SLA 60 Key terms

1. Acculturation model 11. Behaviorism 19. Detection

2. Acquisition versus learning 12. Bilingualism 20. Error/Error analysis
3. Acquisition orders 13. Caretaker 21. Explicit knowledge/implicit
4. Affective filter speech/modified input knowledge
5. Aptitude 14. Communicative 22. Feedback
6. Aspect competence 23. Focus on form/s
7. Attention 15. Communication strategies 24. Form-meaning/function
8. Automatization 16. Competence connection
9. Awareness 17. Consciousness-raising 25. Formulaic sequences/chunks
10. Avoidance 18. Contrastive Analysis 26. Fossilization
Hypothesis 27. Frequency in the input
28. Grammar

29. i+1 40. Markedness 50. Noticing/Noticing Hypothesis

30. Incidental learning 41. Meaning 51. Output Hypothesis
31. Individual differences 42. Mental representation of 52. Performance <3
32. Input language 53. Positive evidence
33. Input enhancement 43. Monitor Theory 54. Recasts
34. Input Hypothesis 44. Motivation 55. Salience
35. Intake <3 45. Native language/native- 56. Scaffolding
36. Interlanguage like 57. Selective attention
37. Language Acquisition Device 46. Metalinguistic knowledge 58. Transfer
38. Learning strategies 47. Natural Order Hypothesis 59. Uptake
39. Learning styles 48. Negative evidence 60. Working memory
49. Negotiation of meaning

1. Acculturation model*
Definition:
Proposed by John Schumann (1978), the model highlights the role of social and
psychological integration in SLA success. The closer the learner integrates with the target
community, the better their L2 acquisition.

Related research:
John Schumann (1978) studied a Spanish speaker (Alberto) learning English. Alberto didn’t
make much progress because he wasn’t involved in the English-speaking community.

Example:
● Positive Integration: A new immigrant actively participating in local activities and
forming friendships with native speakers tends to acquire the language faster.
● Limited Integration: A learner avoiding social contact struggles with L2 acquisition.

Key Components
1. Social Distance: Refers to the perceived differences between the learner's culture
and the target culture. Factors such as social status, ethnicity, and group dynamics
play a role in social distance.
 2. Cultural Distance: This involves the differences in cultural practices, beliefs, and
values between the learner's native culture and the target culture. Greater cultural
distance can create barriers to understanding and using the language.

3. Motivation: Integrative motivation, which is the desire to connect and engage with
the target culture, is crucial. Learners with high integrative motivation tend to be more
successful in language acquisition.

4. Attitudes: Positive attitudes towards the target language and its speakers facilitate
learning, while negative attitudes can hinder progress. Attitudes are shaped by
cultural perceptions and experiences.

Impact on SLA
The Acculturation Model suggests that successful language acquisition is closely linked to
the learner's ability to integrate socially and culturally into the target language community.
Key impacts include:

● Increased Exposure: Learners who acculturate are more likely to seek opportunities
for authentic language use, enhancing their learning experience.
● Enhanced Communication Skills: Social integration leads to increased practice in
real-life contexts, improving fluency and comprehension.
● Cultural Competence: Understanding cultural nuances aids learners in using
language appropriately in various contexts.

Related Research
Research in the field has examined the relationship between acculturation and language
learning outcomes. Studies associated with John Schumann suggest that:

● Learners who actively engage with the target culture demonstrate higher proficiency
levels.
● Positive cultural experiences can significantly enhance motivation and reduce anxiety
in language learning.
● Social networks and peer interactions in the target language community are critical
for effective acculturation.

Teaching Implications
● Create opportunities for learners to talk to native speakers (like pen pals or
community projects).
● Use lessons that include cultural information about the target language.
● Make the classroom environment friendly and supportive.

1. Create Inclusive Environments: Educators should foster a classroom atmosphere

that encourages interaction among learners and native speakers, reducing social
distance.

2. Integrate Cultural Content: Lessons should include cultural practices, norms, and
values of the target language community to bridge cultural gaps and enhance
relevance.

3. Foster Motivation: Teachers can promote integrative motivation by connecting

 language learning to students' interests and real-world experiences, encouraging
them to engage with the culture.

4. Address Attitudes: Educators should actively work to foster positive attitudes

towards the target language and its speakers, showcasing the cultural richness and
benefits of bilingualism.

2. Acquisition versus learning*

Definition

Acquisition refers to the subconscious process of acquiring a language,

similar to how children learn their first language. It happens naturally through
exposure and interaction. Learning, on the other hand, is a conscious
process involving formal instruction and understanding of language rules.

Key Components

● Acquisition: Implicit, natural, experiential; focuses on communication and

understanding.
● Learning: Explicit, formal, analytical; involves grammar rules and vocabulary
memorization.

Related research:
Research by Stephen Krashen (1982) emphasizes that language acquisition is more
effective than learning for achieving fluency. He argues that acquisition is essential
for developing native-like proficiency.

Example:
A child learns English by playing with friends (acquisition).
An adult studies grammar rules in a textbook (learning).

Impact on SLA

● Acquisition leads to more fluent, intuitive language use, while learning often results
in a more analytical understanding but can lack fluency.
● Learners who acquire a language in a natural context often outperform those who
primarily rely on classroom learning.

Teaching implication:

● Create immersive environments that promote natural language use, such as

conversation practice and cultural experiences.
● Balance explicit instruction (learning) with opportunities for meaningful
communication (acquisition).
● Focus on real-life communication activities, like role plays or storytelling.
● Use materials students can easily understand but still learn from.
● Teach grammar briefly but let students practice language naturally.
3. Acquisition orders*
Definition

Acquisition orders refer to the predictable sequence in which language structures are
acquired. This concept suggests that certain grammatical structures are learned before
others, regardless of the learner's native language.

Key Components

● Predictable order of acquisition (e.g., simple present before past tense).

● Influenced by factors such as frequency of use and complexity of structure.

Impact on SLA

Understanding acquisition orders helps educators identify which structures to focus on at

different stages of learning, allowing for more effective curriculum design.

Related Research

Research by researchers like Dulay and Burt identifies common patterns in the order of
grammatical structure acquisition across different learner populations, supporting the idea of
a natural progression.

● Dulay and Burt(1974) found similar acquisition sequences in children learning

English as a second language, showing that learners often follow a similar
order when acquiring grammar, regardless of how they’re taught.

● • Krashen Emphasized This in the Natural Order Hypothesis

Teaching Implications

● Tailor instruction to align with the natural order of acquisition, introducing simpler
structures before more complex ones.
● Use assessments to gauge learners' current proficiency levels and adjust teaching
strategies accordingly.

● Don’t expect students to learn grammar exactly as it’s taught—let it happen naturally
over time.
● Focus more on communication than grammar accuracy.
● Use activities that allow repeated practice, like games and group work.

Example:learners often master plurals ("cats") before more complex grammar like third-
person singular ("he runs").
4. Affective filter*
Definition:
The affective filter hypothesis, proposed by Stephen Krashen( 1982), suggests that
emotional factors such as motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence impact language
acquisition. A high affective filter can hinder learning, while a low filter facilitates it.

Key Components

● Emotional states (e.g., anxiety, motivation) influence language processing.

● Affects learners’ willingness to engage in language use.

Impact on SLA

Learners with high anxiety or low motivation may struggle to acquire the language
effectively, leading to reduced participation and lower proficiency.

Related Research:

- Horwitz(1986)studied the effects of anxiety on language learners.

- Krashen (1982) argued that learners with low anxiety and high motivation process
language input more effectively.

Example:
A student who feels nervous in class might struggle to absorb new grammar rules compared
to a confident, relaxed student.

Teaching Implication:

● Foster a positive, low-anxiety environment to lower affective filters, encouraging risk-

taking in language use.
● Incorporate motivating activities and personal interests to engage learners
emotionally.
● Build a supportive classroom culture where learners feel safe to make mistakes. Use
positive reinforcement to encourage participation.
● Incorporate stress-relieving techniques like mindfulness or relaxed conversations to
reduce anxiety.
● Motivate learners by connecting language learning to their personal interests, making
lessons relevant and engaging.
● Use varied activities to accommodate different emotional states (e.g., interactive
games for energetic students, group discussions for reflective ones).

5. Aptitude*
Definition:
Aptitude refers to an individual's inherent ability to learn languages. It encompasses various
cognitive skills, such as phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, and memory.

Key Components

● Cognitive factors like memory, analytical skills, and phonetic discrimination contribute
to language aptitude.
● Aptitude can vary widely among learners.
Impact on SLA

Learners with higher language aptitude tend to acquire languages more quickly and
effectively, often grasping complex structures earlier than those with lower aptitude.

Related Research:
- Carroll (1981) developed the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) to measure
individual differences in language learning aptitude.

-Skehan(1998)highlighted the role of aptitude in SLA success

Example:
A learner with strong memory skills may excel at vocabulary acquisition, while another may
struggle with the same task.

Teaching Implication:

● Recognize that learners have different aptitudes and may require tailored
instructional strategies.
● Use varied teaching methods to accommodate diverse learning styles and strengths.
●
● Tailor activities to individual strengths (e.g., memory exercises for high-aptitude
learners).
● Provide extra support for learners with lower aptitude.

● (Use visual aids like timelines, charts, or diagrams to help students grasp different
aspects (e.g., progressive vs. simple tense).
● Embed aspects in context by having learners describe ongoing actions or past
habitual events, such as I was working vs. I worked.
● Integrate authentic materials (e.g., stories, news reports) to show how aspect is
used naturally in language.
● Provide real-life scenarios where learners can practice using aspect, such as
telling stories or discussing routines.)

6. Aspect
Definition:
In linguistics, aspect refers to how actions or events are expressed in relation to time,
focusing on whether they are ongoing, completed, or habitual.

Related Research:
Andersen (1991) studied how second-language learners acquire aspect, often starting with
simpler forms like the past simple before grasping the progressive aspect.

Example:
English: She was running (progressive aspect) vs. She ran (completed action).

Teaching Implication:

● Teach aspect distinctions through visual timelines or real-life contexts.

● Emphasize examples in context to make abstract concepts clearer.
● Use visual aids like timelines, charts, or diagrams to help students grasp
different aspects (e.g., progressive vs. simple tense).
 ● Embed aspects in context by having learners describe ongoing actions or
past habitual events, such as I was working vs. I worked.
● Integrate authentic materials (e.g., stories, news reports) to show how
aspect is used naturally in language.
● Provide real-life scenarios where learners can practice using aspect, such
as telling stories or discussing routines.

7. Attention*
Definition:
The cognitive focus a learner dedicates to language input and processing, which plays a key
role in noticing and processing linguistic features.

Related Research:
Schmidt (1990) proposed the Noticing Hypothesis, which states that learners must
consciously notice language forms for acquisition to occur.

Key Components

● Selective Attention: Focusing on specific language features or contexts.

● Divided Attention: Managing multiple tasks while learning.

Impact on SLA

● Increased attention enhances language acquisition, while distractions can hinder

processing and retention.

Example:
A student might notice a new grammatical structure in a reading text, like used to, and then
incorporate it into their speech.

Teaching Implication:

● Use activities that draw learners’ attention to specific forms (e.g., highlighting
or underlining).
● Balance explicit instruction with meaningful communication tasks.
● Use visual aids like timelines, charts, or diagrams to help students grasp
different aspects (e.g., progressive vs. simple tense).
● Embed aspects in context by having learners describe ongoing actions or
past habitual events, such as I was working vs. I worked.
● Integrate authentic materials (e.g., stories, news reports) to show how
aspect is used naturally in language.
● Provide real-life scenarios where learners can practice using aspect, such
as telling stories or discussing routines.

8. Automatization
Definition:
The process by which language skills become automatic through repeated practice, reducing
the need for conscious effort.

Related Research:
DeKeyser (2001) argued that repeated practice helps turn declarative knowledge (knowing
what) into procedural knowledge (knowing how).

Example:
A learner practices forming questions until they can ask, What time is it? without thinking
about the word order.

Teaching Implication:

● Provide drills or repetitive practice for basic structures.

● Encourage fluency through communicative tasks.
● Use visual aids like timelines, charts, or diagrams to help students grasp
different aspects (e.g., progressive vs. simple tense).
● Embed aspects in context by having learners describe ongoing actions or
past habitual events, such as I was working vs. I worked.
● Integrate authentic materials (e.g., stories, news reports) to show how aspect
is used naturally in language.
● Provide real-life scenarios where learners can practice using aspect, such as
telling stories or discussing routines.

9. Awareness
Definition:
The learner’s conscious recognition of linguistic forms or rules, which can enhance language
acquisition.

Related Research:
Schmidt (1995) emphasized awareness as a prerequisite for noticing, which is essential for
language learning.

Example:
A student who becomes aware of the difference between since and for in time expressions is
more likely to use them correctly.

Teaching Implication:

● Use error correction and reflective tasks to promote awareness.

● Combine implicit and explicit teaching methods to build understanding
● Use discovery learning where learners notice patterns or rules through guided
activities, such as sorting verbs into past tense forms or discussing grammar
rules in context.
● Provide reflective tasks where learners analyze their language use and
identify areas of improvement (e.g., error correction or peer review).
● Give explicit grammar explanations and allow time for learners to practice
those concepts through targeted exercises.
● Highlight language features in real-world materials, like songs, movies, or
articles, to raise awareness of how language works in context.

10. Avoidance
Definition:
A learner’s tendency to avoid using certain language forms or structures they find difficult or
unfamiliar.

Related Research:
Kleinmann (1977) found that L2 learners often avoid complex structures, like the passive
voice, until they feel more confident.

Example:
A student might say, The dog ate the food, instead of, The food was eaten by the dog, to
avoid using the passive.

Teaching Implication:

● Gradually introduce challenging structures with ample support.

● Encourage risk-taking in language use through low-stakes activities.

Encourage students to try speaking even if unsure.

Teach simple language first, then add more complex grammar.
Use easy activities that help students try new languages.
Slowly introduce harder language as students get comfortable.

11. Behaviorism*
Definition:
Language learning occurs through repetition and reinforcement, forming habits.

Behaviorism is a theory that emphasizes observable behavior as the main focus of

learning, positing that language learning occurs through stimulus-response patterns.

Key Components

● Reinforcement: Positive feedback encourages repetition.

● Conditioning: Learning through association and habit formation.
● Imitation: learners mimic the language they hear

Impact on SLA

● Behaviorist approaches can lead to language learning through repetition and

practice, but may neglect deeper cognitive processes.

Related Research:
- Skinner (1957) emphasized how positive reinforcement helps form language habits.

- CritiquedbyChomsky (1959), who argued for innate language ability (universal grammar)

Example:
A student repeatedly practices pronunciation, and when correct, receives praise, reinforcing
the correct behavior.

Teaching Implication:

● Use repetition (e.g., drills) to help learners memorize language.

● Provide immediate feedback to reinforce correct responses.
● Encourage practice to build strong language habits.
● Behaviorism is a theory that emphasizes observable behavior as the main focus of
learning, positing that language learning occurs through stimulus-response patterns.
 12. Bilingualism
Definition:
Being able to speak and understand two languages fluently.

Related Research:
- Bialystok (2001) studied how bilingualism can improve cognitive flexibility and problem-
solving skills.

- Grosjean(1989): Bilinguals use languages based on context and need.

- Cummins(1979):Distinction between BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) and
CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency)

Example:
A student speaks both Spanish and English fluently, switching between them depending on
the situation.

Teaching Implication:

● Support both languages in the classroom to help balance language development.

● Encourage language use in real-life contexts.
● Create bilingual activities like code-switching exercises.

13. Caretaker Speech/Modified Input*

Definition:
Language simplified and adjusted by adults when speaking to children to help them
understand better.

Related Research:
- Snow (1972) showed how simplified language from caregivers helps children learn faster.

- Krashen(1985): Input Hypothesis emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input for

SLA

Example:
When speaking to a child, an adult uses shorter sentences and clearer pronunciation, like
“Do you want the red ball?”

Teaching Implication:

● Simplify language when speaking to beginners (short sentences, clear

pronunciation).
● Gradually increase complexity as students improve.
● Use scaffolding to support understanding (e.g., visuals, gestures).

Modified Input
Definition
Modified input refers to the adjustments made to language input to make it more
comprehensible to second language learners. This can include simplifying language, altering
speech rate, or using visual aids to enhance understanding.

Key Components
● Simplification: Using clearer vocabulary and simpler sentence structures.
● Repetition and Paraphrasing: Restating information in different ways to reinforce
understanding.
● Contextualization: Providing context through visuals or situational examples to aid
comprehension.

Impact in SLA
● Modified input helps learners access language that aligns with their current
proficiency level, facilitating comprehension and retention.
● It promotes language acquisition by providing examples of correct usage in context,
allowing learners to notice and internalize language features.

Related Research
Research indicates that learners benefit from input that is slightly above their current level
(i+1), as proposed by Stephen Krashen. Studies show that modified input can lead to
improvements in vocabulary acquisition and grammatical understanding.

Teaching Implications
● Adjust Language Use: Teachers should consciously modify their speech and
materials to ensure clarity and accessibility.
● Use Visual Supports: Incorporate images, gestures, and realia to aid
comprehension.
● Encourage Interaction: Create opportunities for learners to engage with modified
input through dialogues and collaborative tasks.
● Monitor Progress: Regularly assess learners’ comprehension and adjust input
accordingly to meet their evolving needs.

Conclusion
Modified input is a crucial strategy in second language teaching that enhances learners’
understanding and facilitates effective language acquisition by making input more accessible
and engaging.

14. Communicative Competence*

Definition:
Communicative competence refers to a learner's ability to use language effectively in
social contexts, integrating grammatical knowledge with pragmatic and sociolinguistic
understanding.
Key Components

● Linguistic Competence: Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary.

● Pragmatic Competence: Ability to use language appropriately in context.

Impact on SLA

● Emphasizing communicative competence leads to more effective and contextually

appropriate language use.

Related Research:
Canale and Swain (1980) developed the model of communicative competence, including
grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence.

Example:
A student knows how to ask for directions politely in English or how to apologize for a
mistake.

Teaching Implication:

● Teach real-world communication skills (e.g., role plays, scenarios).

● Focus on both grammar and fluency in different contexts.
● Model social language in various situations.
● Focus on real-life communication and context in language teaching. Encourage role-
plays, discussions, and interactions that enhance learners' communicative abilities.

15. Communication Strategies*

Definition:
Techniques used by learners to overcome language barriers, like paraphrasing or asking for
clarification.

Key Components

● Avoidance: Skipping difficult words.

● Paraphrasing: Rephrasing to convey meaning.

Impact on SLA

● Effective use of communication strategies can facilitate understanding and

interaction, even in cases of limited language proficiency.
Related Research:
Tarone (1980) identified common strategies such as using synonyms or gestures when
words are unknown.

FaerchandKasper(1983): Categorized strategies as avoidance or achievement strategies

Example:
When unsure of a word, a learner says, “It’s like a big bird that can’t fly” instead of using the
exact word.

Teaching Implication:

● Teach common strategies (e.g., asking for clarification, using synonyms).

● Encourage learners to use gestures when they don’t know the word.
● Create opportunities to practice these strategies in conversation.

-> Teach and encourage various communication strategies in the classroom. Create
opportunities for learners to practice these strategies in safe environments.

16. Competence*
Definition:
The internal knowledge of language rules, including grammar and vocabulary.

Key Components

● Linguistic Competence: Mastery of grammar and vocabulary.

● Strategic Competence: Ability to use language effectively in communication.

Impact on SLA

● Higher levels of competence lead to improved language performance and confidence

in using the language.

Related Research:
Chomsky (1965) distinguished between competence (knowledge of language rules) and
performance (actual use of language).

Hymes(1972):Expanded Competence to include social and cultural aspects of

communication.

Example:
A learner understands the rule of subject-verb agreement but may make mistakes in actual
conversation due to performance issues.

Teaching Implication:
 Assess and develop both linguistic and strategic competence in learners. Use varied
instructional methods to build comprehensive language skills.

● Focus on grammar to develop language competence.

● Provide practice exercises to reinforce rules.
● Encourage self-correction and feedback.

17. Consciousness-Raising
Definition:
Activities that help learners become aware of language forms or rules they may not have
noticed.

Related Research:
Sharwood Smith (1981) argued that noticing language features is crucial for learning.

Rutherford(1987): Advocated for tasks that raise awareness of language forms without
extensive practice.

Schmidt(1990): Noticing Hypothesis emphasizes the role of awareness in language

acquisition.

Example:
Learners look at a text and highlight all the past tense verbs, then discuss their use.

Teaching Implication:

● Use tasks that draw attention to grammar (e.g., matching exercises).

● Encourage reflection on language patterns during lessons.
● Provide feedback that guides learners to notice and understand rules.
 18. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)
Definition:
The theory that comparing the learner’s first language (L1) with the target language (L2) can
predict difficulties in learning.

Related Research:
Lado (1957) suggested that similarities between L1 and L2 make learning easier, while
differences cause difficulty. ->Proposed CAH to explain errors in SLA as transfer from L1. •

Critiqued by Dulay and Burt (1974), who emphasized universal developmental processes
over L1 interference.

Example:
A Spanish-speaking learner might struggle with English articles (a/the) because Spanish
doesn’t use them the same way.

Teaching Implication:

● Identify L1-L2 differences to predict potential challenges.

● Focus on areas of contrast, like word order or pronunciation.
● Use comparison tasks to help learners understand and overcome differences.

19. Detection
Definition:
The ability to notice language forms (e.g., grammar, vocabulary) when they appear in input.

Related Research:

• Schmidt’s(1990) Noticing Hypothesis suggests that detection of language features is

necessary for acquisition.

• Gass(1988)distinguishes between exposure, perception, and intake in SLA

Example:
A learner notices the difference between "I am eating" and "I eat" in a conversation.

Teaching Implication:

● Encourage learners to focus on language forms in context.

● Use activities like listening tasks to highlight specific grammar points.
● Ask questions that make learners reflect on the language they hear.
 20. Error Analysis*
Definition:
The study of mistakes learners make in their language use to understand their learning
process.

Error analysis is the systematic study of errors made by language learners. It aims to
identify the types, causes, and patterns of errors to understand learners' interlanguage and
inform teaching practices.

Key Components

● Types of Errors: Includes grammatical, lexical, pronunciation, and discourse errors.

● Interlanguage: The evolving linguistic system learners create as they progress in
language acquisition.

Impacts in SLA

● Errors reflect learners' developmental stages and can indicate areas needing further
instruction.
● Understanding common error patterns can help educators tailor their teaching
strategies and materials.

Related Research:

-Corder(1967):Errors reflect a learner’s internal grammar. ->emphasized that studying errors

can provide insights into the learning process and show how learners communicate despite
gaps in knowledge.

- Selinker(1972): Errors are part of interlanguage, the evolving system of a learner.

Example:
A learner says "I have 25 years" instead of "I am 25 years old."

Teaching Implication:

Use errors as learning opportunities; provide constructive feedback rather than

simply correcting mistakes.

Incorporate error analysis into lesson planning to focus on common difficulties and
enhance learners' awareness of their language use.
 ● Analyze errors to identify areas needing improvement.
● Provide corrective feedback based on common errors.
● Use errors as learning opportunities for students to understand why mistakes
happen.

21. Explicit Knowledge/Implicit Knowledge*

Definition:

Explicit knowledge refers to the conscious understanding of language rules and structures,
often acquired through formal instruction.

Implicit knowledge is the subconscious, intuitive knowledge gained through exposure and
practice in the language.

Key Components

● Explicit Knowledge: Declarative, rule-based, can be easily verbalized.

 ● Implicit Knowledge: Procedural, intuitive, often acquired through immersion and
communication.

Impacts in SLA

● Learners with strong implicit knowledge tend to communicate more fluently, while
those relying on explicit knowledge may struggle with spontaneous language use.
● Research indicates that implicit learning processes are crucial for achieving native-
like proficiency.
●

Related Research:

• Krashen(1982):highlight the importance of implicit learning in achieving fluency,

suggesting that exposure to comprehensible input is essential for effective language
acquisition.

• DeKeyser(1998): Argues that explicit knowledge can become implicit through practice.
Example

Example:

● Explicit knowledge: A student knows the rule for past tense verbs.
● Implicit knowledge: A student instinctively uses the past tense correctly while
speaking.

Teaching Implication:

Balance explicit instruction on grammar and rules with immersive, communicative

activities that foster implicit learning.

Encourage learners to engage in real-life language use to develop their implicit

knowledge alongside explicit understanding.

● Teach explicit rules through explanations and exercises.

● Encourage natural language use through conversation and listening to develop
implicit knowledge.
● Balance explicit and implicit learning for effective language acquisition.

22. Feedback*?
Definition:
Feedback refers to information provided to learners about their performance in language
use, which can be corrective (addressing errors) or constructive (encouraging improvement
and development).

Key Components

● Types of Feedback: Corrective (focused on errors), formative (ongoing

assessment), summative (end of unit evaluation), and peer feedback.
 ● Timing: Immediate feedback can help correct errors in real-time, while delayed
feedback may promote reflection.

Impacts in SLA

● Effective feedback helps learners recognize and address errors, reinforcing learning
and enhancing language proficiency.
● Research shows that timely and specific feedback increases motivation and self-
efficacy, leading to improved language outcomes.

Related Research:

• LysterandRanta(1997): Differentiated types of feedback, such as recasts, clarification

requests, and explicit correction.

• Ellis(2009): Feedback helps turn input into intake.

- Studies by Hattie and Timperley (2007) emphasize that feedback is one of the most
powerful influences on student learning, particularly when it is clear and actionable.

Example:
A teacher says, “It’s ‘I went’ not ‘I go,’ but good try!”

Teaching Implication:

● Provide timely feedback during speaking or writing tasks.

● Use corrective feedback (e.g., error correction, hints) to improve accuracy.
● Encourage positive feedback to motivate students.

Provide balanced feedback that encourages improvement without discouraging learners,

focusing on both strengths and areas for growth.

Utilize a variety of feedback methods (oral, written, peer) tailored to different learning styles
and contexts to enhance effectiveness.

23. Focus on Form/s

Definition:
Attention to language forms (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation) during communicative
tasks.

Related Research:

• Long(1991):Advocated for FoF to integrate grammar within communication.

• DoughtyandWilliams (1998): Explored how FoF enhances language accuracy.

Example:
A teacher pauses a conversation activity to explain the difference between "I have been
working" and "I worked."

Teaching Implication:
 ● Incorporate form-focused tasks during communicative activities.
● Make explicit corrections when necessary, but keep the focus on communication.
● Use real-life examples to highlight specific language forms.

24. Form-Meaning/Function Connection

Definition:
The relationship between the grammatical form (structure), its meaning, and how it is used in
communication.

Related Research:

• VanPatten(1996): Stressed the importance of linking forms to their communicative purposes.

• Ellis(2008): Task-based learning promotes form-meaning connections.

Example:
The form “I am eating” indicates an ongoing action (meaning) and is used for talking about actions
happening now (function).

Teaching Implication:

● Teach grammar in context to show how form, meaning, and function work together.
● Use tasks that require students to practice different functions (e.g., asking questions, making
requests).
● Highlight how forms change based on meaning and function during lessons.

25. Formulaic Sequences/Chunks

Definition:
Pre-learned groups of words or phrases used together as a whole, often without thinking about the
individual words.

Example:
“Nice to meet you,” “How are you?”

Related Research:

• Wray(2002):Formulaic sequences aid fluency by reducing cognitive load.

• NattingerandDeCarrico (1992): Highlighted their role in communicative

Teaching Implication:

● Teach common phrases that can be used in real-life situations.

● Encourage students to practice chunks for smoother and more fluent speech.
● Integrate formulaic language into listening and speaking activities.

26. Fossilization*
Definition:
The process by which errors in language learning become permanent or hard to correct.

Key Components
 ● Persistent Errors: Errors that learners consistently make and do not self-correct
over time.
● Influence of Native Language: Fossilization often results from the influence of the
learner's first language, leading to ingrained patterns in the second language.

Impacts in SLA

● Fossilization can hinder overall language proficiency and fluency, making it

challenging for learners to achieve native-like competence.
● It can limit learners' ability to communicate effectively, especially in formal or
academic contexts.

Related Research:

• Selinker(1972): Iintroduced the concept of fossilization, highlighting how certain

interlanguage forms can become resistant to change despite further input and instruction.

• Han(2004):Fossilization is influenced by limited input, motivation, and feedback.

Example:
A learner continues to say “She don’t” instead of “She doesn’t” even after many corrections.

Teaching Implication:

Identify and address persistent errors early, providing targeted feedback and practice.

Encourage continuous exposure to authentic language use to help learners unlearn

fossilized patterns.

● Provide consistent feedback to prevent errors from becoming fossilized.

● Focus on persistent errors and offer targeted practice.
● Encourage self-monitoring to help students become aware of their mistakes.

27. Frequency in the Input*

Definition:
Frequency in the input refers to the amount and variety of language input that learners are
exposed to during the language acquisition process.

It plays a crucial role in how learners internalize language structures and vocabulary.

Key Components

● Input Exposure: The quantity and quality of language input available to learners,
including spoken and written forms.
● Repetition and Variation: Frequent exposure to specific language forms can
enhance learners' ability to recognize and produce them.

Impacts in SLA

● Higher frequency of certain structures in input correlates with better retention and use
by learners, as they become more familiar with those forms.
● Research indicates that learners benefit from varied input that includes different
contexts and registers, which aids in developing flexibility and adaptability in
 language use.

Related Research:

• Ellis(2002): Frequent exposure leads to better acquisition.

• Bybee(2008):Frequency reinforces form-meaning associations.

Example:
A learner hears and uses the word “apple” frequently in conversations and reading activities.

Teaching Implication:

● Provide plenty of exposure to target language forms through reading, listening, and
speaking.
● Use authentic materials to expose students to real-world language use.
● Reinforce frequently heard words or phrases in various contexts.

->Provide rich and varied language input through diverse materials, such as authentic texts,
media, and interactive activities.

Encourage extensive reading and listening to enhance exposure to language patterns and
vocabulary in context.

28. Grammar

Definition:
The system of rules governing the structure of sentences in a language, including word order, tense,
and agreement.

Related Research:

• Krashen(1982):Argued for minimal explicit grammar teaching, focusing on input.

• Long(1991):Advocated for teaching grammar through focus on form

Example:
In English, the word order for statements is typically subject-verb-object: “She eats apples.”

Teaching Implication:

● Explicitly teach grammar rules and provide plenty of practice.

● Focus on both form and function to show how grammar is used in communication.
● Integrate grammar instruction into real-life activities and tasks.
 29. i+1*
Definition:
The term i+1 refers to the concept introduced by Stephen Krashen, where "i" represents the
current level of the learner's language proficiency, and "+1" denotes the next level just
beyond that, providing a slight challenge without overwhelming the learner.

Key Components

● Comprehensible Input: Language input that is slightly above the learner's current
level, making it understandable yet challenging.
● Scaffolding: Supportive measures to help learners grasp and integrate new language
structures.

Impacts in SLA

● Exposure to i+1 input promotes language acquisition by encouraging learners to

stretch their abilities without frustration.
● It fosters a gradual progression in language skills, building confidence and
competence.

Methodology/Research:
Krashen (1985) emphasized that comprehensible input (i+1) is crucial for language
development, as it encourages learners to stretch their abilities.

Vygotsky’sZoneof Proximal Development (ZPD) shares a similar principle of providing

learning opportunities just beyond current ability

Example:
A learner who understands present tense should be exposed to input containing simple
future tense to challenge their understanding without overwhelming them.

Teaching Implication:

● Provide language input that’s just above the learner's current ability (slightly more
complex than what they already know).
● Use a mix of familiar and new language in activities.
● Adjust lessons based on the learner’s level, ensuring that they are not too easy or
too hard.
● Teachers should provide materials that are appropriately challenging, ensuring
learners encounter language that pushes their boundaries.
● Use a variety of resources (videos, readings) that incorporate i+1 to facilitate
engagement and learning.
 30. Incidental Learning
Definition:
Learning that occurs without intentional focus or effort, often through exposure to language
in context.

Methodology/Research:
Ellis (1994) suggested that incidental learning is an important part of language acquisition,
as learners pick up new language elements during natural interactions.

Example:
A learner picks up new vocabulary while watching a movie or reading a book without directly
studying the words.

Teaching Implication:

● Provide rich language input through authentic materials like movies, books, and
conversations.
● Encourage exposure to language in real contexts (e.g., field trips, real-life
conversations).
● Create opportunities for natural interactions in the target language.

Effects:

● Supports vocabulary acquisition and grammar learning in a relaxed way.

● Fosters language use in a practical, meaningful context.

Expand Knowledge:
Incidental learning emphasizes the importance of exposure to the language in everyday
situations, which can result in greater retention of language features.

31. Individual Differences*

Definition:
Individual differences refer to the variations among learners in factors such as motivation,
personality, learning styles, and cognitive abilities that affect their language acquisition
processes.

Key Components

● Affective Factors: Motivation, anxiety, and attitude towards learning.

● Cognitive Factors: Intelligence, language aptitude, and learning strategies.

Impacts in SLA

● Individual differences can significantly influence the rate and success of language
acquisition, leading to variations in proficiency among learners.
● Understanding these differences helps educators tailor their approaches to meet
diverse learner needs.

Methodology/Research:
Lightbown & Spada (2006) examined how factors like motivation, age, and personality
influence language learning.
GardnerandLambert(1972): Distinguished integrative and instrumental motivation

Research has shown that learners with high motivation and positive attitudes tend to perform
better in language learning contexts (Dörnyei, 2005).

Example:
Some learners might be more motivated, while others struggle due to lack of interest or
social anxiety.

Teaching Implication:

● Adapt teaching methods to accommodate different learning styles and

personalities.
● Offer varied learning experiences (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) to meet diverse
needs.
● Create supportive environments that cater to both introverts and extroverts.

Recognize and accommodate different learning styles and preferences in instructional

design.

Foster a supportive learning environment that enhances motivation and reduces anxiety.
 32. Input*
Definition:
The language that learners are exposed to, which is essential for language acquisition.

Input refers to the language that learners are exposed to, which is essential for language
acquisition. It includes both spoken and written forms of the target language.

Key Components

● Comprehensible Input: Input that is understandable to the learner.

● Rich Input: Varied and contextually relevant language exposure.

Impacts in SLA

● Quality and quantity of input directly affect language acquisition; learners need
sufficient exposure to develop proficiency.
● Input shapes learners' understanding of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.

Related Research
Krashen's Input Hypothesis posits that language acquisition occurs when learners receive
comprehensible input that is slightly above their current level.

Example:
A learner listens to a conversation in the target language or reads a book in the language
they are learning.

Teaching Implication:

● Provide ample input that is both comprehensible and slightly above the learner’s
level.
● Incorporate varied input types (audio, video, written text) to support different
learning styles.
● Ensure exposure to authentic language in different contexts (e.g., news, social
media).

Provide diverse and engaging input through authentic materials, conversations, and
multimedia resources.

Ensure input is comprehensible and relevant to learners' interests and experiences.

33. Input Enhancement

Definition:

Input enhancement is the process of making certain aspects of language input more noticeable to
learners, helping them focus on specific features such as vocabulary, grammatical structures, or
pronunciation.

Key Components

● Visual Enhancement: Using bold, underlined, or highlighted text to draw attention to specific
language forms.
● Contextualization: Providing examples that emphasize particular language features within
meaningful contexts.

Impacts in SLA

● Input enhancement helps learners notice and process critical language features, facilitating
acquisition.
● It can lead to improved understanding and retention of new language forms.

Methodology/Research:
Research indicates that enhanced input leads to greater awareness and subsequent learning of target
language structures (Sharwood Smith, 1993).

Example:
Highlighting or underlining new vocabulary or grammar structures in a text to make them stand out to
learners.
Teaching Implication:

● Use visual cues (highlighting, underlining) to draw attention to key language forms.
● Create tasks that require students to focus on specific structures or vocabulary.
● Simplify complex input by breaking it down and emphasizing target language features.

Use techniques such as highlighting, simplified texts, or focused practice activities to enhance input.

Encourage learners to reflect on enhanced features during discussions or exercises.

->Enhancing input can lead to better awareness of language rules and structures, aiding in their
acquisition over time.

34. Input Hypothesis*

Definition:
A theory proposed by Krashen (1985) suggesting that language acquisition occurs when
learners receive input that is slightly beyond their current level (i+1).

Key Components

● Comprehensible Input: Language input that learners can understand while still
challenging them.
● Natural Acquisition: Emphasis on immersion and exposure rather than formal
instruction.

Impacts in SLA

● Highlights the importance of exposure to rich, meaningful language for effective

acquisition.
● Suggests that traditional teaching methods that focus on explicit grammar instruction
may be less effective.

Example:
A learner who understands the present continuous tense is then exposed to sentences using
the future tense, slightly challenging their comprehension.

Related Research

Krashen's research supports the idea that comprehensible input is crucial for successful
language acquisition and that learners naturally acquire language through exposure.

Teaching Implication:

● Provide comprehensible input that is just above the learner's current proficiency.
● Encourage listening and reading in the target language regularly.
● Balance input difficulty with student level to avoid frustration or boredom.

->Prioritize providing learners with rich, varied, and meaningful input.

Create immersive environments where authentic language use is emphasized.

 35. Intake*
Intake refers to the portion of input that learners actually process and incorporate into their
interlanguage. It is the input that is understood and absorbed for effective language
acquisition.

Key Components

● Processing: The cognitive mechanisms through which input is understood and

integrated.
● Relevance: The importance of input in the context of the learner's current
understanding and needs.

Impacts in SLA

● Not all input results in intake; effective processing is crucial for language learning.
● Learners' ability to convert input into intake significantly influences their language
development.

Related Research:

• Schmidt(1990): Noticing is necessary for input to become intake.Studies show that intake
is influenced by factors such as motivation, attention, and the relevance of the input to
learners' goals

Example:
A learner understands the past tense in context and is able to use it correctly in their speech.

Teaching Implication:

● Ensure input is comprehensible so that it can be turned into intake.

● Provide opportunities for practice after exposure to new language.
● Encourage reflection on what learners have understood from input.

Design activities that encourage learners to engage with input meaningfully, promoting
processing and retention.

Facilitate discussions and reflections on input to enhance understanding and integration into
the learner's language system.

36. Interlanguage

Definition:
The transitional state between a learner's native language and the target language, containing features of both.

Methodology/Research:
Selinker (1972) introduced the concept of interlanguage to describe the language system learners use while
acquiring a new language.

Example:
A learner might say "He can sings" instead of "He can sing," which is a feature of their interlanguage.

Teaching Implication:

● Encourage learners to take risks with language, even if it's not perfect.
● Provide corrective feedback to help learners refine their interlanguage.
● Foster a supportive classroom environment where mistakes are part of the learning process.

Effects:

● Helps learners move forward in language acquisition by refining their language use.
● Promotes experimentation with the language, which can lead to better learning outcomes.

Expand Knowledge:
Interlanguage is a normal and natural part of the learning process, as learners make mistakes and gradually
move closer to full fluency.

37. Language Acquisition Device (LAD)*

Definition

The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a theoretical construct proposed by Noam

Chomsky, suggesting that humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language. This
internal mechanism enables learners to understand and produce language based on limited
input.

Key Components

● Universal Grammar: The inherent set of grammatical principles shared across all
languages, which the LAD helps learners to access.
● Innate Capacity: The idea that language acquisition is a natural process, not solely
dependent on environmental factors.

Impact in SLA

● The LAD concept implies that learners have a built-in capacity for language
acquisition, which allows them to grasp complex structures without explicit teaching.
● It suggests that exposure to language is critical, but the ability to learn is primarily
innate.

Related Research

Chomsky's theories have influenced linguistic and cognitive psychology, leading to the
exploration of how children acquire their first language and the implications for second
language learning.

Example:
Children can learn complex grammar without explicit instruction, such as understanding
subject-verb agreement from exposure to language.

Teaching Implication:
 ● Create a language-rich environment that allows learners to use language in
meaningful ways.
● Focus on communication rather than rote memorization, as LAD suggests humans
naturally acquire language through exposure.
● Promote interaction with native speakers or other learners to simulate natural
learning environments.
● Encourages natural learning through exposure and interaction, rather than formal
instruction alone.

Expand Knowledge:
While the LAD theory is debated, it highlights the belief that humans are biologically
predisposed to acquire language.

38. Learning Strategies*

Definition

Learning strategies are specific techniques, approaches, or methods that learners use to
facilitate their language acquisition and improve their learning efficiency.

Key Components

● Cognitive Strategies: Techniques for processing information, such as summarizing

or using mnemonics.
● Metacognitive Strategies: Planning, monitoring, and evaluating one's learning
process.

Impact in SLA

● Effective learning strategies can enhance language acquisition by promoting deeper

understanding and retention of language structures and vocabulary.
● Learners who employ a variety of strategies are often more successful in mastering a
second language.

Related Research

Research by Oxford (1990) categorizes learning strategies into direct and indirect types,
emphasizing their role in successful language learning.

Example:
A learner uses flashcards to memorize vocabulary or listens to podcasts to improve listening
skills.

Teaching Implication:

● Teach effective learning strategies (e.g., chunking, using mnemonic devices).

● Encourage metacognitive awareness so learners can choose strategies that work
best for them.
● Model and scaffold new strategies as needed.

Educators should teach and encourage the use of diverse learning strategies tailored to
individual learners.
Training students in metacognitive strategies can help them become more autonomous and
effective learners.

Effects:

● Improves language retention and learning efficiency.

● Fosters learner autonomy by helping students become more independent

39. Learning Styles*

Definition

Learning styles refer to the preferred ways in which individuals absorb, process, and retain
information. These styles can influence how learners approach language acquisition.

Key Components

● Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic: Common classifications of learning styles based on

sensory preferences.
● Individual Differences: Each learner has a unique blend of styles that can affect
their engagement and success in language learning.

Impact in SLA

● Understanding learning styles can help educators tailor their teaching methods to
meet the diverse needs of learners, enhancing motivation and efficacy.
● Learners who engage with material in their preferred style may demonstrate
improved comprehension and retention.

Methodology/Research:
Gardner (1983) proposed the theory of Multiple Intelligences, which suggests that people
have different kinds of intelligences (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, etc.),
influencing their learning preferences.

Research in educational psychology (e.g., Dunn & Dunn, 1978) has explored various
learning styles, although some studies suggest that the effectiveness of matching instruction
to learning styles may be limited.

Example:

● A visual learner might prefer watching videos or using diagrams.

● An auditory learner might benefit more from listening to explanations or discussions.
● A kinesthetic learner might learn best through hands-on activities.

Teaching Implication:

● Identify students' learning preferences and offer diverse learning opportunities

(e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic).
● Incorporate various materials like videos, discussions, group work, and physical
activities to cater to different styles.
● Provide opportunities for active learning, allowing students to engage in practical,
hands-on experiences.
Educators should incorporate a variety of teaching methods to address different learning
styles in the classroom.

Encourage learners to identify their own learning preferences and develop strategies that
align with them, promoting a more personalized learning experience.

Effects:

● Increased student engagement when lessons are tailored to their preferred

learning styles.
● Better retention and understanding of material when students can process
information in a way that suits them best.

Expand Knowledge:
Though the concept of learning styles is debated, the idea encourages teachers to diversify
their methods and recognize that not all students learn in the same way.

40. Markedness

Definition:
The concept in linguistics is that some language forms or structures are considered "marked" (less
common, complex) while others are "unmarked" (more common, simple).

Methodology/Research:
Chomsky and Halle (1968) proposed the theory of markedness, where marked forms deviate from the
norm and require extra effort to process or produce.

Example:
In English, the plural "dogs" is considered marked compared to the singular "dog." In some
languages, certain sounds or grammatical structures may be marked.

Teaching Implication:

● Highlight unmarked forms as the baseline for learners.

● Introduce marked forms gradually to avoid overwhelming learners.
● Focus on the most frequent, unmarked forms in early language instruction.

Effects:

● Makes language learning more accessible by prioritizing unmarked, common forms.

● Gradual mastery of marked forms as learners advance in proficiency.

41. Meaning

Definition:
The sense or interpretation of words, phrases, or sentences in a language.

Methodology/Research:
Theories like those proposed by Saussure (1916) argue that meaning is derived from the relationship
between signs (words) and their referents (concepts).

Example:
The word "dog" refers to a four-legged, domesticated animal, and its meaning is shaped by the
context and use of the word.

Teaching Implication:

● Contextualize vocabulary to help learners understand the meaning in different situations.

● Use visuals and real-world examples to make meaning clear.
● Encourage learners to guess meaning from context when possible.

Effects:

● Promotes deeper understanding of words and concepts.

● Improves communication skills by clarifying meaning.

42. Mental Representation of Language

Definition:
The internal cognitive structures or schemas that learners develop to understand and process
language.

Methodology/Research:
Chomsky’s (1965) theory of generative grammar suggested that humans have an innate mental
structure to process language, while cognitive theories emphasize the role of experience in shaping
mental representations.

Example:
A learner creates a mental image of how a sentence is constructed, such as "She eats an apple"
versus "An apple eats she."

Teaching Implication:

● Encourage learners to form mental images or diagrams to understand language structures.

● Use explicit explanations and practice to help learners internalize grammar rules.
● Provide repetition and practice to solidify mental representations.

Effects:

● Strengthens understanding of language structures and concepts.

● Improves fluency as learners internalize and automate language forms.

43. Monitor Theory*

Definition:
Proposed by Stephen Krashen (1982), the theory suggests that learners have an internal
“monitor” that checks and corrects their speech or writing based on learned rules.

Monitor Theory, proposed by Stephen Krashen, posits that there are two processes in
language acquisition: acquisition (subconscious) and learning (conscious). The "monitor"
refers to the conscious use of learned language rules to correct or modify language output.

Key Components

● Acquisition vs. Learning: Emphasizes the distinction between natural language

acquisition and formal language learning.
 ● Monitor: The role of conscious thought in editing and correcting language use.

Impact in SLA

● The monitor can help refine language output but may inhibit fluency if overly relied
upon.
● Learners with high awareness of language rules may focus too much on correctness
rather than communication.
● Improves learners’ self-editing skills and accuracy over time.
● Helps learners balance fluency and accuracy in language production.

Methodology/Research:
Krashen (1982) emphasized that the monitor works best when learners focus on form
(accuracy) and have time to think about language rules.

Krashen's theory has influenced many language teaching methodologies, emphasizing the
importance of exposure over explicit grammar instruction.

Example:
A learner who knows the grammar rules might correct themselves in speech (e.g., saying “I
am going to the store” instead of “I go to the store”) using their internal monitor.

Teaching Implication:

● Encourage fluency over accuracy in early stages of learning.

● Focus on both communicative practice and form to help learners develop their
monitor.
● Provide opportunities for self-correction and feedback.

->Encourage learners to focus on communication first, using the monitor as a secondary tool
for refinement.

Create environments that promote natural language use, reducing anxiety over errors.
 44. Motivation*
Definition:
Motivation in SLA refers to the drive that propels learners to engage with and invest effort in
learning a second language. It can be intrinsic (internal desire) or extrinsic (external
rewards).

Key Components

● Integrative Motivation: Desire to connect with the culture of the language.

● Instrumental Motivation: Desire to achieve specific goals, such as job opportunities or
academic success.

Impact in SLA

● Higher motivation levels correlate with increased effort, persistence, and success in
language acquisition.
● Motivated learners are more likely to seek opportunities for practice and
engagement.

Methodology/Research:

Gardner (1985) argued that motivation is a key factor in second language acquisition.

Studies by Gardner and Lambert have shown that integrative motivation often leads to more
effective language learning outcomes compared to instrumental motivation.

Example:
A student motivated by the desire to travel (intrinsic) may learn the language more eagerly
than one learning for a grade (extrinsic).

Teaching Implication:

● Provide meaningful tasks that connect to students' interests.

● Create a positive learning environment that fosters intrinsic motivation.
● Offer recognition and praise for effort and progress to boost motivation.
● Foster a motivating classroom environment by connecting lessons to learners'
interests and goals.
● Incorporate cultural elements to enhance integrative motivation.

Effects:

● Improved engagement and persistence in learning.

● Better language acquisition outcomes when learners are motivated.

45. Native Language/Native-like*

Definition:
The language that a learner speaks from birth (native language) and the level of proficiency
in the target language that closely resembles that of a native speaker.

Native language refers to the first language a person learns, while native-like proficiency
denotes a high level of fluency and accuracy in a second language that closely resembles
that of a native speaker.
Key Components

● Fluency and Accuracy: The ability to communicate effectively and correctly.

● Cultural Nuance: Understanding idiomatic expressions and cultural references.

Impact in SLA

● Achieving native-like proficiency is often a goal for learners, influencing their

motivation and learning strategies.
● Variations in native-like proficiency can affect learners' confidence and willingness to
engage in the language.

Methodology/Research:
Bialystok (2001) discussed how bilinguals’ proficiency in their native language may influence
their second language skills. The native-like proficiency is the ideal, but it’s difficult for many
second language learners to achieve.

Example:
A learner who speaks English as their native language but learns Spanish may eventually
achieve native-like fluency in Spanish with enough practice and exposure.

Teaching Implication:

● Provide immersion experiences to encourage native-like proficiency.

● Offer targeted practice on pronunciation, grammar, and idiomatic language to
sound more native-like.
● Create opportunities for interaction with native speakers.
● Set realistic proficiency goals for learners, understanding that native-like proficiency
may take years to achieve.
● Provide authentic language exposure to help learners develop fluency and cultural
understanding.

Effects:

● Encourages high language proficiency in the target language.

● Improves fluency and naturalness of speech.
 46. Metalinguistic Knowledge*
Definition:
Awareness and understanding of the structure, rules, and function of language.

->Metalinguistic knowledge refers to the awareness and understanding of language as a

system, including knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and language structures.

Key Components

● Explicit Knowledge: Understanding language rules and terminology.

● Analytical Skills: Ability to reflect on and manipulate language.

Impact in SLA

● Learners with strong metalinguistic knowledge can better analyze and understand
language patterns, aiding in learning.
● It can enhance learners’ ability to self-correct and refine their language use.

Methodology/Research:
Swain (1995) discussed how learners' metalinguistic awareness helps them understand and
manipulate language more effectively.

Example:
A learner who knows the difference between past tense and present perfect demonstrates
metalinguistic knowledge.

Teaching Implication:

● Explicitly teach grammar rules to raise learners’ metalinguistic awareness.

● Encourage reflection on language structures to deepen understanding.
● Use error correction to highlight language rules.
● Integrate metalinguistic awareness into lessons through explicit grammar instruction
and reflection activities.
● Encourage learners to think about language use and rules as part of their learning
process.

Effects:

● Improves language accuracy and understanding.

● Helps learners monitor their language use.
 47. Natural Order Hypothesis*
Definition:
The Natural Order Hypothesis, also proposed by Stephen Krashen, suggests that language
learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, regardless of the order in
which they are taught.

Key Components

● Acquisition Sequence: Certain language features are acquired before others,

following a natural progression.
● Independence from Instruction: The order of acquisition is not significantly influenced
by teaching methods.

Impact in SLA

● Understanding the natural order can help educators tailor instruction to align with
learners’ developmental stages.
● Recognizing that learners may not acquire all structures at once can reduce
frustration in both learners and teachers.

Methodology/Research:
Krashen’s Input Hypothesis implies that learners first acquire simpler language structures
before more complex ones.

Example:
In English, learners typically acquire the present progressive before mastering the future
tense.

Teaching Implication:

● Present language structures in a way that follows the natural acquisition order.
● Ensure sufficient practice with simpler structures before introducing more complex
ones.
● Use graded language input to gradually challenge learners.
● Focus on providing comprehensible input that matches learners' current acquisition
stages.
● Avoid overwhelming learners with advanced structures before they are ready, instead
gradually introducing complexity aligned with their natural progression.

Effects:

● Faster language acquisition by aligning teaching with the natural order of learning.
● Reduces learner frustration by focusing on structures that are easier to acquire
first.

48. Negative Evidence

Definition:
Feedback or correction that highlights errors in a learner's language use, showing them what is not correct.
Methodology/Research:
Ellis (1994) highlighted the importance of negative evidence for helping learners identify mistakes and correct
them.

Research by Schwartz (1993) discusses the importance of negative evidence in language learning, suggesting it
helps learners avoid errors

Example:
A teacher correcting a learner's incorrect sentence (e.g., "He go to school" → "He goes to school") provides
negative evidence.

Teaching Implication:

● Provide corrective feedback to highlight errors in language use.

● Balance negative feedback with encouragement to prevent discouragement.
● Use explicit correction when necessary to prevent fossilization.

Effects:

● Improves accuracy by helping learners notice and correct errors.

● Facilitates language development by preventing the reinforcement of mistakes.

49. Negotiation of Meaning*

Definition:
The process in which speakers interact and adjust their language to ensure mutual
understanding, often through clarification, repetition, or rephrasing.

Key Components

● Clarification Requests: Strategies used by speakers to ask for repetition or

explanation when they do not understand.
● Confirmation Checks: Strategies to confirm understanding, such as paraphrasing or
summarizing what has been said.
● Reformulation: Adjusting language, including simplifying structures or changing
vocabulary, to enhance clarity.

Impact in SLA

● Negotiation of meaning promotes deeper language processing, allowing learners to

actively engage with the language and learn from their interactions.
● It encourages the use of both receptive (listening and reading) and productive
(speaking and writing) language skills, enhancing overall proficiency.

Methodology/Research:
Long (1983) emphasized the role of negotiation of meaning in second language acquisition,
suggesting that it helps learners process language more deeply. ->Studies have shown that
interactions involving negotiation lead to greater language development.

Example:
In a conversation, if a learner doesn't understand a word, they may ask, "What does that
mean?" or ask for clarification, prompting a more detailed explanation.

Teaching Implication:
 ● Encourage interactive activities like pair or group work to promote negotiation of
meaning.
● Teach strategies for clarifying and confirming understanding (e.g., asking for
repetition or explanation).
● Use scaffolding to help learners navigate misunderstandings.
● Create tasks that require learners to negotiate meaning, such as problem-solving
activities or role-plays, to promote active engagement and language processing.

Effects:

● Improves communication skills by encouraging learners to actively negotiate

meaning.
● Promotes deeper comprehension and retention of language.

____________________________________________________________

50. Noticing/Noticing Hypothesis*

Definition:

Noticing: refers to the learning process when learners become consciously aware
of specific features in the input they receive.

This awareness is crucial for language acquisition because it allows learners to

recognize and internalize new linguistic forms and structures.

Noticing hypothesis suggests that language learners must consciously notice the
linguistic features in the input for learning to occur.

Example: To learn the past tense, a learner must notice the "-ed" ending in words like
"walked" and "played."

Key Components

● Awareness: Learners must be aware of language features for them to be acquired.

● Input Enhancement: Techniques that make certain language forms more salient to
promote noticing (e.g., highlighting, repetition).

Impact in SLA

● Noticing plays a crucial role in language acquisition by facilitating the transition from
input to intake (the language that is processed and stored).
● Research indicates that when learners notice specific language features, they are
more likely to incorporate them into their interlanguage.

Related research:

Noticing is a term attributed largely to Richard W. Schmidt.

 (Richard Schmidt (1990, 2001) proposed the Noticing Hypothesis based on his own
experiences learning Portuguese and observations of other language learners.)

He claims that the only linguistic elements in the input that learners can acquire are
those elements that they notice. -> By noticing, learners are paying attention, that
there is some level of awareness in learning.

( He contrasts this to implicit learning, learning without awareness, subliminal

learning, and other scenarios. In many respects, Schmidt’s claim is a reaction to
Krashen’s idea that acquisition involves subconscious learning (see acquisition).
Because Schmidt believes in some level of awareness on the part of the learner, he
tends to reject a major role for any kind of implicit or unconscious learning. )

->> Schmidt's studies have demonstrated that learners who actively notice language
forms in context have better outcomes in language proficiency.

(Effect:

Language learning consist of 3 things:

According to Steve Kaufmann is a Canadian polyglot and internet personality known for
his language-learning content on YouTube.

Language learning

1. Attitude of learner
2. Time spent with the language
3. the ability to notice

These concepts highlight the importance of conscious awareness in language

learning and suggest that simply being exposed to language input is not enough;
learners must actively notice and process the linguistic features to acquire them.

Gradual Awareness: Language learning progresses like solving a puzzle, where

initial confusion gives way to clarity as learners begin to recognize patterns and

structures.)

Pros Cons

● Better Learning: Helps you understand ● Overwhelming: Can be too much to

and remember new language features. handle, especially for beginners.

● More Accurate: Improves your ability ● Limited Focus: Might make you focus

to use language correctly. too much on accuracy and not enough

on fluency.
 ● Increased Awareness: Makes you ● Varies by Person: Not everyone is

more aware of language patterns equally good at noticing.

● Active Engagement: Encourages you ● Depends on Context: Works better in

to actively engage with the language. some situations than others.

Example: By noticing the correct use of

articles "a" and "an," a learner improves their ● Example 1: A beginner learner might
accuracy in using these articles in sentences. feel overwhelmed trying to notice
every grammatical rule while listening
to a native speaker.
● Example 2: A learner might focus too
much on getting grammar right and
hesitate to speak fluently in
conversations.

Facilitating Noticing:

Teachers and structured explanations can significantly aid in the noticing process,

emphasizing the importance of supportive learning environments.

Recommendations for teachers

-Use strategies that enhance noticing, such as explicit instruction, focusing activities, and

highlighting key language features in materials.

-Encourage learners to reflect on their language use and identify areas for improvement

actively.

1. Provide Rich Input- Use movies, songs, or articles in the target language to show

different grammar points or vocabulary.

2. Highlight Key Features-Highlight past tense verbs in a text to help students notice

the "-ed" endings.

3. Use Explicit Instruction-Teach a lesson on articles "a" and "an," with examples and

practice exercises.

4. Encourage Self-Monitoring-Have students keep a language journal to note down

new words or grammar rules they notice.

 5. Provide Feedback-Correct students' errors and explain why the correction is

necessary.

6. Use Task-Based Learning-Create role-play activities where students use past

tense verbs to describe their weekend.

7. Promote Interaction-Organize language exchange sessions or group discussions

for practice and noticing new language features.

______________________________________________________________________

51. Output Hypothesis*

Definition Of Output:

In SLA, "output" refers to the language that learners produce, either through speaking
or writing. It's the active use of the language they are learning.

Output Hypothesis:

Merrill Swain (1985, 1995) developed the Output Hypothesis

based on research with immersion students in Canada.
Swain's research highlighted that learners who produce language demonstrate increased
accuracy and fluency, reinforcing the importance of output in SLA.

Core idea:

● It suggests that producing language (output) is crucial for language learning.

● Output helps learners notice gaps in their knowledge, test hypotheses about
language use, and develop fluency and accuracy.

3 main roles of output in SLA

1. Noticing Function:
○ Producing language helps learners notice gaps between what they
want to say and what they can say.
○ This "noticing the gap" leads to awareness of new linguistic forms or
structures.
2. Hypothesis Testing Function:
○ When learners produce output, they test their hypotheses about the
language (e.g., grammar, vocabulary, syntax).
 ○ Feedback from listeners or interlocutors can confirm or challenge their
language hypotheses.
3. Metalinguistic Function (or Reflective Function):
○ Output encourages learners to reflect on the language and analyze its
rules.
○ This reflection strengthens their understanding and ability to
internalize the language.

Example

Anna wants to say: "Yesterday, I went to the park," but says: "Yesterday, I go park."

- She notices her mistake (missing the past tense).

- She guesses: "Yesterday, I goed," and her friend corrects her to: "went."
- Anna learns the correct form and remembers it better after reflecting on why
it’s irregular.

-> Output helps Anna identify gaps, test her knowledge, and improve through
feedback

Key Components

● Production: Engaging in speaking and writing activities that require learners to use
language.
● Cognitive Processing: The idea that output helps learners notice gaps in their
knowledge and encourages them to refine their language skills.

Impact in SLA

● Output pushes learners to organize their thoughts, practice grammatical structures,

and experiment with vocabulary, enhancing their overall language proficiency.
● Research shows that learners who engage in meaningful output activities are more
likely to improve their communicative competence.

Implications in SLA:

● Output complements input, emphasizing that comprehension alone may not lead to
full acquisition.
● Classroom activities promoting speaking and writing are critical for fostering both
fluency and accuracy.

Expand the knowledge:

Methods for applying noticing hypothesis on teaching

By understanding how input and output benefit learners, teachers should balance
between input and output.

Input: Provide engaging listening and reading materials to build understanding.

 Output: Design practical tasks (e.g., role plays, group discussions, or writing activities)
that encourage students to:

- Design activities that require meaningful output, such as discussions, presentations,

and writing tasks.
- Provide opportunities for peer interaction and feedback to encourage learners to
produce language in a supportive environment.
1. Practice using the language.
2. Notice their mistakes.
3. Receive feedback to improve.

52. Performance *
Definition:

Performance is the real-time use of language in speaking or writing, influenced by factors

like anxiety or context (e.g., formal vs. informal settings).

Core points:

Variability: A student might perform differently in various situations (e.g., better in

casual talk, but nervous in a formal presentation).

Errors: Mistakes during performance, such as wrong grammar, don’t mean the
student doesn’t know the language. As long as they can communicate, it’s
successful.

Improvement with Input: The more students practice the language (through
exposure and input), the better their performance becomes.

Key Components

● Fluency: The ability to communicate smoothly and effortlessly.

● Accuracy: The correctness of language forms used in communication.

Impact in SLA

● Performance can vary based on context, motivation, and anxiety, reflecting not only
the learner's competence but also their ability to utilize language in real-time
situations.
● Research indicates that performance may not always accurately reflect a learner's
underlying knowledge; learners may perform better in supportive environments.

Chomsky’s Distinction:

Noam Chomsky’s 1965 distinction between competence and performance is foundational

in linguistics. He defined:

● Competence as the underlying knowledge of language rules—the mental system of

a speaker's language, such as grammar and vocabulary.
 ● Performance is how learners apply these rules in real-life language use. This may
be imperfect due to factors like stress, distraction, or fatigue, which can affect fluency
and accuracy.

-> competence reflects what a person knows about language, while performance shows
what they can actually use when communicating, which may involve errors or deviations
from the ideal rules.

Aspect Competence Performance

Definition Knowledge of language rules Actual use of language in

(grammar, vocabulary) real-life situations

Focus What learners know about the How learners apply their
language knowledge in
communication

Stability Remains consistent, unaffected by Can vary due to emotions,

external factors stress, distractions

Assessment through knowledge tests, grammar Assessed through real-life

knowledge language use, fluency,
communication skills

Nature Internal, cognitive system of rules External, observable

and structures behavior in language use

Example Knowing that "went" is the past Saying "I go yesterday"

tense of "go" instead of "I went" under
stress

Example: A learner might know a grammar rule but make mistakes due to nervousness
(e.g., saying "I go" instead of "I went").

Teacher's Role:

● Create a supportive environment to reduce stress.

● Provide realistic practice opportunities ( role plays, discussions)
● Differentiate errors from those due to lack of knowledge ( competence) vs.
performance factors.
 Example: If a student says "I goed," the teacher identifies it as a performance error
and gently corrects them, focusing on their overall communication rather than just
grammar mistakes.

-> Focus on effective communication, not just accuracy, to assess learners better.

53. Positive evidence

Definition:

In the book: Positive evidence is the input that learners hear in communicative settings, in
both L1 and L2 situations. It contains any and all utterances that learners might hear from
more proficient or native speakers of the language. (It can also be input that learners get
from written texts )

-> Explanation: positive evidence is what learners hear or read that shows them how
language works in practice, without explicit corrections or explanations.

According to Universal Grammar theories, learners use only positive evidence to learn a
language, not negative evidence (which tells them what is incorrect).

**Related Research:** Research by Krashen emphasizes the importance of positive

evidence in acquiring language structures through exposure.

Example: When learners read a book, listen to a conversation, or watch a movie in the
target language, they receive positive evidence. For instance, hearing sentences like "She is
reading a book" helps learners understand the correct use of the present continuous tense.

Teacher roles:

to help learners internalize correct language forms and build a strong foundation for
communication.

1. Model correct language through spoken and written examples.

2. Encourage real-life communication via activities like role-plays and discussions.
3. Create immersive environments using authentic materials (e.g., videos, songs).
4. Provide regular language input to reinforce correct usage.

Key questions:

Negative evidence and positive evidence: what is more important?

Answer:

Positive Evidence is more important for building a foundation of language knowledge,

especially in the early stages. It provides learners with correct examples of language use,
helping them understand grammar and vocabulary.

Negative Evidence, on the other hand, is vital for error correction and refining language
use. It becomes more crucial as learners advance, helping them self-correct and improve
performance.
In short, positive evidence is key for initial learning, while negative evidence helps
learners refine their language skills as they progress. Both are important, but positive
evidence plays a larger role early on.

—————————————————

54. Recasts*

Definition

Recasts are a form of corrective feedback where a teacher or interlocutor reformulates a

learner's erroneous utterance without directly indicating the mistake. This can involve
correcting grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary while maintaining the original meaning.

Key Components

● Implicit Correction: The learner is exposed to the correct form without explicit error
correction.
● Contextual Use: Recasts are typically delivered in the context of ongoing
conversation.

Impact in SLA

● Recasts provide learners with exposure to correct language forms, facilitating implicit
learning.
● Research suggests that recasts can enhance the acquisition of grammatical
structures, particularly when learners are engaged in meaningful communication.

Related Research

Studies by Long and others have shown that recasts can lead to improved accuracy in
language use, especially when provided immediately after an error.

Teaching Implications

● Employ recasts during conversations to promote learning without disrupting

communication flow.
● Encourage a communicative approach where learners feel comfortable making errors
and receiving implicit feedback.

* **Example:**
* Learner: "Yesterday I go to the park."
* Teacher: "Yesterday you *went* to the park? That's nice. What did you do there?"

How to Apply Recasts Effectively**

* **Keep it natural:** Recasts should be integrated naturally into the conversation, rather
than interrupting the flow.
* **Be clear and concise:** Focus on the specific error and provide the correct form without
overwhelming the student with too much information.
* **Provide context:** Ensure that the recast is relevant to the ongoing conversation or
activity.
* **Vary your approach:** Use a variety of recast types to keep students engaged and
cater to different learning styles.
Vary the types of recasts used (e.g., clarification requests, explicit correction, repetition) to
maintain learner engagement.

* **Effects:**
* **Increased awareness:** Recasts can help students become aware of their errors and the
correct forms.
* **Improved accuracy:** By providing the correct form, recasts can help students improve
their accuracy over time.
* **Enhanced fluency:** Recasts can also help students become more fluent by providing
them with opportunities to hear and practice correct forms in natural conversation.

55. Salience

* **Definition:**
* Salience refers to the "psychological prominence" of linguistic features in the input,
which influences learners' attention and processing (Schmidt, 2001, p. 26).
* It is a multi-faceted construct influenced by factors such as perceptual salience (e.g.,
stress, phonological properties), semantic salience (e.g., novelty, relevance), and individual
learner factors (e.g., prior knowledge, L1 influence).
* **Methodology (Writers, Research):**

* **Research Focus:**
* Leow (2000) explored the impact of visual input enhancement on noticing and
learning of grammatical structures.

Effects of Salience in Teaching**

* **Increased attention:** Salience can help learners focus their attention on specific
language features.
* **Improved comprehension:** By highlighting key information, salience can make it
easier for learners to understand the meaning of spoken or written texts.
* **Enhanced memory:** Salience can make language features more memorable, leading
to better retention and recall.

**Examples of Effects with Each Skill**

* **Speaking:** Using gestures or visual aids to emphasize key vocabulary during a

speaking activity can help learners remember and use those words more accurately.
* **Listening:** Highlighting key words or phrases in a listening passage can help
learners focus on the most important information and improve their comprehension.
* **Reading:** Using different font sizes or colors to draw attention to specific
grammatical structures in a reading text can help learners notice and understand those
structures.
* **Writing:** Providing feedback that focuses on specific errors or areas for
improvement in a student's writing can help them pay more attention to those aspects in
future writing tasks.

56. Scaffolding*
Definition

Scaffolding refers to the support provided by teachers or more knowledgeable peers to help
learners accomplish tasks they cannot complete independently. This support can take
various forms, including guidance, prompts, and structured activities.

Related Research
* Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and
scaffolding in cognitive development.
-> Vygotsky's concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) underpins scaffolding,
emphasizing the importance of guided interaction in learning.
 * Swain (2000) highlighted the importance of collaborative dialogue and scaffolding in
L2 learning.

Key Components

● Gradual Release of Support: As learners gain competence, the level of support is

gradually reduced.
● Responsive Interaction: Scaffolding is tailored to the learner's current level and
needs.

Impact in SLA

● Scaffolding enhances learners' ability to engage with complex language tasks,

fostering independence and confidence.
● Research indicates that effective scaffolding can lead to increased language
proficiency and higher levels of engagement

* **Increased confidence:** Scaffolding can help learners feel more confident and capable of
tackling challenging tasks.
* **Improved comprehension:** By providing support, scaffolding can help learners
understand complex concepts and language.
* **Enhanced participation:** Scaffolding can encourage learners to actively participate in
classroom activities and discussions.

Teaching Implications

● Provide structured activities that allow for gradual complexity, supporting learners as
they tackle new language challenges.
● Use collaborative learning strategies to facilitate peer scaffolding among students
● Provide differentiated scaffolding based on learners' individual needs and the task
demands.
● Use various scaffolding techniques, such as modeling, questioning, and think-
alouds.
● Gradually fade scaffolding as learners gain proficiency and independence.
●

**Examples of Effects with Each Skill**

* **Speaking:** Providing sentence starters or prompts can help learners initiate and
participate in conversations.
* **Listening:** Pre-teaching key vocabulary or providing background information can help
learners understand a listening passage.
* **Reading:** Using graphic organizers or providing summaries can help learners
comprehend a reading text.
* **Writing:** Providing a writing frame or model text can help learners structure their writing.
57. Selective Attention*

* **Definition:**
* Selective attention is the cognitive process of focusing on specific stimuli while
filtering out irrelevant information (Tomlin & Villa, 1994).
* In SLA, it plays a crucial role in determining what learners notice and process in the
input.
-> Selective attention refers to the cognitive process of focusing on specific aspects of the
language input while ignoring others. This process is essential for effective learning, as it
allows learners to prioritize what to notice and internalize.

Key Components

● Focus on Form: The ability to direct attention toward specific linguistic elements,
such as vocabulary or grammatical structures.
● Cognitive Load Management: Balancing the amount of information being
processed to enhance learning efficiency.

Impact in SLA

● Learners who effectively manage their attention are better at noticing and acquiring
specific language features, leading to improved proficiency.
● Selective attention can enhance the effectiveness of instructional strategies, allowing
learners to engage more deeply with the material.

● **Improved noticing:** Selective attention can help learners notice specific language
features they might otherwise miss.
● * **Enhanced processing:** By focusing on specific aspects of language, learners
can process information more effectively.
● * **Increased learning:** Selective attention can lead to deeper processing and
better retention of language.

* **Methodology (Writers, Research):**

* Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis (1990) posits that conscious noticing of input features
is necessary for learning.
* VanPatten's Input Processing theory (2004) explains how learners prioritize certain
input features based on their processing capacity and L1 influence.
* Andersen's (1990) information processing model highlights the role of attention in the
acquisition of grammatical structures.

Teaching Implications

● Design Focused Activities: Create tasks that target specific language features,
encouraging learners to concentrate on and practice these elements.
 ● Incorporate Multisensory Approaches: Use visual, auditory, and kinesthetic
strategies to engage different modalities, supporting selective attention.
● Encourage Reflection: Have learners reflect on their language use and the
features they noticed during activities, promoting awareness and
metacognition.

* **Provide clear instructions:** Clearly explain what learners should be paying attention to.
* **Use attention-grabbing techniques:** Use visual or auditory cues to highlight important
information.
* **Vary the focus:** Shift the focus of attention to different language features or aspects of
a task to keep learners engaged.

**Examples of Effects with Each Skill**

* **Speaking:** Encouraging learners to focus on their pronunciation while speaking can

help them improve their accuracy.
* **Listening:** Asking learners to listen for specific information in a recording can help
them develop their selective listening skills.
* **Reading:** Directing learners to pay attention to the use of specific grammatical
structures in a text can help them understand how those structures are used.
* **Writing:** Encouraging learners to focus on the organization and coherence of their
writing can help them produce more effective texts.

—————————————————

58. Transfer*

Definition

Transfer refers to the influence of a learner's first language (L1) on their second language
(L2) acquisition. This influence can be positive (facilitating learning) or negative (causing
errors).

Key Components

● Positive Transfer: Occurs when similarities between L1 and L2 aid learning, making
it easier for learners to grasp new concepts.
● Negative Transfer: Occurs when differences lead to errors or misunderstandings,
often manifesting in pronunciation, grammar, or syntax.

Impact in SLA

● Transfer can significantly impact learners' performance, affecting their ability

to produce accurate language.
● Awareness of transfer can help learners identify potential areas of difficulty
and facilitate their understanding of L2 structures.
Research:

● Lado (1957): Differences between L1 and L2 predict challenges.

● Odlin (1989): Transfer impacts grammar, pronunciation, and culture.

Tips for Teachers:

● Highlight common L1-L2 differences to avoid errors.

● Use L1-L2 similarities (e.g., cognates) to build confidence.
● Encourage reflection on how L1 influence L2.
● Raise Awareness: Teach learners about the potential influences of their L1, helping
them recognize patterns that may either assist or hinder their learning.
● Target Problem Areas: Provide explicit instruction on aspects of L2 that differ
significantly from L1, addressing potential negative transfer issues.
● Utilize L1 Resources: Where applicable, leverage learners' L1 to explain complex
L2 concepts, making connections that facilitate understanding.

59. Uptake

What it means:
Uptake is how learners respond to feedback. It shows whether they notice and act on their
mistakes.

Types:

1. Successful: Learner fixes the mistake.

○ Example:
■ Teacher: "Say 'He goes to school.'"
■ Learner: "Oh, he goes to school."
2. Unsuccessful: Learner doesn’t correct the mistake.
○ Example:
■ Teacher: "It’s 'She is running.'"
■ Learner: "Oh, okay. She running."

Research:

● Lyster & Ranta (1997): Explicit corrections often lead to better uptake.
● Ellis (2007): Learners must notice feedback for effective uptake.

Tips for Teachers:

● Use explicit corrections with beginners for clarity.

● Use prompts or indirect feedback for advanced learners to encourage self-correction.
● Create interactive tasks where feedback happens naturally.
 60. Working Memory (WM)*
What it means:
WM is like a "mental notepad" that helps learners hold and process information in real time.
It’s key for listening, speaking, grammar, and vocabulary.

Working memory refers to the cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and
processing information needed for complex cognitive tasks, including language
comprehension and production.

Key Components:

1. Phonological Loop: Holds sounds (e.g., repeating a new word to remember it).
2. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Handles visual information (e.g., recognizing Chinese
characters).
3. Central Executive: Manages attention and combines grammar and vocabulary.

Capacity: The amount of information that can be actively managed at one time.

Processing Efficiency: The ability to manipulate and utilize information effectively,

influencing language use and learning.

Impact in SLA

● Working memory capacity can influence language learning, particularly in tasks

requiring the integration of new vocabulary or grammar.
● Learners with higher working memory capacities often perform better in language
tasks, as they can manage more information simultaneously.

Examples:

● Learners with strong WM can understand complex sentences like, "The boy who is
running is my brother."
● Weak WM might cause learners to lose track of earlier parts of the sentence.

Research:

● Baddeley & Hitch (1974): Working memory processes and stores information.
● Miyake & Friedman (1998): Strong WM predicts better success in learning grammar
and vocabulary.

Tips for Teachers:

● Use short, clear instructions to avoid overloading WM.

● Practice listening tasks with repeated exposure.
● Scaffold tasks to build confidence and reduce WM strain.

Incorporate Memory-Aiding Strategies: Use techniques such as chunking information,

mnemonic devices, and visual aids to support working memory.
Design Appropriate Tasks: Ensure that tasks are appropriately challenging without
overwhelming learners, allowing them to utilize their working memory effectively.

Practice Regularly: Provide frequent opportunities for learners to practice using new
vocabulary and structures in varied contexts to reinforce memory retention.

______________________________

(0) . Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Definition

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), introduced by Lev Vygotsky, refers to the gap
between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from
a more knowledgeable other (MKO).

Key Components

● Independent Capability: Skills the learner can perform alone.

● Potential Development: Skills attainable with support.
● Scaffolding: Temporary assistance to help learners progress.

Impact in SLA

● Emphasizes social interaction in language learning.

● Instruction within the ZPD fosters deeper understanding and mastery of language
concepts.

Related Research

Vygotsky’s theories inform collaborative learning practices, showing that support within the
ZPD enhances learning outcomes.

Teaching Implications

● Differentiated Instruction: Tailor tasks to each learner's current abilities.

● Collaborative Learning: Promote group work for peer support.
● Scaffolding Techniques: Use modeling, prompts, and questioning to guide learners.
● Feedback and Reflection: Provide ongoing feedback to encourage self-assessment
and growth.
Conclusion

The ZPD is essential for effective language learning, enabling educators to create supportive
environments that enhance acquisition and development.