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SECTION 6 : FLIGHT DYNAMICS

1. Introduction

Flight dynamics is concerned with the motion of an aeroplane in response to various

a) Inertia forces
b) Aerodynamic damping forces and moments resulting from the aeroplanes
angular motion
c) Aerodynamic forces and moments resulting from linear motion
d) Aerodynamic forces and moments due to control movement
e) Gravitational forces
f) Propulsive forces

Only the flight dynamics of an aeroplane with a longitudinal plane of symmetry are
considered, although many of the methods are applicable to non-symmetric aeroplanes and
helicopters.

2 Development of the Equations of Motion for an Aircraft

The method by which the equations of motion are obtained will be summarised. Appendix A
gives the full derivation.

a) An aircraft can be thought of as a rigid body moving about its centre of gravity.
b) Using the equations of motion for a fixed point in a rigid body, referred to moving axes,
it is possible to obtain expressions for the velocities and accelerations of the point.
c) The motion of the fixed point must be caused by external forces. Therefore
D’Alembert’s Principle can be used to equate the external and inertia forces and
moments.
d) The external forces are aerodynamic and gravitational.
e) Recognising that an aircraft is a series of point masses, the results for individual points
are summed. The resulting equations describe the motion of an aircraft, but they are
complicated!
f) To simplify the equations the following assumptions are made:
 Aeroplane is in an initially trimmed condition with wings level (i.e. no bank)
and flying with no yaw or sideslip.
 All disturbances to aeroplane motion are small, and second order terms can be
neglected.
 The aeroplane has a plane of symmetry.
 Aeroplane has constant mass, distributed symmetrically.
 The air flow over the aeroplane is quasi-steady.
g) To arrive at the final equations the gravitational and aerodynamic forces and moments
need to be quantified. The gravitational forces along each axis of the aircraft can be
determined by resolving the weight for an arbitary aircraft orientation. The aerodynamic
forces are considered below.

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3 Determination of the Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

The aerodynamic forces and moments acting on an aeroplane are functions of the
axial and rotational velocities. Therefore for small disturbances, and neglecting second
order terms:

X X X X X X X X
X a  X ae  u v w  
w p q r X t  (6.1)
u v w w
 p q r (t )

and similarly for Ya, Za, La, Ma and Na.

X a e is the aerodynamic force when the aircraft is in its initial trimmed state.

X / u ... X / r are constants and are called aerodynamic derivatives and are
o o
sometimes denoted X u ....... X r .

X /  ( t ) X( t ) accounts for the aerodynamic forces due to control movement.

u, v and w are perturbations in the velocities along the x, y and z axes

p, q and r are perturbations in the rotational velocities about the x, y and z axes

For completeness equation (1.19) should include terms to account for the rate of
change of velocities (e.g. X / u u ) which can be important when an aircraft is in an
unsteady oscillatory motion. In general only terms involving w  are included because of
their importance in longitudinal pitching motions (where the rate of change of wing
incidence can affect tail characteristics).

The expressions for aerodynamic forces and moments can be further simplified by
considering a symmetric aircraft with no bank or yaw. A symmetric disturbance cannot
produce an asymmetric force or moment. For example, a change in pitch does not produce
sideforce, and so Y / q  0 .

Similarly asymmetric disturbances produce no symmetrical forces and moments. For

In general terms, the aerodynamic forces and moments become:

X X X X X( t )
X a  X ae  u w  
w q (6.2)
u w w
 q (t )

Z Z Z Z Z
Z a  Z ae  u w  
w q (t ) (6.3)
u w w
 q (t )

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M M M M M ( t )
Ma  u w  
w q (6.4)
u w w
 q (t )

Y Y Y Y
Ya  Yae  v p r (t ) (6.5)
v p r (t )

L L L L
La  v p r (t ) (6.6)
v p r (t )

N N N N
Na  v p r (t ) (6.7)
v p r (t )

N.B: For initial trimmed condition M ae  L ae  N ae  0 .

From inspection of equations (6.2) to (6.7) it can be seen that two distinct groups are
formed:

i) The symmetric aerodynamic forces and moments which depend only on

4 The General Equations of Motion

Dividing the equations into groups for symmetric and asymmetric disturbances the equations
become:

a) Longitudinal Symmetric Motion

X X X  X  X
mu  u  
w w  m We   q  mg cos  e  (t) (6.8)
u w
 w  q  ( t)

Z  Z  Z  Z  Z
 u  m   
w w  m U e   q  mg sin  e  (t) (6.9)
u  w
 w  q  ( t )

M M M M M
 u 
w w  I y q  q (t) (6.10)
u w
 w q ( t )

b) Lateral Asymmetric Motion

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Y  Y   Y  Y
mv  v  mWe   p  mU e   r  mg  cos e  mg sin  e  (t )
v  p   r  (t )

(6.11)

L L L L
 v  I x p  p  I zx r  r (t) (6.12)
v p r (t )

N N N N
 v  I zx p  p  I z r  r (t) (6.13)
v p r ( t )

Provided disturbances are small, the two groups of equations can be solved independently.

The inclusion of θe in equations 6.8, 6.9 and 6.11, allow for an aircraft in climb. For straight
and level flight θe is zero.

5 Non-dimensional Aerodynamic Derivatives

A series of non-dimensional aerodynamic derivatives can be defined. For example:

M / q L / p
Mq  or Lp 
1 2 1
VSc VSb 2
2 2

where

 - air density at equilibrium

V - forward speed at equilibrium

S - wing span

c - Strictly this is the aerodynamic mean chord. However for many

b - wing span

A summary of all the denominators for the non-dimensional aerodynamic derivatives is

Note that the non-dimensional aerodynamic derivatives can also be written as X̂ u , L̂ p , etc.

6 Non-dimensional Control Derivatives

For symmetric flight, only the elevator needs to be considered. For example

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X X
(t )  '
( t) 

where ' is the change in elevator angle from the trimmed position (measured in radians).
Positive in down position, which produces a negative pitching moment.

For asymmetric flight the ailerons and rudder need to be considered, such that

Y Y Y
(t )    
(t )  

where

 - aileron angle (positive starboard aileron down, port aileron up)

The non-dimensional control derivatives are also defined in Table 1.

Power effects can be incorporated in a similar manner to control effects. Thus for the x
axis

X X X
(t )  '  .T'
( t)  T

where T’ is the change in thrust setting.

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DERIVATIVE DENOMINATOR

Lp Lr Mq Np Nr 1  V S Lo2
2

Lv Mu Mw Nv 1  V S Lo
2

M w 1  S Lo2
2

L L M N N 1  V2 S Lo
2

Xq Yp Yr Zq 1  V S Lo
2

Xu Xw Yv Zu Zw 1  V S
2

X w Z w 1  S Lo
2

X Y Y Z 1  V2 S
2

Lo = CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH

TABLE 1
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