
π
A cos t
π ∫0
= dt
2
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.9

π
A ⎡ sin 2 t ⎤
= ⎢t − 2 ⎥
2π ⎣ ⎦0
A ⎡ sin 2π sin 0 ⎤
= ⎢π− −0+
2π ⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
A
=
2π
[π ] [ = ]

A
=
2
∞ ⎧
A A ⎫ A
f (t ) = + ∑ ⎨ − ⎬ cos n ω t + sin
i n ωt
π n=1
⎩ π (n 2
)⎭ 2
n = even
A A 2A 2A
= + sin ω t − cos 2 ω t − cos 4 ω t − ……
π 2 3π 15π

14.3 WAVEFORM SYMMETRY

There are four types of waveform symmetry in any function:
(i) Even symmetry
(ii) Odd symmetry
(iii) Half-wave symmetry
(iv) Quarter-wave symmetry

14.3.1 Even Symmetry

A function is said to have even symmetry if (t ) = f ( t ) as shown in Fig. 14.6. Even functions are
symmetrical about the vertical axis. Examples of even functions are x2, cos x, cosh x, etc. The product of even
and odd function is an odd function, and the product of two even functions is an even function.
f (t ) f (t )

t t
0

(a) (b)
Fig. 14.6 Even functions

For an even function,

0 T
f (t ) dt = ∫ f (tt)) dt + ∫ f (t ) dt
−T 0

Let t x,
14.10 Network Analysis and Synthesis
T T T

∫ f (t ) dt ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f (t ) dt
−T 0 0
T T
= ∫ f ( x ) dx ∫f (t ) dt [∴ fe ( x) fe ( x)]
0 0
T
= 2∫ f (t ) dt
0
Similarly, for an odd function,
T 0 T

∫ f (t ) dt ∫ f (t ) + ∫ f (t ) dt
−T −T 0
T T
= − ∫ f ( x ) dx ∫f (t ) dt
0 0
T T
= −∫ + ∫ f (t ) dt
0 0
=0
We know that
T
2
1
a0 =
T ∫ f (t ) dt
T
−
2
T
2
2
an =
T ∫ f (t ) cos n ωt dt
T
−
2
T
2
2
bn =
T ∫ f (t ) sin n ωt dt
T
−
2

When f (t) is an even function,

T
2
2
a0 =
T ∫ f (t ) dt
0
T
2
4
an =
T ∫ f (t ) cos n t dt [ f t n t ]
0

b [ f t is an
a even
eve function
functio and n t is an odd functio

14.3.2 Odd Symmetry

A function is said to have odd symmetry if f (t ) = − f ( t ) as shown in Fig. 14.7. Odd functions are
symmetrical about the origin. Examples of odd functions are x, x3, sin x, etc. The product of an even and odd
function is an odd function, and the product of two odd functions is an even function.
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.11

f (t ) f (t)

t t
0 0

(a) (b)

Fig. 14.7 Odd functions

When f (t) is an odd function,
a0 = 0
an = 0
T
2
4
bn =
T ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt
0

14.3.3 Half-Wave Symmetry

⎛ T⎞
A function is said to have half-wave symmetry if f (t ) = − f t ± ⎟ as shown in Fig. 14.8. The values of
⎝ 2⎠
T T
f (t) are equal and opposite during the interval 0 < t < and < t T . Similarly, the values of f (t) are also
2 2
T T
equal and opposite during the interval − < t < 0 and −T < t < − .
2 2

f (t ) f (t )

A
A

t t
−T 0 T T −T −T 0 T T
−T 2 2
2 2

−A
−A
(a) (b)

Fig. 14.8 Functions with half-wave symmetry

When f (t) has half-wave symmetry,

a0 = 0
an 0 if n is even
14.12 Network Analysis and Synthesis

T
2
4
=
T ∫ f (t ) cos n ω t dt if n is odd
0

bn = 0 n is even
T
2
4
=
T ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt if n is odd
0

14.3.4 Quarter-Wave Symmetry

A function is said to have quarter-wave symmetry if it is a combination of even, odd and half-wave symmetry
as shown in Fig. 14.9.

f (t ) f (t )

t t
0 0

(a) Combination of odd (b) Combination of even

and half-wave symmetry and half-wave symmetry

Fig. 14.9 Functions with quarter-wave symmetry.

When f (t) has quarter-wave symmetry (with combination of even and half-wave symmetry),

a0 = 0
an 0 if n is even
T
4
8
=
T ∫ f (t ) cos n ω t dt if n is odd
0
bn = 0
When f (t) has quarter-wave symmetry (with combination of odd and half-wave symmetry),
a0 = 0
an = 0
bn 0 n is even
T
4
8
=
T ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt if n is odd
0
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.13

Example 14.4 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.10.
f (t)

t
−T 0 T T
− T − T T
2 4 4 2

Fig. 14.10
Solution The waveform has even symmetry.
bn = 0
T
f (t ) = A 0 t<
4
T T
=0 <t<
4 2
The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is
∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n ω t
n =1
T
2
2
a0 =
T ∫ f (t ) dt
0
⎡T T ⎤
2 ⎢4 2 ⎥
= ⎢ ∫ A dt ∫ 0 dt ⎥⎥
T ⎢0 T
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦

T
2
= [ At ]04
T
2 T
= [ A − 0]
T 4
A
=
2
T
2
4
an =
T ∫ f (t ) cos n ωt dt
0

⎡T T ⎤
4 ⎢4 2 ⎥
= ⎢∫ A n t ddtt ∫ 0 cos n ωt dt ⎥⎥
T ⎢0 T
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
14.14 Network Analysis and Synthesis
T
4
4A
T ∫0
= cos n ωt dt

T
4 A ⎡ sin n ω t ⎤ 4
=
T ⎢⎣ nω ⎥⎦ 0
T
⎡ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎤ 4
4 A ⎢ ⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ ⎥
sin n t
⎡ 2π ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢∵ ω = T ⎥
T ⎢ 2π ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ n ⎥
⎣ T ⎦0
⎡ ⎛ 2π T ⎞ ⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ n ⎟
4A ⎝ T 4 ⎠ sin 0 ⎥
= ⎢ − ⎥
T ⎢ 2π 2π ⎥
⎢ n n
⎣ T T ⎥⎦
4A ⎡ T nπ ⎤
= ⎢
T ⎣ 2nπ
sin ⎥
2 ⎦
[ = ]
2A nπ
= sin
nπ 2
⎧
⎪ 2 A for n = 1, 5, 9, …
⎪ nπ
⎪
an = ⎨ 2 A
⎪ − nπ for n = 3, 7,11, …
⎪
⎪⎩ 0 f n = 2, 4, 6

A ∞ ⎛ A nπ ⎞
f (t ) = + ∑ ⎜ sin cos n ω t
⎝
2 n =1 nπ 2⎠
A A 2A 2A
= + cos ω t − cos 3 ω t + cos 5 ω t − …
cos
2 π 3π 5π

Examble 14.5 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.11.
f (t)

t
−T − T 0 T T
2 2

Fig. 14.11
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.15

Solution The waveform has even symmetry.

bn = 0
2A T
f (t ) = t 0 t<
T 2
The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is
∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n ω t
n =1
T
2
2
a0 =
T ∫ f (t ) dt
0
T
2
2 2A
=
T ∫ T
t dt
0
T
4A ⎡t2 ⎤ 2
= 2⎢ ⎥
T ⎣ 2 ⎦0
4 A ⎡T 2 ⎤
= ⎢ − 0 ⎥
T2 ⎣ 8 ⎦
A
=
2
T
2
4
an =
T ∫ f (t ) cos n ωt dt
0
T
2
4 2A
=
T ∫ T
t cos n ωt dt
0
T
2
8A
=
T2
∫ t cos n ωt dt
0
T
8 A ⎡ ⎛ sin n ω t ⎞ ⎛ cos n ω t ⎞ ⎤ 2
= 2 ⎢t ⎜ ⎟ − (1) ⎜− 2 2 ⎟⎥
T ⎢⎣ ⎝ n ω ⎠ ⎝ n ω ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0
T
⎡ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎤ 2
t si
sn t cos ⎜ n
⎝ T ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ t
8A ⎝ T ⎠ ⎡ 2π ⎤
⎢ ⎥
= 2
2π
+ ⎢∴ ω = T ⎥
T ⎢ 4 π 2
⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ n n2 2 ⎥
⎣ T T ⎦0
14.16 Network Analysis and Synthesis

⎡ ⎛ 2π T ⎞ ⎛ 2π T ⎞ ⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ n ⎟ cos ⎜ n ⎟
8A T ⎝ T 2⎠ ⎝ T 2⎠ 1 ⎥
= ⎢ + − ⎥
T2 ⎢2 2π 4 π 2
4π 2
⎥
⎢ n n2 2 n2 2 ⎥
⎣ T T T ⎦
8 A⎡ T 2
T 2
T ⎤
2
= 2 ⎢ 4 nπ
si nπ + 2 2 cos nπ − 2 2 ⎥
T ⎣ 4n π 4n π ⎦
8 A⎡ T2 T2 ⎤ ⎡∵ sin nπ = 0 ⎤
= ⎢ 0 + ( −1) n
− 2 2⎥ ⎢ n⎥
2
T ⎣ 4n π2 2
4n π ⎦ ⎣ cos nπ = ( −1) ⎦

8 A⎡ T2 ⎤
= ⎢
T 2 ⎣ 4 n 2π 2
− { − ⎥
⎦
}
2A ⎡
= 2 2 ⎣
( −1) n − 1⎤⎦
nπ
⎧ 0 if n is even
⎪
an = ⎨ 4 A
− if n is odd
⎪⎩ n2π 2
∞
A ⎛ A ⎞
f (t ) = +
2
∑ ⎜⎝ − n2π 2 ⎟⎠ cos n ωt
n =1
n= odd

A 4A 4A
= − 2 cos ω t − 2 cos 3ω t −……
2 π 9π

Example 14.6 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.12.

f (t )

t
−2p −p 0 p 2p

Fig. 14.12

Solution The waveform has even symmetry.

bn = 0
T =π
2π 2π
ω= = =2
T π
f (t ) = A si ω t
= A si 2 t 0 < t < π
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.17

The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is

∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos n ωt
n =1
T
2
2
a0 =
T ∫ f (t ) dt
0
π
2
2
π ∫0
= A si t dt

π
2 A ⎡ cos 2 t ⎤ 2
= −
π ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 0
2A ⎡ π ⎤
= ⎢ − cos 2 + cos 0 ⎥
2π ⎣ 2 ⎦
A ⎡∴ cos π = −1⎤
= ( − cos π + cos 0) ⎢⎣ cos 0 = 1⎥⎦
π
A
= [ + ]
π
2A
=
π
T
2
4
an =
T ∫ f (t ) cos n ω t dt
0
π
2
4
=
π ∫ A sin t cos 2n t dt
0
π
2A 2
⎡∴ 2 cos A si B ⎤
{ } dt
π ∫0
= + − − ⎢ = sin ( A + B) − si ( A − B ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
π
A ⎡ cos ( n + 2) t cos ( n − ) t ⎤ 2
2A
= − +
π ⎢⎣ 2n + 2 2n − 2 ⎥
⎦0
⎡ ⎧ π⎫ ⎧ π⎫ ⎤
⎢ cos ⎨( 2n + 2) ⎬ cos ⎨( 2n − 2) ⎬
2A ⎩ 2⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎭ cos 0 c s0⎥
co
= ⎢− + + − ⎥
π ⎢ 2n + 2 2n − 2 2n + 2 2n 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
A ⎡ cos ( n + 1) π c ( n − ) π 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢− + + −
π⎣ n +1 n −1 n + 1 n − 1⎥⎦
A ⎡ ( − ) n +1 ( −1) n −1 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢− + + − ⎥
π ⎣ n +1 n −1 n + 1 n − 1⎦
14.18 Network Analysis and Synthesis

A ⎡ −( − ) n −( − ) n 1 1 ⎤ ⎡∵ ( − )1 = −1 ⎤
= ⎢− + + − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
π ⎣ n +1 n −1 n + 1 n − 1⎦ ⎣ ( − ) −1 = −1⎦
A⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
= ( − )n ⎜ − +⎜ −
⎢
π⎣ ⎝ n + 1 n − 1⎠ ⎝ n + 1 n − 1⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎟

A⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
= ⎢ ( − )n ⎜ − 2 ⎟ + − 2 ⎟ ⎥
π⎣ ⎝ n − 1⎠ ⎝ n − 1⎠ ⎦
A⎛ 2 ⎞
= − 2 ⎟ [( −1) n ]
π ⎝ n − 1⎠
2A
=− [( −1) n + 1]
π ( n −1)
2

⎧ 4A
⎪− if n is even
an = ⎨ π ( n2 −1)
⎪⎩ 0 if n is odd
∞ ⎧ ⎫
2A
A A
f (t ) =
π
+ ∑ ⎨ − π ( n2 ⎬ cos 2n ω t
n =1
n= even
⎩ )⎭
2A 4A 4A
= − cos 4 ω t cos 8 ω t − ……
cos
π 3π 15π

Example 14.7 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.13.

f(t)

t
−2p −p 0 p 2p

−A

Fig. 14.13

Solution The waveform has odd symmetry.

a0 0 d an 0
T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
A
f (t ) = t 0 t < π
π
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.19

The trigonometric Fourier series is

∞
f (t ) = ∑ bn s n ωt
n =1
T
2
4
bn =
T ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt
0
π
4 A
=
2π ∫0 π
t si n t dt [ = ]
π
2A
=
π2
∫ t si n t dt
0
π
2 A ⎡ ⎛ cos n t ⎞ ⎛ sin n t ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ t − ⎟ − (1) ⎜⎝ − 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
π2 ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ n ⎦0
2A ⎡ ⎛ π⎞ i π i 0⎤
= 2 ⎢ −π ⎜ ⎟⎠ + − 2 ⎥
π ⎣ ⎝ n n 2
n ⎦
2 A ⎡ π ( −1) n ⎤
= ⎢− ⎥ [ = ]
π2 ⎣ n ⎦
2A
= ( − )n
nπ
⎧ 2A
⎪ if n is even
= ⎨ nπ
⎪ − 2 A if n is odd
⎩ nπ
∞
⎧ 2A ⎫
f (t ) = ∑ ⎨ ( −1) n ⎬ sin i n ωt
n =1 ⎩ nπ ⎭
2A A 2A A
= sin ω t − sin 2 ω t + sin 3 ω t − si 4 ω t + ……
π π 3π 2π

Example 14.8 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.14.

f(t)

t
−2p −p p 2p

−A

Fig. 14.14
14.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution The waveform has half-wave symmetry.
a0 = 0
T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
A
f (t ) = t 0 t <π
π
The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is
∞ ∞
f (t ) = ∑ an cos n t ∑ bn sin
i n ωt
n =1 n 1
n=
T
2
4
an =
T ∫ f (t ) cos n t dt , if n is odd
0
π
4 A
=
2π ∫0 π
t cos nt dt [ = ]
π
2A
=
π2
∫ t cos nt dt
0
π
2 A ⎡ ⎛ sin nt ⎞ ⎛ cos nt ⎞ ⎤
= 2 ⎢t ⎜ ⎟ − (1) ⎜ − 2 ⎟ ⎥
π ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎦0
2A ⎡ ⎛ i π ⎞ π 0⎤
= π
2 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + − 2 ⎥
π ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ n 2
n ⎦
2A ⎡ ( −1) n 1 ⎤ ⎡∵sin nπ = 0 ⎤
= 2 ⎢0 + 2 − 2 ⎥ ⎢ n⎥
π ⎣ n n ⎦ ⎣ cos = ( −1) ⎦
2A
= 2 2 ⎡⎣( − ) n − 1⎤⎦
nπ
4A
an = − if n is odd
n 2π 2
T
2
4
bn =
T ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt if n is odd
0
π
4 A
=
2π ∫0 π
t si n t dt [ = ]
π
2A
=
π2
∫ t si n t dt
0
π
2 A ⎡ ⎛ cos n t ⎞ ⎛ sin n t ⎞ ⎤
= 2 ⎢t − ⎟ − (1) ⎜ − 2 ⎟ ⎥
π ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎦0
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.21

2A ⎡ ⎛ π⎞ i π i 0⎤
= 2 ⎢
−π ⎜ ⎟ + − 2 ⎥
π ⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ n 2
n ⎦
2 A ⎡ ( −1) n ⎤
= 2 ⎢ −π ⎥
π ⎣ n ⎦
2A
= ( −1) n
nπ
2A
bn = − if n is odd
nπ
∞ ∞
⎡ 2A
{ ⎤
} ⎧ 2A ⎫
f (t ) = ∑ ⎢ 2 2 ( ) n − ⎥ cos n t ∑ ⎨ ( −1) n ⎬ sin n ω t
n =1 ⎣ n π ⎦ n =1 ⎩ n π ⎭
n = odd n = odd

⎛ 4A 4A ⎞ ⎛ 2A 2A ⎞
= − 2 cos ω t − 2 cos 2 ω t − ……⎟ + − sin ω t − sin 3 ω t − ……⎟
⎝ π 9π ⎠ ⎝ π 3π ⎠

Example 14.9 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.15.
f (t )

t
−T − T 0 T T
2 2

−A

Fig. 14.15
Solution The waveform has odd symmetry, half-wave symmetry and quarter-wave symmetry.
a0 0 d an 0
T
f (t ) = A 0 t<
2
The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is
∞
f (t ) = ∑ bn s n ω t
n =1
T
2
4
bn =
T ∫ f (t ) sin n ω t dt
0
T
2
4
=
T ∫ A si n ω t dt
0
14.22 Network Analysis and Synthesis

T
4 A ⎡ cos n ω t ⎤ 2
= −
T ⎢⎣ nω ⎥⎦ 0
T
⎡ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎤ 2
cos ⎜ n
⎝ T ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ t
4A ⎡ 2π ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥ ⎢∵ ω = T ⎥
T ⎢ 2π ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ n ⎥
⎣ T ⎦0
⎡ ⎤
4A ⎢ 1 ⎧ ⎛ 2π T ⎞ ⎫⎥
= ⎢ − 2π ⎨cos ⎜ n ⎟ − cos 0⎬ ⎥
T ⎢
n ⎩ ⎝ T 2⎠ ⎭⎥
⎣ T ⎦

4A ⎡ T
= ⎢ − (cos nπ − cos 0)⎤⎥
T ⎣ 2nπ ⎦
2A ⎡
=− ( −1) n − 1⎤⎦ ⎡∵ cos nπ = ( −1) n ⎤
nπ ⎣ ⎣ ⎦
2A ⎡
= ⎣1 − ( −1) n ⎤⎦
nπ
⎧ 0 if n is even
⎪
bn = ⎨ 4 A
if n is odd
⎩⎪ nπ
∞
4A
f (t ) = ∑ nπ
sin n ω t
n =1
n = odd

4A 4A
= i ωt +
sin sin 3 ω t + …
π 3π

Example 14.10 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.16.
f (t )

t
−T −T − T 0 T T T
2 4 4 2
−A

Fig. 14.16
Solution The waveform has even symmetry, half-wave symmetry and quarter-wave symmetry.
a0 0 bn 0
T
f (t ) = A 0 t<
4
14.3 Waveform Symmetry 14.23

The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is

∞
f (t ) = ∑ an cos n ω t
n =1

T
4
8
an =
T ∫ f (t ) cos n t dt , if n is odd
0

T
4
8
=
T ∫ A cos n ω t dt
0

T
8 A ⎡ sin n ω t ⎤ 4
=
T ⎢⎣ n ω ⎥⎦ 0

T
⎡ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎤ 4
8 A ⎢ ⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ ⎥
sin n t
⎡ 2π ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢∵ ω = T ⎥
T ⎢ 2π ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ n ⎥
⎣ T ⎦0

⎡ ⎛ 2π T ⎞ ⎤
⎢ sin ⎜ n ⎟
8A ⎝ T 4 ⎠ sin 0 ⎥
= ⎢ − ⎥
T ⎢ 2π 2π ⎥
⎢ n n
⎣ T T ⎥⎦

8A ⎡ T nπ ⎤
= ⎢ sin − 0⎥
T ⎣ 2nπ 2 ⎦
4A nπ
= sin
nπ 2

⎧ 4A
⎪ nπ for n = 1, 5, 9,………
an = ⎨
⎪ − 4 A for n = 3, 7,11,………
⎩ nπ

⎛ ∞ 4A π⎞
f (t ) = ⎜ ∑ sin n ⎟ cos n ω t
⎝ n =1 nπ 2⎠

4A 4A 4A
= cos ω t − cos 3 ω t + cos 5 ω t − ………
π 3π 5π
14.24 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 14.11 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.17.

f (t )

t
−T −T 0 T T
2 4 4 2

−A

Fig. 14.17

Solution The waveform has odd symmetry, half-wave symmetry and quarter-wave symmetry.
a0 0 d an 0
4A T
f (t ) = t 0 t<
T 4
The trigonometric Fourier series of f (t) is
∞
f (t ) = ∑ bn s n ω t
n =1
T
4
8
bn =
T ∫ f (t ) sin n t dt , if n is odd
0
T
4
8 4A
=
T ∫ T
t si n ω t dt
0
T
4
32 A
=
T2
∫ t si n ω t dt
0
T
32 A ⎡ ⎛ cos n ω t ⎞ ⎛ sin n ω t ⎞ ⎤ 4
= 2 ⎢t − − (1) ⎜− 2 2 ⎟⎥
T ⎣ ⎝ n ω ⎟⎠ ⎝ n ω ⎠ ⎥⎦ 0
T
⎡ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎤ 4
cos ⎜ n t ⎟ sin ⎜ n
⎝ T ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ t
32 A ⎝ T ⎠ ⎡ 2π ⎤
⎢ ⎥
= 2 −t
2π
+ ⎢∵ ω = T ⎥
T ⎢ 4π 2
⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ n n2 2 ⎥
⎣ T T ⎦0
⎡ ⎛ 2π T ⎞ ⎛ 2π T ⎞ ⎤
cos ⎜ n ⎟ sin ⎜ n
⎢
32 A T ⎝ T 4⎠ ⎝ T 4 ⎟⎠ sin 0 ⎥
= 2 ⎢− + +0− ⎥
T ⎢ 4 2π 2 4π
2
2 4π
2
⎥
⎢ n n n ⎥
⎣ T T2 T2 ⎦
14.4 Exponential Fourier Series 14.25

32 A ⎡ T 2 nπ T2 nπ ⎤
= −
2 ⎢ 8 π
cos + sin ⎥
T ⎣ 2 4n π 2 2 2 ⎦
4A nπ 8A nπ
=− cos + 2 2 sin i
nπ 2 nπ 2
8A nπ ⎡ nπ ⎤
= 2 2 sin ⎢∵ cos = 0 if n is odd ⎥
nπ 2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎧ 8A
⎪⎪ n2π 2 for n = 1, 5, 9,…
bn = ⎨
⎪ − 8 A for n = 3, 7,11,…
⎪⎩ n2π 2
∞
⎛ 8A nπ ⎞
f (t ) = ∑ ⎜ 2 2 sin sin n ω t
⎝
n =1 n π 2⎠
8A 8A 8A
= 2 sin i ωt sin 3 ω t + si 5 ω t − …
π 9π 2
25π 2

14.4 EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES

Any periodic function f (t) can be expressed into an inﬁnite series in terms of exponential functions.
∞
f (t ) = ∑ cn e jnω t …(14.2)
n = −∞

where the coefﬁcient cn is given by,

T
2
1 jnω t
cn =
T ∫ f (t ) e dt
T
−
2
T
1 jnω t
T ∫0
or cn = f (t ) e dt

Evaluation of cn Multiplying Eq. (14.2) by e−jnωt and integrating w.r.t t between the limits 0 and T,
T T ∞

∫ f (t ) e jn t
dt
d ∫e
− jnω t
∑ cn e jnω t dt
0 0 n= −∞

= T cn
T
1
cn = ∫ f (t ) e − jnω t dt
T0
Magnitude spectrum is the plot of the magnitude cn versus nw, and phase spectrum is the plot of the phase
angle fn versus nw.

Example 14.12 Find the exponential Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.18. Draw
the magnitude spectrum.
14.26 Network Analysis and Synthesis
f (t )

t
0 p 2p 3p

−A

Fig. 14.18

Solution T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
f (t ) = A 0<t <π
= − A π < t < 2π
The exponential Fourier series of f (t) is
∞
f (t ) = ∑ cn e jnω t
n = −∞
T
1 jnω t
T ∫0
cn = f (t ) e dt

π 2π
1 ⎡ ⎤
=
2π ⎢⎣ ∫0
− jntt
⎢ A e ddt + ∫ ( − A) e
jnt
dt ⎥ [ = ]
π ⎥⎦
π 2π
A ⎡ e − jnt ⎤ A ⎡ e − jnt ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥
2π ⎣ − jnj ⎦ 2π ⎣ − jn ⎦
0 π
A ⎡ − jnπ A ⎡ − j 2 nπ
= ⎣ e − e 0 ⎤⎦ + e − e − jnπ ⎤⎦
− j 2 nπ j 2 nπ ⎣
A ⎡
= ( −1) n
− 1⎤ + A ⎡1− ( −1) n ⎤
− j 2 nπ ⎣ ⎦ j 2 nπ ⎣ ⎦

⎡∵ e − jnπ = ( − )n ⎤
⎢ − j 2 nπ ⎥
⎣ e =1 ⎦
2A ⎡
= ( ) n ⎤⎦
1 − (−
j 2 nπ ⎣
A ⎡
=−j ⎣ ( ) n ⎤⎦
1 − (− n≠0
nπ
cn 0 if n is even
2A
=−j if n is odd
nπ
14.4 Exponential Fourier Series 14.27

T
1
T ∫0
c0 = f (t ) dt

1 ⎡π 2π ⎤
= ⎢ ∫ A dt ∫( A) dt ⎥
2π ⎢⎣ 0 π ⎥⎦

A π A 2π
=
2π
[t ]0 − []
2π π
A A
=
2π
[π − 0] −
2π
[ − ]
A A
= −
2 2
=0
∞
⎛ 2 A ⎞ jnω t
f (t ) = ∑ −j
⎝ nπ ⎟⎠
e
n = −∞
n odd

2 A − j3 2A − j 2A j 2 A j3 t
= …+ j e t
j e t
−j e t
−j e .…
3π π π 3π

The magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.19.

|cn|

2A 2A
3p 3p
2A 2A
3p 3p

nw
−4w −3w −2w −w 0 w 2w 3w 4w

Fig. 14.19

Example 14.13 Find the exponential Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.20. Draw
the magnitude spectrum.

f(t)

t
0 2p 4p

Fig. 14.20
14.28 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solution T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
A
f (t ) = t 0 t < 2π
2π
The exponential Fourier series is

∞
f (t ) = ∑ cn e jnω t
n = −∞
T
1 jnω t
T ∫0
cn = f (t ) e dt

2π
1 A − jjnt
=
2π ∫ 2π t e dt [ = 1]
0
2π
A − jnt
=
4π 2 ∫te dt
0
2π
A ⎡ ⎛ e − jnt ⎞ ⎧ e − jnt ⎫ ⎤
= ⎢t ⎜ ⎟ −⎨ ⎬⎥
4π 2 ⎣ ⎝ − jn ⎠ ⎩ ( − jn
j ) 2 ⎭ ⎥⎦ 0

A ⎡ e − j 2 nπ e − j 2 nπ 1⎤
= ⎢ 2π + − 0 − ⎥
4π 2 ⎣ − jn n2 n2 ⎦
A ⎡ 2π 1 1⎤ ⎡∵ e − j 2 nπ = 1⎤
= 2 ⎢ − jn
+ 2 − 2⎥ ⎣ ⎦
4π ⎣ n n ⎦
A 2π
= j
4π 2 n
A
= j n≠0
2π n
T
1
c0 = ∫ f (t ) dt
T0
2π
1 A
=
2π ∫ 2π t dt
0
2π
A
=
4π 2
∫ t dt
0
2π
A ⎡t2 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
4π 2 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 0
A
=
2
14.4 Exponential Fourier Series 14.29

∞
A A jnω t
f (t ) = + ∑ j e
2 n = −∞ 2π n
n≠ 0

A − j2 A −j A A j A j2
= …− j e t
j e t
+ +j e t
j e t
+…
2π 4π 2 2π 4π
The magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.21.
|cn|

A A A
A 2p 2 2p A
4p 4p
A A
8p 8p

nw
−3w −2w −w 0 w 2w 3w

Fig. 14.21

Example 14.14 Find the exponential Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.22.

f (t )

t
0 p 2p 3p

Fig. 14.22

Solution T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
f (t ) = A si ω t
f (t ) = A si t 0<t <π
=0 π < t < 2π
The exponential Fourier series of f (t) is
∞
f (t ) = ∑ cn e jnω t
n = −∞
T
1 jnω t
T ∫0
cn = f (t ) e dt

1 ⎡π 2π ⎤
= ⎢∫ A ∫ 0 dt ⎥⎥ [∵ ω = 1]
jnt
te dt
2π ⎢⎣ 0 π ⎦
14.30 Network Analysis and Synthesis

π
A ⎡ − jnt
⎤
= ⎢ ∫ sin t e dt ⎥
2π ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
π
A ⎡ e − jnt ⎤
= ⎢ ( − jn s in t − cos t ) ⎥
2π ⎣1 − n
2
⎦0

A ⎡ e − jnπ e0 ⎤
= ⎢ ( − jn sin π − sπ) − ( − jn sin 0 −
s 0) ⎥
2π ⎣ 1 − n 2
1− n 2
⎦
⎡∵ sin nπ = 0 ⎤
A ⎡ ( −1) n 1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ ( 0 + 1) − ( −1) ⎥ ⎢ cos π = 0 ⎥
2π ⎣1 − n2 1 − n2 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ e − jnπ = ( −1) n ⎥⎦

=
A ⎡ 1
2π ⎢⎣1 − n2
− { n
}
⎤
+ ⎥,
⎦
n ≠ ±1

⎧ A
⎪ if n is even
= ⎨ π ( − n2 )
⎪
⎩ 0 if n is odd

When n = ±1, the expression of cn becomes indeterminate. Hence, L’ Hospital’s rule is applied, i.e., the
numerator and denominator are separately differentiated w.r.t n after which n is allowed to approach ± 1.

A ⎡ 1 ⎤
cn = (e − jnπ + 1) ⎥
2π ⎢⎣1 − n2 ⎦
A (e − jnπ + 1)
=
2π 1 − n2
A ⎛ − jπ e − jnπ ⎞
=
2π ⎜⎝ −2n ⎟⎠

A − jnπ
= j e
4n
A −j A jπ
when n → 1, c1 = j e j [∵ e = −1]
4 4
A j A
when n → −1, c−1 = − j e j [∵ e jπ = −1]
4 4
When n = 0,

π
1
2π ∫0
c0 A sin t dt

A
= [ − cos t ]π0
2π
14.4 Exponential Fourier Series 14.31

A
= [ − cos π + cos 0]
2π
A
= (1 + 1) [ cos π = ( −1)]
2π
A
=
π
∞
A A A
f (t ) = −j + ∑ e jnω t
π 4 n = −∞ π ( n2 )
n = even
n≠ 0
n ≠±1

A − j2 A A A A j2
= …− e t
j + −j − e t
−…
3π 4 π 4 3π

Example 14.15 Find the exponential Fourier series of the waveform shown in Fig. 14.23.

f (t )

t
−2p −p 0 p 2p

Fig. 14.23

Solution T = 2π
2π 2π
ω= = =1
T 2π
A
f (t ) = t A −π < t < 0
π
A
=− t A 0<t <π
π
The exponential Fourier series of f (t) is
∞
f (t ) = ∑ cn e jnω t
n = −∞
T
2
1 jnω t
cn =
T ∫ f (t ) e dt
T
−
2
π
1 jnω t
=
2π ∫ f (t ) e dt
−π
14.32 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1
0 ⎤
+ − t
2 − 0

t jnt 0 − nt
e A t e
+1 + − +1
2π π jn jn jn2
− 0

A 1 1 1 1 e jn n
1 1⎤
= − + ⋅ + −
2 n jn
A 2 1 ⎤
− (e e− )
2 n n
A 2 1
− 2 cos n
2 n2 n2

1 1
n2 2

0 if is even
2A
if is odd
n2 2

For n 0,
1
c f t t
−

1
0
A A ⎤
t dt + − t A dt
2π −
π 0
0
1 A t2 ⎤ 1 A t2
+ At + − + At
2 2 2 2
− 0
2
1 A 1 A 2
+A + − +A
2 2 ⎦ 2 2
1 A ⎤ 1 A ⎤
+A + − +A
2 2 2 2
1 A 1 A
= +
2 2 2 2
A A
= +
4 4
A
2
A A
t = + 2 2
e jn t
2 n n
n odd
n≠ 0

A
= + 2
e 2
2
14.6 rms Value of Periodic Complex Wave 14.33

14.5 AVERAGE VALUE OF A PERIODIC COMPLEX WAVE

Let the Fourier series representation of a periodic complex wave be,
n
vt = n( n t + n)
n =1
= m m in( 2 t + 2 sin(
The average value of the periodic wave is given by
T
1
T ∫0
V g = v t dt

Since the integration of any sine function between T is zero,

+ + +
=V
Hence, the average value of any periodic complex wave is the constant term of the Fourier series representing
the periodic wave.

14.6 rms VALUE OF PERIODIC COMPLEX WAVE

Let the Fourier series representation of a periodic complex wave be,
n
vt = in( t + n)
n =1
= m m in( t ) + + n)

The rms value of the periodic wave is given by,

T
1
T ∫0
V s v t dt

2
1
m m in t V s dt
2 0

It can be proved that

2 2
+ + + +
2 2 2
2 2 2
V V
+
2 2 2
= + +

where , V are the rms values of the harmonic components of the wave. Hence, the rms value of any
periodic complex wave is the square root of sum of squares of rms values of each harmonic component and
the square of constant terms.
14.34 Network Analysis and Synthesis

14.7 POWER SUPPLIED BY COMPLEX WAVE

Let the complex voltage be represented by the equation
n
vt = sin( n t + n)
n =1
be applied to a circuit. Let the equation of the resultant current be
n
it nm sin( n t + )
n 1
The average power of the complex wave is given by
2
1
⋅ i dt
2 0

1
2 ⎡ n n ⎤
= in( n t + n) in( n t + ) dt
2 0 ⎣⎩ n 1 n =1
2 n n
1
V + + + n
2 0 n= =1
n n ⎤
+ + nm sin( nω + +ψ ) dt
n= = ⎦
V I nm
co + …… + cos ψ n
2
c cos ψ n
Hence, the average power supplied by a complex wave is the sum of the average power supplied by each
harmonic component acting independently.

Example 14.16 A complex wave is given by i(t) 0 + 100 si t si t . Determine the

average value and rms value of the complex wave.

Solution it = +100 sin t

I avg 10 A
2 2
100 40
I rms + 76.81 A
2 2

Example 14.17 A complex wave of 240 V rms value has 20% third harmonic content, 5% ﬁfth
harmonic content and 2% seventh harmonic content. Find the rms value of the fundamental and each
harmonic.
Solution Let be the rms values of the fundamental and harmonic voltages.
V V
V V
V V
14.7 Power Supplied by Complex Wave 14.35

V = 2

240 = . V )2
V = 235 01 V
V 235 01 = 47 V
V = 235 01 = 11.75 V
V = 0 02 V

Example 14.18 Find the value of R if the average power dissipated in the resistor is 1000 W if the
voltage has the following Fourier series
vt si t + 50 sin 5 t

2 2 2
200 100 50
Solution V s = + + = 162 02 V
2 2 2
V2s
P
R
( .02) 2
1000
R
R 26.25 Ω

Example 14.19 If v t 6 cos ( 45 ) + cos t 0 ° volts and i t = + 1.4 cos t 20

+0.5 co t A determine the effective value of the voltage and current. Also, calculate the average power.

Solution vt = + cos t t − 10)

2 2 2 2
6 1.8
+ ( ) + 10.94 V
2 2 2 2
it = + cos t t
2 2 2 2
I 14 .
+ + = + + = A
2 2 2 2

+ co cos 2

6 × 1.4 1 8×5
3+ cos( 45 2 ° + cos( )
2 2
34. W

Example 14.20 A series RL circuit with R 10 and L 5 H contains a current

i t = 10 sin 1000 t sin 5000t . Find the effective value of voltage and the average power.

Solution it n s + 3 sin 5000t

1000 rad
14.36 Network Analysis and Synthesis

For fundamental harmonic,

R1 = 10 Ω
X L1 ω L = 1000 × 5 = 5000 Ω
Z1 = 10 + j 5000 = 5000 ∠89.89° Ω
For third harmonic,
R3 = 10 Ω
X L3 3ω L 3 × 1000 × 5 = 15000 Ω
Z3 = 10 + j15000 = 15000 ∠89.96° Ω
For ﬁfth harmonic,
R5 = 10 Ω
X L5 5ω L 5 × 1000 × 5 = 25000 Ω
Z5 = 10 + j 25000 = 25000 ∠89.98° Ω
v(t ) = ( )( ) sin(1000t 89. ) ( )( ) sin(3000t + 89.96°°)
+ 3( ) sin(5000t + 89. °)
= 50000 sin(1000t + 89.89
.89°) + 75000 sin(3000t + 89.96°)
+ 75000 sin(5000
0 t + 89.
89 98°
98 )
2 2 2 2 2 2
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ 50000 ⎞ ⎛ 75000
0 ⎞ ⎛ 75000 ⎞
Veff = ⎜ 1m ⎟ + ⎜ 2 m ⎟ + ⎜ 3m ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 82.92 kV
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
V1m I1m V I V I
Pavg = cos φ1 + 2 m 2 m cos φ2 + 3m 3m cos φ3
2 2 2
50000 × 10 75000 × 5 75000 × 3
= cos(89.89 ) + cos(89.96 ) + cos(89.98 )
2 2 2
= 650.13 W

Example 14.21 The voltage given by v(t ) = 100 cos 314t + 50 sin (1570t 30 ) is applied to a
circuit consisting of a resistor of 10 W, an inductor of 0.02 H and a capacitor of 50 mF. Determine the
instantaneous current through the circuit. Also ﬁnd the rms value of the voltage and current.

Solution v(t ) = 100 cos 314t 50 si ( t )

ω = 314 rad/s
For fundamental harmonic,
R1 = 10 Ω
X L1 ω L = 314 × 0.02 6.28 Ω
1 1
X C1 = = = 63.69 Ω
ωC 314 × 50 × 10 −6
Z1 = 10 + j 6 28 j 63.69 58.27 80.12° Ω
14.8 Fourier Transform 14.37

For ﬁfth harmonic,

R5 = 10 Ω
X L5 5ω L 5 × 314 × 0.02 31.4 Ω
1 1
X C5 = = = 12.74 Ω
5ωC 5 × 314 × 50 × 10 −6
Z 2 = 10 + j 31.4 j12
12.74
7 21.17∠611.81° Ω
100 50
i( t ) = cos(314t 80. ) sin(1570t − 30° − 61. )
58.27 21.17
= 1.772 cos(314 + 80.12°) + 2.36 sin(1570t − 91.81°)
2 2 2 2
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
Vrms = ⎜ 1m ⎟ + ⎜ 2 m ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ = 79.06 V
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
2 2 2 2
⎛I ⎞ ⎛I ⎞ ⎛ 1.72 ⎞ ⎛ 2.36 ⎞
I rms = ⎜ 1m ⎟ + ⎜ 2 m ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ = 2.06 A
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

14.8 FOURIER TRANSFORM

Any nonperiodic signal can be viewed as a limiting case of a periodic signal where the period of the signal
approaches inﬁnity.
Consider a periodic signal f (t) with period T. The Fourier series representation for this signal is

1 ∞
f (t ) = ∑
T n = −∞
cn e jnω t …(14.3)

T
2
where c ∫ f (t ) e − jnω t dt
T
−
2
2π
and ω=
T
A typical discrete magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.24.

|cn|

nw
−3w −2w −w 0 w 2w 3w

Fig. 14.24 Magnitude spectrum

14.38 Network Analysis and Synthesis

2π
The spacing between successive harmonics is ω = = Δω (say)
T
1 Δω
=
T 2π
Hence, Eq. (14.3) can be written as
∞
1
f (t ) =
2π
∑ cn e jnω t ( )
n = −∞
Considering the limiting case as T → ∞, Δω → 0, the discrete line in the spectrum merges to form a
continuous spectrum. The infinite sum becomes an integral. cn is now defined for all frequencies, rather only
for integral multiplies of w. The integer n has no significance now and in the limit as T → , cn becomes a
continuous function.
F ( ) li cn
T →∞
∞
F ∫ f (t ) e − j t
dt …(14.4)
−∞
The Fourier series for a periodic signal now becomes the Fourier integral representation for nonperiodic
signal over the entire interval given by,
∞
1
f (t ) = ∫ F( )e j dω
t
…(14.5)
2π −∞
The above Eqs (14.4) and (14.5) represent a Fourier transform pair.
Conditions for Existence of Fourier Transform
Fourier transform F(w) exists if the function f (t) satisfies the following Dirichlet’s conditions:
(i) f (t) is absolutely integrable.
(ii) f (t) has a finite number if maxima and minima.
(iii) f (t) has a finite number of discontinuities.
There are certain functions which are not absolutely intergrable. In such cases, we find the Fourier
transform of the function as the limiting value of the Fourier transform of some other function.

14.9 FOURIER TRANSFORMS OF SOME USEFUL FUNCTIONS

1. One-sided Exponential Function One-sided exponential function shown in Fig. 14.25 is deﬁned
by the equation
f (t )
f (t ) = e − at 0 t<∞
=0 t<0
1
∞ e−at
F ∫ f ( t )e − j t
dt
−∞
∞
− at − j t
= ∫e e dt
0
t
−∞
∞
= ∫e
( a j )t
(a
dt
−∞ Fig. 14.25 One-sided exponential function
14.9 Fourier Transforms of Some Useful Functions 14.39

∞
⎡ e −( a + j )t ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ −( a + j ) ⎦ 0
1
=
a + jω
1
F (ω ) =
a + ω2
2

The magnitude and phase spectrum are shown in Fig. 14.26.

|F(w)| f(w)

1
a

w
0
w
0

(a) (b)

Fig. 14.26 (a) Magnitude spectrum, (b) Phase spectrum

2. Two-sided Exponential Function Two-sided exponential function shown in Fig. 14.27 is deﬁned
by the equation f (t )

f (t ) = e − at t>0
1
=e at
t<0 eat
e−at
∞
F ∫ f (t )e − j t dt
−∞
0 ∞
t
= ∫ e at e − j t dt + ∫ e att
e j t
dt 0
−∞ 0
0 ∞
−
= ∫ + ∫ e −( a+ j )t
dt Fig. 14.27 Two-sided exponential function
−∞ 0
0 ∞
⎡ e( a − j )t ⎤ ⎡ e − ( a jω ) t ⎤ |F(w)|
=⎢ ⎥ +⎢ ⎥
⎣ ( a − j ) ⎦ −∞ ⎣ −( a jω ) ⎦ 0
2
1 1 a
= +
a − jω a + jω
2a
= 2
a + ω2
2a w
F (ω ) = 2 , φ (ω ) = 0 0
a + ω2
The magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.28. Fig. 14.28 Magnitude Spectrum
14.40 Network Analysis and Synthesis
3. Gate Function The gate function shown in Fig. 14.29 is deﬁned by the equation
τ τ
f (t ) = A t<
2 2
τ f (t )
=0 | t |>
2
∞
F ∫ f ( t )e − j t
dt
A
−∞
τ
2
= ∫ Ae − j t
dt t
τ −t 0 t
− 2 2
2
τ t
⎡ e− j t ⎤ 2
= A⎢ ⎥ Fig. 14.29 Gate Function
⎣ − jω ⎦ − τ
2
⎡ −j τ τ
jω ⎤
⎢e 2 − e 2 ⎥
= A⎢ ⎥
⎢ − jω ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ j τ τ
− jω ⎤
2A ⎢ e 2 −e 2 ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥
ω ⎢ 2j ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2A ⎛ τ ⎞
= sin ⎜ ω ⎟
ω ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ τ⎞
sin ⎜ ω ⎟
τ ⎝ 2⎠
= 2A
2 τ
ω
2
⎛ τ⎞
= Aτ S ⎜ ω ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
The magnitude and phase spectrum are shown in Fig. 14.30.
f(w )
|F(w )|

At p

w
0 2p 4p
− 4p − 2p
t t t
w t
0
−p

(a) (b)

Fig. 14.30 (a) Magnitude spectrum (b) Phase spectrum

14.9 Fourier Transforms of Some Useful Functions 14.41

4. Impulse Function The impulse function shown in Fig. 14.31 is deﬁned by the equation
δ( ) 0 t≠0 d(t)

∫ δ ( ) dt 1 t=0
1
−∞
∞
F ∫ f ( t )e − j t
dt 0
t
−∞
∞
− jω t Fig. 14. 31 Impulse function
= ∫ δ ( )e dt
−∞

∞
⎧ ∞ ∞ ⎫
∫ δ ( ) dt ⎨ −∞∫ ∫ δ ( ) dt = f
− jω ( ⎪∵ f ( t )δ ( ) = f ( ) = f( ) ⎪
=e )
−∞ ⎬
−∞ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ where f n f (t ) .⎭
=1
The magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.32.
|F(w)|

w
0

Fig. 14.32 Magnitude spectrum

5. Constant Function The constant function shown in Fig. 14.33 is deﬁned by the equation
f (t ) = A t<∞ f( t)
∞

∫ A dt = ∞ A
−∞

The Fourier transform cannot be obtained directly. Hence, its Fourier w

0
transform can be evaluated as limiting value of Fourier transform of
gate function.
f (t ) = lim G (t ) Fig. 14.33 Constant function
τ →∞

F { f (t(t )} { li }
G (t )

= lim F { }
τ →∞
⎛ τ⎞
= lim Aτ S ⎜ ω ⎟
τ →∞ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ τ⎞
= A lim τ S ⎜ ω ⎟
τ →∞ ⎝ 2⎠
14.42 Network Analysis and Synthesis
|F(w)|
τ ⎛ ωτ ⎞
= 2π A li Sa ⎜ ⎟
τ
→∞ 2π
⎝ 2 ⎠
2
2pA
τ ⎛ ωτ ⎞
= 2π A li Sa ⎜ ⎟
τ →∞ 2π ⎝ 2 ⎠ w
0
⎡ K ⎤
= 2π δ (ω ) ⎢∵ Klim Sa(Kt )=δ (t ) ⎥
⎣ →∞ π ⎦ Fig. 14.34 Magnitude spectrum

The magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.34.

f (t )
6. Signum Function The signum function shown in Fig.
14.35 is deﬁned by the equation
f (t ) = 1 t>0 1
= −1 t<0
t
Since signum function is not absolutely integrable, its Fourier 0
transform is evaluated as limiting value of Fourier transform
of an exponential function. −1

⎧ e − at t>0
f (t ) = lim ⎨ at
a→0 − e t<0
⎩ Fig. 14.35 Signum function

⎡0 ∞ ⎤
⎢∫ e e ∫e
at j t att j t
F( ) li dt e dt ⎥
a→0 ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣ −∞ 0
f (t )
⎡ 0 ∞ ⎤
= lim ⎢ − ∫ e( )t
)t
dt ∫e
( j )t
dt ⎥
a→0 ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣ −∞ 0 e-at

⎧ ⎡ e( − ∞
⎤ ⎫⎪
0
⎪
)t⎤ ⎡ e −(( + j )t
= lim ⎨ − ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ ⎬
a→0
⎪⎩ ⎣ ( − )⎦
∞ ⎣ −( + )⎦ ⎪
0 ⎭ t
0
⎧ 1 1 ⎫
= lim ⎨ − + ⎬
a → 0 ⎩ a − jω a + jω ⎭
−eat
⎧ a − jω + a − jω ⎫
= lim ⎨ − ⎬
a→0 ⎩ a2 + ω 2 ⎭
2 jω Fig. 14.36 Exponential function
= lim −
a→0 a +ω
2 2

2 jω 2
=− =
ω 2 jω
2
F( ) =
ω
14.9 Fourier Transforms of Some Useful Functions 14.43

The magnitude and phase spectrum are shown in Fig. 14.37.

|F(w )| f (w )

p
2

w w
0 0
p
−
2

(a) (b)

Fig. 14.37 (a) Magnitude spectrum (b) Phase spectrum

u (t )
7. Unit Step Function The unit step function shown in Fig. 14.38
is deﬁned by the equation

u(t ) = 1 t≥0 1

=0 t<0
0
u(t) is not absolutely integrable.

1 Fig. 14.38 Unit step function

u(t ) = { + sgn(t )}
2
⎧1 1 ⎫
F( ) {u(t )} F⎨ sgn(t )⎬
|F(w )|
⎩2 2 ⎭
⎧1⎫ 1
= F ⎨ ⎬ + F{ }
⎩2⎭ 2

⎛ 1⎞ 1⎛ 2 ⎞
= 2π ⎜ ⎟ δ (ω ) + ⎜
⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎝ jω ⎟⎠
1 w
= πδ (ω ) + 0
jω

The magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.39.

Fig. 14.39 Magnitude spectrum

8. Sine Function The sine function shown in Fig. 14.40 is deﬁned by the equation
f (t ) = sin ω 0 t t<∞

The sine function is not absolutely integrable in the interval ( , ∞). Hence, its Fourier transform is
evaluated as a limiting case of some other function.
14.44 Network Analysis and Synthesis

τ τ
t t<
→∞ 2 2

F t t
→∞

f (t)
2
lim ∫ sin 0 t e− j t
dt
→∞
− 1
2

t t t
2 0
−j t 2 2
= lim
→∞
∫ n 0 te dt

Fig. 14.40 Sine function

= lim
→∞
∫ 2j
e dt

2 − − −
−
= lim
→∞
∫ 2j
dt

⎫
1 ⎡ e− j − t ⎤2 ⎡ e + ⎤2
= lim −
→∞ 2 j
⎣− ( − )⎦
− ⎣− ⎦−
2 2

⎡ τ ⎤
− − + + )
1 − e e 2
= lim −
→∞ 2 j ( − ) −

j 0 j( 0
1 e −e
= lim
→∞ j 2 2 j( 0)

⎫
sin( 0) n( +
1 2 2
= lim
j ( ) + 0
⎭
14.9 Fourier Transforms of Some Useful Functions 14.45

F(w)
⎧ τ τ⎫
sin(ω − ω 0 ) sin(ω + ω 0 ) ⎪
τ ⎪ 2− 2
= lim ⎨ ⎬
τ →∞ 2 j
⎪ ( − ) τ τ
( + ) ⎪ p
⎩ 2 2 ⎭
τ ⎧ τ τ⎫
= lim ⎨Sa( − ) −S ( + ) ⎬ w
τ →∞ 2 j ⎩ 2 2⎭ −w 0 0 w0

⎡ ⎤
π⎢ ⎧τ τ⎫ ⎧τ τ ⎫⎥ −p
= li ⎨ Sa(ω − ω 0 ) ⎬ − lim
lim li ⎨ Sa( 0) ⎬
j ⎢ τ →∞
→ ⎩2 j 2 ⎭ →∞ ⎩ 2π 2 ⎭⎥
⎣2 2 ⎦
π
=
j
[δ (ω 0) − + ] Fig. 14.41 Magnitude spectrum

The magnitude spectrum is shown in

f (t )
Fig. 14.41.

9. Cosine Function The cosine

1
function shown in Fig. 14.42 is deﬁned by
the equation
f (t ) = cos ω 0 t t<∞ −t / 2 0 t /2
t

The cosine function is not absolutely

integrable in the interval ( , ∞). Hence,
its Fourier transform is calculated as a
Fig. 14.42 Cosine function
limiting case of some other function.
⎛ τ τ⎞
f (t ) = lim coss t G (t ) t< ⎟
τ →∞ ⎝ 2 2⎠

F( ) { li
τ
coss t G (t ) }
τ
2
= lim ∫ cos t G (t ) e − j t
dt
τ →∞
τ
−
2
τ
2
− jω t
= lim
τ →∞
∫ cos ω 0 t e dt
τ
−
2
τ
2
e jω 0 t + e − jω 0 t − jω t
= lim
τ →∞
∫ 2
e dt
τ
−
2
14.46 Network Analysis and Synthesis

2
= lim
→∞
∫ 2
dt
−
2

2 2
e 0

lim
→∞
∫ dt ∫ 2
dt
− −
2 2

e− 0 2 ⎡ e 0 ⎤2
lim +⎢
→∞ − ( 0) − ⎣− 0 ⎦
2 2

− − 0
e e 2
lim +
( − ) −

−
= lim +
→∞ 2 j( ) 2 ( + 0)

n( 0) sin( + )
= lim ⎨ 2 2
→∞ ( ) ( + ) F w)

⎭
⎧ ⎫
sin( − 0) sin( 0)
p p
lim 2+ 2⎪
2⎪ ⎪
( 0) + 0
⎩ 2 2 ⎭
w
τ w0 0 w0
= −
→∞ 2
2
− Fig. 14.43 Magnitude spectrum
The magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.43.
9. Exponential Function e j t
The Exponential function e j t
is not absolute integrable.
We know that
F w)
j t
F e
= co s t 2p

co t

= − + − − w
j 0 w0
= −
The magnitude spectrum is shown in Fig. 14.44. Fig. 14.44 Magnitude spectrum
14.10 Fourier Transform of Periodic Function 14.47

14.10 FOURIER TRANSFORM OF PERIODIC FUNCTION

Periodic function exists from −∞ to ∞.
∞

∫ f (t ) dt = ∞
−∞

i.e. f (t) is not absolutely integrable. Strictly speaking, Fourier transform of periodic function does not exist.
But its Fourier transform can be evaluated as a limiting value of Fourier transform of some other function. A
periodic function f (t) with angular frequency w0 can be represented in exponential Fourier series as,
∞
f (t ) = ∑ cn e jnω 0 t
n = −∞

where
T

1 2
2π
cn = ∫ d and ω 0 =
jn t
f (t ) e dt
T T T
−
2

⎧ ∞ ⎫
F { f (t )} F ⎨ ∑ cn e jnω 0 t ⎬
⎩ n = −∞ ⎭
∞
= ∑
n = −∞
{
cn F e jn t
}
∞
= ∑ cn 2π δ (ω − nω 0 )
n = −∞
∞
= 2π ∑ cn δ (ω − nω 0 )
n = −∞

Example 14.22 Find the Fourier transform of periodic gate function shown in Fig. 14.45.

f (t )

t t t
− 0
2 2
T

Fig. 14.45
14.48 Network Analysis and Synthesis

τ τ
Solution f (t ) = A − <τ <
2 2
τ
=0 | t |>
2
τ
2
1 jnω t
cn =
T ∫ f ( t )e dt
τ
−
2
τ
2
1
= ∫ Ae − jnω 0 t dt
T τ
−
2
τ
2
A − jnω 0 t
=
T ∫e dt
τ
−
2
τ
A ⎡ e − jnω 0 t ⎤ 2
= ⎢ ⎥
T ⎣ − jnω 0 ⎦ τ
−
2
⎡ − jnω 0 τ τ
jjnω 0 ⎤
A ⎢e 2 −e 2⎥
=
nω 0τ ⎢⎢ −j ⎥
⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ jnω 0 τ τ
− jnω 0 ⎤
2A ⎢ e 2 −e 2⎥
=
nω 0τ ⎢⎢ 2j ⎥
⎥
⎣ ⎦
2A τ
= sin nω 0
nω 0τ 2
τ τ
2 A sin nω 0
= 2 2
T τ
nω 0
2
Aτ ⎛ τ⎞
= Sa ⎜ nω 0 ⎟
T ⎝ 2⎠
∞
F( ) 2π ∑ cnδ (ω n )
n = −∞
∞
Aτ ⎛ τ⎞
= 2π ∑ Sa ⎜ nω 0
⎝ 2⎠
δ (ω n )
n = −∞ T
∞
2π Aτ ⎛ τ⎞
=
T
∑ Sa ⎜⎝ nω 0 2 ⎟⎠ δ (ω − nω 0 )
n = −∞
∞
⎛ τ⎞
= ω 0 Aτ ∑ ⎜⎝ nω 0 ⎟⎠ δ (ω − nω 0 )
2
n= −∞
14.10 Fourier Transform of Periodic Function 14.49
The Fourier transform is shown in Fig. 14.46.
F(w )

w
0

Fig. 14.46

Example 14.23 Find the Fourier transform of an impulse train shown in Fig. 14.47.
dT (t)

t
−3T −2T −T 0 T 2T 3T

Fig. 14.47
∞
Solution δT ( ) ∑ δ (t nT )
n = −∞
t0 T
1 jnω t
cn =
T ∫ f (t ) e dt
t0
t0 T
1
= ∫ δ T (t ) e − jnω 0 t dt
T t0
T
2
1 − jnω 0 t
=
T ∫ δ (t ) e dt
T
−
2
1 − jnω 0 ( 0 )
= e δ ( 0)
T
1
=
T
∞
F( ) 2π ∑ cn δ (ω n )
n = −∞
∞
1
= 2π ∑ T
δ( n )
n = −∞
∞
2π
=
T
∑ δ (ω − nω 0 )
n = −∞
∞
= ω0 ∑ δ (ω − ω0 )
n = −∞
14.50 Network Analysis and Synthesis
The Fourier transform is shown in Fig. 14.48.

F(w)

w
−3w 0 −w 0 0 w0 2w 0 4w 0

Fig. 14.48

14.11 PROPERTIES OF FOURIER TRANSFORM

1. Linearity
If f (t ) ↔ F1 ( ) and f (t ) ↔ F2 ( ) then a f1 (t ) + a2 f (t ) ↔ a1 F1 ( ) + a2 F2 ( )
∞
Proof: F {a f1 (t ) a2 f (t )} = ∫ {a (t ) a2 f (t )} e
f1 (t j t
dt
−∞
∞ ∞
−
=a ∫ + ∫ f 2 (t ) e − j t
dt = a1 F1 ( ) + a2 F2 ( )
−∞ −∞

2. Time Scaling
1 ⎛ω⎞
If f (t ) ↔ F ( ) then f ( aat ) ↔ F⎜ ⎟
|a| ⎝ a⎠

Proof:
(a) When a > 0
∞
F { f ( at )} ∫ f ( at ) e j t
dt
−∞
λ dλ
Putting at = λ , t = , d
dt =
a a
∞ ⎛ω⎞
− j⎜ ⎟ λ dλ ⎛ω⎞
F { f ( at )} ∫ f (λ ) e ⎝ a⎠
= F⎜ ⎟
−∞
a a ⎝ a⎠

(b) When a < 0

1 ⎛ω⎞
F { f ( aat )} = − F ⎜ ⎟
a ⎝ a⎠
1 ⎛ω⎞
Hence, f ( at ) ↔ F⎜ ⎟
|a| ⎝ a⎠
14.11 Properties of Fourier Transform 14.51

The above proof shows that compression in time domain is equivalent to expansion in frequency domain
and vice versa.
3. Time Shifting
If t ↔ F ( ) then t t F ( )e − j t0

∞
Proof: F t t e dt
−
Putting , dt = d
∞
F t t λ
−∞ −∞

− − − 0

Similarly, t t F( ) e j t0

The above proof shows that shifting in time domain introduces a phase lag ( ) in the frequency
domain.

Example 14.24 Find the Fourier transform of the function shown in Fig. 14.49.
t)

t
0 t

Fig. 14.49

Solution t = −
2
By time-shifting property, t t F ( )e − j t0

F {G t } A Sa
2
j
F{ t } A e 2
2

Example 14.25 Find the Fourier transform of the function shown in Fig. 14.50.
14.52 Network Analysis and Synthesis
f(t )

t
−t 0

Fig. 14.50
⎛ τ⎞
Solution f (t ) = G t + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
By time-shifting property, f (t t ) ↔ F ( )e − j t0

⎛ ωτ ⎞
F {G(t )} = Aτ Sa ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
τ
⎛ ωτ ⎞ jω 2
F { f (t )} = Aτ Sa e
⎝ 2 ⎠

Example 14.26 Find the Fourier transform of the function shown in Fig.14.51.
f(t )

1
t

t
−t 0 t

1
−t

Fig. 14.51

Solution The function f (t) can be viewed as a combination of two functions f (t ) and f (t ).
f (t ) = f (t ) − f (t ) f1(t)
⎛ τ⎞
f (t ) = G t + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
By time-shifting property, 1
t
τ τ
1 ⎛ ωτ ⎞ j ⎛ ⎞ jω
F1 ( ) τ Sa e 2 = Sa ⎜ ⎟ e 2
τ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ −t 0
t

⎛ τ⎞
f (t ) = G t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Fig. 14.52
14.11 Properties of Fourier Transform 14.53

τ τ f2(t )
1 ⎛ ωτ ⎞ − j ⎛ ⎞ jω
F2 ( ) τ Sa e 2 = Sa ⎜ ⎟ e 2
τ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
F( ) F1 ( ) − F2 ( ) 1
τ τ t
⎛ ωτ ⎞ j ⎛ ωτ ⎞ jω 2
= Sa ⎜ ⎟ e 2 Sa e
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
τ τ t t
⎛ ωτ ⎞ ⎛ jω − jω ⎞
0
= Sa ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ e 2 − e 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ ⎠
⎛ jω τ τ
− jω ⎞
Fig. 14.53
ωτ
⎛ ⎞ −
= 2j Sa ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟
e 2 e 2

⎝ 2 ⎠ 2j ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
⎛ ωτ ⎞ ⎛ ωτ ⎞
= 2 j Sa ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ τ⎞
sin ⎜ ω ⎟
ωτ ⎛ ωτ ⎞ ⎝ 2⎠
= 2j Sa ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ τ
ω
2
⎛ τ ⎞ ⎛ τ ⎞
= jωτ Sa ⎜ ω ⎟ Sa ⎜ ω ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ ωτ ⎞
= jωτ Sa 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

Example 14.27 Find the Fourier transform of the function shown in Fig. 14.54.
f(t )

−t t
0 t

−1

Fig. 14.54
Solution The function f (t) is considered as a combination of two functions f (t ) and f (t ).
f (t ) = f (t ) − f (t ) f (t ) 2

⎛ τ⎞
Now, f (t ) = G t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
By time-shifting property, 1

⎛ ωτ ⎞
F {G(t )} = Aτ Sa ⎜ ⎟ t
⎝ 2 ⎠ 0 t
τ
⎛ ωτ ⎞ − jω 2
F { f (t )} = F2 ( ) τ Sa e
⎝ 2 ⎠
Fig. 14.55
14.54 Network Analysis and Synthesis
f (t)
Also, t = +
2
j 1
F e 2
2
( ) t 0
t

−
Sa
2 2
Fig. 14.56
−j j
Sa ⎢e −
2
⎡
⎢
− Sa
2 2j

2 j Sa sin
2 2

sin
2
−2 j Sa
2 2
2

−j 2
Sa Sa
2 2
ωτ
−j 2
Sa 2
2

4. Frequency Shifting or Frequency Translation

If t ↔ F ( ) then t
∞
Proof: F t e e dt F( 0)
−∞ −

This proof shows that if the function f (t) is given a time lead w0 in the time domains then the spectrum
of the signal gets shifted in frequency domain by w0.

Example 14.28 Find the Fourier transform of t cos t.

1
Solution t co t f t t e t e
⎣ ⎦
1 1
F F + 0) ]
14.11 Properties of Fourier Transform 14.55

Example 14.29 Find the Fourier transform of t sin t

1
Solution t sin t f (t 0

⎣ j j
1 1
F + 0
j j

Example 14.30 Find Fourier transform of periodic function e j t

. Hence, ﬁnd Fourier transform
of the periodic function (i) sin t , and (ii) cos t

Solution
F 2π δ ( )
By frequency shifting property,

{
F ej t
}= 0

Now,
0

n 0t =
2j
1 1
F ω+ ) (
j j j
0

co 0t =
2
1 1 1
F − 0 + π δ( 0)

0 0

5. Time Differentiation
d
If t ↔ F ( ) then t ↔
dt
Proof:
1
t =
2 ∫ e ω
−∞
∞
d d ⎡ 1 d
dt
t = ⎢
dt 2 ∫ e = =
2 ∫F dt
ω
−∞ −∞ −∞
∞
1
2 ∫ e d
∞

Comparing with inverse Fourier transform equation,

d
t ↔
dt
14.56 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Example 14.31 Find the Fourier transform of the function shown in Fig. 14.57.
f(t)

−t t t
0

Fig. 14.57

Solution d
f(t)
1 dt
f (t ) = − t 1 0 t <τ
τ
1
= t 1 τ t<0 1
τ t
Differentiating f (t) w.r.t. t,
d 1 −t t t
f (t ) = − 0<t <τ 0
dt τ
1 1
−t
= −τ < t < 0
τ
⎧d ⎫ ⎛ τ⎞
F ⎨ f (t )⎬ = jωτ Sa 2 ⎜ ω ⎟
⎩ dt ⎭ ⎝ 2⎠ Fig. 14.58

By time-differentiation property,

⎧d ⎫
F ⎨ f ( t )⎬ = j F( )
F(
⎩ dt ⎭
⎛ ωτ ⎞
F ( ) = τ Sa 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

6. Frequency Differentiation
d
If f (t ) ↔ F ( ) then F( ) jt f (t )
dω
∞
Proof: F ∫ f (t ) e − j t
dt
−∞

Differentiating w.r.t w,
∞ ∞ ∞
d d d
F (ω ) = ∫ f (tt)) e
j t
dt ∫ f (t ) e j t
dt ∫( jtt ) f (t ) e − jω t dt
dω dω −∞ −∞
dω −∞
d
dω
[ F( )] jt f (t )
14.11 Properties of Fourier Transform 14.57

7. Time Convolution
If ( ) and ( ) then )
Proof: By deﬁnition of convolution,

F ) f t t

= − e− dt
−∞
Putting = dt = d

F ) f ( )d d
−∞

= ∫ ∫ ) e−
∞ −∞
∞
= ⋅
−∞ −∞
= ⋅
This proof shows that convolution in time domain is equivalent to multiplication in frequency domain.
8. Frequency Convolution
If ( ) and ( ) then F )
Proof: By deﬁnition of convolution,
∞
F u ) du
−∞
∞ ∞
1
F-1 F ) F u u
−∞ −∞
Putting d

1 1
F = F du e u
d
−∞

1
=
2π ∫ ∫ e e d
−∞
∞ ∞
1
2 − −
⋅ 2 t
t
14.58 Network Analysis and Synthesis
This proof shown that convolution in the frequency domain is equivalent to multiplication in the time
domain.

14.12 ENERGY DENSITY SPECTRUM

The energy of any function f (t) is given by
∞
E ∫ f 2 (t ) dt
−∞
We know that,
∞
1
f (t ) = ∫ F( )e j dω
t
2π −∞
∞
E ∫ f (t ) f (t ) dt
−∞
∞ ⎡ 1 ∞ ⎤
= ∫ ∫ F( ) e j dω ⎥ dt
t
f (t ) ⎢
−∞ ⎢⎣ 2π −∞ ⎥⎦
∞ ⎡∞ ⎤
1 jω t
=
2π ∫ F ω ⎢ ∫ f (t )
⎢⎣ −∞
dt ⎥ dω
⎥⎦
−∞
∞
1
=
2π ∫ F (ω ) ⋅ F ( −ω ) dω
−∞
∞
1
∫
2 2
= F (ω ) dω where F (ω ) F (ω ) ⋅ F ( ω )
2π −∞

F( j ) is even function of w.
∞
1
∫
2
E F (ω ) dω
π0

Example 14.32 A low-pass brick-wall ﬁlter is given by

⎧1 ω W1
H( ) = ⎨
⎩0 ω W1

(a) Determine impulse response of the ﬁlter and sketch it as a function of time.
1
(b) It the bandwidth of the brick-wall ﬁlter is decreased to W1 , sketch its impulse response.
2
∞
1
h(t ) = ∫ F1 ( )e j dω
Solution (a) t
2π −∞
W1
1
= ∫ 1⋅ e dω
j t
2π −W1
14.12 Energy Density Spectrum 14.59

W1 h(t)
1 ⎡ e jω t ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
2π ⎣ jt ⎦ W1
−W1
p
1 ⎛ e jW1t − e − jW1t ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
πt ⎝ 2j ⎠
1
= (sin W1 t ) 0
t
πt
W ⎛ i W1 t ⎞
= 1⎜
π ⎝ W1 t ⎟⎠ Fig. 14.59
W1
= Sa (W1 t )
π
The impulse response is shown in Fig 14.59
(b) As we decrease the bandwidth of brick-wall ﬁlter, the function h(t) becomes broader and vice
versa.
h(t )

W1
2p

t
0

Fig. 14.60

Example 14.33 Find the output voltage response for the network shown in Fig.14.61.
+

i(t) = e−t u(t) 0.5 Ω 1F v(t)

Fig. 14.61
Solution The transformed network is shown in Fig. 14.62.

1 1
I(w) = 0.5 V(w)
1 + jw jw

Fig. 14.62
Applying KCL at the node,
1 V (ω ) V (ω )
= + = ( 2 + j ) V (ω )
1 jω 0.5 1
jω
14.60 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1 1 ( j ) ( j ) 1 1
V( ) = = = −
1+ j 2 jω ( j )( j ) 1+ j 2 jω
Taking the inverse Fourier transform,
v(t ) = e −tt u(t
u(t ) 0.5 e 2t

Example 14.34 The current in a 10 Ω resistor is i(t ) = 10 e −2t u(t ). What is the energy associated
with the frequency band 0 ω 2 rad/ s?

Solution i(t ) = 10 e −2t

10
I( ) =
2 + jω
Energy associated with the given frequency band is
2
10
∫
2
E I (ω ) dω
π 0
2
10 100
= ∫ dω
π 0 4 + ω2
2
1000 ⎡ 1 ⎛ω⎞⎤
= ⎢ tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
π ⎣2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦0
1000 ⎡ −11 −1
= tan (1) − (0) ⎤⎦
2π ⎣
1000 ⎛ π ⎞
= − 0⎟
2π ⎝ 4 ⎠
= 125 J

Exercises
14.1 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the ⎡ 4A 4A 4A ⎤
waveform shown in Fig. 14.63. ⎢ π sin ω t + 3π sin
si 3ω t +
5π
sin 5ω t + ……⎥
f (t)
⎣ ⎦
14.2 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the
waveform shown in Fig. 14.64.
f (t)
A

A
t
0 p 2p 3p

t
−A 0 2p 4p 6p

Fig. 14.64

Fig. 14.63
Exercises 14.61

2A A 2A ⎡2 4 4A
n sin 2 …… t− os 4 t
3 π π 15
14.3 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the 4A ⎤
+ t − ……
waveform shown in Fig. 14.65. 35
f (t ) 14.6 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the
waveform shown in Fig. 14.68.
A f (t )

p t
0 2p 3p

t
A
T T T T
2 2

Fig. 14.65 −A
⎡ 4 4A
s cos t Fig. 14.68

8 8A 8A ⎤
2 2A s cos t co 5 t + ……
+ − t 25 2
3
14.7 Find the exponential Fourier series of the
14.4 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the
waveform shown in Fig. 14.69.
waveform shown in Fig. 14.66.
f (t)
f t)

A A

t
0 p 2p 3p t
0 p 2p 3p
Fig. 14.66
Fig. 14.69
2 4 4A
− − os 4 t ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
π π 15
⎢…… + −j A e ⎥
4A ⎤ 9
− 6 t −…
35
2
j Ae − j t

14.5 Find the trigonometric Fourier series of the

1 1
waveform shown in Fig. 14.67. + − +j A e
4
f (t )
1 1
j Ae j t
……
A 2
⎣ 9 6 ⎦

t
14.8 Find the exponential Fourier series of the
0 p 2p waveform shown in Fig. 14.70.

Fig. 14.67
14.62 Network Analysis and Synthesis
f (t) Find the total current if the applied voltage is
given by v 50 20 sin 500t + 10 sin 1000t .
A

[i t− ° ]
−p p t 14.13 Find the Fourier transform of the function
2p 3p
shown in Fig. 14.71.
f (t)
−A

Fig. 14.70
20

⎡ A − j2 A −j t A ⎤
⎢…… − j 2π e
t
−j e + j ej t⎥
π π
⎢ ⎥ 10
⎢ +j
A j2 t
e + …… ⎥
⎢⎣ 2π ⎥⎦ t
0 5 10
14.9 Find the effective voltage, effective current, and
average power supplied to a passive network if
the applied voltage is v(t) = 200 + 100 cos(500t Fig. 14.71
+ 30°) + 75 cos (1500t + 60°) volts and the
⎡ 20 ⎤
resulting current is i(t) = 3.53 cos (500t + 75°) ⎢ ω (sin 5ω in 10ω ) ⎥
+ 3.55 cos (1500t + 78.45°)amperes. ⎣ ⎦
[ .5 V, 3.54 A, 250.8 W ] 14.14 Find the Fourier transform of the function
shown in Fig. 14.72.
14.10 A two-element series circuit with R = 10 Ω
f (t)
and L = 20 mH has current i = 5 sin100t +
3sin300t + 2sin100t. Find the effective applied
voltage and the average power. 20

[ ]
14.11 A three-element series circuit with R = 5 Ω,
L = 5 μH and C = 50 μF, μ has an applied
voltage v = 150sin 1000t + 10sin 200t +
t
75sin 300t. Find the effective current and the −10 −5 0 5 10
average power for the circuit.
[ .58 A, 1374 W ]
Fig. 14.72
14.12 A three-element circuit consists of R = 5 Ω
in series with a parallel combination of L and ⎡ 200 ⎤
C. At ω = 500 rad/s, X L = 2 Ω, C = 8 Ω. ⎢ 2 (cos 5ω s 10ω ) ⎥
⎣ω ⎦

Objective-Type Questions
14.1 A periodic function f(t) with time period T (a) cosine terms only
T (b) odd harmonic terms only
repeats itself after half time period . The
2 (c) even harmonic terms only
fourier series of f(t) would contain (d) sine terms only
Objective-Type Questions 14.63

14.2 The fourier series expansion of a periodic f (t )

function with half-wave symmetry contains only
(a) sine terms (b) cosine terms
(c) odd harmonics (d) even harmonics A
14.3 With regard to Fourier transform, tick the
correct combination:
t
Function Transform 0 3T
−T T
4 4 4
A Real and even 1. Real and even
B Real and odd 2. Real and odd
C. Real even plus 3. Complex and even
imaginary odd
(iii)
D. Complex and even 4. Real
5. Imaginary and odd f (t )

A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 A
(b) 1 5 3 4
(c) 1 5 4 3
(d) 2 5 4 3 t
0 T 3T
−T 4
4 4
14.4 Which of the following periodic waveforms
will have only odd harmonics of sinusoldal −A
waveforms?
f (t )
(iv)

Fig 14.73
A
Select the correct answer using the codes
given below:
t (a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii)
0 T T T
2 2 (c) (i) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iv)
−A 14.5 If f(t) = −f(−t) and f(t) satisfy the Dirichlet’s
conditions, then f(t) can be expanded in a
fourier series containing
(i)
(a) Only sine terms
f (t )
(b) Only cosine terms
(c) Cosine terms and a constant term
(d) Sine terms and a constant term
A 14.6 The inverse fourier transform of the function
1
( )= + π δ ( ) is
0 T T
t jω
2
(a) sin wt (b) cos wt
−A (c) sin (t) (d) m(t)
14.7 The amplitude of the ﬁrst odd harmonic of the
(ii) square wave shown in Fig. 14.74 is equal to
14.64 Network Analysis and Synthesis
f (t ) (a) even symmetry at an interval of quarter
of a wave
(b) even symmetry and half-wave symme-
try only
A (c) even or odd symmetry without half-
wave symmetry
t (d) even or odd symmetry with half-wave
0 p 2p 3p 4p
symmetry
−A
14.10 Periodic signal that obeys Dirichlet’s
condition can be represented by
(a) Fourier series
Fig 14.74 (b) Fourier transform
(c) Inverse Fourier transform
4A 2A A (d) None of these
(a) (b) (c) (d) 0
π 3π π 14.11 The current waveform in a pure resistor of 10
14.8 The fourier transform of f (t) = cos w0t is Ω is shown in Fig. 14.75 power dissipated in
the resistor is
1
(a) δ( 0)
2 f(t)

1
(b) δ( 0) 9A
2
1
(c)
2
[δ ( 0) δ( 0) ] t
0 3 6
1
(d)
2
[δ ( 0) δ( 0) ] Fig. 14.75

14.9 A periodic function f(t) is said to have a (a) 7.29 W (b) 52.4 W
quarter-wave symmetry, if it possesses (c) 135 W (d) 270 W

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a)
8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (d)
15
Filters and Attenuators

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Filters are frequency-selective networks that attenuate signals at some frequency and allow others to pass with
or without attenuation. A ﬁlter is constructed from purely reactive elements. Ideally, ﬁlters should produce
no attenuation in the desired band, called pass band and should provide attenuation at all other frequencies
called attenuation band or stop band. The frequency which separates the pass band and the stop band is called
cut-off frequency. Filter networks are widely used in communication systems to separate various channels in
carrier-frequency telephone circuits.

15.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS

On the basis of frequency characteristics, filters are classified into four categories:
(i) Low-pass filter
(ii) High-pass filter
(iii) Band-pass filter
(iv) Band-stop filter
A low-pass filter allows all frequencies up to a certain cut-off frequency to pass through it and attenuates
all the other frequencies above the cut-off frequency.
A high-pass filter attenuates all the frequency below the cut-off frequency and allows all other frequencies
above the cut-off frequency to pass through it.
Z1 Z1
A band-pass filter allows a limited band of frequencies to
pass through it and attenuates all other frequencies below or 2 2
1 2
above the frequency band.
A band-stop filter attenuates a limited band of frequencies
but allows all other frequencies to pass through it. Z2 Z0

15.3 T-NETWORK 1′ 2′
Figure 15.1 shows a T network.
Fig. 15.1 T-Network
15.2 Network Analysis and Synthesis

15.3.1 Characteristic Impedance

For a T network, the value of input impedance when it is terminated by characteristic impedance Z0, is given by
⎛Z ⎞
Z 2 ⎜ 1 + Z0 ⎟
Z ⎝ 2 ⎠
Zin = 1 +
2 Z1
+ Z 2 Z0
2
But Zin Z0
⎛Z ⎞
2Z 2 ⎜ 1 + Z 0 ⎟
Z1 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Z0 = +
2 Z1 2Z 2 2Z0
Z Z Z 2Z 2 Z 0
= 1 + 1 2
2 Z1 2Z 2 2Z0
Z12 + 2Z1Z 2 + 2Z1Z0 + 2Z1Z 2 + 4 Z 2 Z0
=
2(Z1 + 2Z 2 + 2Z0 )
2Z1Z0 + 4 Z 2 Z0 + 4 Z0 2 = Z12 2Z1Z 2 2Z1Z0 2Z1Z 2 4Z 2 Z0
4 Z02 Z12 4 Z1Z 2
Z12
Z02 = + Z1Z2
4
Z12
Z0 = + Z1Z2
4
Hence, characteristic impedance for symmetrical T section is given by,
Z12
Z 0T = + Z1Z 2
4
Characteristic impedance can also be expressed in terms of open-circuit impedance Zoc and short-circuit
impedance Zsc.
Z1 Z + 2Z2
Open-circuit impedance Zoc = + Z2 = 1
2 2
Z1
Z2
Z Z Z1Z 2 Z 2 4 Z1Z 2
Short-circuit impedance Z sc = 1+ 2 = 1+ = 1
2 Z1 2 Z1 2Z 2 2Z1 4 Z 2
+ Z2
2

⎛ Z1 2Z 2 ⎞ ⎛ Z1 4 Z1Z 2 ⎞ Z1
2 2
Zoc Z sc =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = + Z1Z 2 = Z02T
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2Z1 4 Z 2 ⎠ 4
Z0T = Zoc Z sc

15.3.2 Propagation Constant

The propagation constant γ of the network in Fig. 15.2 is given by,
15.3 T-network 15.3

I1 1 1
log 2 2
I2
1 2
Applying KVL to Mesh1,
+
Z V 2 0
V I − =0 −
2 I1 I
Z 1 2′
V Z2 2
2
Fig. 15.2 T-Network
Applying KVL to Mesh 2,
Z1
1 I I2 0
2
+ + 2 =0
2

Z I2
2
Z1
+
I1
= 2
I2 Z2
Z1
+ Z2
2
Z1
−1
2
The characteristic impedance of the T network is given by,

Z12
Z0
4
Z12 Z1
+ = Z2 ( − 1) −
4 2
Z12 Z12
+ = Z2 − + ( 1)
4
Z 1 0
Z 0

Z 0

e
Z2
2 Z1
1
Z2e −
Z
e− − e = 1
Z2
15.4 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Z1
eγ e γ
−2=
Z2
Dividing both the sides by 2,
eγ e γ
Z1
= 1+
2 2Z 2
Z
cosh γ = 1 + 1
2Z 2
2 2
⎛ Z ⎞ Z Z2 Z1 ⎛ Z1 ⎞
sinh γ h γ −1 = 1+ 1 ⎟ −1
2
1 + 1 + 12 − 1 = +
⎝ 2Z 2 ⎠ Z 2 4Z 2 Z 2 ⎜⎝ 2Z 2 ⎟⎠
1 Z12 Z0T
= Z1Z 2 + =
Z2 4 Z2
sinh γ Z 0T Z 0T
n γ =
tanh = =
cosh γ ⎛ Z ⎞ Z1
Z 2 ⎜1 + 1 ⎟ Z 2 +
⎝ 2Z 2 ⎠ 2
But Z0T Zoc Z sc
Z1
and Zoc = + Z2
2
Z sc
tanh γ =
Zoc
γ 1 1⎛ Z ⎞ Z1
Also, sinh = (cosh γ )= 1 + 1 − 1⎟ =
2 2 2 ⎝ 2Z 2 ⎠ 4Z 2

15.4 p NETWORK
Figure 15.3 shows a p-network.
Z1
1 2

2 Z2 2 Z2 Z0

1′ 2′

But Zin Z0
⎛ 2Z 2 Z0 ⎞
2Z 2 Z1 +
⎝ 2 Z 2 + Z 0 ⎟⎠
Z0 =
2Z 2 Z0
Z1 + + 2Z 2
2Z 2 + Z0
2 Z 2 Z02 2 2( 1 2 + Z 0 Z1 + 2Z0 Z 2 )
Z0 Z1 + + 2Z 0 Z 2 =
2Z 2 + Z0 2Z 2 + Z 0
2
2 0 1 2 1 0 2Z0 Z 22 4Z 2 2
0 2Z 2 Z02 4 Z1 2
2 2Z0 Z1Z 2 + 4 Z 0 Z 22
Z1Z02 4Z 2 Z02 4 Z1Z 22
Z02 ( Z1 + 4Z
Z2 ) 4 Z1Z 22
4 Z1Z 22
Z02 =
Z1 4 Z 2
4 Z1Z 22
Z0 =
Z1 4 Z 2

Dividing both the sides by 4Z2,

Z1Z 2
Z0 =
Z
1+ 1
4Z 2

Hence, characteristic impedance of a symmetrical p network is given by

Z1Z2 Z1Z2
Z0π = =
Z1 Z12
1+ Z1Z2 +
4Z2 4
Z12
But Z 0T = + Z1Z2
4
ZZ
Z0π = 1 2
Z 0T
Characteristic impedance can also be expressed in terms of open-circuit impedance Zoc and short-circuit
impedance Zsc.
2Z 2 ( Z1 + 2Z 2 ) 2Z 2 ( Z1 + 2Z 2 )
Open-circuit impedance Zoc = =
2Z 2 + Z1 + 2Z 2 Z1 4 Z 2
2Z1Z 2
Short-circuit impedance Z sc =
2Z 2 Z1
4Z1Z 22 ZZ
Zoc Z sc = = 1 2
Z1 4 Z 2 Z
1+ 1
4Z 2
Z 0π Zoc Z sc
15.6 Network Analysis and Synthesis
15.4.2 Propagation Constant
The propagation constant of a symmetrical p network is same as that of a symmetrical T network.

15.5 CHARACTERISTIC OF FILTERS

A ﬁlter transmits or passes desired range of frequencies without loss and attenuates all undesired
frequencies.
The propagation constant
γ = α + jβ
where a is attenuation constant and b is the phase constant. We know that

γ Z1
sinh =
2 4Z2
⎛ α β⎞ α β α β Z1
sinh ⎜ ⎟ = sinh cos + j cosh sin =
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2 2 2 4Z2
Depending upon the type of Z1 and Z2, there are two cases:
Z γ
Case (i) If Z1 and Z2 are same type of reactances then 1 and sinh are real.
4Z2 2

α β
cosh sin = 0
2 2
β ⎡ α ⎤
sin 0 if β π here 0,1, 2, … ⎢∵ cosh cannot be zer
z o⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
β
cos = 1
2
α Z1
sinh =
2 4Z 2
Z1
α = 2 sinh −1
4Z 2
Z Z Z1
Case (ii) If Z1 and Z2 are opposite types of reactances then 1 is negative, i.e. 1 < 0 and is
purely imaginary. 4Z2 4Z2 4Z2

α β
sinh cos = 0
2 2
α β Z1
j coshh sin
i = j
2 2 4Z 2
α β Z1
cosh sin =
2 2 4Z 2
The two conditions of operation of the ﬁlter, viz. the pass band and stop band are mathematically
obtained from these equations. Both the above equations must be satisﬁed simultaneously by a
and b. Two conditions may arise
15.6 Constant-k Low Pass Filter 15.7

α
(a) sinh = 0 i.e a = 0 when b ≠ 0
2
Z β
Since 1 is negative and sin is real,
4Z2 2
β α
sin = as cosh =1
2 4Z 2 2

This signiﬁes the region of zero attenuation or pass band which is limited by the upper limit of sine
terms.
β
sin = 1
2
Z
−1 < 1 < 0
4Z2
The phase angle in the pass band is given by,
β Z1
= sin −1
2 4Z2

Z1
β = 2 sin −1
4Z2
β
(b) =0
cos
2
β
sin = ±1
2
Z α
Since 1 is negative and cosh is real,
4Z2 2
α Z1
cosh =
2 Z2
This signiﬁes a stop band since a ≠ 0.
α Z1
= cosh −1
2 4Z2

Z1
α = 2cosh −1
4Z2
Z1
and < −1
4Z 2

15.6 CONSTANT-k LOW PASS FILTER

A T or p network is said to be of the constant k type if Z1 and Z2 are opposite types of reactances satisfying
the relation
Z1Z2 = k 2
15.8 Network Analysis and Synthesis
where k is a constant, independent of frequency. k is often referred to as design impedance or nominal impedance
of the constant-k filter. The constant-k, T or p-type filter is also known as the prototype filter because other
complex networks can be derived from it. Figure 15.4 shows constant-k, T and p-section filters.

Z1 Z1
2 2 Z1

Z2 2Z2 2Z2

(a) T-section (b) p-section

Fig. 15.4 Constant–k Filter

In constant-k low pass ﬁlter,

Z1 = j L
1 1
Z2 = − j =
ω c jω c

1. Nominal Impedance
⎛ 1 ⎞ L
k ( j L) ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ j c⎠ C

2. Cut-off Frequency
Z1 Z
The cut-off frequencies are obtained when = 0 and 1 = −1
4Z 2 4Z 2
Z1
(i) When =0
4Z 2
Z1 = 0
j L=0
ω=0
f =0
Z1
(ii) When = −1
4Z2
Z1 4Z 2
4j
j L=
ωC
ω LC = 4
2

4
ω2 =
LC
2
ω ωc =
LC
1
f = fc =
π LC
15.6 Constant-k Low Pass Filter 15.9

Hence, the pass band starts at f = 0 and continues up to the cut-off frequency fc. All the frequencies
above fc are in the attenuation or stop band.

3. Attenuation Constant
In pass band, a = 0

−1 ω LC ω2
2
−1 Z1 −1
In stop band, α = 2 cosh = 2 cosh = 2 cosh
4Z 2 4 ωc2
a

⎛ω⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
= 2 cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ωc ⎠ ⎝ fc ⎠

The attenuation constant a is zero throughout the pass

band but increases gradually from the cut-off frequency.
The variation of a is plotted in Fig. 15.5.
f
0 fc

4. Phase Constant
In pass band, Fig. 15.5 Variation of a with frequency

b
−1 Z1 ⎛ f ⎞
β = 2 sin = 2 sin −1 ⎜ ⎟
4Z 2 ⎝ fc ⎠
p
In stop band, β π.
The phase constant b is zero at zero frequency and
increases gradually through the pass band, reaches p at cut-
off frequency fc and remains at p for all frequency beyond 0 fc
f
fc. The variation of b is plotted in Fig. 15.6.

5. Characteristic Impedance Fig. 15.6 Variation of b with frequency

Z12 ⎛ Z ⎞ Z0
Z 0T = + Z1Z 2 = Z1Z 2 1 + 1 ⎟
4 ⎝ 4Z 2 ⎠
Z0p
2 2
L ⎛ ω 2 LC ⎞ ⎛ω⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
= 1− =k − ⎜ ⎟ = k 1− ⎜ ⎟
C ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ωc ⎠ ⎝ fc ⎠ k
ZZ k
Z 0π = 1 2 =
Z 0T 2 Z0T
⎛ f ⎞ f
1− ⎜ ⎟ 0 fc
⎝ fc ⎠

The plot of characteristic impedance versus frequency is Fig. 15.7 Variation of characteristic
shown in Fig. 15.7. impedance with frequency
15.10 Network Analysis and Synthesis
The characteristic impedance Z0T is real when f < fc . At f = fc, Z0T = 0. For f > fc, Z0T is imaginary in the
stop band, rising to infinite reactance at infinite frequency. Z0p is real when f < fc. At f = fc, Z0p is infinite
and for f > fc, Z0p is imaginary.
6. Design of Filter
L
k=
C
1
fc =
π LC
Solving these two equations,
k
L=
π fC
1
C=
π fC k

The constant-k, T and p section ﬁlters are shown in Fig. 15.8.

L L
2 2 L

C C
C
2 2

(a) T-section (b) p-section

Fig. 15.8 Constant-k low-pass ﬁlter

Example 15.1 Find the nominal impedance, cut-off frequency and pass band for the network shown
in Fig. 15.9.

25 mH 25 mH

0.2 μF

Fig. 15.9
Solution The network is a low-pass ﬁlter.
L
= 25 mH, C = 0.2 μF
2
L = 50 mH
15.6 Constant-k Low Pass Filter 15.11

(a) Nominal Impedance

L 50 × 10 −3
k= = = 500 Ω
C 0 2 × 10 −6
(b) Cut-off frequency
1 1
fc = = = 3.18 kHz
π LC π 50 × 10 −3 × 0 2 × 10 −6
(c) Pass band
The pass band is from zero to 3.18 kHz.

Example 15.2 A low-pass ﬁlter is composed of a symmetrical p section. Each series branch is a
0.02 H inductor and shunt branch is a 2 μF capacitor. Find (a) cut-off frequency, (b) nominal impedance,
(c) characteristic impedance at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz, (d) attenuation at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz, and (e) phase
shift constant at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz.
C
Solution L = 0.02 H, = 2 μF
2
C = 4 μF
(a) Cut-off frequency
1 1
fc = = = 1125.4 Hz
π LC π 0 02 × 4 × 10 −6
(b) Nominal impedance
L 0 02
k= = = 70.71 Ω
C 4 × 10 −6
(c) Characteristic impedance at 200 Hz
k 70.71
Z0 = = = 71.85 Ω
2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟ 1− ⎜
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ 1125.4 ⎟⎠

Characteristic impedance at 2000 Hz

k 70.71
Z0 = = = j 48.13 Ω
2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 2000 ⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟ 1− ⎜
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ 1125.4 ⎟⎠
(d) Attenuation at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz
The 200 Hz frequency lies in the pass band.
α=0
At 2000 Hz,
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 2000 ⎞
α = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ = 2 35
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ 1125.4 ⎟⎠
(e) Phase shift constant at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz
At 200 Hz,
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
β = 2 sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 sin −1 ⎜ = 20.47°
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ 1125.4 ⎟⎠
15.12 Network Analysis and Synthesis
2000 Hz frequency lies in the attenuation band.
β = 180°

Example 15.3 A p section ﬁlter network consists of a series arm inductor of 20 mH and two
shunt-arm capacitors of 0.16 μF each.Calculate the cut-off frequency, and attenuation and phase shift at 15
kHz. What is the value of the nominal impedance in the pass band?

C
Solution L = 20 mH, = 0 16 μF
2
C = 0 32 μF
(a) Cut-off frequency
1 1
fc = = = 3.98 kHz
π LC π 20 × 10 −3 × 0 322 × 10
10 −6
(b) Attenuation at 15 kHz
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 15 × 103 ⎞
α = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟ =4
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ 3 98 × 103 ⎠
(c) Phase shift at 15 kHz
15 kHz frequency lies in the attenuation band.
β = 180°
(d) Nominal impedance
L 20 × 10 −3
k= = = 50 Ω
C 0 32 × 10 −6

Example 15.4 Each of the two series elements of a T-section low-pass ﬁlter consists of an inductor
of 60 mH having negligible resistance and a shunt element having a capacitance of 0.2 μF. Calculate
(a) the cut-off frequency, (b) nominal impedance, and (c) characteristic impedance at frequencies of 1 kHz
and 5 kHz.

Solution L , C = 0 2 μF

(a) Cut-off frequency

1 1
fc = = = 2.91 kHz
π LC π 60 × 10 −3 × 0 2 × 10 −6
(b) Nominal impedance
L 60 × 10 −3
k= = = 547.72 Ω
C 0 2 × 10 −6
(c) Characteristic impedance at 1 kHz
2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 1 103 ⎞
Z0 = k 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = 547.72 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = 514.36 Ω
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ 2 91 103 ⎠
15.6 Constant-k Low Pass Filter 15.13

Characteristic impedance at 5 kHz

2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 5 103 ⎞
Z0 = k 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = 547.72 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = j 765.299 Ω
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ 2 91 103 ⎠

Example 15.5 Design a constant-k low-pass T and p section ﬁlters having cut-off frequency of
4 kHz and nominal characteristic impedance of 500 W.

Solution f k = 500 Ω
k 500
L= = = 39.79 mH
π f c π × 4 × 10 3
1 1
C= = = 0 16 μF
π f k π × 4 × 103 × 500

L
The T section consists of an inductor of , i.e. 19.9 mH in each series branch and a capacitor of 0.16 μF
2
in the shunt branch as shown in Fig. 15.10 (a). The p-section consists of an inductor of 39.79 mH in the series
C
branch and a capacitor of , i.e. 0.08 μF in each shunt branch as shown in Fig. 15.10 (b).
2
19.9 mH 19.9 mH 39.79 mH

0.16 μF 0.08 μF 0.08 μF

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.10

Example 15.6 Design a constant-k, T section low-pass filter is having 2.5 kHz cut-off frequency
and nominal impedance of 700 W. Also find the frequency at which this filter produces an attenuation of 19.1
dB. Find its characteristic impedances and phase constant at pass band and stop or attenuation band.

Solution f k = 700 Ω
k 700
L= = = 89.13 mH
π f C π × 2 5 × 103
1 1
C= = = 0 18 μF
π f C k π × 2 5 × 103 × 700
L
The T-section ﬁlter consists of an inductor of , i.e. 44.57 mH in each series arm and a capacitor of 0.18
μF in the shunt arm as shown in Fig. 15.11. 2
15.14 Network Analysis and Synthesis

α = 19.1 dB = 2.197 nepers 44.57 mH 44.57 mH

⎛ f ⎞
α = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ fC ⎠
0.18 μF
−1 ⎛ f⎞
2.197 = 2 cosh ⎜
⎝ 2 5 × 10 ⎟⎠
3

f = 4.17 kHz
Fig. 15.11
b is imaginary in pass band.
In attenuation band, β = 180°

15.7 CONSTANT-k HIGH-PASS FILTER

A constant-k high-pass filter is obtained by changing the positions of series and shunt arm of the constant-k
low-pass filter, Figure 15.12 shows a constant-k, T and p section, high-pass filter.
2C 2C C

L 2L 2L

(a) T-section
T (b) p-section

Fig. 15.12 Constant-k high pass ﬁlter

In a constant-k high-pass ﬁlter

1 1
Z1 = − j
=
ω C jω C
Z2 = j L
1. Nominal Impedance
⎛ 1 ⎞ L
k = Z1Z 2 = ⎜ ⎟ ( j L) =
⎝ j C⎠ C
2. Cut-off Frequency
Z1 Z
The cut-off frequencies are obtained when = 0 and 1 = −1
4Z2 4Z2
Z1
(i) When =0
4Z2
Z1 = 0
1
=0
j C
ω=∞
f =∞
Z1
(ii) When = −1
4Z2
15.7 Constant-k High-pass Filter 15.15

Z1 4Z 2
1
−j = 4 jω L
ωc
1
ω 2 LC =
4
1
ω2 =
4 LC
1
ω ωc = a
2 LC
1
f = fc =
4π LC
Hence, the ﬁlter passes all the frequencies beyond
fc. The pass band starts at f = fc and continues up to
inﬁnite frequency. All the frequencies below the
cut-off frequency lie in the attenuation or stop band.
f
3. Attenuation Constant 0 fc
In pass band, α = 0
Z1 ⎛ f ⎞ Fig. 15.13 Variation of a with frequency
In stop band, α = 2 cosh −1 = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ c ⎟
4Z 2 ⎝ f ⎠ b

The attenuation constant a decreases gradually to zero p

at the cut-off frequency and remains at zero through the
pass band. The variation of a is plotted in Fig. 15.13.
4. Phase Constant f
0 fc
Z1 ⎛ f ⎞
In pass band, β = 2 sin −1 = 2 sin −1 ⎜ c ⎟
4Z 2 ⎝ f ⎠ −p
In stop band, β π .
The phase constant b remains at constant value p in
the stop band and decreases to −p in at fc and reaches Fig. 15.14 Variation of b with frequency
zero value gradually as f increases in the pass band. The
variation of b is plotted in Fig. 15.14. Z0

5. Characteristic Impedance
Z0p

Z12 ⎛ Z ⎞
Z 0T = + Z1Z 2 = Z1Z 2 1 + 1 ⎟
4 ⎝ 4Z 2 ⎠ k
2
L⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
= 1− ⎟ = k 1− ⎜ c ⎟ Z0T
C ⎝ 4ω LC ⎠
2 ⎝ f ⎠ 0 fc
f

Z1Z 2 k
Z 0π = =
Z 0T 2
⎛ f ⎞ Fig. 15.15 Variation of characteristic
1− ⎜ c ⎟
⎝ f ⎠ impedance with frequency

The variation of characteristic impedance is plotted in Fig. 15.15.

15.16 Network Analysis and Synthesis

6. Design of Filter
L
k=
C
1
fc =
4π LC
Solving these two equations,
k
L=
4π f c
1
C=
4π f k

Example 15.7 Find the characteristic impedance, cut-off frequency and pass band for the network
shown in Fig. 15.16.
0.4 μF 0.4 μF

50 mH

Fig. 15.16
Solution The network is a high-pass ﬁlter.
2C 4 μF, L
0.4
0 50 mH
C = 0.2 μF
(a) Characteristic impedance
L 50 × 10 −3
k= = = 500 Ω
C 0 2 × 10 −6
(b) Cut-off frequency
1 1
fc = = = 795.77 Hz
4π LC 4π 50 × 10 −3 × 0.2 × 10
10 −6
(c) Pass band
The pass band is from 795.77 Hz to inﬁnite frequency.

Example 15.8 A high-pass ﬁlter section is constructed from two capacitors of 1 μF each and a
15 mH inductance. Find (a) cut-off frequency, (b) inﬁnite frequency characteristic impedance, (c)
characteristic impedance at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz, (d) attenuation at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz, and (e) phase
constant at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz.

Solution L , C = 1 μF
C = 0 5 μF
15.7 Constant-k High-pass Filter 15.17

(a) Cut-off frequency

1 1
fc = = = 918.88 Hz
4π LC 4π 15 × 10 −3 × 0.5 × 10
10 −6
(b) Inﬁnite-frequency characteristic impedance

L 1 5 × 10 −3
At f = ∞, Z0 = k = = = 173.21 Ω
C 0 5 × 10 −6
(c) Characteristic impedance at 200 Hz
2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 918.88 ⎞
Z 0T = k 1 − ⎜ c ⎟ = 173.21 1 − ⎜ = j 776.72 Ω
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ 2000 ⎟⎠

Characteristic impedance at 2000 Hz

2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 918.88 ⎞
Z 0T = k 1 − ⎜ c ⎟ = 173.21 1 − ⎜ = 153.85 Ω
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ 2000 ⎟⎠

(d) Attenuation at 200 Hz

⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 918.88 ⎞
α = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 cosh −1 ⎜ = 4.41
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ 200 ⎟⎠

The frequency of 2000 Hz lies in the pass band.

α=0
(e) Phase constant
The frequency 200 Hz lies in the attenuation band.
β π radians
At 2000 Hz,
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 918.88 ⎞
β = 2 sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 sin −1 ⎜ = 54.7°
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ 2000 ⎟⎠

Example 15.9 Design a constant-k high-pass T and p sections ﬁlters having a cut-off frequency of
2000 Hz and inﬁnite frequency characteristic impedance of 300 W.

Solution f k = 300 Ω
k 300
L= = = 11.94 mH
4π f c 4π × 2000
1 1
C= = = 0 13 μF
4π f k 4π × 2000 × 300

The T-section ﬁlter consists of a capacitor of 2C, i.e 0.26 μF in each series arm and an inductor of
11.94 mH in shunt arm as shown in Fig. 15.17 (a).
The p-section ﬁlter consists of a capacitor of 0.13 μF in the series arm and an inductor of 2L, i.e.
23.88 mH in each shunt arm as shown in Fig. 15.17 (b).
15.18 Network Analysis and Synthesis
0.26 μF 0.26 μF 0.13 μF

11.94 mH 23.88 mH 23.88 mH

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.17

Example 15.10 Design a T-section constant-k high-pass ﬁlter having a cut-off frequency of 10 kHz
and a design impedance of 600 W. Find its characteristic impedance and phase constant at 25 kHz.

Solution f k = 600 Ω
k 600
L= = = 4 77 mH
4π f c 4π × 10 × 103 0.026 μF 0.026 μF
1 1
C= = = 0.013 μF
4π f k 4π × 10 × 103 × 600
4.77 mH

The T-section ﬁlter consists of a capacitor of 2C, i.e. 0.026 μF in

each series arm and an inductor of 4.77 mH in shunt arm as shown
in Fig. 15.18. Fig. 15.18
(a) Characteristic impedance at 25 kHz

2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 103 ⎞
Z0 = k 1 − ⎜ c ⎟ = 600 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = 549.91 Ω
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ 25 × 103 ⎠

(b) Phase constant at 25 kHz

⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 103 ⎞
β = 2 sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 47.16°
⎝ f ⎠ ⎝ 25 × 103 ⎠
The frequency of 25 kHz lies in the attenuation band.
In the attenuation band, β π radians

15.8 BAND-PASS FILTER

A band-pass filter attenuates all the frequencies below a lower cutoff frequency and above an upper cut-off
frequency. It passes a band of frequencies without attenuation. A band pass filter is obtained by using a low
pass filter followed by a high-pass filter.
Figure 15.19 shows a band pass filter. The series arm is a series resonant circuit comprising L1 and C1
while its shunt arm is formed by a parallel resonant circuit L2 and C2. The resonant frequency of series arm
and shunt arm are made equal.
15.8 Band-pass Filter 15.19

L1 L1
2 2C1 2C1 2 L1 C1

C2
L2 C2 2L2 2L2 C1
2

(a) T-section
T (b) p-section

Fig. 15.19 Band-pass ﬁlter

For series arm,
L1 1
ω0 =
2 2ω 0C1
1
ω 02 =
L1C1
1
For shunt arm, = ω 0 L2
ω 0 C2
1
ω 02 =
L2C2
L1C1 = L2C2
For series arm,

j ⎛ ω 2 L1C1 − 1⎞
Z1 = j L1 − = j⎜
ω c1 ⎝ ω c1 ⎟⎠
For shunt arm,
1
j L2
j c2 j L2
Z2 = =
j L2 +
1 1 − ω 2 L2C2
j c2
⎛ ω 2 L1C1 − 1⎞ ⎛ j L2 ⎞ L2 ⎛ ω 2 L1C1 − 1 ⎞ L2 L1 2
Z1Z 2 = j ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎠ = − ⎜ ⎟ =C =C =k
⎝ ω c1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 − ω 2
L C
2 2 C1 ⎝ 1 − ω 2
L2 2⎠
C 1 2

where k is constant.
For constant k ﬁlter, at cut-off frequency,
Z1 4Z2
Z12 4 Z1Z2 4k 2
Z1 = ± j 2k
i.e. the value of Z1 at lower cut-off frequency is equal to the negative value of Z1 at the upper cut-off
frequency.
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
+j 1 L1 =− +j 2 L1 ⎟
j 1C1 ⎝ j 2C1 ⎠
ω1 2
1 ω12 L1C1
ω2
(ω 2 L1C1 1 )
15.20 Network Analysis and Synthesis

1
But ω 02 =
L1C1
ω12 ω1 ⎛ ω 22 ⎞
1 1
ω 02 ω 2 ⎝ ω 02 ⎟⎠
(ω 02 − ω12 )ω 2 = ω1 (ω 22 − ω 02 )
ω 02ω 2 − ω12ω 2 = ω1ω 22 − ω1ω 02
ω 02 (ω1 + ω 2 ) ω1ω 2 (ω 2 + ω1 )
ω 02 ω1ω 2
ω0 ω1ω 2
f0 = f1 f 2
Thus, resonant frequency is the geometric mean of the cutoff frequencies. The variation of attenuation, phase
constant and characteristic impedance with frequency are shown in Fig. 15.20.

a b Z0 Z0p

p k

Z0T
f f f
0 f1 f0 f2 0 f1 f0 f2 0 f1 f0 f2

−p

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 15.20 Variation of (a) attenuation, (b) phase constant, and (c) characteristic impedance with
frequency for constant–k band-pass ﬁlter

Design of Filter
If the ﬁlter is terminated in a load resistance R = k then at lower cut-off frequency,

Z1 = −2 jk
1
+ j 1 L1 = −2 jk
j 1C1
1
− ω1 L1 2k
ω1C1
1 ω12 1C1 2kω1C1
ω12 ⎛ 1 ⎞
1 2kω1C1 ⎜⎝ ω 02 =
ω 02 L1C1 ⎟⎠
2
⎛ f1 ⎞
1 4π kf1C1
⎝ f0 ⎠
15.8 Band-pass Filter 15.21

f12
1
f1 f 2
4π kf1C1 (f 0 = f1 f 2 )
f 2 f1 = 4π kf1 f 2C1
f f1
C1 =
4π kf1 f 2
1 4π kf1 f 2 4π kf1 f 2 k
L1 = 2 = 2 = =
ω 0 C1 ω 0 ( f f1 ) 4π f ( f 2 − f1 ) π ( f − f1 )
2 2

For shunt arm,

L2 L1
Z1Z 2 = = = k2
C1 C2
(f f )k
L2 = C1k 2 = 2 1
4π f1 f 2
L 1
C2 = 12 =
k π ( f 2 f1 )k

Example 15.11 In a constant-k band-pass ﬁlter, the ratio of capacitances in the shunt and series
arms is 100:1. The resonant frequency of both arms is 1000 Hz. Find the bandwidth,
C2 100
Solution = = 100, f 0 = 1000 Hz
C1 1
1
C2 =
π k ( f 2 f1 )
f f1
C1 =
4π kf1 f 2
C2 1 4π kf1 f 2
=
C1 k( f f1 ) f f1
4 f1 f 2
100 =
( f 2 f1 ) 2
4 f 02
100 =
( f2 f1 ) 2
2 f0 2 × 1000
f f1 = = = 200
100 100
BW = f f1 = 200 Hz

Example 15.12 Design a band pass constant-k ﬁlter with cut-off frequency of 4 kHz and 10 kHz
and nominal characteristic impedance of 500 W .
Solution f f2 10 kHz, k = 500 Ω
k 500
L1 = = = 26.53 mH
π( f f1 ) π (10 ×10
103 − 4 103 )
f f1 1 3 − 4 103
10 × 10
C1 = = = 0.024 μF
4π kf1 f 2 4π × 500 × 4 103 10 103
15.22 Network Analysis and Synthesis

(f 103 − 4 103 ) 500

f1 )k (10 ×10
L2 = = = 5 97 mH
4π f f 2 4π 4 × 103 × 10 × 103
1 1
C2 = = = 0 11 μF
π ( 2 1 )k π × (10 × 10 − 4 103 ) × 500
3

L1
The T-section ﬁlter consists of series combination of an inductor of , i.e. 13.27 mH and a capacitor of
2
2 C1, i.e. 0.048 μF in each series arm and a parallel combination of an inductor of 5.97 mH and a capacitor
of 0.11 μF in shunt arm as shown in Fig. 15.21.
13.27 mH 0.048 μF 13.27 mH 0.048 μF

5.97 mH 0.11 μF

Fig. 15.21

The p-section ﬁlter consists of a series combination of an inductor 26.53 mH and a capacitor of 0.024 μF in
C
the series arm and a parallel combination of an inductor of 2L2, i.e. 11.94 mH and a capacitor of 2 , i.e.
2
0.055 μF in each shunt arm as shown in Fig. 15.22.
26.53 mH 0.024 μF

11.94 mH 0.055 μF 11.94 mH 0.055 μF

Fig. 15.22

15.9 BAND-STOP FILTER

A band-stop filter attenuates a specified band of frequencies and allows all frequencies below and above this
band. A band-stop filter is realised by connecting a low-pass filter in parallel with a high-pass filter. Figure
15.23 shows a band-stop filter.
As in the band-pass filter, the series and shunt arms are chosen to resonate at same frequency w0.
For series arm,
ω 0 L1 1
=
2 2ω 0C1
1
ω 02 =
L1C1
15.9 Band-stop Filter 15.23

L1 L1
2 2 L1

2C1 2C1 C1
L2 2L2 2L2

C2 C2
C2
2 2

(a) T-section
T (b) p-section

Fig. 15.23 Band-stop ﬁlter

For shunt arm,
1
ω 0 L2 =
ω 0 C2
1
ω 02 =
L2C2
L1C1 = L2C2
L L
Similarly, Z1Z2 = 1 = 2 = k 2
C2 C1
and f f1 f 2
At cut-off frequencies, Z1 4Z2
Z1Z2 = −4 Z22 = k 2
k
Z2 = ± j
2
The variation of attenuation, phase shift and characteristic impedance with frequency are shown in Fig. 15.24.

b
a Z0
Z0p
p

k
f
0 f1 f0 f2

Z0T
f f
0 f1 f0 f2 −p 0 f1 f0 f2

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 15.24 Variation of (a) attenuation, (b) phase constant, and (c) characteristic impedance with
frequency for constant-k band-stop ﬁlter.

Design of Filter
If the load is terminated in load resistance R = k then at lower cut-off frequency,
15.24 Network Analysis and Synthesis

⎛ 1 ⎞ k
Z2 = j − ω1 L2 ⎟ = j
⎝ ω1C2 ⎠ 2
1 k
− ω1 L2 =
ω1C2 2
k
1 − ω12 L2C2 = ω1C2
2
ω12 k ⎛ 1 ⎞
1− = ω1C2 ⎜⎝ ω 0 = L C ⎟⎠
2
ω 02 2 2 2
2
⎛ f ⎞
1 − ⎜ 1 ⎟ = kπ f1C2
⎝ f0 ⎠

1 ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞2⎤ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ f f1 ⎞ f f
C2 = ⎢1 − ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎥ = − ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 2 1
k f1 ⎢ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥ kπ ⎝ f f 2 ⎠ kπ ⎝ f f 2 ⎠ π k f1 f 2
⎣ ⎦
1 π kf1 f 2 π kf1 f 2 k
L2 = = = =
ω 02C2 ω 02 ( f f1 ) 4π f ( f 2 f1 ) 4π ( f
2 2 f1 )
L1 L2
k2 = =
C2 C1
k ( f 2 f1 )
L1 k 2C2 =
π f f2
L 1
C1 = 22 =
k 4π k ( f 2 f1 )

Example 15.13 Design a constant-k band-stop ﬁlter having cut-off frequencies at 2000 Hz and
5000 Hz and characteristic resistance of 600 W.

Solution f f 2 = 5000 Hz, k = 600 Ω

k ( f 2 f1 ) 600(5000 − 2000)
L1 = = = 57.3 mH
π f f2 π × 2000 × 5000)
1 1
C1 = = = 0.044 μF
4π k ( f f1 ) 4 × 600 × (5000 − 2000)
k 600
L2 = = = 15.92 mH
4π ( f f1 ) 4π × (5000 − 2000)
f f1 5000 − 2000
C2 = = = 0 16 μF
π kf1 f 2 π × 600 × 2000 × 5000

L1
The T-section ﬁlter consists of a parallel combination of , i.e. 28.65 mH and a capacitor of 2 C1, i.e.
2
0.088 μF in each series arm and a series combination of an inductor of 15.92 mH and a capacitor of 0.16 μF
in shunt arm as shown in Fig. 15.25.
15.10 m-derived Filters 15.25

28.65 mH 28.65 mH 57.3 mH

0.088 μF 0.088 μF 0.044 μF

31.84 mH 31.84 mH
15.92 mH

0.16 μH 0.08 μF 0.08 μF

Fig. 15.25 Fig. 15.26

The p-section ﬁlter consists of a parallel combination of an inductor of 57.3 mH and a capacitor of 0.044 μF
C
in the series arm and a series combination of an inductor of 2L2, i.e. 31.84 mH and a capacitor of 2 , i.e.
0.08 μF in each shunt arm as shown in Fig. 15.26. 2

15.10 m-DERIVED FILTERS

There are two disadvantages of constant-k filters.
(i) The attenuation is not sharp in the stop band.
(ii) The characteristic impedance varies widely in the pass band.
If the constant-k filter is regarded as prototype, it is possible to design a filter to have rapid attenuation in
the stop band and the same characteristic impedance as the prototype throughout the pass band and stop band.
Such a filter is called an m- derived filter.
Constant-k and m-derived T sections are shown in Fig. 15.27. The constant-k T-network is identical to that of
the m-derived T-network except that the series arm is multiplier by m.

Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
m m
2 2 2 2

Z2 Z2

Fig. 15.27 Constant-k and m-derived T sections

For the constant-k T section,

Z12
ZOT = + Z1 Z 2
4
For the m-derived T section,

m2 Z12
ZOT = + m Z1 Z ′2
4
15.26 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Equating the characteristic impedance of the networks,
Z12 m2 Z12
+ Z1 Z 2 = + mZ1 Z ′2
4 4
Z12 m2 Z12
+ Z1 Z 2 = + mZ1 Z ′2
4 4 Z1 Z1
2 m m
Z 2 2
mZ1 Z′2 1
(1 m2 ) + Z1 Z 2
4
⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ Z
Z′2 Z1 + 2 1 - m2
Z1
⎝ 4m ⎠ m 4m

Hence, Z′2 must be an impedance composed of two series Z2

⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ Z2 1 − m2 m
impedances ⎜ ⎟ Z1 and . The term should be
⎝ 4m ⎠ m 4m
positive to realise the impedance Z′2 physically, i.e. 0 1.
Thus, an m-derived filter can be obtained from constant-k filter by Fig. 15.28 m-derived T-section filter
modifying its series and shunt impedances as shown in Fig. 15.28.
Similarly, the constant-k p-section filter can be modified to m-derived p section filter. A constant-k and
m-derived p sections are shown in Fig. 15.29.
Z1 Z1

2 Z2 2 Z2
2Z2 2Z2
m m

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.29 (a) Constant-k section (b) m-derived p section

For the constant-k p section,

Z1 Z 2
ZOπ =
Z
1+ 1
4Z 2
For the m-derived p section,
Z2
Z1′
ZOπ = m
Z′
1+ 1
Z
4 2
m
Equating the characteristic impedance of the networks,
Z2
Z1′
Z1 Z 2 m
=
1+ 1
Z Z′
1+ 1
4Z 2 Z
4 2
m
15.10 m-derived Filters 15.27

Z2
Z1′
Z1 Z 2 m
=
1+ 1
Z Z′
1+ 1
4Z 2 Z
4 2
m
⎛ ⎞
⎜ Z1′ ⎟ Z ⎛ Z ⎞
Z1 Z 2 ⎜1 + ⎟ = Z1′ 2 1 + 1 ⎟
Z m ⎝ 4Z 2 ⎠
⎜ 4 2⎟
⎝ m ⎠
mZ1 Z1′ Z1 Z 2 Z1Z1′
Z1 Z 2 + = +
4 m 4m
4 Z1′ Z 2 + Z1 Z1′
4 Z1 Z 2 + m Z1 Z1′ =
m
⎛ Z 4Z 2 ⎞
Z1′ ⎜ 1 + − mZ1 4 Z1 Z 2
⎝m m ⎠
Z1 Z 2
Z1′ =
Z1 Z 2 mZ1
+ −
4m 4m 4
4 m2
Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2 (1 − m2 )
= = 2
Z1 Z
(1 − m2 ) + 2 mZ1 + 4 m Z2
4m m m(1 − m)
4m
mZ1 Z
2 2
= 1 − m
4m
mZ1 + Z2
1 − m2
⎛ 4m ⎞
Hence, Z1′ must be an impedance composed of two parallel impedances mZ1 and Z 2 . Thus, an
⎝ 1 − m2 ⎠
m-derived ﬁlter can be obtained from a constant-k ﬁlter by modifying its series and shunt impedances as
shown in Fig. 15.30.
mZ1

4m
2 Z2 Z2 2 Z2
1 - m2 m
m

Fig. 15.30 m-derived p-section ﬁlter

15.28 Network Analysis and Synthesis

15.11 m-DERIVED LOW-PASS FILTER

Figure 15.31 shows an m-derived low-pass T and p ﬁlter. At a particular frequency, the shunt arm of the T
section or series arm of the p section will be in resonance giving a short circuit to the input for the T section
and open circuit for the p section causing inﬁnite attenuation.

mZ1
mZ1 mZ1
2 2

1 - m2
Z1 4m
4m Z2
2Z2 2Z2
1 - m2
m m
Z2
m

(a) T-section
T (b) p-section

Fig. 15.31 m-derived low-pass ﬁlter

Let Z1 = j L
1 −j
Z2 = =
j C ωC
At resonant frequency,

⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ 1
⎜ 4m ⎟ ω 0 L = m ω C
⎝ ⎠ 0

4
ω02 =
(1 − m2 ) LC
2
ω0 =
LC (1− m2 )
1
f0 = = f∞
π LC (1− m2 )
For low pass ﬁlter,
1
fc =
π LC mL mL
2 2
fc
f∞ =
1 − m2 1 - m2
L
2 4m
⎛ f ⎞
m = 1− ⎜ c ⎟
⎝ f∞ ⎠ mC

For sharp cut-off, f∞ should be near to fC . For smaller value of m, f∞

comes close to fc. The m-derived T-section low-pass ﬁlter is shown Fig. 15.32 m-derived T-section
in Fig. 15.32. low-pass ﬁlter
15.11 m-derived Low-pass Filter 15.29

Similarly, for m-derived p-section, the inductance and capacitance in the series arm constitute a resonant
circuit.
At resonant frequency,
1
m ω0 L =
⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞
⎜ 4m ⎟ ω 0C
⎝ ⎠
4
ω 02 =
LC (1− m2 )
4
ω0 =
LC (1− m2 )
1
f0 = = f∞
π LC (1− m2 )
For low-pass ﬁlter,
1
fc =
π LC
fc
f∞ =
1 − m2
For both m-derived low-pass networks, f f c for positive values of m ( m ).
The m-derived p section low-pass ﬁlter is shown in Fig. 15.33.

1 - m2
mC C mC
2 4m 2

Fig. 15.33 m-derived p-section low-pass ﬁlter

The variation of attenuation with frequency is shown in

Fig. 15.34. It is seen that the attenuation rises abruptly
becomes infinite at f∞ and then decreases for the m-derived
filter.
Thus, an m-derived filter gives a sharp cut-off. The
decrease in attenuation for frequencies higher than f∞ can be f
0 fc f∞
avoided by connecting an m-derived filter and a constant-k
filter in cascade.
The variation of b with frequency is shown in Fig. 15.35. Fig. 15.34 Variation of a with frequency
15.30 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Z0
Z0p

k
p

Z0T
f
0 fc fÉ
f
0 fc fÉ
Fig. 15.36 Variation in characteristic
Fig. 15.35 Variation of b with frequency impedance with frequency.

The variation of characteristic impedance with frequency is shown in Fig. 15.36. The characteristic
impedance of an m-derived ﬁlter also varies with frequency. The impedance matching can be achieved by
using half-section terminations.

Example 15.14 Design an m-derived T-section low-pass filter having cut-off frequency of 800 Hz,
design impedance of 500 W and frequency of attenuation of 1000 Hz.
Solution f c = 800 Hz, f ∞ = 1000 Hz
For a constant-k T-section low-pass filter
k 500
L= = = 198.94 mH
π f c π × 800
1 1
C= = = 0 8 μF
π f k π × 800 × 500
For an m-derived T-section low-pass filter
2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 800 ⎞
m = 1− ⎜ c ⎟ = 1 − ⎜ =06
⎝ f∞ ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎟⎠ 59.68 mH 59.68 mH

mL 0.6 × 198.94 × 10 −3
= = 59.68
68 mH
2 2 53.05 mH
−6
mC = 0.6 × 0.8 × 10 = 0 48 μF
0.48 μF
⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ ⎡11− (0.6) 2 ⎤
⎜ 4m ⎟ L = ⎢ 1 .94 × 10 −3 = 53.05 mH
⎥ × 198
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ 4(0.6) ⎦ Fig. 15.37
The m-derived T-section low-pass ﬁlter is shown in Fig. 15.37.

Example 15.15 Design an m-derived p-section low-pass ﬁlter having cut-off frequency of 1500 Hz,
design impedance of 500 Ω and inﬁnite attenuation frequency of 2000 Hz.

Solution k = 500 Ω, f ∞ = 2000 Hz

For constant-k p-section low-pass ﬁlter,
k 500
L= = = 106.11 mH
π f c π × 1500
15.12 m-derived High-pass Filter 15.31

1 1
C= = = 0.424
424 μF
π f k π × 1500 × 500
For m-derived p-section low-pass ﬁlter,
2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 1500 ⎞
m = 1− ⎜ c ⎟ = 1 − ⎜ = 0 66
⎝ f∞ ⎠ ⎝ 2000 ⎟⎠
70.03 mH
−6
mC 0.66 × 0.424 × 10
= = 0.14 μF
2 2 0.09 μF

mL = 0.66 × 106.1 × 10 −3 = 70 03 mH
0.14 μF 0.14 μF
⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ 1− (0.66) 2
1
⎜ 4m ⎟ C = × 0.424 × 10 −6 = 0.09 μF
⎝ ⎠ 4 × 0 . 66

The m-derived low-pass ﬁlter is shown in Fig. 15.38. Fig. 15.38

15.12 m-DERIVED HIGH-PASS FILTER

Figure 15.39 shows m-derived high-pass T and p ﬁlter.

mZ 1 mZ 1 mZ 1
2 2

1 − m2 Z
1
4m 2Z 2 4m Z 2Z 2
m 1 − m2
2 m
Z2
m

(a) T-section
T (b) p-section

Fig. 15.39 m-derived high-pass ﬁlter

1
Let Z1 =
j c
Z2 = j L
At resonant frequency,
L 1
ω0 =
m ⎛ 4m ⎞
ω0 ⎜ C
⎝ 1 − m2 ⎟⎠
1 1 − m2
ω 02 = =
L ⎛ 4m ⎞ 4 LC
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ C
m 1− m
1 − m2
ω0 =
2 LC
1 − m2
f0 = = f∞
4π LC
15.32 Network Analysis and Synthesis
For a high-pass filter, 2C 2C
m m
1
fc =
4π LC 4m
C
2 1−m 2
f fc 1 − m
2
L
⎛ f ⎞ m
m = 1− ⎜ ∞ ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠
The m-derived T-section high-pass filter is shown in Fig. 15.40. Fig. 15.40 m-derived T-section high-
Similarly, for an m-derived p section, the resonant circuit is pass filter
formed by the series arm inductance and capacitance.
At resonant frequency,
⎛ 4m ⎞ 1
⎜⎝ ⎟ ω 0 L =
1 − m2 ⎠ ω0
C
m
1 − m2
ω 02 =
4 LC
1 − m2
ω0 =
2 LC
C
1 − m2 m
f0 = = f∞
4π LC
For a high-pass filter,
1 4m L
fc = 2L
m 1−m 2
2L
m
4π LC
f f c 1 − m2
2
⎛ f ⎞ Fig. 15.41 m-derived p-section high-pass
m = 1− ⎜ ∞ ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠ filter

The m-derived p section high-pass filter is shown in Fig. 15.41. The variation of attenuation phase constant
and characteristic impedance with frequency are shown in Fig. 15.42 for an m-derived high-pass filter. The
attenuation rises abruptly, becomes infinite at f∞ and then decreases, thus giving a sharp cut-off.
a b Z0
Z0p

k
f
0 f∞ fc

Z0T
f −p f
0 f∞ fc 0 fc

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 15.42 Variation of (a) attenuation, (b) phase constant, (c) characteristic impedance of m-derived
high-pass ﬁlter.
15.12 m-derived High-pass Filter 15.33
The use of m-derived and constant-k high pass ﬁlters in series gives a sharp cut-off and high attenuation
in the entire stop band. The half-section termination provides impedance matching.

Example 15.16 Design an m-derived T-section high-pass ﬁlter with a cutoff frequency of 2 kHz,
design impedance of 700 W and m = 0.6.

Solution f k = 700 Ω, m = 0.6

For constant-k T-section high-pass ﬁlter,
k 700
L= = = 27.85 mH
4π f c 4π × 2 × 103
1 1
C= = = 0.057 μF
4π f k 4π × 2000 × 700
For an m-derived T-section high-pass ﬁlter,
L 27.85 × 10 −3 0.19 μF
= = 46.42 mH 0.19 μF
m 06
2C 2 × 0.057 × 10 −6
= = 0 19 μF 0.21 μF
m 06
⎛ 4m ⎞ 4 0.6 46.42 mH
⎜⎝ ⎟
2⎠
C = 2
× 0.057 × 10 −6 = 0.21 μF
1− m 1 (0.6)

The m-derived high-pass ﬁlter is shown in Fig. 15.43. Fig. 15.43

Example 15.17 Design the p-section of an m-derived high-pass ﬁlter having a design impedance
of 600 W, cut-off frequency of 4 kHz and an inﬁnite attenuation at 3.6 kHz.

Solution k fc = 4 k , f ∞ = 3.6 kHz

For a constant-k p-section high-pass ﬁlter,
k 600
L= = = 11.94 mH
4π f c 4π × 4 × 103
1 1
C= = = 0.033 μF
F
4π f k 4π × 4 × 103 × 600

For an m-derived p-section high-pass ﬁlter,

2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 3 6 × 103 ⎞
m = 1− ⎜ ∞ ⎟ = 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 0.436
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ 4 × 10 3 ⎠
2 L 2 × 11.94 × 10 −3
= = 54.77 mH
m 0.436
C 0.033 × 10 −6
= = 0.076 μF
m 0.436
15.34 Network Analysis and Synthesis
0.076 μF
⎛ 4m ⎞ 4 0.436
⎜⎝ 2⎟
L= × 11.94 × 10 −3 = 25.71 mH
1− m ⎠ 1 (0.436) 2

The m-derived p-section high-pass ﬁlter is shown in Fig. 15.44. 25.71 mH

54.77 mH 54.77 mH

15.13 TERMINATING HALF SECTIONS

A ﬁlter is composed of a number of sections. As the characteristic
impedance of an equivalent T or p section does not match with Fig. 15.44
each other, a half section is used for impedance matching
between T and p sections.
The input impedance of the half section is same as the characteristic impedance of a T section, while
the output impedance of the half section is same as the characteristic impedance of the p section. Hence,
matching can be obtained if a half section is connected in between a T and p section.

15.13.1 Constant-k Half Sections

Figure 15.45(a) shows a constant-k T-section ﬁlter. If this section is bisected longitudinally, a half section is
obtained as shown in Fig. 15.45 (b).

Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
2 2 2 2

Z2 2Z 2 2Z 2

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.45 (a) Constant-k T-section (b) constant-k half T-section

Similarly, a constant-k p section can be bisected into two half sections as shown in Fig. 15.46.
Z1 Z1
Z1 2 2

2Z 2 2Z 2 2Z 2 2Z 2

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.46 (a) Constant-k p-section (b) constant-k half p-section

Figure 15.47 shows a constant-k half section. The image impedance of the section as seen from terminals 1-2
and terminals 3-4 can be found from the open circuit and short-circuit impedances.
15.13 Terminating Half Sections 15.35

Z1
⎛ Z ⎞
( 2Z 2 ) 2Z 2 1 ⎟ 2
⎝ 2⎠ 4 Z1 Z 22
Z12 Z oc Z sc = = = Z 0π 1 3
Z1 Z1 4 Z 2
2Z 2 +
2
2Z 2
⎛Z ⎞⎛Z ⎞
Z34 Zoc Z sc = ⎜ 1 + 2Z 2 ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 4

⎛ Z ⎞ Fig. 15.47 Constant-k half section

= Z1 Z 2 1 + 1 ⎟ = Z0T
⎝ 4Z 2 ⎠
Thus, the half section has the impedance characteristics of a p section between terminals 1-2 and that of a
T section between terminals 3-4. Hence, this half section can be used to match a p section to a T section. It
can also be used to match a ﬁlter section to a terminating impedance which differs from the characteristic
impedance of a p section.

15.13.2 m-derived Half Sections

Figure 15.48 shows and m-derived half section. The image impedance mZ 1
of the section as seen from terminals 1-2 and terminals 3-4 can be 2
found from the open circuit and short-circuit impedances.
1 3
1−m 2 2Z
Z12 Zoc Z sc 4m 1

⎛ 1 − m2 2Z 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 − m2 2Z 2 ⎞ ⎛ Z1 ⎞ 2Z 2
⎜ 2m 1 Z + ⎟ ⎜ Z1 + ⎜m ⎟
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ 2m m ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 m 4
=
1 − m2 2Z 2 mZ1
Z1 + + Fig. 15.48 m-derived half section
2m m 2
2
⎛ 1 − m2 2Z 2 ⎞ ⎛ mZ1 ⎞
⎜ 2m Z1 + m ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠
=
1 − m2 2Z 2 mZ1
Z1 + +
2m m 2
2
⎛ 1 − m2 2Z 2 ⎞ ⎛ mZ1 ⎞
2

⎜ 2m Z1 + m ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠
=
⎛ 1 − m2 2Z 2 Z1 ⎞ ⎛ mZ1 ⎞
⎜ 2m Z + + ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
1
⎝ m
2
⎡ ⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎢⎜ ⎟ Z1 + Z1 Z 2 ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 2 2 2
Z1 m Z1 m2 Z12
− + Z1 Z 2 +
4 4 4
2
( )
Z1 Z 2 + Z12
= 4
Z12
Z1 Z 2 +
4
15.36 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Z1 Z 2 ⎡ Z1 2⎤
= ⎢1 + 4 Z (1 − m) ⎥
Z 0T ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ Z1 2⎤
= Z 0π ⎢1 + 4 Z (1 − m) ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
Z34 Zoc Z sc
⎡ mZ ⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ 2Z 2 ⎤ ⎛ Z1 ⎞
= ⎢ 1 +⎜ ⎟ Z1 + ⎥⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ 2m ⎠ m ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠

m2 Z12 Z12 m2 Z12

= + − + Z1 Z 2
4 4 4
⎛ Z ⎞
= Z1 Z 2 1 + 1 ⎟
⎝ 4Z 2 ⎠
= Z 0T

Hence, the terminals 3-4 of the m-derived half section can be used to match the impedance of a constant-k
T-section ﬁlter.

Example 15.18 Find the values of shunt and series element of each half section of a constant-k
T-section high-pass ﬁlter. The termination is 600 Ω and the ﬁlter is cut off below 20000 Hz.

Solution k f c = 20000 Hz
k 600 0.0133 μF
L= = = 2 39 mH
4π f c 4π × 20000
1 1
C= = = 0.0066 μFF
4π f k 4π × 20000 × 600 4.78 mH
The half section consists of a capacitor of 2C, i.e. 0.0133 μF in the series
branch and an inductor of 2L, i.e. 4.78 mH in the shunt branch as shown in
Fig. 15.49.
Fig. 15.49

Example 15.19 A prototype high-pass ﬁlter with L 4.77 7 mH and C μ F has a cut-off
frequency of 10 kHz and design impedance of 600 Ω. Design a suitable terminating half section with m = 0 6
such as to operate with same cut-off frequency.

Solution L , C = 0.0133 μF, f k = 600 Ω

For m-derived T-section high-pass ﬁlter
0.044 μF
L 4 77 × 10 −3
= = 7 95 mH
m 06
2C 2 × 0.0133 × 10 −6 15.9 mH
= = 0.044 μF
m 06
0.025 μF
⎛ 4m ⎞ 4 0.6
⎜⎝ 2⎟
C= × 0.0133 × 10 −6 = 0.05 μF
1− m ⎠ 1 (0.6) 2
Fig. 15.50
15.14 Composite Filter 15.37

The m-derived T-half section is shown in Fig. 15.50.

For m-derived p-section high-pass ﬁlter,
8.95 mH
2 2 × 4 77 10 −3
= = 15.9 mH
m 06
C 0.0133 × 10 −6
= = 0.022 μF 0.044 μF
m 06 15.9 mH
⎛ 4m ⎞ 4 0.6
⎜⎝ 2⎟
L= × 4.77 10 3 17.89 mH
1− m ⎠ 1 (0.6) 2

The m-derived p-half section is shown in Fig. 15.51. Fig. 15.51

15.14 COMPOSITE FILTER

A constant-k filter does not give a sharp cut-off. An m-derived filter section has a sharp cut off, but its
attenuation decreases for frequencies beyond f∞. Moreover, two terminating half sections, one at each end,
are needed for impedance matching. A filter composed of all the above sections is known as a composite
filter. Figure 15.52 shows a composite low-pass filter.
mL L L mL mL mL
2 2 2 2 2 2

1−m 2 L 1−m 2 L 1−m 2 L

2m C 4m 2m

mC mC mC
2 2
Terminating Constant-k m-derived Terminating
half section T-section T-section half section

Fig. 15.52 Composite low-pass ﬁlter

A composite filter consists of the following components:
(i) One or more constant-k sections to produce cut-off frequency, i.e. transition from pass band to the
stop band at a specified frequency fc.
(ii) One or more m-derived sections to give infinite attenuation at a frequency f∞ near to fc.
(iii) Two terminating m-derived half sections with m = 0.6 to provide matching with the source and the load.
Figure 15.53 shows the attenuation versus frequency characteristics of a constant-k low-pass filter,
m-derived low-pass filter and a composite filter.
a

Composite filter
Constant-k filter
m-derived filter

f
0 fc

Fig. 15.53 Attenuation characteristics

15.38 Network Analysis and Synthesis
For a composite ﬁlter, the attenuation rises very rapidly with frequency in the range fc to f∞ and falls only
marginally with frequency.

Example 15.20 Design a composite low-pass ﬁlter to have a cut-off frequency of 1000 Hz and a
characteristic impedance of 600 W. Use one constant-k T section, one m-derived T section and two terminat-
ing half sections with m = 0.6. The frequency of inﬁnite attenuation is 1050 Hz.

Solution f k = 600 Ω, f ∞ = 1050 Hz

For constant-k T section,

k 600
L= = = 0 19 H
π f c π × 1000
1 1
C= = = 0 53 μF
π f k π × 1000 × 600

L
Hence, the constant-k T section ﬁlter consists of an inductor of 1 , i e 0.095 H in series arm and a
capacitor C1, i.e. 0.53 μF in the shunt arm. 2
For the m-derived full T section,

2 2
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ 1000 ⎞
m = 1− ⎜ c ⎟ = 1− ⎜ = 0.305
⎝ f∞ ⎠ ⎝ 1050 ⎟⎠
mL 0.305 × 0.19
= = 0.029
02 H
2 2
mC = 0.305 × 0.53 × 10 −6 = 0.162 μF

⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ 1 (0.305) 2
⎜ 4m ⎟ L = × 0.19 0.14 H
⎝ ⎠ 4 0.305

For each terminating half section with m = 0.6,

mL 0.6 × 0.19
= = 0.057 H
2 2
mC 0.6 × 0.53 10 −6
= = 0.159 μF
2 2
⎛ 1 − m2 ⎞ 1 (0.6) 2
⎜ 2m ⎟ L = × 0.19 0.101 H
⎝ ⎠ 2 0.6

The composite low-pass ﬁlter is shown in Fig. 15.54.

15.14 Composite Filter 15.39

0.057 H 0.095 H 0.095 H 0.029 H 0.029 H 0.057 H

0.101 H 0.53 μF 0.14 H 0.101 H

0.159 μF 0.162 μF 0.159 μF

Terminating Constant-k m-derived Terminating

half section T-section T-section half section

Fig. 15.54

Example 15.21 Design a composite high-pass ﬁlter having a characteristic impedance of 600 W
and a cut-off frequency of 1000 Hz. Use one a constant-k T section, one m-derived T section with m = 0.2 and
two m-derived terminating half sections with m = 0.6.

Solution k f c = 1000 Hz
For a constant-k T section,
k 600
L= = = 0.0477 H
4π f c 4π × 1000
1 1
C= = = 0.133 μF
4π f k 4π × 1000 × 600

Hence, the constant-k T section ﬁlter consists of an inductor of 0.0477 H in the shunt branch and a capacitor
of 2C, i.e. 0.266 μF in each series branch.
For an m-derived T section with m = 0.2,

2C 2 × 0.133 × 10 −6
= = 1 33 μF
m 02
L 0.0477
= = 0.239 H
m 02
⎛ 4m ⎞ 4 0.2
⎜⎝ 2⎟
C= × 0.133 × 10 −6 = 0.11 μF
1− m ⎠ 1 (0.2) 2

For each terminating half section with m = 0.6,

2C 2 × 0.133 × 10 −6
= = 0 44 μF
m 06
2 2 × 0.0477
= = 0.159 H
m 06
⎛ 2m ⎞ 2 0.6
⎜⎝ 2⎟
C= × 0.133 × 10 −6 = 0.25 μF
1− m ⎠ 1 (0.6) 2

The composite high-pass ﬁlter is shown in Fig. 15.55.

15.40 Network Analysis and Synthesis

0.44 μF 0.266 μF 0.266 μF 1.33 μF 1.33 μF 0.44 μF

0.159 H 0.0477 H 0.239 H 0.159 H

0.25 μF 0.11 μF 0.25 μF

Termenating Constant-k m-derived Termenating

half section T-section T-section half section

Fig. 15.55

15.15 ATTENUATOR
An attenuator is a two-port resistive network. It is used to reduce the signal level when used between a
generator and load. Attenuators may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. They may provide ﬁxed or variable
attenuation. A ﬁxed attenuator is also called a pad. The attenuation is expressed in decibels (dB).

P1
Attenuation in dB = 10 log10
P2

where P1 is the input power and P2 is the output power.

For a properly matched network,

V12
P1 I12 R0 =
R0
V22
P2 I 22 R0 =
R0

where R0 is the characteristic resistance of the network.

V1 I
Hence, attenuation in dB = 20 log10 = 20 log10 1
V2 I2

Attenuation is also expressed in nepers as the natural logarithm of the voltage or current ratio.

V1 I 1 P
Attenuation in nepers = ln = ln 1 = ln 1
V2 I 2 2 P2

V1 I1 P
If = = N then 1 = N 2
V2 I 2 P2
Attenuation in dB = 20 log10 N
⎛ dB ⎞
N = antilog ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 20 ⎠
where N is the attenuation in nepers.
15.16 Lattice Attenuator 15.41
Relation between Decibel and Neper
V
Attenuation in nepers = ln 1
v2
V1
Attenuation in dB = 20 log10
V2
Changing the base of the algorithm,
V1
ln
V2 20 V
attenuation in dB = 20 = ln 1 = 8.686 (attenuation in neper)
ln 10 2.303 V2
1
Attenuation in nepers = ( ) = 0.115 (attenuation in dB)
8.686

15.16 LATTICE ATTENUATOR

A lattice is a general type of symmetrical and balanced network. Any RA
symmetrical balanced or unbalanced network can be transformed
into an equivalent lattice network. Figure 15.56 shows a lattice
network terminated through a characteristic resistance R0. RB RB
R0
The elements of a lattice attenuator can be speciﬁed in terms of
characteristic impedance and propagation constant.
We know that Z0 Zoc Z sc RA
RA RB
Zoc = Fig. 15.56 Lattice attenuator
2
2 RA RB
Z sc =
RA RB
⎛ R + RB ⎞ ⎛ 2 RA RB ⎞
Z0 Zoc Z sc = ⎜ A ⎟ = RA RB
2 ⎠ ⎜⎝ RA + RB ⎟⎠
0
⎝
Redrawing the network as shown in Fig. 15.57,
Applying KVL to the loop,
V1 R0 I1 RA ( I I ) + R0 I 2 + RA ( I + I 2 )
R0 I1 = RA ( I1 + I 2 ) R0 I 2 I1
I1 − I
( R0 RA ) I1 = ( + )I2
)I + I
RB RA
R
1+ A
I1 RA R0 R0
= = V1
I 2 R0 RA R
1− A R0 I + I2 R0 I2 I1 − I − I2
R0
RA RA RB
RA
1+
1+ −
I R0 R0
N eα = 1 = = I1
I2 R
1 − A 1 − RA
R0 R0 Fig. 15.57 Modiﬁed network
15.42 Network Analysis and Synthesis

⎛ RA ⎞
⎜1+ R ⎟
α = log ⎜ 0
⎟
⎜ RA ⎟
⎜1− R ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠

We can express RA and RB in terms of attenuation.

⎛ RA ⎞ R
N ⎜1 = 1+ A
⎝ R0 ⎠ R0
⎛ N − 1⎞
RA R0 ⎜
⎝ N + 1⎟⎠

⎛ N + 1⎞
Similarly, RB R0 ⎜
⎝ N − 1⎟⎠
These equations can be used to ﬁnd the equivalent lattice network for T and p networks using the bisection
theorem.

Bisection Theorem
A network is said to have been bisected when the open-circuited and short-circuited input impedances of
the two bisected networks are equivalent. Also, the square root of the product of these impedances is the
characteristic impedance of the original whole network.
The bisection theorem states that ‘any symmetrical balanced or unbalanced network can be transformed
into an equivalent lattice network. The series arm of the lattice is equal to the short-circuited impedance of the
bisected network and the diagonal arm is equal to the open-circuited impedance of the bisected network’.

Example 15.22 Design a lattice attenuator if the characteristic resistance is 200 W and the
attenuation is 20 dB.
Solution N ( dB
d ) dB, R0 = 200 Ω
0d
N ( ddB) 20 l g10 N
20 = 20 log10 N 163.6 Ω

N = 10
⎛ N − 1⎞ ⎛ 10 − 1⎞ 200 Ω
RA R0 ⎜ ⎟ = 200 ⎜ = 163.66 Ω 244.5 Ω 244.5 Ω
⎝ N + 1⎠ ⎝ 10 + 1⎟⎠

⎛ N + 1⎞ ⎛ 10 + 1⎞
RB R0 ⎜ ⎟ = 200 ⎜ = 244.55 Ω
⎝ N − 1⎠ ⎝ 10 − 1⎟⎠ 163.6 Ω

The lattice attenuator is shown in Fig. 15.58. Fig. 15.58

15.17 T-TYPE ATTENUATOR

A T-type attenuator is a symmetrical but unbalanced network and is shown in Fig. 15.59 (a). Its bisected
network is shown in Fig. 15.59 (b).
15.17 T-Type Attenuator 15.43

R1 R1 R1 R1
2 2 2 2

R2 2R2 2R2

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.59 (a) T-type attenuator (b) bisection of T-type attenuator

From the bisection theorem, the series arm of the lattice network is equal to the short-circuited input
resistance of the bisected network and the diagonal arm is equal to the open-circuited input resistance of the
bisected network.
R
RA = 1
2
R1
RB = + 2 R2
2
From lattice network,
⎛ N − 1⎞
RA R0 ⎜
⎝ N + 1⎟⎠
⎛ N + 1⎞
and RB R0 ⎜
⎝ N − 1⎟⎠
Solving these equations,
⎛ N − 1⎞
R1 2 R0 ⎜
⎝ N + 1⎟⎠
⎛ N + 1 N − 1⎞
2 R2 R0 ⎜ −
⎝ N − 1 N + 1⎟⎠
R ⎛ 4 N ⎞ 2N R
R2 = 0 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 2 0
2 ⎝ N − 1⎠ N − 1
1
Example 15.23 If the ratio of R1 and R2 of a symmetrical T network is , ﬁnd the ratio of the input
current to the output current. Also, calculate the attenuation in dB. 4

R1 1
Solution =
R2 4
For a T-type attenuator,
⎛ N − 1⎞
R1 2 R0 ⎜ (i)
⎝ N + 1⎟⎠
⎛ 2N ⎞
R2 R0 ⎜ 2 ⎟ (ii)
⎝ N − 1⎠
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),
2N
N 2 −1 = 1
⎛ N − 1⎞ 4
2⎜
⎝ N + 1⎟⎠
15.44 Network Analysis and Synthesis

2N 1 N 1
=
N −1 2 2 N +1
2N 1 N −1
N 1 1 2 N +1
4 12
N 0
= .172
B
or B
Since attenuation cannot be negative,
N dB
I1
5 83
I2

Example 15.24 An attenuator is composed of symmetrical T-section having a series arm of 175 W
and a shunt arm of 350 W. Find the characteristic impedance and attenuation in dB.

Solution 1
= 350 Ω
2

N −1
= 350 …(i)
N +1
2N
350 …(ii)
N2 1
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),
2N
N2 1 1
N −1
2
N +1
2N N 1
2
2
N −1 N +1
N N −1
=
N N +1
2
N
+ =0
N = 0.3819
B
or N in = = 8 36 dB
Since attenuation cannot be negative,
B
15.18 o-Type Attenuator 15.45

Putting N = 2.618 in Eq. (i),

⎛ 2.618 − 1⎞
350 = 2 R0 ⎜
⎝ 2.618 + 1⎟⎠
R0 = 391.32 Ω

Example 15.25 Design a T-type attenuator to give an attenuation of 60 dB and characteristic

resistance of 500 W .

Solution N ( dB
d ) dB, R0 = 500 Ω
60 d
N ( dB
d ) 20 l g10 N
60 = 20 log10 N 499 Ω 499 Ω
N = 1000
⎛ N − 1⎞ ⎛ 1000 − 1⎞
R1 2 R0 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 × 500 ⎜ = 998 Ω
⎝ N + 1⎠ ⎝ 1000 + 1⎟⎠ 1Ω 500 Ω

⎛ 2N ⎞ ⎡ 2 × 1000 ⎤
R2 R0 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 500 ⎢ ⎥ =1Ω
⎝ N − 1⎠ 2
⎣ (1000) − 1⎦
Fig. 15.60
The T-type attenuator is shown in Fig. 15.60.

15.18 o-TYPE ATTENUATOR

A symmetrical p-type attenuator is shown in Fig. 15.61 (a). Its bisected network is shown in Fig. 15.61 (b).

R1 R1
R1 2 2

2R2 2R2 2R2 2R2

(a) (b)

Fig. 15.61 (a) p-attenuator (b) Bisection of p-type attenuator

From the bisection theorem, the series arm of the lattice network is equal to the short-circuited input
resistance of the bisected network and the diagonal arm is equal to the open-circuit input resistance of the
bisected network.
R1 R2
RA =
R1
+ 2 R2
2
RB 2 R2
From lattice network,
⎛ N − 1⎞
RA R0 ⎜
⎝ N + 1⎟⎠
⎛ N + 1⎞
RB R0 ⎜
⎝ N − 1⎟⎠
15.46 Network Analysis and Synthesis
Solving these equations,
2 RA RB ⎛ N 2 1⎞
R1 = = R0 ⎜ ⎟
RB RA ⎝ 2N ⎠
RB R0 ⎛ N + 1⎞
R2 = = ⎜⎝ ⎟
2 2 N − 1⎠

Example 15.26 An attenuator is composed of a symmetrical p-section having series arm of 275 W
and each shunt arm of 450 W. Find the characteristic impedance and attenuation in dB.

Solution R1 2 Ω 2 R2 = 450
50 Ω, R2 = 225 Ω
⎛ N 2 − 1⎞
R1 R0 ⎜ ⎟ = 275 …(i)
⎝ 2N ⎠
R0 ⎛ N + 1⎞
R2 = ⎜ ⎟ = 225 …(ii)
2 ⎝ N − 1⎠
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i),
N 2 −1
2N 275
=
1 ⎛ N + 1⎞ 225
⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ N − 1⎠
( )( ) ⎛ N + 1⎞
= 0.611 ⎜
2N ⎝ N − 1⎟⎠
( )2 2 N ( .611)
N2 3.222 N + 1 = 0
N 28 2 N = 0.348
N ddB 0 og10 .87 9 6 dB
or N ddB 0 og10 0.3 8 9. 6 dB
Since attenuation cannot be negative,
N p ddB
Putting N = 2.872 in Eq. (i),
⎡ ( 2.872) 2 − 1⎤
275 = R0 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2( 2.872) ⎦
R0 = 217.92
92 Ω
Example 15.27 Design a p-type attenuator to give attenuation of 20 dB and characteristic
resistance of 500 W .
Solution N ( dB
d ) 0 ddB, R0 = 500 Ω
N ( dB
d ) 20 l g10 N
20 = 20 log10 N
N = 10
15.19 Ladder-Type Attenuator 15.47

2475 Ω
⎛ N 2 − 1⎞ ⎡ (10) 2 − 1⎤
R1 R0 ⎜ ⎟ = 500 ⎢ ⎥ = 2475 Ω
⎝ 2N ⎠ ⎣ 2 10 ⎦
611 Ω 611 Ω 500 Ω
R ⎛ N + 1⎞ 500 ⎛ 10 + 1⎞
R2 = 0 ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 305.55 Ω
2 ⎝ N − 1⎠ 2 ⎝ 10 − 1⎠

The p-type attenuator is shown in Fig. 15.62. Fig. 15.62

15.19 LADDER-TYPE ATTENUATOR

When a number of symmetrical T-or is p-type attenuators are connected in cascade to provide the attenuation
in steps, the resultant network is termed ladder-type attenuator. Figure 15.63 shows a ladder-type attenuator
with three identical and symmetrical p-sections connected in cascade.
R1 R1 R1

R0 2R2 2R2 2R2 2R2 2R2 2R2 R0

Fig. 15.63 Ladder-type attenuator

The output terminals are terminated with resistance R0 which is the characteristic resistance of the network.
The source end also has resistance R0 so that it is a matched network. The net attenuation is the sum of the
attenuation of individual sections between the input and output terminals.

Example 15.28 Design a ladder-type attenuator for a load resistance of 500 Ω and an attenuation
of 3 dB per step.
Solution N ( dB d , R0 = 500 Ω
d ) 3 dB
N ( dB
d ) 20 l g10 N
3 = 20 log10 N
N = 1.413
⎛ N 2 − 1⎞ ⎡ (1.413) 2 − 1⎤
R1 R0 ⎜ ⎟ = 500 ⎢ 2 1.413 ⎥ = 176.32
32 Ω
⎝ 2N ⎠ ⎣ ⎦
R0 ⎛ N + 1⎞ 500 ⎛ 1.413 + 1⎞
R2 = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 1460.65
65 Ω
2 ⎝ N − 1⎠ 2 ⎝ 1.413 − 1⎠

176.32 Ω 176.32 Ω 176.32 Ω

426.93 Ω 1460.65 Ω 1460.65 Ω 2921.31 Ω 500 Ω

Fig. 15.64
15.48 Network Analysis and Synthesis

EXERCISES
15.1 A T-section low-pass filter has a series 15.6 Design a band-stop constant-k filter with
inductance of 80 mH and a shunt capacitance cut-off frequencies of 8 kHz and 12 kHz and
of 0.022 μF. Find the cut-off frequency nominal characteristic impedance of 500 Ω.
and nominal impedance. Also design the 0 0398 F,
equivalent p-section. 0 0265 F
= .907 kΩ, mH 15.7 Design an m-derived T-section low-pass filter
⎥
C with cut-off frequency f = 1 kHz, design
= 0 011 F⎥
2 impedance of 600 Ω and frequency of infinite
15.2 Calculate the frequency of a constant-k, attenuation of 1050 Hz.
T-section low-pass filter having m=
a cut-off frequency of 1000 Hz
at which it has an attenuation of 10 dB. 15.8 Design an m-derived high-pass T-section
filter having a design impedance of 600 Ω,
[f 1170 Hz] cut-off frequency of 5 kHz and m
15.3 Design a low-pass constant-k (a) T-section, Also determine the frequency of infinite
and (b) p-section filter with f 6 kHz attenuation.
and RO 500 Ω. Calculate a and b for the ⎡ 2C L ⎤
. . mH
filters for f = 10 kHz. Also determine the m m
frequency at which the attenuation is 10 dB. 4m
= 4 684 kHz
6 radians ⎤ 1 − m2
L 15.9 In a constant-k band-pass filter, the ratio of
→ = mH
2 capacitance in the shunt and series arms is
C=0 F → = 26 5 mH, 50:1 and the resonant frequency of both arms
C is 1000 Hz. Find the bandwidth of the filter.
= 0 053 F [ .84 Hz ]
2
15.10 Design a symmetrical lattice attenuator to
f = 7 kHz
have characteristic impedance of 800 Ω and
15.4 Design a p-section constant-k high-pass filter attenuation of 20 dB.
having a cut-off frequency f = 8 kHz and
55 977.78 ]
nominal characteristic impedance k = 600 .
Find (a) its characteristic impedance at a 15.11 Design a T-type attenuator to have a
frequency of 12 kHz, (b) phase constant characteristic resistance of 200 Ω and
at frequency of 12 kHz, (c) attenuation at attenuation of 20 dB.
frequency of 800 Hz.
[ .6 Ω 40.4 Ω]
⎡ = 0 016 F,⎤
15.12 Design a p-type attenuator to give 20 dB
ZO 83 = 5 nepers
attenuation and characteristic impedance of
15.5 Design a band-pass constant-k filter 100 Ω.
with f = 2 kHz and f 3 kHz and
[ ]
k = 500 Ω
= 0 026 F ⎤
C .637 F
Objective–Type Questions 15.49

Objective–Type Questions
15.1 A 500 Ω is resistance attenuator is to have an R1
attenuation of 20 db. The resistances of the
series and shunt arms of the lattice network,
R0 R2
respectively are R0
(a) 400 Ω, 500 Ω approxi
(b) 410 Ω, 510 Ω approx R2
(c) 410 Ω, 610 Ω approx
R1
(d) none of the above
15.2 2. For the design of low-pass prototype filter
Fig. 15.66
Fig. 15.65 of with load resistance RL = 1 Ω
and angular frequency w = 1 rad/s the values
R1 R2 2 R1 R2
of L and C would be (a) (b)
2 R1 R2
L L
2 2 R2
(c) R1 R2 (d) R1 +
0
15.6 A T-type attenuator is designed for an
C attenuation of 40 dB and terminating
resistance of 75 ohms. Which of the following
values represent full series arm R1 and shunt
Fig. 15.65 arm R2?
(a) R1 147 Ω (b) R1 153 Ω
(a) 1 H and I F
(b) 1 H and 2 F (c) R 15 Ω (d) R2 3750 Ω
(c) 2 H and I F Select the correct answer from the codes
(d) 2 H and 2 F given below:
15.3 The passband of a typical filter network (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4
with Z1 and Z2 as the series and shunt-arm (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
impedances is characerised by 15.7 The application of the bisection theorem
Z1 Z1 finds out an equivalent lattice network if the
(a) −1 < 4 Z < 0 (b) −1 < 4 Z < 1 original network is
2 2
(a) symmetrical and balanced only
Z1 (b) unsymmetrical and balanced only
(c) 0< <1 (d) none of the above
4Z2 (c) symmetrical, balanced and unbalanced
15.4 In an m-derived low-pass filter, the value of only
m is (d) symmetrical and unbalanced only
2 2 15.8 The attenuation of an attenuator is 20 dB. Its
⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
(a) 1− ⎜ ∞ ⎟ (b) 1− ⎜ c ⎟ attenuation constant N is
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ f∞ ⎠ (a) 1 (b) 2
2 (c) 10 (d) 20
⎛ f ⎞
2 ⎛ f ⎞ 15.9 Z1 and Z2 are the total series and shunt
(c) 1+ ⎜ ∞ ⎟ (d) 1+ ⎜ c ⎟
⎝ fc ⎠ ⎝ f∞ ⎠ impedances of a T or p-filter. Consider the
following zones of operation of filters and the
15.5 For the lattice-type attenuater shown in conditions on the impedances
Fig. 15.66, the characteristic impedance R0 is
15.50 Network Analysis and Synthesis

Z1 2
(a) Pass band 1. < −1 (c) 0 to Hz
4Z2 π LC
Z1 1
(b) Stop band 2. = −1 0 to Hz
4Z2 (d)
4π LC
Z
(c) Transition band 3. −1 < 1 < 0 15.12 If C is the total series capatance, L is the total
4Z2 shunt inductance of a T or p-type high-pass
filter, the frequency range for the stop band
Tick the correct combination:
of the filter is
A B C
(a) 1 2 3 1
(a) 0 to Hz
(b) 3 1 2 2π LC
(c) 3 2 1 1
(d) 2 3 1 (b) 0 to Hz
π LC
15.10 Tick out the correct statement in case of a
filter. 2
(c) 0 to Hz
(a) Characteristic impedance is resistive in π LC
stop band
2
(b) Characteristic impedance is reactive in (d) 0 to Hz
pass band 4π LC
(c) Characteristic impedance is resistive in 15.13 If f1 and f2 are the lower and uppper cut-off
pass band frequencies of the band pass filter, the series
(d) None of the above impedance Z1 is
15.11 If L is the total series inductance and C the
(a) capacitive at f1
total shunt capacitacne of a T or p-type low-
(b) inductive at f1
page filter, the pass band frequency range of
(c) resistive at f2
the filter is given as
(d) none of the above
1
(a) 0 to Hz 15.14 The phase constant b of a filter during stop
2π LC
band is
1 (a) Zero radian (b) 2
(b) 0 to Hz
π L C (c) p (d) 2p

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

15.1 (c) 15.2 (d) 15.3 (a) 15.4 (b) 15.5 (c) 15.6 (a) 15.7 (c)
15.8 (c) 15.9 (b) 15.10 (c) 15.11 (b) 15.12 (d) 15.13 (a) 15.14 (c)

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Network Analysis and Synthesis by Singh (Tooabstractive)

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Network Analysis and Synthesis by Singh (Tooabstractive)

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Network Analysis

10. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS 10.1

11. LAPLACE TRANSFORM AND ITS APPLICATION 11.1

12. NETWORK FUNCTIONS 12.1

13. TWO-PORT NETWORKS 13.1

14. FOURIER ANALYSIS 14.1

15. FILTERS AND ATTENUATORS 15.1

16. NETWORK SYNTHESIS 16.1

10.2 INITIAL CONDITIONS

where i(0) is the initial current through the inductor.

Element with initial conditions Equivalent circuit at t = 0+

Fig. 10.1 Initial conditions

Fig. 10.2 Final conditions

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.5. Fig. 10.4

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.8. 1000 Ω

Differentiating Eq. (i),

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.11. 10 Ω 1H

Differentiating Eq. (i),

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.14. v(t)

Differentiating Eq. (i),

Solution At t = 0–, switch is closed. Hence, the voltage v( 0+)

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.17. v(t)

Differentiating Eq. (i),

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.19.

Differentiating Eq. (i),

Solution At t = 0–, the network attains steady-state condition. 20 V

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.24. Fig. 10.23

Differentiating Eq. (i),

Differentiating Eq. (ii),

Solution At t = 0–, the network attains steady condition. Hence, 1 kΩ

Solution: At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. vK( 0−)

Solution At t = 0–, all initial conditions are zero.

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.41. R1 R2

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.42. R1 R2

From Eq. (ii), at t = 0 + ,

Solution At t = 0 − , all initial conditions are zero.

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.44.

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.45. C R2

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0,

dii2 Fig. 10.45

Differentiating Eq. (iv),

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in 10 Ω

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.48. 10 Ω

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.53. v1(0+) v2(0+)

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.54. v1(t) L v2(t )

Differentiating Eq. (i),

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.56. R1

Writing the KVL equation for t > 0, v1(t )

dvC dv1 dv2

Differentiating Eq. (vii),

Differentiating Eq. (v),

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 2Ω

Since the charges on capacitors are equal when connected in series,

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.60. 2Ω

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.62. i1 (0+ ) i2 (0+ )

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.63. Fig. 10.62

From Eq. (ii),

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.65.

At t = 0 + , the network is shown in Fig. 10.69. i1(0+) 10 Ω

Writing the KVL equation at t = 0 + ,

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in 10 Ω

For t > 0 − , the network is shown in i1(t) i2(t)

10.3 RESISTOR-INDUCTOR CIRCUIT

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.78. R1

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.81. R2

Since the current through the inductor cannot change

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.82.

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.84. 30 Ω 20 Ω

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.85. 20 Ω

= e −40 t ∫ 0 e 40 t ddt + k e −40 t

i(( ) = 0.5 + 0.1 e −40t

= e −2000 t ∫ 500 e 2000 t + k e −2000 t

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.90.

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.91.

Solution At t = 0 − , the network is shown in Fig. 10.93. 100 Ω

For t > 0, the network is shown in Fig. 10.94.