CLASS: XI

SECTION: D
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
SESSION: 2023-24
CHAPTER 8 : CELL-THE UNIT OF LIFE
Notes
Cell
➢ Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
Cell Theory-

➢ The Cell Theory was formulated by two German Scientists, Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann
independently. Schleiden (1838) examined a large variety of plant tissues and observed that all plants are
composed of different kinds of cells. At about the same time, Schwann (1839), closely studied different types
of animal cells and found that the animal cell had a very thin outer layer known as plasma membrane.
➢ He also concluded, from his studies based on plant tissues that animal cells differ from plant cells in lacking
cell wall.
Objections to Cell Theory

➢ Cell theory failed to explain how and from where the new cells were formed. All these observations lead to a
major expansion of cell theory that was expressed by Rudolf Virchow in 1855 modified and explained in his
statement that cells divide and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells, i.e., Omnis cellula-e-cellula.
Cell theory States-
➢ All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
➢ All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Size of a Cell
➢ The cells exhibit variation in size, life span and cellular activities, e.g., Mycoplasma (smallest cell) or PPLOs
(Pleuro-Pneumonia Like Organisms) is only 0.3 µm in length and
➢ Bacteria are approx. 3-5 µm in size.
➢ An ostrich egg, which is known to be the largest single cell measures about 170 X 135 mm.
➢ Human Red Blood Cells (RBCs) are about 7 µm in diameter.
➢ Nerve cell of a human being is the longest cell having length of 90-100 cm.

Shape of a Cell
➢ The cells also vary in their shape.
➢ They may be polygonal, disc-like amoeboid, thread-like, cuboid or irregular.

Prokaryotic Cell
➢ Cell which does not have a nuclear membrane and other membrane-bound organelles is called a prokaryotic
cell.
➢ Occurrence- cells are placed in kingdom-Monera. These cells are represented by bacteria, cyanobacteria
(blue-green algae), mycoplasma or PPLO.
➢ Bacteria are found in almost every place like deep in the soil, human intestine, deep in seawater, etc.
➢ Size- Normally ranges from 0.3-1.5 µm.
➢ Shape- Basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod-like), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma-shaped) and
spirillum (spiral).
➢ Components- Composed of various components such as genetic material, cell envelope, cytoplasm,
nucleoid, inclusion bodies, ribosomes, flagella, pili, and fimbriae.

Stay neat and clean www.queensvalleyschool.in

Drink lots of water Sector-8, Phase-I, Dwarka, New Delhi-110077
Cell Envelope and Its Modifications-
➢ Cell envelope is the outermost covering of the protoplasm of the bacterial cell. It is known to protect the cell
from mechanical shocks and injuries.
➢ It is composed of the following three layers, which perform specialized functions.
➢ Glycocalyx (Mucilage Sheath)- Outermost layer, made up of macromolecules that gives sticky character to
the cell. Glycocalyx differs in composition and thickness among different bacteria. It could be in the form of a
loose mucilaginous sheath called a slime layer or a thick and tough covering called the capsule.
➢ Function- helps in resisting phagocytosis.
➢ Cell Wall- It is present just below the glycocalyx made up of peptidoglycan in all eubacteria and
cyanobacteria. It is a rigid and solid covering that gives shape and strong structural support to the cell.

Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria

➢ According to Christian Gram (1884) various types of reactions are shown by the cell walls of different
bacteria. Thus, on the basis of the differences in the cell wall and the response to the staining procedure
developed by Gram, bacteria are classified into the following two types.
➢ Gram positive (+ve) bacteria are those that take up the Gram stain and retain blue or purple colour, e.g.,
Bacillus subtilis, Clostridium, etc.
➢ Gram negative (-ve) bacteria are those that do not take up Gram stain and lose the blue or purple in colour,
e.g., Escherichia coli, (E.coli), Acetobacter, etc.

Membranous Structures-
➢ Prokaryotic cells lack the complex membrane-bound organelles (such as chloroplast, mitochondria, etc).
However, some other special membranous structures are found in them (i.e., mesosomes and
chromatophores)
➢ Mesosomes- These are formed by the extensions of the plasma membrane into the cell in the form of
vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
➢ Chromatophores- Present in some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria. They are internal membrane systems of
photosynthetic forms, which possess photosynthetic pigments. These pigments are light reflecting.
➢ Flagella- Bacteria can be motile or non-motile. Thus, motile bacteria possess one or more thread-like
appendages extending from their cell wall called flagella (sing, flagellum). Bacteria are also classified
according to the number and arrangement of flagellum in them. Each flagellum is about 1-7 nm long covered
by a protein coat.
➢ Pili Fimbriae- Occurs in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. They are responsible for
conjugation. They are specialised for the attachment of bacteria to their host (e.g., Bacteria, Salmonella
typhimurium, Neisseria gonorrhoea, etc).

Eukaryotic Cell-
➢ A cell which has a well-organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope and several membrane-bound organelles
is called an eukaryotic cell.

Stay neat and clean www.queensvalleyschool.in

Drink lots of water Sector-8, Phase-I, Dwarka, New Delhi-110077
 ➢ Occurrence- Seen in all the protists, plants, fungi and animals.
➢ Size- Eukaryotic cell is larger than the prokaryotic cell (i.e., around 10-100 cm in size).
➢ Components - various cell components as cell membrane, cell wall (only in plants), mitochondria,
chloroplast, Golgi bodies, ribosomes, centrioles (only in animals).

Cell Membrane
➢ Every living cell is covered by a thin, elastic, transparent, semi-permeable and regenerative membrane called
cell membrane also called plasma membrane or plasmalemma.
➢ The plasma membrane separates the internal environment of the cell from the external environment.
➢ The membrane helps in regulating the entrance and exit of molecules into and out of the cell.
➢ Human RBCs are considered to be the best material for the: study of the biochemical composition of the cell
membrane because they lack nuclei as well as cytoplasmic organelles.
➢ Structure- The membrane is composed of lipid which forms a bilayer with protein molecules embedded in it
at places. Later it was revealed that cell membranes also possess protein and carbohydrates.
➢ Lipid- Lipid molecules are amphipathic in nature. Arranged within the membrane with the help of two types
of ends. These are as follows-
➢ Polar Hydrophilic End- Region is in the form of a (water-loving) head, which faces towards the outer sides of
the cell membrane to interact with the aqueous environments on both sides.
➢ Non-polar Hydrophobic End - Region is in the form of a (water repelling) tail, both ends of which face each
other that occur towards the centre of the cell membrane.
➢ The proportion of lipid molecules varies in the plasma membrane of different cell types. These are formed of
cholesterol (25-32%) and mainly of phospho- glycerides or phospholipids (55-75%).
Outside of cell Phosphatidylcholine
➢ Proteins- The ratio of protein and lipid varies considerably in different cell types. In human beings, the
membrane of the erythrocytes (RBCs) has approximately 52% protein and 40% lipid.
➢ Integral Proteins (intrinsic protein) - They have a stronger association and are bound firmly to the
membrane. These proteins are buried partially or totally in the phospholipid bilayer.
➢ Peripheral Proteins (extrinsic protein)- They have a weaker association and are bound to lipids of the
membrane by electrostatic interactions.
➢ Carbohydrates- constitute about 1-5% of the chemical composition of the plasma membrane. These are
associated with phospholipids or with the peripheral proteins to form glycolipids and glycoproteins.
➢ Fluid Mosaic Model-
Given by Singer and Nicholson (1972). The lipid bilayer and integral proteins appear like a mosaic
arrangement and the quasi-fluid nature of lipids enables the lateral movement of the proteins within the
overall bilayer. This ability of proteins to move within the membrane indicates the fluidity of the lipid part.

Stay neat and clean www.queensvalleyschool.in

Drink lots of water Sector-8, Phase-I, Dwarka, New Delhi-110077
 ➢ The fluidity of Membrane-
Fluid nature of the membrane is important from the point of view of interactions of molecules within the
membrane as well as other functions like the formation of inter-cellular junctions, cell growth, secretion,
endocytosis, and cell division.
➢ Active Transport-
Movement of the molecules across the membrane against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to
higher concentration. It is an energy-dependent process, in which ATP is utilised. It occurs in a few ions and
molecules. e.g., Na+ / K+ pump.
➢ Passive Transport-
Passive transport is the mode of movement of molecules or substances across the membrane without any
requirement of energy.
➢ It can be further of following three types
(a) Osmosis- It is the process by which water molecules pass through a membrane from a region of higher
concentration to a lower concentration.
(b) Simple Diffusion- In this process, neutral molecules move across the membrane along the concentration
gradient (from higher to lower concentration), e.g., Gases and small molecules.
(c) Facilitated Diffusion- In this process, the molecules is transported along a concentration gradient with
the help of ion channels and permeases. Energy is not required in this process.

Cell Wall-
➢ It is a non-living rigid structure which gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from mechanical damage
and infection, helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides a barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
➢ Cell wall of algae is made of cellulose and minerals like calcium carbonate. The plant cell wall consists of
cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
➢ Middle lamella is made of calcium pectate which holds neighbouring cells together.
➢ Plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
➢ The cell wall of young plant cells, the primary cell wall is capable of growth.
➢ Functions-
(i) It helps in providing a definite shape to the cell and also protects protoplasm against any mechanical
injury, i.e., damage and infection.
(ii) It also helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
(iii) It provides a barrier to undesirable macromolecules and attack of pathogens.

Stay neat and clean www.queensvalleyschool.in

Drink lots of water Sector-8, Phase-I, Dwarka, New Delhi-110077
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)-
➢ Consists of a network of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm
➢ ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments–luminal (inside ER) and extraluminal
(cytoplasm).
➢ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Ribosomes attached to the outer surface. Involved in protein
synthesis and secretion.
➢ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Absence of ribosome. Site for the synthesis of lipids.
➢ In animal cells, lipids like steroidal hormones are synthesised in SER.

Golgi apparatus:
➢ First observed by Camillo Golgi (in 1898)
➢ Consist of cisternae stacked parallel to each other. Two faces of the organelle are convex/cis or forming face
and concave/trans or maturing face but inter-connected.
➢ Functions: Performs packaging of materials, to be delivered either to the intra-cellular targets or secreted
outside the cell.
➢ An important site of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipid.

Lysosomes :
➢ Membrane-bound vesicular structures are formed by the process of packaging in the Golgi apparatus.
Contain hydrolysing enzymes (lipases, proteases, carbohydrases) which are active in acidic pH.
➢ These enzymes are also capable of digesting carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
➢ Also called the ‘Suicidal Bag’.
➢ Function: Intracellular digestion

Vacuoles :

➢ Member bound space found in the cytoplasm. Contain water, sap, excretory product, etc.
➢ In plant cell, vacoule occupies 90% of space.
Stay neat and clean www.queensvalleyschool.in
Drink lots of water Sector-8, Phase-I, Dwarka, New Delhi-110077
 ➢ Function: In plants tonoplast (single membrane of vacuole) facilitates transport of ions and other substances.
➢ Contractile vacuole for excretion in Amoeba.
➢ Food vacuoles formed in protists for digestion of food.

Mitochondria :

➢ Double membraned structure. The outer membrane is smooth and the inner membrane forms a number of
infoldings called cristae.
➢ The inner compartment is called a matrix. The cristae increase the surface area.
➢ The two membranes has their specific enzymes associated with mitochondrial function.
➢ Functions: Sites of aerobic respiration. Called ’power houses’ of the cell as produce cellular energy in the
form of ATP.
➢ Matrix possesses a single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules, and ribosomes (70S).
➢ It divides by binary fission.

Plastids :

➢ Found in plant cells and in euglenoids. Chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts are 3 types of plastids
depending on the pigments contained.
➢ Chloroplast (Green coloured plastids)- Contain chlorophyll, and carotenoids, double-stranded DNA and 70S
ribosomes. Trap light energy for photosynthesis.
➢ Chromoplast- Carotenoid (fat soluble) like Carotene, Xanthophylls. Gives the part of the plant a yellow-
orange and red colour
➢ Leucoplast (Colourless plastids)- Amyloplast (Starch), Elaioplasts (oil + fat), Aleuroplast (store proteins)
➢ Functions: Site of photosynthesis, and imparts colours to fruits and flowers.

Ribosomes
➢ Composed of RNA and proteins; without membrane.
➢ Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S. (S = Svedberg’s unit)
➢ Function : Site of protein synthesis.

Stay neat and clean www.queensvalleyschool.in

Drink lots of water Sector-8, Phase-I, Dwarka, New Delhi-110077
Cytoskeleton :
➢ Network of filaments. The proteinaceous structure in the cytoplasm is made up of microtubules and micro
filaments.
➢ Function: Mechanical support, motility, and maintenance of the shape of the cell.

Cilia and Flagella-

➢ Cilia are small structures which work like oars which help in movement.
➢ Flagella are longer and responsible for cell movement.
➢ They are covered with a plasma membrane.
➢ Core is called the axoneme which has a 9 + 2 arrangement of axonemal microtubules.

Centrosome and Centrioles –

➢ Centrosome contains two cylindrical structures called centrioles.
➢ Surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar material.
➢ Made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein (9+0).
➢ Centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella and spindle fibres for cell division in animal cells.
➢ They produce spindle apparatus during cell division.

Nucleus :
➢ Double membranous with perinuclear space and nuclear pores; has Chromatin, nuclear matrix and nucleoli
(site for rRNA synthesis).
➢ Named by Robert Brown – 1831.
➢ Chromatin- DNA + Non-histone proteins. (Named by Flemming)
➢ Nucleoplasm – Nucleolus + Chromatin
➢ Nuclear membrane—It is with perinuclear space and nucleopores.
➢ Chromosomes—DNA/RNA + Histone protein/Nonhistone protein.
➢ Centromere: Primary constriction–in every chromosome
➢ Kinetochores: Disc-shaped structures on the sides of the centromere.
➢ No nucleus in Erythrocytes (RBC) of mammals and sieve tubes in vascular plants
➢ Chromosomes (on the basis of the position of the centromere) :
➢ Metacentric: Middle centromere.
➢ Sub-metacentric: Centromere nearer to one end of chromosomes.
➢ Acrocentric: Centromere situated close to its end.
➢ Telocentric: Has terminal centromere.
➢ Satellite: Some chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location, which gives
the appearance of small fragment called satellite.

Stay neat and clean www.queensvalleyschool.in

Drink lots of water Sector-8, Phase-I, Dwarka, New Delhi-110077