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master math
ESSENTIA
PHYSICS
Master everything from motion, force, heat,
and work to energy, fluids, waves, optics, and electricity

Debra
Anne Ross
Lawrence

with contributions by
David Allen Lawrence
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/nastermathessent0000ross
 Master Math:
ESSENTIAL PHYSICS
Master everything from motion, force, heat and work
to energy, fluids, waves, optics and electricity

By

Debra Anne Ross Lawrence

with contributions by

David Allen Lawrence

Course Technology PTR

A part of Cengage Learning

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Essential Physics
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Important Definitions xi
Introduction 1
CHAPTER 1. MOTION 3
1.1. Average Speed 3
1.2. Instantaneous Speed 6
1.3. Acceleration 7
1.4. Finding Distance Traveled at Constant Acceleration 9
1.5. Acceleration Due to Gravity—No Air Resistance 12
1.6. Acceleration Due to Gravity—With Air Resistance 15
1.7. Vector and Scalar Excursion 17
1.8. Velocity vs. Speed 22
1.9. Acceleration Vector 24
1.10. Two-Dimensional Motion: Projectiles 26
1.11. Circular Motion 3]
1.12. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 3D

CHAPTER 2. FORCE, MOMENTUM, AND NEWTON’S LAWS 39

22 Force 39
2.2. Newton’s Laws of Motion 4]
2.3. Mass vs. Weight, Normal Force, and Tension 44
2.4. Linear Momentum and Impulse 53
2.5. Conservation of Linear Momentum Sr
2.6. Torque aby,
2.7. Angular Momentum and Conservation of Angular Momentum 62
2.8. Center of Mass 66
2.9. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 70

CHAPTER 3. EQUILIBRIUM AND FRICTION 73

3.1. Static Equilibrium To
3.2. Torques in Equilibrium 76
3.3. Friction 78
3.4. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 85

CHAPTER 4. NATURAL FORCES 87

4.1. Gravitation 87
4.2. Electrostatic Force 94
4.3. Strong Nuclear and Weak Forces a
4.4. Key Concepts and Practice Problems
iv

CHAPTER 5. ENERGY AND WORK 111

5.1. Work id
5.2. Kinetic Energy in
5.3. Potential Energy 121
5.4. Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces 123
5.5. Gravitational Potential Energy When h Is Large 125
5.6. Electrostatic Potential Energy {27
5.7. Introduction to the Electron Volt 128
5.8. Rotational Kinetic Energy 130
5.9. Conservation of Energy 134
5.10. Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 135
5.11. Power 140
5.12. Principles of Simple Machines 14]
5.13. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 143

CHAPTER 6. ELASTICITY AND HARMONIC MOTION 147

6.1. Elasticity and Hooke’s Law 147
6.2. Stress and Strain 150
6.3. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) 133
6.4. Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion 162
6.5. Simple Pendulum 163
6.6. Damped Oscillations and Resonance 164
6.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 166

CHAPTER 7. FLUIDS 169

7.1. Pressure and Static Fluids 170
7.2. Archimedes’ Principle and the Buoyant Force in Static Fluids 176
7.3. Surface Tension and Capillary Action 182
7.4. Fluid Flow, Continuity Equation, and Bernoulli’s Equation 188
7.5. Viscosity, Reynolds Number, and Terminal Velocity 195
7.6. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 196

CHAPTER 8. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 199

8.1. Temperature 199
8.2. Thermal Expansion 203
8.3. Heat as Energy 209
8.4. Heat Transfer 217
8.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems Pips)

CHAPTER 9. GAS AND THERMODYNAMICS 225

9.1. Definitions—Mass, Moles, and Amu Hh
9.2. The Gas Laws Zot
9.3. Kinetic Theory 231
9.4. Diffusion and Osmosis 205
9.5. The Laws of Thermodynamics 239
9.6. Vaporization, Vapor Pressure, and Phase Change 253
9.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 256
CHAPTER 10. ELECTRIC FIELDS AND CURRENTS 259
10.1. Electric Field and Electric Potential 259
10.2. Capacitance 267
10.3. Electric Current INP)
10.4. Electric Resistance 275
10.5. Electric Power 219
10.6. Circuits 281
10.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 289

CHAPTER 11. ELECTROMAGNETISM 293

11.1. Magnetism 293
11.2. Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges 296
11.3. Charged Particles Moving in Circular Motion in Magnetic Fields 300
11.4. Electric Currents Generate Magnetic Fields 302
11.5. Changing Fields Induce Current and Magnetic Flux 306
11.6. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 312

CHAPTER 12. ALTERNATING CURRENT 315

12.1. Alternating Current 315
12.2. Capacitance in an AC Circuit oul)
12.3. Inductance in an AC Circuit SYA
12.4. RCL Circuits 327
12.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 328

CHAPTER 13. WAVES, SOUND, AND LIGHT 331

13.1. Traveling Waves a3
13.2. Standing Waves 535
13.3. Sound Waves 338
13.4. Light Waves: Interference and Diffraction 347
13.5. Electromagnetic Radiation sot
13.6. Reflection and Refraction 354
13.7. Lenses and Mirrors 360
13.8. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 369

CHAPTER 14. INTRODUCTION TO THE “FUN STUFF” = 373

14.1. Special Relativity Sys
14.2. General Relativity 381
14.3. The Atom and an Introduction to Quantum 389
14.4. Dark Energy and Dark Matter 400
14.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems 405

Index 409
vi

Dedication

To the Designer
 Acknowledgments
First, I deeply appreciate my brilliant husband, David A. Lawrence, for
creating the end-of-chapter problem sets, for serving as technical editor,
and for engaging in countless valuable discussions about the book’s
content.

I am eternally grateful to Dr. Channing R. Robertson, Professor of

Chemical Engineering at Stanford University, for reviewing this book,
for his insightful comments, and for his generous endorsement. I am very
thankful for all his guidance and for his friendship.

I am also very grateful to Maggie Ross for the adorable duck drawings in
Section 1.7 and for carefully editing the manuscript.

I thank George Skladal for reading the early manuscript and for his
helpful comments.

Very special thanks to Emi Smith, Senior Acquisitions Editor, for

facilitating a myriad of details concerning the book’s publication and for
her infinite patience with me.

Many thanks to Sue Boshers for proofreading this book and improving
its presentation. It was a pleasure working with her!

{ am also thankful to Stacy Hiquet, Publisher and General Manager, for

publishing the Master Math books and providing me the opportunity to
write this addition to the series. I also thank Heather Talbot, Manager of
Editorial Services, for all her help. Additional special thanks to Sarah
Panella, Associate Director of Marketing; Mark Hughes, Senior
Marketing Manager; and Jeff Cooper, cover designer.

I want to recognize Ron Fry and the staff of Career Press for their work
in publishing and launching my original Master Math books as a
successful series.

Finally, I especially thank my wonderful agent, Sidney B. Kramer, and

the staff of Mews Books. Thank you, Sidney!
viii
 About the Author
Debra Anne Ross Lawrence is the author of six other books in the
Master Math series: Basic Math and Pre-Algebra, Algebra, Geometry,
Pre-Calculus, Trigonometry, and Calculus. Debra earned a double
Bachelor of Arts degree in Biology and Chemistry with honors from the
University of California at Santa Cruz and a Master of Science degree in
Chemical Engineering from Stanford University.

Debra’s research experience encompasses investigating the photo-

synthetic light reactions using a dye laser, studying the eye lens of
diabetic patients, creating a computer simulation program of
physiological responses to sensory and chemical disturbances,
genetically engineering bacteria cells for over-expression of a protein,
and designing and fabricating biological reactors for in-vivo study of
microbial metabolism using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

Debra’s work history includes: developing and bringing to market the

first commercial biosensor system with a small team of scientists and
engineers; Managing an engineering group responsible for the scale-up of
combinatorial synthesis for pharmaceutical development; and managing
intellectual property for a scientific research and development company.
Debra’s research and work has been published in scientific journals
and/or patented.

Debra is also the author of The 3:00 PM Secret: Live Slim and Strong
Live Your Dreams and The 3:00 PM Secret 10-Day Dream Diet. She 1s
the coauthor with her husband, David A. Lawrence, of Arrows Through
Time: A Time Travel Tale of Adventure, Courage, and Faith. Debra is
President of GlacierDog Publishing (visit glacierdogpublishing.com
or GlacierDog.com). When Debra is not engaged in all-season
mountaineering with David near her Alaska home, she is endeavoring to
understand the seemingly incomprehensible workings of the universe.

David Allen Lawrence holds Bachelor and Master of Science degrees

from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a Juris Doctor cum
laude from the University of Minnesota. David has served as Director of
Law for a Fortune 500 energy company, as Senior Vice President and
General Counsel for a telecommunications engineering and consulting
company, and as an energy and utility Law Judge.
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 xi

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
(Skim this section before reading the book and refer back as needed.)

|. Pay attention to units. When working on a problem or equation, all

the values must be in, or converted to, one system of units. All units
must agree. Those units may be SI (or MKS), CGS, or British, but you
cannot mix units in a given equation or problem. We will mostly use the
MKS system, but will also use British for practice. In this book we will
generally use abbreviations such as: seconds s, hours h, minutes min,
meters m, centimeters cm, miles mi, feet ft, inches in, miles/hour mph,
pounds Ib, grams g, kilograms kg, slugs sl, Newtons N, Joules J, volts V.
Units can assist you in developing or solving an equation since the
remaining units after simplifying must be the units of your desired
result. When you work a problem, ask yourself if the answer has the
correct units. For example, if you are calculating a velocity, do you get
velocity units (m/s, or mph) after you solve and simplify or cancel?
Physicists often use the metric SI (Systéme International) units, also
referred to as the International System of Units or the MKS system.
This system uses m for length, kg for mass, and s for time (hence,
“MKS”). Note that the terms SI units and MKS units are used
interchangeably. Another metric system ofunits is the CGS system,
based on the cm, the g, and the s. Other values measured using these two
metric systems include work and energy, which use the Joule (J) in
MKS and the erg in CGS. Measuring force uses the Newton (N) in MKS
and the dyne in CGS. While the British System of units is officially
used in the USA, most countries use the MKS system. In the British
System, length is in ft, mass is in sl, and time is in s.
Converting between systems of units for force, mass, and weight can be
tricky because of gravity. Units of force represent mass times
acceleration, or F = ma = (mass)(length)/(time)’. When we work in the SI
(or MKS) system, force is the derived unit called a Newton N. A Newton
is the force required to accelerate a 1-kg mass | m/s over a second’s time.
1 N = 1 kg-m/s’. In the CGS system, force is a derived unit called a dyne.
A dyne is the force required to accelerate a 1-g mass | cm/s over a
second’s time. 1 dyne = 1 g-cm/s’, and | N= 10° dynes. In the British
system, a pound-force (Ibf) is the force required to accelerate a 1-s] mass
1 ft/s over a second’s time. | Ibf= slug-ft/s”.
There can be confusion whether pounds are a mass or a weight (force).
Pound-force and Newtons are units that measure force or weight.
Kilograms and slugs (or pound-mass [Ibm]) are units of mass. The |
relationship between slugs and Ibm is based on acceleration of gravity
g = 32 ft/s’: 1 slug = 32.17 lbm. When you are on the Earth’s surface,
where gravity is about 32 f/s’, one Ibm weighs one lbf, and the mass of
xii

1 slug weighs 32 Ibf. This means a Ibf is the force required to accelerate
1 Ibm 32.17 ft/s over 1 second’s time. For 1 Ibm = 1 lbf, we need the
acceleration of gravity g = 32 ft/s’, which only works in the gravitational
field on the surface of the Earth. The slug came about because in the
British system force was defined to be one Ibf, time to be s, and distance
to be ft, and mass was derived and called a slug. Therefore, on Earth
Ibm = Ibf, and you can use just lb.
Conversion factors between SI and British systems for force and mass
are: Force: 1 N = 0.2248 lb, 1 lb = 4.448 N. Mass: 1 kg = 0.06852 sl,
1 sl = 14.59 kg. The conversion between kg and lb is often given as
1 kg = 2.2 lb, which only applies when the acceleration due to gravity is
9.8 m/s’ or 32 ft/s, as it is near Earth’s surface. (See also Section 2.1.)
2. Equations: Once you verify that the units are all consistent within an
equation or problem, think about whether your answer makes sense.
Does the order of magnitude of the answer seem right to you? If you
are calculating the speed of a plane and your answer is faster than the
speed of light, there is error. Also, when you encounter any equation,
consider what it is telling you about its fundamental values or variables,
and how those variables depend on one another. For example, in the
Ideal Gas equation PV = nRT, pressure P, volume V, and temperature T
affect one another. We see that P and T are directly proportional
(doubling P will double T, holding V constant), whereas P and V are
inversely proportional (increasing P decreases V).
3. Remember the basic trigonometric relationships. (See Master
Math: Trigonometry for details.) The trigonometric functions are sine
(sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot), secant (sec), and
cosecant (csc). These relate to each other as: tan = sin/cos; cot = cos/sin
= I/tan; sec = 1/cos; and csc = 1/sin. The trigonometric functions can be
defined using ratios of the sides of a right triangle where sin 0 =
opposite/hypotenuse, cos 8 = adjacent/hypotenuse, and tan 0 =
opposite/adjacent. Remember, a right triangle has one right (90°) angle
and two acute (<90°) angles that sum to 90°. The total sum of the angles
in a planar triangle is 180°. (To remember the side ratios use
SohCahToa: sin = opposite/hypotenuse, cos = adjacent/hypotenuse,
tan = opposite/adjacent.) The trigonometric functions can also be
described using the coordinates of points on a circle with a radius of one
and, due to their periodic nature, can be depicted on a graph.
4. Roots: The square root of any number, x, can be written Vx or [x]” or
(x)*. Likewise for a cube root or nth root: *Vx = [x]* and "Vx = [x]!”.
5. Vectors possess both magnitude and direction. Letters representing
vectors are boldface when their direction is being recognized.
 INTRODUCTION

Master Math: Essential Physics presents, teaches, and explains the

fundamental topics of algebra-based physics. It includes engaging, fun
examples and applications throughout the book, as well as challenging
practice problems with explanatory answers at the end of each chapter.
Master Math: Essential Physics was written for you, the student, parent,
teacher, tutor, or curious thinker.

This book covers the essentials of high school and algebra-based college
curricula. It can serve as a supplement to your textbook, a handy
reference, or a tutor for lifetime learners. Topics encompass motion,
force, momentum, Newton’s Laws, equilibrium, friction, forces in
nature, energy, work, elasticity, harmonic motion, static and moving
fluids, heat, temperature, gas, electric fields, electromagnetism, direct
and alternating current, waves, sound, radiation, light and optics, and an
introduction to relativity, quanta, the atom, dark matter, and dark energy.

Master Math: Essential Physics logically presents each topic, developing

and explaining the algebraic equations that represent the physical
concepts. If you want to know what physics is all about, this book will
provide you with a broad picture of the amazing and surprising macro
and micro realities of our world. I must warn you, however, you may fall
in love with this fascinating subject and decide to dive in and pursue a
deeper understanding.

This book is a new addition to this author’s contributions to the Master

Math series, which include Master Math: Basic Math and Pre-Algebra,
Master Math: Algebra, Master Math: Pre-Calculus, Master Math:
Geometry, Master Math: Trigonometry, and Master Math: Calculus.

Enjoy delving into this fascinating world of physics and remember:

“The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason
for existing. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates the
mysteries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous structure of reality. It is
enough ifone tries merely to comprehend a little of this mystery every day.”
Attributed to Albert Einstein
Master Math: Essential Physics
ee roe tS Reet 8 ty ee pea

Chapter 1
MOTION

1.1. Average Speed

1.2. Instantaneous Speed
1.3. Acceleration
1.4. Finding Distance Traveled at Constant Acceleration
1.5. Acceleration Due to Gravity—No Air Resistance
1.6. Acceleration Due to Gravity—With Air Resistance
1.7. Vector and Scalar Excursion
1.8. Velocity vs. Speed
1.9. Acceleration Vector
1.10. Two-Dimensional Motion: Projectiles
1.11. Circular Motion
1.12. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“All science is either physics or stamp collecting.”

Attributed to Ernest Rutherford

“I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who has endowed us with
senses, reason, and intellect has intended us to forgo their use.”
Attributed to Galileo Galilei

1.1. Average Speed

@ Average speed is simply: total distance traveled per total time.

Average speed = (total distance traveled) / (total elapsed time)

VAve — Ax/At = (x; aa Xo)/(ty < to)

Vave 1S average speed.

Ax is total distance traveled from initial point xo to final point x.
At is total elapsed time from initial time to to final time ty.
Note: The Greek letter A (Delta) is often used to denote “the change in.”
4 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Example: What is your average speed if you walk 12 miles in

6 hours?
Total distance traveled per total elapsed time
$f 12mi/6h i

Begin at: End at:

Mile zero = xo Mile 12 =x,
Time zero = to Time 6 h=t,

Total distance traveled is the change in distance x from Xo to Xj, or:

X| — Xo = Ax
12 mi—0O mi=12 mi
Total elapsed time is the change in time t between ty and ty, or:
t= to Nt
6h-Oh=6h
Your average speed is:
Vave = Ax/At = (12 mi)/(6 h) = 2 mi/h

Next, suppose your friend walks the same 12 miles, but the first half she
walks 2 mi/h and the second half she walks 1 mi/h. What is her average
speed? (No, it’s not one and one-half mi/h. Let’s see why.)

x of
First half 6 mi: v; = 2 mi/h Second half6 mi: v2 = | mi/h

Begin with average speed: Vaye = Ax/At.

We know the total distance Ax is 12 mi.
6 mi are walked at 2 mi/h (mph) and 6 mi at | mi/h (mph).
To find average speed, solve Vaye = Ax/At for total time: At = AxX/Vaye.
First segment: She walked 6 mi at 2 mph.
6 mi/ (2 mi/h) =3h
Second segment: She walked 6 mi at | mph.
6 mi/(1 mi/h)=6h
Now substitute into equation for average speed:
average speed = (total distance traveled in both segments) / (total elapsed time)
Vave= (6 mi + 6 mi)/(3 h + 6h) = (12 mi)/9 h) = 1% mi/h
 Motion 5

Your friend’s average speed was 1’ mph. Remember, she spent twice as
long traveling at only | mph.

Average Speed Geometrically

e If an object is traveling at a constant speed over an interval of time,

the speed is the same throughout that interval. The graph of distance
traveled vs. time is a straight line, describing a linear function.

Distance vs. Time

Distance x
(m) average speed Vay is slope of line formed by Ax/At

Pert eS Time
t (s)

Average speed vaye is the length of the vertical dashed line Ax divided by
the length of the horizontal dashed line At. The average speed Vaye is the
slope of the line formed by Ax/At. The average speed in the interval
shown in the above graph of an object moving at constant speed is:
Vave = Ax/At = (2 m)/(2s)=1 m/s or about 2.2 mph

e A greater (steeper) slope shows an object moving faster, since it covers

more distance per time interval.

x (m) Vave = Ax/At = 4/1 m/s

=

Vave = Ax/At = 3/3 m/s

m=
W
bO
Vave = Ax/At = 1/5 m/s
Z 3 4 Saar tS)
6 Master Math: Essential Physics

1.2. Instantaneous Speed

e The instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at a specific time.

v = lima: .o(Ax/At)
The instantaneous speed v is:
the /imit as At approaches zero of the average speed;
the limit as At>0 of Ax/At;
the slope of a line that is tangent to the distance vs. time
graph at a specified point.

e If speed is not constant, the graph of Distance vs. Time will NOT be a
straight line. What if we want to find the speed at point A on a curve?

Distance vs. Time for Average Speed

x (m)
4 Slope of straight line
3 B between A and B
2 A is average speed.
1

ys = Bid aAS)

The average speed is:

Vave = (x value at B — x value at A) /(t value at B —t value at A) = Ax/At

The average speed between two points is the slope of the straight line
between the two points.
Distance vs. Time for Instantaneous Speed
x (m)
4 Slope of line tangent
3 to A is instantaneous
2 A speed at A.
1

poSe (5)
As point B moves toward A and time interval At approaches zero, the
average speed between A and B becomes the instantaneous speed at A.
The instantaneous speed v is:
Vi= limatso(Ax/At)
 Motion 7

The instantaneous speed at a single point on a curve is the slope of a

tangent line at that point.

To summarize: The slope of a line between two points on a graph of

distance vs. time describes average speed during the time interval.
Similarly, the slope of a tangent line at a single point on a curve
describes the instantaneous speed at that point, so that instantaneous
speed is the speed at a single point on a curve.

e Note: The equation for instantaneous speed uses the limit (abbreviated
lim), which describes closeness to a value when the exact value cannot
be identified. In calculus the /imit is used in the development of the
derivative. In fact, instantaneous speed is the first derivative of distance
with respect to time (where dx/dt is the derivative of distance with time):

V = limigtso(Ax/At) = dx/dt

For more on /imits and the derivative see Master Math: Pre-Calculus and
Master Math: Calculus.

e Example: What is the speed of an object in meters/second (m/s) at

time t if the equation describing position is x = 7t + 3?
At time t = 0, t = to and position is: Xo = 7to + 3.
At a time t,, where t, = tp + At, position is: x, = 7t; + 3 = 7(to + At) + 3.
To determine the instantaneous speed at any point use the equation:
V = limatso(Ax/At) = limatso[(K1 — Xo) / (At)]

= lima: +o[((7(to + At) + 3) — (7to + 3)) / At]

= limatso[(7to + 7At + 3 — 7tp — 3) / At] = limarso[(7At)/At] = 7 m/s

This equation for v works out so that At cancels in the numerator and
denominator leaving speed simply as v = 7 m/s.

1.3. Acceleration
eee
a

e Just as speed Ax/At is the rate of change of distance with time, .

acceleration Av/At is the rate of change of speed or velocity with time.
Average acceleration is given by:
Aave = (Vi — Vo) / (ti — to) = Av/At

When you are traveling in a straight line, the speed or velocity changes
during acceleration. If you push on the gas pedal in your car, the car
8 Master Math: Essential Physics

accelerates and speed increases. When you press the brake, the car
undergoes negative acceleration (or deceleration) and slows.

e Units of acceleration quantify: speed/time = (distance/time)/time =

distance/time’. Acceleration is often measured in m/s” or mi/h’.

e Note that speed indicates magnitude while velocity is a vector which

describes both magnitude and direction. Acceleration is also a vector and
possesses both magnitude and direction. Vectors are discussed later in
this chapter.

e Let’s visualize constant speed with no acceleration and linearly

increasing speed with constant acceleration.

Speed vs. Time

Speed is constant with time: Speed increases linearly with time:
Motion with no acceleration Motion with constant acceleration

to t

When acceleration is constant, aa,.1s a constant and can be written as

“a” If time to is zero, then the time interval is from 0 to't.

to =0 Uieeeal

The equation for acceleration becomes:

Aave = a= (V1 — Vo)/(ti — to) = (V — Vo)/(t — 0) = (v — vo)/t = Av/At
rearranging:
a=
V — Vo
Or:

Speed v at time t is initial speed vo plus the additional speed caused by

constant acceleration during time t.
 Motion 9

1.4. Finding Distance Traveled at Constant Acceleration

e To find distance traveled when acceleration is constant, first

remember that speed and distance are related:

Vave = Ax/At = (x) — X0)/(ti — to)

If initial time is at tp = 0 and position begins at xo = 0, this equation can

be rearranged as simply:

= Vavel

This relationship is often referred to as distance equals rate times time.

e If acceleration is constant and the beginning and ending speeds vo and

v are known, then the average speed between time ty = 0 and time t is the
average of vo and v.

0 {
Average speed can be expressed as a simple average:

Vave = (1/2)(vo + V)
To find distance x, substitute Vaye Into X = VAvet:

X = (1/2)(vo+ v)t = (1/2)vot+ (1/2)vt

Substitute v = vo + at:

x = (1/2)vot +(1/2)(vo + at)t = (1/2)vot +(1/2)vot + (1/2)at*

| X =Vot + (1/2)at? |

This equation for distance traveled involves the vt term which is the
distance that would be traveled in the absence of acceleration, plus the
acceleration-dependent term that is proportional to the square of elapsed
5 sega t*.
time
10 Master Math: Essential Physics

If an object begins at rest so vo = 0, then the equation for distance

traveled under constant acceleration becomes:

x = (1/2)at?

e To summarize: Motion in one dimension involves distance x, time t,

velocity or speed v, and acceleration a. Speed is the rate of change of
distance, and acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. The average
velocity and average acceleration are:

Vave = Ax/At and aaye = Av/At

When acceleration is constant, the following equations describe motion.

a=(V—Vo)/t
V =Vo wm ab

VAve — (1/2)(vo © v)

= Wrgdl

X = Vot + (1/2)at?

We can develop an additional useful equation involving velocity by

beginning with:

X = Vavel
Substitute a = (v — vo)/t or t = (v — vo)/a:

X = Vave(V — Vo)/a
Substitute Vave = (1/2)(vo+ v):
X = (1/2)(vo+ v)(v — Vo)/a
2ax = (Vo + V)(V — Vo)
2 2
Vo —Vo = 2ax

2
=v + 2ax

When acceleration is constant, motion uniformly accelerates, and the

distance traveled will be proportional to t?. When graphed, distance vs.
time will form a parabola:
 Motion 11

Distance vs. Time

When Vom 0, Xo = 0,
x= (li/2)ats

e Example Part 1: Your friend was bragging about his recent adventures
in his new Zodiac boat. He said he exited his local marina at 7.5 mph and
then, with a constant acceleration, sped up to 30 mph. Just as his speed
reached 30 mph, he arrived at his favorite little offshore island. It took
him exactly 2 min, or 120 s, to reach the island from the marina. How
many miles is the island from the marina?
This situation involves constant acceleration. We know speed and time
and need to find distance and acceleration. The useful equations are:
aave= Av/At and x=vot+ (1/2)at?

Change the miles/hour to feet/second:

7.5 mi/h = (7.5 mi/1 h)(5280 ft/1 mi)(1 h/3600 s) = 11 ft/s
30 mi/h = (30 mi/1 h)(5280 ft/1 mi)(1 h/3600 s) = 44 ft/s
The acceleration is:
ave = Av/At = (44 ft/s — 11 ft/s) / (120 s) = 0.28 ft/s”
The distance from the marina to the island 1s:
X = vot + (1/2)at?
x =(11 ft/s)(120 s) + (1/2)(0.28 ft/s”)(120 s)?
= 1320 ft + 2016 ft = 3,336 ft
The distance can be converted to miles:
3,336 ft x (1 mi)/(5280 ft) ~ 0.63 mi

The distance from the marina to the island is 0.63 mi (or about 1,014 m).

e Example Part 2: After spending a few hours on the island, your friend
sped off the beach and at constant acceleration took his new Zodiac up to
a speed of 50 mph at which point he passed a buoy which was 0.5 mi
away. What was his acceleration, that is, how much did his speed
increase each second?
12 Master Math: Essential Physics

We know initial and final speeds were zero and 50 mph, respectively, so
average speed is:
Vave = (1/2)(vo+ v) = (1/2)(0 + 50 mi/h) = 25 mi/h
We can use X = Vayet to determine time:
t = X/Vavye = (0.5 mi)/(25 mi/h) = 0.02 h
0.02 h x 3600 s/h = 72 5

Acceleration is aaye = Av/At, where initial speed is zero, final speed is

50 mph, and the time interval is 72 s:
a = (50 mi/h) / (72 s) = 0.69 (mi/h)/s
Therefore, during the 72 s of travel, the boat’s speed increased by
0.69 mph each second.

1.5. Acceleration Due to Gravity—No Air Resistance

e An object in free fall accelerates downward due to the force of gravity.

For now we will ignore the frictional effects of air resistance, which
would slow the motion of a falling object. In the absence of air
resistance, the acceleration experienced by any object falling near the
surface of the Earth is approximately 32 ft/s* or 9.8 m/s’. The
acceleration of gravity g is approximately:

g = 32 fils’ = 9.8 m/s”

Note: Because Earth’s density and terrain vary and it rotates, g is not
exactly the same in all places. As an object flies further from the Earth,
the gravitational force decreases inversely with the square of its distance
from Earth’s center. Equations for constant acceleration apply, with a= g.

e Example: Suppose you climb a mountain with a 1,000-ft (or 304.8-m)

sheer drop-off on one side, and you stand at the edge and shove a smooth
round rock over the edge. How fast will it be moving when it hits the
bottom? How long does it take to hit bottom? (Note, if we ignore air
resistance, the rock will be accelerated uniformly by gravity until it hits
bottom.)
 Motion 13

|g=-32 ft/s’ =—9.8 m/s’

1,000 ft The negative sign is used to
show the downward direction
of gravitational force.

We need equations involving distance and speed that account for the
constant acceleration of gravity. (Note: acceleration a = gravity g.)
When acceleration (of gravity) is constant, distance is:
X = Vot + (1/2)at” = vot + (1/2)gt
Because initial speed vo = 0:
X= (1/2)
solve for t:
(—2x/
or take the square root:
f= 120/017
Acceleration is:
AAve — Av/At

We need to find the speed the rock was moving when it hits bottom.
Rearrange to isolate v and note that initial speed vp = 0. Also substitute
a = g since this describes constant acceleration due to gravity:
Ve 21
Substitute t: .
v = g[2x/g]° = [g°2x/g]* = [2ex]”
or:
VY =2ox
The downward direction is negative, so g =—32 fi/s’ and x = —1,000 ft:
v? = (2)(-32 ft/s”)(—1,000 ft) = 64,000 ft’/s”
Take the square root:
v=+ 253 ft/s

Use the negative root so that —253 ft/s (about 77 m/s) is the speed of the
rock in the downward (negative) direction when it hits the bottom.
To determine the time it takes to hit bottom, remember vo = 0 and a= g,
and use v = gt. Rearrange to find t:
t = v/e = (-253 ft/s) / (-32 f/s’) ~ 7.9 s
14 Master Math: Essential Physics

We can also find time using:

t = [2x/g]” = [(2)(1,000 ft) / (32 ft/s”)]* ~ 7.9 s
Therefore, when it hits bottom the rock will be moving 253 ft/s (or about
77 m/s), and it will take 7.9 s, or nearly 8 seconds.

e Example: Next you climb another higher mountain with a 2,000-ft

drop-off and throw another smooth round rock vertically up in the air. It
rises 20 ft before stopping and then falling, just clearing the edge of the
cliff on the way down to the bottom. What was the rock’s initial speed?
What was its speed when it hit bottom, and how long did it take?

v = 0) at the top when the rock stops rising

and begins to fall.
20 ft

|e=—32 fis =o. 8mis”

2,000 ft Negative sign for
downward g force.

As the rock initially is rising, the acceleration of gravity is acting to

reduce its speed until it stops its upward motion (v = 0) and begins to fall
downward. The height the rock reaches when its speed decreases to zero
is given as 20 ft. We can use the following equation for velocity we
developed in section 1.4:
gD 2
Vo =Vo + 2ax

At its high point, v = 0, x = 20 ft, and a = g= -32 ft/s”. Solving for vo"
gives:
Vo = 42(324Us 20.1) AI 2808/5"
Vo ~ 36 ft/s (about 11 m/s) which is the rock’s initial upward speed
Next, find the rock’s speed when it hit bottom. There is often more than
one way to determine an answer. Let’s calculate the rock’s final speed
using two different methods. One method is to use the rock’s entire trip
and a second is to begin at the top of the rock’s trajectory where its speed
is zero. In either case, on the way down, the rock speeds up since its
acceleration (due to gravity) is in the same direction as its speed.
 Motion 15

First, calculate v using the entire trip of the rock. In this Case, Vo = 36 ft/s
and a = g= —32 ft/s’.
(Vinal) = Vo + 2ax
(Vinal) = (36 ft/s)” + 2(-32 ft/s”)(-2,000 ft) = 129,296 fi2/s?
Take the square root (choose negative root since speed is downward):
Viinal ~ —360 ft/s the rock’s speed when it hits bottom
Alternatively, calculate v beginning at the highest point of the rock’s
path where vo = 0:
(Vfina)’ = Vo + 2ax
(Vfinal) = 0 + 2(-32 ft/s”)(—2,020 ft) = 129,280 ft/s?
Take the square root (choose negative root since speed is downward):
Vinal ~ —360 ft/s the rock’s speed when it hits bottom

Both methods gave essentially the same answer for the rock’s speed at
the bottom (360 ft/s or 110 m/s), with the difference due to rounding
errors. Finally, let’s calculate how long it took for the rock to reach the
bottom from its starting point when it was thrown upward from the cliff.
For the initial segment up, Vo = 36 ft/s, Vinal = 0, a= g =—32 ft/s’.
@ = (Vinal — Vo)/t
t= Was vole = 0 = 36 fls)/(- 32s) = 1.125 s
For the down segment, Vo = 0, Véinai = —360 ft/s, a = —32 ft/s’.
(= vec vi ae (-300fUs— 0) fi=3 24s.) — 11:25 s
Total time for the rock to reach bottom is up segment plus down segment:
LAZ5S PITS = 12.3755
You can also calculate the total time for the rock’s entire flight using one
equation:
t = (Véinat — Vo)/a = (360 ft/s — 36 ft/s)/(-32 ft/s’) = 12.375 s

1.6. Acceleration Due to Gravity—With Air Resistance

e We have learned that an object in free fall accelerates due to gravity,

often called the acceleration of gravity. Near Earth’s surface:
g = 32 ft/s’ = 9.8 m/s”
Note: We sometimes insert a negative sign to denote the downward
direction.

The acceleration of gravity affects all free-falling objects equally

regardless of how long they have been falling, or whether they began
16 Master Math: Essential Physics

from rest or were initially projected upward. In the absence of air

resistance, all objects fall at the same rate regardless of size or mass.

But doesn’t this seem counterintuitive since we would imagine that a

more massive object would fall or accelerate faster than a less massive
one? In fact, a more massive object does not accelerate at a greater rate
than a less massive one in a vacuum in the absence of air resistance.

In the presence of air resistance, however, a more massive object will

fall faster, and the rates of falling of different objects are affected by their
size and shape. Air creates friction on the falling object. Friction and
other forces cause the actual motion of a falling object to deviate from its
theoretical motion, creating what is known as terminal velocity.

Let’s visualize this concept. Ifa person, a tiny animal, and a bug all fall
from a third-story balcony, what will happen?
os OF

If you guess the person will experience serious injury and the tiny animal
and the bug will survive, you are right. But why? If you answer that one
reason is “terminal velocity” you are also right. But why?

Terminal velocity of a small bug is a few meters per second. #

Insects and tiny animals have a large surface-area-to-volume ratio, “=
so the frictional resistance of the air limits the speed that they
fall to a certain speed, called “terminal velocity.” Ki
Terminal velocity of a human spread out is about 55—60 m/s
(120-135 mph), and tucked into a ball is about 90 m/s (200 mph).
The motion of a falling object through air is slowed by air resistance. An
object’s terminal velocity depends on its size, shape, and mass. The
greater the area-to-volume or surface-to-mass of an object, the lower
(slower) its terminal velocity. A smooth stone will fall faster than a
cotton ball, because the cotton ball has more surface area relative to its
weight with which to contact air.

Without air resistance an object falls faster and its speed increases the
farther it falls. The equation for speed ignoring air resistance,
V=Vo7tat

suggests that the speed continues to increase. But when friction or air
resistance is considered, a terminal speed for a falling object is reached,
where the force of air resistance cancels the force of gravity, and
acceleration ceases.
 Motion 17
We can visualize the effect of terminal velocity on a graph:

Speed vs. Time

4— Velocity ignoring air

Downward resistance, v = Vo + at
Velocit
V _ piteeannnezreiennemmennnzzemmesmssinin lease egy

Terminal speed

With air resistance, acceleration is retarded

Vo toward zero until it gradually reaches
its terminal velocity

In real world situations, motion is retarded or impeded by frictional

effects. Examples include air resistance on a falling object or friction
slowing an object sliding down a sloped surface.

1.7. Vector and Scalar Excursion

e Both scalar and vector quantities are used in physics, so let’s take a
quick detour to understand the difference. In simple terms, scalars
describe magnitude while vectors describe both magnitude (shown by
vector’s length) and direction (vector’s pointing). This can be visualized
by comparing the definitions of distance vs. displacement.

Distance vs. Displacement

e Distance is a scalar quantity indicating the length of the path between

two points and is measured along that actual path (which could be curvy
or circular) connecting the points. Displacement is the vector describing
the magnitude of the separation between two points and the direction
from the first to the second. The displacement is the separation between
two points and is expressed as a vector whose magnitude is the straight
line distance between them.

If a duck walks around the perimeter of a pond and returns to his starting
point, the distance the duck traveled will be the total path length around
the pond, but the duck’s displacement is zero since he returned to his
starting point. Displacement is independent of the path taken to get from
one point to another.
18 Master Math: Essential Physics

eo

e Example: If the duck then walks east 500 ft, turns around and walks
west 200 ft, what is his distance and displacement?

| 0 100 200 300

Coal

400 500
+
N

The duck’s distance traveled was 700 ft (500 ft + 200 ft), but his
displacement was 300 ft east (500 ft — 200 ft). (Note that when
displacement has a value, it also has a direction.)

Summary of Properties of Scalars and Vectors

Scalars:

Quantities represent magnitudes.

Described by a real number that is positive, negative, or zero.
Can be compared with each other if they have the same units
or physical dimensions such as walk 5 mi vs. walk 20 mi.
Examples include length, time, distance, speed, volume, temperature,
work, density, and mass.
Do NOT indicate direction.

Vectors, =2——————"__>

Describe both magnitude (vector’s length) and direction (vector points).

Depicted as line segment or arrow with an initial point and
an arrowhead at the terminal point.
The length of a vector represents its magnitude.
Examples of vectors include displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, weight, and momentum.

e A displacement vector represents the movement or displacement

between two points in a coordinate system. The length of a displacement
vector is the distance between the two points and the direction of a
displacement vector is the direction it is pointing.
 Motion 19

y. Displacement vector from point A to B is

B shown by the vector AB with magnitude
10 (length) 10 m and direction 35° from the
35° horizontal x direction.
A x

e Vectors are written as one or two letters with an arrow over them, a
boldface single letter (A or a), or two boldface letters with the first letter
representing the initial point and second letter the terminal point (AB).
Note: When just the magnitude of a vector is discussed, boldface type is
not used.

e The magnitude (or length) of a vector is the absolute value of the

displacement and therefore never a negative number. The direction of a
vector can, however, be positive or negative. Remember: The absolute
value of anumber n is represented by |n|, where |1|= 1 and |—1|=1.

e Note: Vectors that point in the same direction and have the same length
(or magnitude) are equivalent vectors even if they are not in the same
location. A vector can be relocated and still be considered the same
vector as long as its length and direction remain the same. The negative
of a vector is a vector with the same length but pointing in the opposite
direction.

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

e Two vectors can be added or subtracted if they have the same

dimensions by adding or subtracting the corresponding components. For
example, a two-dimensional vector can be added to another two-
dimensional vector.

e In vector addition the initial point of the second vector is placed at the
terminal point of the first vector. The sum is a third vector with its initial
point at the initial point of the first vector and its final point at the final
point of the second vector.

Illustration 1 shows a + b = ¢ by placing the initial point of b at the final

point of a. The sum is the vector joining the initial point of a to the final
point of shifted b, or vector c.
20 Master Math: Essential Physics

shifted b

shifted a

Illustration l:a+b=e Illustration 2:b+a=c

Illustration 2 shows b + a= by placing the initial point of a at the final

point of b. The sum is the vector joining the initial point of b to the final
point of shifted a, or vector c.

Remember that the starting point of a vector can be moved as long as its
length and direction stay the same. Note that vector addition is
communicative, ie.,a+b=b+ta.

e Subtraction of two vectors is equivalent to adding the first vector to the

negative of the second vector. The negative of a vector is a vector with
the same length but pointing in the opposite direction.

To subtract two vectors, a— b = ¢, reverse the direction of the second

vector, then add the first vector to the negative of the second vector. To
do this, position the vectors so that the initial point of the negative b
vector is at the final point of the first, a, vector. The sum is the vector ¢
with its initial point at the initial point of the first vector and its final
point at the final point of the second (negative) vector.

: Slide
up ay
b > : ‘—b > Cc N —b

eels |
a a
a—b=c

Just as two vectors can add to a single vector sum, a single vector can be
resolved into two component vectors that sum to the original vector.

Vectors and Their Components in a Coordinate System

e A vector can be described by its horizontal and vertical components

(which are also vectors) in a coordinate system.
 Motion a4

V Vectors Vyerticas ANd Whorizontal are each

Verecical component vectors of vector V.

Visocreatat

e Right-Triangle Relations: Remember from trigonometry that the

trigonometric functions are defined according to the ratios of the three
sides of a right triangle. A right triangle can be drawn alone or at the
origin of a coordinate system. (See Master Math: T;rigonometry for
complete instruction of trigonometry.)

vi same as shifted V,

cosine 8 = cos 8 = adjacent/hypotenuse = V,/V

sine § = sin @ = opposite/hypotenuse = V/V
tangent 0 = tan @ = opposite/adjacent = V,/V, = sin 8/ cos @

Component vectors of vector V can be expressed as:

V,=Vcos0
Vi =v sino

The magnitude of V is given by the Pythagorean Theorem:

[V|= [Vx + Vy }”
Remember, the Pythagorean Theorem states that the sum of the squares
of the lengths of the sides of a right triangle equals the square of the
length of its hypotenuse.

The angle 0 is:

tan@=V,/V, or O= tan’'(V,/V,) = arctan(V,/V;x)

e A vector can be resolved into its components that run along

horizontal and vertical axes of a coordinate system.
22. Master Math: Essential Physics

If vector V is at an angle 0 of 30° from the x-axis:

Horizontal component is: V, = V cos 30°
Vertical component is: V, = V sin 30°
V is the vector sum of vectors V, and V,

e Example: If vector V is at an angle of 30° from the x-axis and its

magnitude is 50, calculate vector components V, and V,. Show that the
length of vector V is 50 using the component vectors V, and Vy.

The vector components V, and V, are:

|V,| = V cos 30° = 50 cos 30° = 43

Ve) Voss 0 ="o0\sin3 0725

The length or magnitude of a vector V is the square root of the sum of

the squares of its component vectors, V, and Vy:

| a ‘Vy Ve(Vo weve"

where the magnitude, represented |n|, is the absolute value of number n.

Using V, = 43 and V, = 25 calculated above, the length of vector V is:

|V| = [V2 + Vy)” = [437 + 257]? = 50 (which was given initially)

e Now that we have reviewed some basics of vectors, we can continue

with our adventure into the world of motion.

1.8. Velocity vs. Speed

@ When we study an object’s speed or velocity, we look at how far it

moves during a time interval. When considering how far the object
moves, we are measuring either its distance or displacement. Remember:
distance is a scalar indicating the length of the path between two points
and is measured along that path (which could be curvy or circular), while
displacement is the vector describing the magnitude of the separation
 Motion 23

between the two points and has direction from the first to the second. So
how do speed and velocity differ?
Speed is the rate of change of distance over time.
Average speed = (total distance traveled) / (total elapsed time)

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement over time.

Average velocity = (displacement) / (time)

In English when we say speed or velocity we generally mean the same

concept, but in physics, speed represents the scalar quantity and velocity
represents the vector quantity.

Speed is a scalar quantity and describes how fast an object is moving.

Speed is the rate at which an object covers distance.

Velocity is a vector quantity having both magnitude and direction and

describes the rate at which an object changes its position. For example, if
you quickly move around haphazardly but return to your starting
position, you will have many instantaneous velocities, but a zero average
velocity. Because you returned to the original starting position, your
motion would not result in a net change in position. Since velocity is
defined as the rate at which the position changes, this motion results in
zero average velocity.

Velocity is a vector quantity which indicates both magnitude and

direction. A velocity vector describes an object in motion and has a
magnitude representing the speed of the object and a direction
representing the direction of motion.

For motion in a straight line in the x direction, the average velocity is:

Displacement

(Xo, to) (ati)

Vave = (X1 — Xo) / (ty — to) = Ax/At

For any point along the path, the instantaneous velocity is found by
taking the limit as the time interval becomes infinitesimal.

Instantaneous velocity = v = lima:—.o(Ax/At)

Note: In calculus this limiting process defines the derivative:

v = lima: so(Ax/At) = dx/dt
24 Master Math: Essential Physics

The instantaneous speed of an object is the magnitude of its

instantaneous velocity (whether velocity is positive or negative).

I
(The velocity is boldface because it is a vector.)

Since displacement is measured along the shortest path between two

points, its magnitude is always less than or equal to the distance (which
can be a curvy path). As the time interval becomes infinitesimal, the
magnitude of the displacement approaches the value of the distance.
Because speed is calculated using distance and velocity using
displacement, speed and velocity will have essentially the same
magnitude as the time interval approaches zero.

e Units of both speed and velocity are distance/time as measured in, for
example, meters/second (m/s), miles/hour (mph), or feet/second (ft/s).

1.9. Acceleration Vector

e We learned that when an object is in free fall, it accelerates due to

gravity in one direction—toward Earth. Position, velocity, and
acceleration are related to each other and are vectors. Velocity is the rate
of change of displacement with time, Ax/At. Acceleration is the rate of
change of velocity with time, Av/At. While vectors possess both
magnitude and direction, there are situations when we are only
concerned with magnitude. The magnitude of acceleration for an object
in motion is the rate of change of velocity, and the direction of
acceleration is the direction of the change in velocity.

e Units of acceleration are:

(velocity)/(time) = (distance/time)/(time) = (distance)/(time’)

This can be measured in: m/s”, mi/h’, or even (mi/h)/(s).

e Let’s look at some examples of velocity and acceleration vectors:

Suppose a car is moving 30 mph cee

st
in a straight line in the +x direction to = 0h, Vo = 30 mi/h
at time ty = 0.
 Motion

At t; = 1h, the car is moving oes 5 PE Ke

60 mph in the same +x direction. t; = 1h, v; = 60 mi/h
The x-component of velocity has
increased, and the acceleration vector
is in the +x direction with: 30 mish?
a = Av/At = (30 mi/h)/(1 h) = 30 mi/h?
Now suppose that at time to, velocity 5S ae
is 60 mph. The car is still in to = 0h, Vo = 60 mi/h
the +x direction traveling in a
straight line. At time t; = 1, velocity ——->»
iS V; = 30 mph. In this case t; = 1 h, v; = 30 mi/h
the velocity has decreased in the
x-direction and the acceleration ect
vector is in the —x direction with: ~30 mi/h?
a = Av/At = (—30 mi/h)/(1 h)
= —30 mi/h*
Next suppose at ty = 0 the car is
moving east at Vo = 30 mph. +2
At t; = 2 min, the car is moving v= Av
north at v; = 30 mph. 30 mi/h
Suppose you want to determine any
change in average acceleration.
You will need to find
Aave = Av/At = (Vv; — Vo)/At, where Vo = 30 mi/h
Av is the change in velocity between v, and Vo.
Note: You can draw v, — Vo = Av using vector Vo
subtraction so that Av has its initial point at the Vv
initial point of v, and its final point at the final A
point of negative vo.
The magnitude of Av is the square root of the
sum of the squares of its component vectors:
|Av| = [vi2 + vo]* = [(30 mi/h)’ + (30 mi/h)"]* ~ 42.4 mi/h
The average acceleration is:
Arve = Av/At = (42.4 mi/h)/(2 min) = 21.2 mi/h per min
Or in mi/h per second:
Arve = Av/At = (42.4 mi/h)/(120 s) ~ 0.35 mi/h per s
Acceleration is about 21 mi/h per minute or 0.35 mi/h per second in the
northwesterly direction (because the change in velocity 1s toward the
northwest.
26 Master Math: Essential Physics

1.10. Two-Dimensional Motion: Projectiles

Horizontal Projectile

Rock launcher

Rock projected horizontally

Rock dropped
| =~ 9.8 m/s”
Negative sign for
downward g force.

e If you drop an object it will accelerate downward due to gravity. If you

project it sideways at some initial velocity in the horizontal x direction,
its motion will be at an angle to the vertical and will have two components.
Because velocity is a vector, it can be decomposed into its components.

The vertical or y-component of velocity undergoes acceleration due to

gravity and increases linearly with time. The time that a projectile is in
flight depends on the vertical component of its motion. We will generally
choose the upward direction as positive y-direction and the downward
direction as negative y-direction so that the acceleration‘of gravity will
be in the downward, negative y-direction. Therefore, the vertical velocity
component of an object beginning from rest is: vy = —gt.

There is no force and therefore no acceleration in the x direction, so the

horizontal or x-component of velocity proceeds at the constant initial
velocity Vox: Vx = Vox:

The horizontal displacement of a projected object depends on the

horizontal component of its motion and its time of flight. The path of a
horizontally projected object depends on the simultaneous effects of the
horizontal and vertical components of its motion. The horizontal and
vertical components act independently.
 Motion 27

Motion of Object Projected Horizontally Follows a Parabolic Path

y
. Vox is horizontal velocity is constant

‘ ; Wate V0x
vertical
velocity
VWwe-e *=\5 v is the instantaneous velocity vector
increases

Equations for object projected horizontally:

x dimension y dimension

Displacement: X = Voxt ¥— Vee = (1/2)gt?

Velocity: Vx = Vox Vy = Voy — gt
Acceleration: a, = 0 Ce a 4

Note: Earlier in this chapter when we introduced acceleration, we

developed the equations for motion in one dimension. At that time we did
not consider the acceleration of gravity or using a negative sign to
indicate direction. The above equations can be written without negative
signs, but when we put in a value for gravity we would use a negative
number. It is important to always keep track of positive and negative
directions in physics models that involve motion or forces that move or
act in a certain direction.

e Example: Suppose you hiked your rock launcher up to the top of a

300-m cliff and shot a rock horizontally at 10 m/s (22.4 mph). What is
the horizontal distance traveled when the rock hits the ground? (Assume
no air resistance.)
28 Master Math: Essential Physics

Rock launcher

Vos 10 m/s

x=?

The displacement in the x direction is: x = Voxt

To find t we can use: y = Voyt — (1/2)gt?
Because initial velocity voy = 0: y = (1/2)gt?
Solve for t”: t? = 2y/g
Substitute the vertical distance y, which is 300 m downward in the same
negative direction as gravity, and gravity g =—9.8 m/s’:
t” = 2(-300 m)/(-9.8 m/s*) = 61s”
Take the square root to find t: t~ 7.8 s
Now find the horizontal displacement:
X = Voxt = (10 m/s)(7.8 s) = 78m _ or about 256 ft

Projectile Motion at An Angle

Rock layncher

e The velocity components of a projectile shot at an angle to the

horizontal can be derived from the right-triangle relationship for the
components of a vector (discussed in Section 1.7). When the initial
velocity is vo and the angle from horizontal is 0, the components of vo
are:
Vox =Vo cos@ and Voy = Vo sin 8

The displacement equations for a projected object become:

X = Voxt = (Vo cos 8)t

Y = Voyt — (1/2)gt” = (vo sin 6)t — (1/2) gt”
 Motion 29

The equations for the velocity components at some instant for a

projectile are found by combining the initial velocity component
equations (Vox = Vo cos 6 and Voy = Vo Sin 9) with the equations for an
object projected horizontally (vx = Vox and Vy = Voy — gt) to give:

Vx = Vox = Vo COS 8

Vy = Voy — gt = Vo sin @ — gt

When discussing projectiles the maximum height and the horizontal

distance in the x direction are often desired.

Parabolic Path of a Projectile

J Maximum height h at time T

Distance X
at time 2T

Distance X

Maximum height h occurs when the projectile stops rising and its upward
velocity slows to zero, vy= 0, (just before it begins to fall). At the top,
y= hoy, 0,and time t= 1.

An equation for time T at the top can be found by substituting v, = 0

and t = T into the y-component velocity equation, Vy = Voy — gt, and
solving for T:
0= Voy — gT

T= Voy/2

To express time T at the top in terms of initial velocity vo instead of voy,

substitute the y velocity component equation, Voy = Vo sin 9:
T = (vo sin 9)/g

The total time 2T is twice the time to the top:

2T = 2(vo sin 8)/g
30 Master Math: Essential Physics

To find an equation for height h at the top, we substitute y = h and t= T

into the y-displacement equation, y = Voyt — (1/2)gt’:
hat (12 )e
Substitute T = vo,/g: ;
h = Voy(Voy/g) — (1/2) g(Voy/g)
h = (Voy'/g) — (1/2)(voy
/g)= (Woy /g)(1 — 1/2) = (1/(28))(Woy)
To express maximum height h in terms of initial velocity vo instead of
Voy, Substitute the y velocity component equation, Voy = Vo sin 8:

h = (1/(2g))(voy)
h = (1/(2g))(vo sin 6)
To find the horizontal distance X traveled for a projectile when time
t = 2T substitute x = X and t = 2T into the equation for horizontal
displacement, X = Vost:
X= Voxe |

To express X in terms of initial velocity vo instead of vox, substitute the x

velocity component equation, Vox = Vo Cos 9:

X = (Vo cos 8)2T

Substitute total time 2T = 2(vo sin 8)/g:

X = (Vo cos 8)(2 Vo sin 8)/g
This may be rearranged as:
X= (2vo/g) cos 8 sin 0

or simplified using the trigonometric relation 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x:

X = (vo'/g) sin 20

Note that the maximum value for the sine function is at | which occurs
when 20 = 90 since sin 90 = 1. When 20 = 90, 6 = 45, which is the angle
that produces the maximum distance. This was discovered by Galileo
when he studied projectile motion and found that maximum distance
occurred when the elevation angle was 45 degrees. Therefore, at 0 = 45,
Xe OCCULS:
Xmax =(Vo/g) at 0=45 degrees

e Example: You upgrade your rock launcher into a mini cannon and
shoot a cannon ball up from the ground at an angle of 60 degrees and an
initial velocity of 40 m/s. What is the total time your cannon ball will be
in the air? What is the time when it is at the high point? How high and
far will it travel, and where will it be 1 s from launch?
 Motion 34

mini-cannon launcher T

The total time is given by:

2T = 2(vo sin @)/g = 2(40 m/s x sin 60)/(9.8 m/s’) ~ 7.07 s
Time at the highest point is: T = (7.07 s)/2 = 3.5
The total horizontal distance is:
X = (vo’/g) sin 20 = [(40 m/s)’/(9.8 m/s’)] sin 120 = 141 m
Alternatively, you can calculate total horizontal distance using the T
dependent equation:
X = (Vo cos 0)2T = (40 m/s x cos 60)(7.07 s) = 141 m
The maximum height is:
h = (1/(2g))(Vo sin 0)” = (1/(2 x 9.8 m/s”))(40 m/s x sin 60)’ = 61.22 m
Att=1 +s, the location is given by the displacement equations:
X = (Vo cos 8)t = (40 m/s x cos 60)(1 s) = 20m
y = (Vo sin 6)t — (1/2)gt? = (40 m/s * sin 60)(1 s) — (1/2)(9.8 m/s*)(1 s)”
~ 29.74 m
Therefore, at 1 s the cannon ball was at a horizontal distance of 20 m and
a height of about 30 m.

1.11. Circular Motion

Angular Velocity v1

The velocity vector v of an object bas Vo

moving at a constant speed around [8)
a circle changes direction continually
even though the speed may be constant.

e As an object moves along a circle, the angle @ changes. The rate at

which the angle 6 changes is the angular velocity . (The Greek letter
omega usually denotes angular velocity.) The angular velocity is a
measure of the change in angle @ as an object moves at a constant speed
22 Master Math: Essential Physics

around a circle. The angular velocity w is given by: w = A@/At, where

angle 0 is in radians and is the measure of where object P is at time t.

Pp
Angular velocity: © = A@/At
Time required for one revolution or period is:
+ =2n/o 9\
Speed of an object moving in a circular path
of radius r is: v=ra

An object moves at an angular rate of | revolution per second if it takes

it one second to travel (at a constant speed) completely around a circular
path. Because one revolution around a circle is 27 radians the object
moves at an angular velocity of 2m radians per second. (Remember a full
circle is 360° which equals 27 radians.)

The time required for one complete revolution or cycle of motion is the
period t of circular motion. (Note: We use the Greek letter t, or tau, to
denote period.) The period and the angular velocity are inversely related
because the greater the angular velocity, the shorter the time required to
make one revolution. The period t is given by: t = 27/o.

For an object moving at constant speed around a circle of radius r, the

distance traveled in one period is the circumference of the circle, 2zr.
Given that the time required for one revolution is t = 27/@, the speed of
the object moving in a circular path of radius r is:
v = distance/time = (2mr)/(27/@) =r® orjust v=ra

If an object is moving at a constant speed S

around a circle, then the distance traveled
is an arc s. Therefore, for an object moving
around a circle at a constant velocity
the distance along the arc is: s = vt.

Solving s = vt for v gives the Jinear velocity around the circle as: v = s/t.
Combining the angular velocity © = A0/At with the equation for the arc
length s of a circle, given by s = r8 we can relate the /inear and angular
velocity formulas as: v = s/t = r0/t.
Also, because = 0/t, then the following relations for linear and angular
velocity can be written: v = r0/t, v=ro, v = s/t, w = O/t, w = s/t, w = vir.
 Motion 33

Centripetal Acceleration

¢ In motion with no acceleration, the velocity vector is constant in

magnitude and direction. If there is a change in velocity, then motion
must have experienced acceleration. Acceleration may cause a change in
either magnitude or direction. In fact, a change in the direction of the
velocity vector requires acceleration even though the magnitude (speed)
may remain constant. Because a change in the direction of the velocity
vector requires acceleration, an object moving uniformly in a circular
path is continually accelerated. The acceleration required to produce
constant motion in a circle is centripetal (center seeking) acceleration.

e For those interested in math we show one way of developing the

equations for centripetal acceleration in the following paragraphs and
figures. Otherwise you can just examine the final equations.
Vo
Vi t;

ies to hi s

fit

At time ty the tangent velocity vector of a moving object is vo. At time t,

the object has moved by A@ and the velocity vector is v1. (Vo and v; are
perpendicular to the radius lines r.)
As the tangent velocity vector moves around the circle, its direction
changes toward the center of the circle so it remains tangent. If the
motion is uniform the magnitude of velocity is vo = v;, even though the
direction of vectors Vp and v; are different.

Between ty and t, the object moves along arc s by length As. The straight-
line distance between ty and t; is Ax. For small time increments, AO gets
small and As ~ Ax.

If we set the initial points of tangent vectors vp and v, together (right-

hand figure), we see that A@ about the circle’s center equals A@ between
vectors Vo and v;. (The velocity vectors have to rotate the same AO to
remain perpendicular to r.) A change from vo to v1 requires acceleration.
The change in the velocity vector from vo to V1 is Av. Component vectors
of Av are vy and vj.
34 Master Math: Essential Physics

Note that as 9 gets small, triangles rr s and vov,Av above are similar
isosceles triangles, so that:
Ax/r = Av/v

where v can be either vo or v; (since magnitude Vo = v)).

Alternatively we can reason this because the length of arc s is s = r0 (or

§ = s/r) and the velocity vector changes by the same angle 6 as the central
angle through which the object moves. Therefore: AO = As/r = Av/v.
As A@ and As become small, As ~ Ax, so that: Ax/r = Av/v,
where v can be either vo or v; (since magnitude Vo = v)).

Solving Ax/r = Av/v for Av gives: Av = vAx/r.

Earlier in this chapter we learned that the instantaneous velocity for any
point along a path is found by taking the /imit as the time interval
becomes infinitesimal:
V = limat0(Ax/At)

Similarly, the instantaneous acceleration at a point along a path is the

limit of Av/At or:
a = limatso(Av/At)

Now substitute Av = vAx/r for the centripetal acceleration:

ac = limarso[(vAx/r)/(At)] = limato[(v/r)(Ax/At)]

Because v and r are constant and not affected by At getting small:

a = (v/r) lima,so(Ax/At) |
Because v = lima:_.o(Ax/At), the centripetal acceleration is:

Because v = ra:
a, = (ro)/r

Therefore, centripetal acceleration is also written:

2
a,
— ro

We can also express centripetal acceleration in terms of the period,

T= 20/0;
a, == r(2n/t) iM= 4n°r/t sap)
 Motion 35

1.12. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

———— ee ee ee splot
e Average speed is total distance traveled per total time: Vive — AXIAL
e Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at a specific time.
e Acceleration is the rate of change of speed or velocity with time.
e At constant acceleration a = (v — vo)/t, v = Vo + at, X = vot + (1/2)at”.
e Vectors describe both magnitude (or length) and direction.
e Speed is the rate of change of distance with time.
e Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time.
e Angular velocity @ = A0/At.
¢ Centripetal acceleration a,= v*/r.

Practice Problems

1.1 A biplane pilot wants to win a U.S. Mail contract. To do so he needs

to prove his capability by flying north from the airport 100 mi, turning,
and flying back in no more than 4 h. (a) What speed does he need to
average? (b) On his test day there is a steady 40 mph north wind. If his
top airspeed is 80 mph, will he make it and if so by how many minutes?
(c) At what wind speed must he cancel the trial and wait for a better day?

1.2 A runner must run 4 quarter-mile laps. She starts fast and completes
the first lap in 1 min. (a) What speed did she average on the first lap?
(b) She runs the second lap 3 mph slower, the third lap another 3 mph
slower, and the last lap another 3 mph slower, finishing in about 6 min
and 25 s. What was her average speed?

1.3 (a) Write an equation for the velocity as a function of time for an
airplane that lands at 100 mph and stops in 5 s assuming constant
deceleration. (b) At what time during the landing is the airplane’s
instantaneous speed equal to its average speed?

1.4 A rocket-powered dragster accelerates at a constant rate from

standstill and does a quarter mile in 6 s. (a) What is the acceleration rate
in ft/s’ and top speed in mph? (b) Upon hitting the quarter mile mark, the
driver pops the chute and brakes, slowing to a stop at a constant
deceleration rate of one-third the magnitude of his acceleration. How far
is he from the starting line when he stops?

1.5 A basketball player jumps with a hang time of | s (assume his legs
yemain straight and gravity is —32 ft/s). (a) How high did he jump?
(b) What was his speed in ft/s when he came down? (c) With the same
initial velocity, what would be his hang time and how high would he
jump on the moon? (Assume gm= —5.3 ft/s*.)
36 Master Math: Essential Physics

1.6 If a skydiver falling at 125 mph pulls his ripcord and opens the
parachute, what will happen? What will be the direction of acceleration
until the rate of descent stabilizes?

1.7 Otis, a small white puppy, escapes his yard in a town made up of
square blocks with 10 blocks per mile. He follows his nose 2 blocks
west, chases a cat 3 blocks south, and then follows a boy on a bicycle 7
blocks east and then 7 blocks north. The boy finally tells Otis he should
go home, so Otis sadly wanders 2 blocks west before realizing he is
hopelessly lost. A blackbird offers to help. As the crow files, how far is
Otis “displaced” from home?

1.8 At the beginning of the swim season, Donna could swim 100 m in
82 s (2 lengths of a 50 m pool). Practicing twice a day, she got her time
down to 58 s. In m/s, how much had she increased her average velocity
during a 100 m race?

1.9 A skydiver leaps from an airplane and reaches a terminal velocity of

—50 m/s in 10s. (a) What was her average acceleration? (b) When she
reaches an altitude of 800 m, she releases her chute and within 4 s is
descending at only 5 m/s. What was her average acceleration during
those 4 s?

1.10 David slings a stone at 100 cubits/s toward a giant standing on a hill
25 cubits (cu) away whose eyes are 10 cu above the stone’s release point.
(Assume no air resistance, 1 cu = 18 in, and g =-32 ft/s’). (a) If he aims
at a point between the giant’s eyes (0 ~ 21.8°), where will the stone hit?
(b) If he aims 14 in above the eyes (8 ~ 23.3214°), will the stone hit the
target? (c) If the giant ducks so the stone misses, how high and how far
will the stone fly, and how long will it be airborne? (Assume release and
landing points are ground level.)

1.11 (a) What is the angular velocity of the Earth around the Sun in
rev/h? (Assume r = 93,000,000 mi, | year = 8,766 h, and circular orbit)
(b) What is Earth’s speed in its orbital path? (c) What is Earth’s
centripetal acceleration?

Answers to Chapter 1 Problems

1.1 (a) (100 mi + 100 mi)/4 h = 50 mph. (b) Speed north 80 — 40 =

40 mph, so 100 mi takes 2 h 30 min. Speed south 80 + 40 = 120 mph, so
100 mi takes 50 min. Total time is 3 h 20 min, beating the clock by
40 min. (c) Solve 100/(80 + s) + 100/(80 — s) < 4 for max wind speed:
s = 49 mph.

1.2 (a) (0.25 mi)/(1/60)h = 15 mph. (b) Vaye= total distance/total time;
time is 6 min 25 s ~ 0.107 h, so 1 mi/0.107 h = 9.35 mph.
 Motion 37

1.3 (a) v= vo+ at or v= 100— 20t. (b) average speed (100 + 0)/2=
50 mph, so 50 mph= 100— 20t or t= 2.5 s.

1.4 (a) a = 2x/t’ = 2(5280/4)/6.0° = 73.33 ft/s’. (v —vo)=at =73.33 x 6 =

440 ft/s = 300 mph. (b) a = 73.33/3= 24 ft/s’. Takes 3 times as long to
stop, or 18 s. Average speed is 150 mph. Deceleration x = vt =
150 x 18s(1/3600) ~ 0.75mi. Total distance 0.25 + 0.75= 1 mi.

1.5 (a) Time to top is 0.5 s; x = (1/2)at’; x = (1/2)(32)(0.5)°= 4 ft.

(b) v = gt = (-32)(0.5) = 16 ft/s downward. (c) t = v/g = 16/5.3 = 3.02 s.
Time up and down is 2t or 6.04 s. x = (1/2)at’= (1/2)(5.3)(3.02)° = 24.17 ft.
1.6 The rate of descent decreases to a new lower terminal velocity. The
acceleration is upward, opposite gravity.

1.7 Otis is 3 blocks east and 4 blocks north. d’= 3°+ 4°= 25,
d=5 blocks= 0.5 mi.

1.8 Her velocity remained 0 since she finished where she started, but her
speed increased by (100 m/s) / (58 m/s) — (100 m/s) / (82 m/s) = 0.5 m/s.

159 (ayane= (i= Voit= (50 0)/10 = = 5 1s".

(Dae (5 —1(-50))/4 1.25 m/s".
1.10 (a) Vox = vo cos 8 = 100 cos 21.8 = 92.8 cu/s; t = x/Vox = 25/92.8 =
0.269 s; y =(vosin 6)t — (1/2)gt* = 9.99 cu — 0.772 cu = 9.218 cu;
10 cu— 9.218 cu = 0.782 cu = 14 in below eyes. Note: OK to use just:
y= (1/2)gt? = (0.772 cu ~ 14 in below eyes.
(b) Vox= Vo cos 8 =100 cos 23.3214= 91.83 cu/s; t = x/Vox= 25/91.83 =
0.27224 s; y =(vosin 6)t — (1/2)gt=
(100 sin 23.3214)0.27224— (1/2)(21.33)(0. 27224) = 9.9872 cu;
(10 cu — 9.9872 cu)= 0.01278= 0.23 in. Very close, only 0.23 in below
target. Alternatively, y = (1/2)gt” = (1/2)(-21.33)(0. 27224) = -0.79045 cu
= 14.23 in, or 0.23 in below target.
(c) Time to high point T = (vo sin 6)/g= (100 sin 23.3214)/(21.33)=
1.856 s, so total time 2T = 3.712 s. Max height h = (1/(2g))(vo sin 9)’=
(1/(2 x 21.33))(100 sin 23. 3214)° = 36.739 cu = 55.11 ft. Distance X =
(vo-/g) sin 20 = (1007/21.33) sin 46.6428° = 340.88 cu = 511.3 ft.
Alternate equation: X = (vo cos 9)2T = 511.3 ft.

1.11 (a) Using 8,766 h/yr, @ = A@/At= (21 rev/yr)(1/8760 yr/h) =

0.0007173 rev/h. (b) v = rw= 93,000,000 mi x 0.0007173 rev/h=
66,709 mph. (c) a, = v/r= 66, 7097/93, 000,000~ 47.8 mish’. (This is
0.019 ft/s’, or about 0.06% of the force of gravity on Earth.)
38 Master Math: Essential Physics
 Chapter 2
FORCE, MOMENTUM, AND NEWTON’S LAWS

2.1. Force
2.2. Newton’s Laws of Motion
2.3. Mass vs. Weight, Normal Force, and Tension
2.4. Linear Momentum and Impulse
2.5. Conservation of Linear Momentum
2.6. Torque
2.7. Angular Momentum and Conservation of Angular Momentum
2.8. Center of Mass
2.9. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself Iseem to have
been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myselfin now and
then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great
ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.” Attributed to Sir Isaac Newton

“The more precisely the position is determined,

the less precisely the momentum is known in this instant, and vice versa.”
Werner Heisenberg, Uncertainty paper, 1927

2.1. Force

e Motion is influenced by the presence of forces. Force is required to

produce a change in the state of motion of an object. To set an object in
motion, change its direction, or stop its motion requires a push or pull
force. A force is an influence that is capable of producing a change in the
state of an object’s motion. Force is a vector quantity and has both
magnitude and direction. An object at rest will begin to move in the
direction it is pushed by a sufficient net force.

The amount of force required to move an object of great mass, such as a

cart full of bricks, is much larger than the force required to move an
object of smaller mass, such as an empty cart. Applying the same push
40 Master Math: Essential Physics

for the same time period to the brick-loaded cart and the empty cart will
result in the state of motion of the heavy cart being changed much less
than the state of motion of the light cart.

Inertia is the property of matter that causes it to resist a change in its

state of motion and is related to its mass. The brick-loaded cart has more
inertia than the empty cart.

e The laws of physics are valid under different reference frames. For
example, you can perform a set of physics experiments in a stationary lab
on the ground and then repeat those experiments in a train moving at a
constant velocity, and the results will be the same. Let’s examine this by
measuring acceleration on the ground:
a= Av/At = (Vv; = Vo) / (t; = to)

Then get on the train and re-measure, but add a constant velocity vy to
account for the moving train:
a = [(v; + Vr) — (Vo + Vr) / (th — to) = (V1 — Vo) / (th — to)
The vy’s cancel! Newton’s Laws are valid whether you are at rest or
moving at a constant velocity (not undergoing acceleration).

e Friction is an important part of our world. Its effects keep cars on the
road and buildings standing. We will mostly ignore friction in this
chapter so we can focus on learning the basic principles of force, but will
discuss friction in detail in Chapter 3. When you are modeling a situation
or solving a problem, the effects of friction can only be ignored when
they are negligible compared to other forces. Friction can often be
reduced but never completely eliminated. Frictional forces generally
exist and act opposite to the direction of motion. Friction is a retarding
force that acts to slow down a moving object.

V is velocity
f is friction

Units of Force

e Force is measured in units of (mass) x (length) / (time)*, which is force

times acceleration. Units of force in the SI, CGS, and ft-lb systems are as
follows (see Important Definitions page xi):
SI or MKS system: A Newton N (named after Sir Isaac Newton
1642-1727) is the force required to accelerate a 1 kilogram mass 1 meter
per second over a second’s time.
1 N=1 kg-m/s?
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 41

CGS system: A dyne is the force required to accelerate a 1 gram mass

1 centimeter per second over a second’s time.
1 dyne=1 g‘cm/s* and 1 N= 100,000 dynes
Foot-pound-second system: A pound-force (Ibf) is the force required to
accelerate a | slug mass | foot per second over a second’s time.
1 pound-force = slug-ft/s*
The conversion factors between SI and foot-pound-second systems for
force and mass are:
Force: 1 Newton = 0.2248 pounds, | pound = 4.448 Newtons.
Mass: | kilogram = 0.06852 slugs, 1 slug = 14.59 kilograms.
Note: The conversion between kilograms and pounds is often given as
1 kilogram = 2.2 lb, which only applies when the acceleration due to
gravity is 9.8 m/s’ near Earth’s surface.

Note: Rather than just writing “pound”, it is more accurate to write

“pound-force” or “Ibf” since there is often confusion with the term
“pound” and whether it applies to mass or weight (force). Pounds and
Newtons are units that measure force or weight. Kilograms and slugs are
units of mass. Just to make this more confusing, while “slugs” are the
units of mass in the foot-pound-second system, “pound-mass” (Ibm) is
also used. The relationship between them is: | slug = 32.17 Ibm. When
you are on the Earth’s surface, where gravity is about 32 ft/s’, one
pound-mass weighs one pound-force and the mass of | slug weighs
32 Ibf. We can also see that a pound-force is the force required to
accelerate a 1 pound-mass 32.17 feet per second over | second’s time.

2.2. Newton’s Laws of Motion

e Newton’s Laws of motion (developed by Sir Isaac Newton) relate

force, mass, and the change in the state of motion. While modern physics
has discovered that for infinitesimally small distances or extremely high
velocities Newton’s Laws require adjustments, for most circumstances
the Newtonian Laws describe the dynamics of physical systems. The
more extreme situations led to the development of quantum mechanics
and relativity theories.

e Newton’s First Law: Every object persists in its state ofrest or

uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that
state by forces impressed on it. In other words, an object will remain
motionless or continue moving uniformly in a straight-line unless it is
compelled to change by the application of an external force. This is also
referred to as the law ofinertia. _
42 Master Math: Essential Physics

If no net force is applied to an object at rest (with zero velocity), it will

remain at rest. If no net force is applied to an object in uniform motion,
it will maintain that constant velocity. That is, if the net force Fy. on an
object is zero, so that the vector sum of all forces acting on it is zero,
then the acceleration a of the object is zero, and it either remains at rest
or continues to move with a constant velocity. If a non-zero force is
applied, the velocity will change in the direction of the net force.

Newton’s First Law suggests if F,e = 0, then a = 0 and v = zero or a

constant. This means if we slide a smooth object across a frictionless icy
surface, it will move forever without any change in speed or direction.
Newton’s First Law addresses zero force, zero acceleration, and constant
velocity.

e Newton’s Second Law: For an object with constant mass, the force F
is the product of the object’s mass and its acceleration a:

Acceleration a in same The two applied forces Acceleration a in direction

direction as net force F sum to zero, so a= 0 of combined F, and F), or
a net force F.

The force in F = ma is the total net force acting on the object. The
accelerated motion of the object can only be produced by the application
of a force to that object. The direction of the acceleration is the same as
the direction of the net force, and the magnitude of the acceleration is
proportional to the magnitude of the force.

A force will cause an acceleration and an acceleration will generate a

force. The equation works both ways. When an external force is applied,
the change in velocity depends on the mass or inertia of the object.
Newton’s Second Law suggests that an unbalanced force causes a mass
to accelerate. When the net force on a system is zero, there is no
acceleration.

Newton’s Second Law specifies the dimensions of force as mass times

acceleration. Using the system of kilograms, meters, and seconds, this
gives the units as:
Force units = (mass units) x (acceleration units) = kg x m/s’, which is
often written kg-m/s”. In the MKS system, a net force F acting ona l-kg
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 43

mass causes it to accelerate 1 m/s’. The magnitude of the force is defined

as 1 Newton (N) or:
1 N= 1 kg-m/s”
Example: If 5 N of force is applied northward to a 5-kg object at rest for
5 seconds, how far will it move and what is its final velocity?
a = F/m = (5 N)/(5 kg) = 1 N/kg = (1 kg-m/s”)/(kg) = 1 m/s?
Velocity v = at = (1 m/s’)(5 s) =5 m/s in the northward direction
Distance x = (1/2)at” = (1/2)(1 m/s”)(5s)° = 12.5 m

¢ Calculus note: Newton’s Second Law also defines a force to be equal

to the differential change in momentum per unit time. The momentum is
defined to be the product of the object’s mass m and its velocity v. The
differential equation for force F is: F = d(mv)/dt.
The law defines a force to be equal to the change in momentum (mass
times velocity) per change in time.
F = Ap/At= A(mv)/At) or F = lima,.o(Ap/At)
(These “changes” are expressed most accurately using the derivative.) If
the mass remains constant, we can use the definition of acceleration as
the change in velocity with time (a = Av/At) to reduce the Second Law
to the product of mass and acceleration: F = ma.
Since acceleration is a change in velocity with a change in time t, we
can also write this equation for the average force:
F = m(v; — Vo) / (t; — to)

e Newton’s Third Law: For every action (force), there is an equal and
opposite reaction. If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B
exerts an equal, oppositely-directed force on object A.

Note: Different notation may be used for the subscripts such as F, = —Fp.

This Law suggests that single forces cannot occur and that forces always
act in action/reaction pairs. When one object exerts a force on a second,
the second exerts a force on the first that is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

The Third Law can be used to explain the production of thrust by a jet or
rocket engine. Hot exhaust gases are produced which flow out the back
of the engine, and, in reaction, a thrusting force is produced in the
opposite direction. Another example is leaping off the end of a small
boat toward a dock. If you don’t have the boat tied up, as you leap the
44 Master Math: Essential Physics

boat can lurch away from the dock. As you leap out of the boat toward
the dock, your legs apply an equal but opposite force to the boat.

Age
+) —>
If you have two objects that interact only with each other and nothing
else, you can use Newton’s Third Law, F4 = —Fs, combined with the
Second Law, F = ma, to give:
F,=—-Fp or maa, = —Mpag

In an isolated system the equation maa, = —Mpgag can be used to find

one of the masses if the other mass and the ratio of a’s are known:
ign = ma,(—a,/ag)

The negative sign reflects that the accelerations have opposite directions.

2.3. Mass vs. Weight, Normal Force, and Tension

Mass vs. Weight

e Mass is an intrinsic property of an object and is independent of

location and gravitational forces. An object’s mass is the same on the
Earth’s surface, at the bottom of the ocean, on Mars, or in a weightless
orbit. Mass depends on the number and type of atoms an object
possesses. Newtonian physics defines mass as a measure of an object’s
inertia. Inertia measures an object’s ability to resist a change in its state
of motion when it is acted upon by a force. Remember from our
discussion of Newton’s Second Law, a net force of 1 Newton (N) acting
ona 1-kg mass causes it to accelerate | m/s’ (regardless of the object’s
location). An object’s mass also determines how much gravitational
force it will exert when acted on by gravity: F = mg.

Weight depends on, and will vary with, an object’s location, such as its
altitude above the Earth or what planet it is on. Weight reveals how Earth
interacts with the object. Weight is the force a body exerts on its support
(such as Earth). When an object is not accelerating, its weight w equals
the gravitational force Fg that is exerted on it: w = Fg. In other words,
weight is the amount of gravitational force acting on an object.

The mass and weight of an object are related by the acceleration due to
gravity. On Earth’s surface you can convert between weight and mass
using: w= mg. The value of g is about g = 32 ft/s” = 9.8 m/s” on Earth’s
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 45

surface (though it varies). For example, a 60-kg woman on the Earth’s

surface weighs: w = mg = (60 kg)(9.8 m/s’) = 588 N.

If you were to leave the Earth and go to the Moon, your mass would
remain constant, but your weight would change. This is because the
gravitational force exerted by the Earth on you as you stand on its
surface is greater (by about 6 times) than the gravitational force exerted
by the Moon as you stand on its surface.

Acting Forces

e As you stand on Earth, it is exerting a gravitational force Fg on you and

you are exerting an opposite gravitational force —Fg on the Earth. If you
stepped off a cliff you would accelerate toward the center of the Earth
from the force of gravity (while the Earth accelerates toward you at a
negligible rate). As long as you are resting on the surface, there is a
balance of forces that keep you from falling.

The force you are exerting on Earth’s surface is your weight w = mg,
which is the same as the gravitational force exerted by the Earth on you:
w = Fg. The reaction to force w is the “normal” force N = —w, which is
the oppositely directed force the Earth’s surface exerts on you. (The
word “normal” comes from the fact that this force acts perpendicular or
normal to the surface.)

While acting forces Fc, —Fc, w, and N all have the same magnitude, the
equal and oppositely directed action-reaction pairs are pair Fg and —Fg
and pair w and N. The forces acting on you are Fg downward and normal
force N upward. The forces acting on the Earth are w and —Fg. All the
forces balance and there is no net force acting on you or the Earth and
therefore no acceleration is experienced.

Normal Force

e The normal force is the force that the surface of one body exerts on
the surface of another body. It is by definition always perpendicular to
the surfaces in contact. The normal force is an action-reaction force that
reacts to an external force pushing the object into the surface. Units are
the same units as any force: kg-m/s?, or Newtons N.
46 Master Math: Essential Physics

Mass vffr
=0 Block pressed against
= surface by force of gravity.
se CLSa9 Fy... =0
Surface” Net
Fc
= mg

For an object sitting on a horizontal surface, the normal force is equal

and opposite to the object’s weight. The two forces acting on the object
are the downward gravitational force Fg and the upward normal force N.
The net force is zero so the object is not accelerating.

Doles Block pressed against

surface by an applied force.

For an object held against a vertical or slanted surface, the normal force
acts perpendicular to the surface whether the surface points sideways or
at an angle. The normal force is equal but opposite to the applied
perpendicular force pressing the surfaces together.

e Suppose you decide to take your bathroom scale into an elevator. When
the elevator is at rest the scale shows your weight: w = mg.

Scale Up Elevator: You weigh w = m(g+a)

measures during acceleration upward.
your
weight

When the elevator accelerates upward, you feel downward pressure as

the scale exerts an upward force on you of w = m(g +a). During
acceleration you are exerting a downward force on the scale reflecting
the weight: w = m(g+ a).
After a few seconds the elevator stops accelerating and moves up as a
constant speed, and scale reflects your normal weight: w = m(g+ 0).

Scale Down Elevator: You weigh w = m(g—a)

measures during acceleration downward.
your
weight

Uh oh. You hear a funny noise and the elevator begins to drop. If the
elevator accelerates downward, the force you would exert on the scale
would be: w = m(g-—a).
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 47

If the elevator goes into free fall, the downward acceleration would be
g,
and your weight would be: w = m(g — g) = 0. You would be weightless
and therefore could not exert a force on another object, even though
gravitational force Fg = mg is acting on you. Fortunately, something
grabs and the elevator decelerates and resumes a smooth descent. Next
time I'll take the stairs, you say to yourself.

Inclined surface

e If you see an object on a flat, angled surface, you may be able to model
it as an inclined plane problem. In the diagram the box is set ona
frictionless inclined surface at an angle 0. It is acted on by Fg and N. The
net force Fy. is the vector sum of Fg and N and takes into account the
inclined angle: Fye.= mg sin 0.

N“ite
6f F Net
F, = mg

e Example: If a 100-pound block is sitting on a frictionless incline of

30°, what force is required to hold the block in place and what is the
force of the block perpendicular to the incline plane?

9/7
Fy Fc
= mg

The object is acted on by the force of gravity Fg and normal force N. The
net force Fye produces acceleration and is the vector sum of Fg and N.
The incline angle 0 must be considered in the net force: Fe = mg sin 0.
There is a force vector horizontal to the plane F,, and a force vector
normal to the plane Fy, which are components of the object’s weight mg.
The component of mg in the “normal” N direction must be equal to N
because these forces balance, and there is no net force or acceleration
normal (perpendicular) to the incline surface. From the diagram we can
use trigonometry to find the values of the vectors F), and Fy. (Remember
SohCahToa: sine = opposite/hypotenuse, cosine = adjacent/hypotenuse,
tangent = opposite/adjacent.)
48 Master Math: Essential Physics

sin 0 = |F,|/|mg| or F, =|mg| sin @

cos 0 = |Fy|/|mg| or Fy =|mg| cos 8
F, is the force along the plane, therefore a force at least equal to and
opposite to F;, is required to hold the block in place. Notice that we were
given 100 lb, which is a force or weight that already accounts for the
gravity on Earth’s surface. To find the force required to hold up the block
calculate:
F,, = |mg| sin 8 = (100 Ib) sin 30° = 50 Ib
The block exerts a force Fy normal to the incline plane, which is equal
and opposite to the normal N force. Its magnitude is:
Fy = |mg| cos @ = (100 Ib) cos 30° ~ 86.6 Ib

e An inclined plane can be helpful in everyday life. If Fhorizontal 1S Much

less than F Gravity, the incline can act like a simple machine. For example, a
person may not be able to lift a full oil drum up onto a truck, but she may
be able to roll it up a ramp if the angle that the ramp makes with the
ground is small.

Tension

e Tension is a force transmitted by ropes, strings, cables, chains, cords,

etc., as part of an action-reaction pair. The direction of the force of
tension is parallel to the rope or string. Because tension is a type of
force, it has the same units as any force: kg-m/s? or Newtons N.
Hanging Surface
PRES
Rope —-> & T

Mass fife.=e 0 Fret = 0

F,
= mg

Hanging object (above): There are two forces acting on the hanging
object: the downward gravitational force Fg and the upward force T due
to tension in the rope. The net force is zero so the object is not
accelerating. For an object hanging from a non-stretchable rope, the
tension force will be equal and opposite to the object’s weight.
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 49

Pulled object (above): If an object is connected to a non-stretchable rope

and pulled along africtionless surface by a horizontally applied force
F applied, the force will produce a tension T in the rope which will act on
the object. The net forces acting on the object are:

Fye = We Na Ta = |

where Fg and N cancel since there is no net force or acceleration normal

to the surface. Therefore, Fe; = F Applied=Ma and the object is accelerating:
a= F applied/M.

“fr FNet =(0

or T
Fc
= mg

Object on incline (above): If an object is held motionless by a non-

stretchable rope on a frictionless inclined surface at an angle 9, it will be
acted on by tension T, Fg, and N. The net force Fye is the vector sum of
Be Fo, and N: Fret = 0.

e You are still intrigued by the concept of weighing more and less
depending on acceleration. You get a new idea and bravely venture back
to the elevator. What if you suspend a rope from the ceiling of the
elevator and then the elevator accelerates upward. You wonder what
would be the tension T on the rope during the upward acceleration.

Elevator at Rest.
You weigh: w = mg
= (60 kg)(9.8 m/s’) = 588 N
Fei =0

When the elevator (above) is not moving the gravitational force on you is
F, = mg = (60 kg)(9.8 m/s”) = 588 N. You are exerting a force ofthe
same magnitude on the rope, or mg = 588 N. The tension T, on the rope
is the reaction to your weight and is also mg = 588 N. The net force on
you is zero: T, up plus Fg down, which are equal and opposite, and result
in zero acceleration: Fue= 9.
50 Master Math: Essential Physics

a=2 m/s’

Elevator accelerates upward.

You weigh: w = m(g+a)
= (60 kg)(9.8 m/s” + 2 m/s’) = 708 N
Fret =ma

The elevator (above) accelerates upward at 2 m/s’. This increases the

tension on the rope to T>. The net force on you is T> up plus Fg down,
which is equal to your mass times the acceleration: T, — Fg = ma.
The tension in the rope is found by solving T — Fg = ma for T»:
T, = Fo + ma = mg + ma = m(g+a)
= (60 kg)(9.8 m/s’ + 2 m/s’) = 708 N
Notice that the rope tension is equal to your weight with the added
acceleration.

Tension and Pulleys

e Tension forces can be illustrated using non-stretchable ropes or strings

whose mass and friction are ignored. The ropes or strings are held by
frictionless pulleys which allow for changing the direction of forces and
motion. These ropes or strings transmit tension forces in action-reaction
pairs. For two objects connected by the rope or string threaded through a
pulley, a force directed by the first object occurs concurrently with a
force directed along the rope or string to the second object.

e Example: Suppose two objects are suspended on a frictionless, non-

stretchable rope hanging over a frictionless pulley so that the magnitude
of the tension T is the same on either side of the pulley. Object m, has a
mass of 4 kg and object m, a mass of 6 kg. Calculate the magnitude of
the acceleration and the magnitude of the rope tension.
eiesereeyeS,Leer esSreefe

G — hg

The net force Fye, =m a acting on object m, is the sum of vectors T and
Fc = mig. The net force Fy, = mya acting on object m, is the sum of
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 51

vectors T and Fg = mg. Choose the positive direction as the direction of

motion, which will be toward mp falling, and write equations for the
magnitudes of the acting forces. The magnitude of the acceleration will
be the same throughout the rope. Let’s calculate the magnitude of the
acceleration by first looking at the forces on the two masses.
Object m;: T—mjg=mya or T=mg+mja
Object mj: mg-T=ma or T=mg—ma
Rope tension is the same for each mass so setting T = T:
mig + mya = mg — ma
m ja + moa = mg — mg
a(m, + m2) = g(m2 — m))
a(4 kg + 6 kg) = (9.8 m/s’)(6 kg — 4 kg)
a(10 kg) = (9.8 m/s*)(2 kg)
a = (9.8 m/s’)(2 kg) / (10 kg) = 1.96 m/s? is the acceleration
Calculate the magnitude of the tension T using either equation for T:
T=m gt+mja or T=mg-—ma
T = (4 kg)(9.8 m/s’) + (4 kg)(1.96 m/s”) = 47.04 N
T = (6 kg)(9.8 m/s’) — (6 kg)(1.96 m/s”) = 47.04 N
Therefore, acceleration a = 1.96 m/s’ and tension T = 47.04 N.

e Example: Suppose two objects are connected by a frictionless, non-

stretchable rope through a frictionless pulley. The tension T on either
side of the pulley is the same. In this system object m, is resting on a
support and object m, is hanging. How would you calculate the
acceleration and rope tension?

Fg
= mg

This is a 2-dimensional x-y system: m,; moves in the x-direction and m2

in the y-direction. If you choose the positive direction as the direction of
.
motion, m, slides in the +x direction and m; falls in the —y direction
First write equations for the magnitudes of the acting forces. The
rope.
magnitude of the acceleration will be the same throughout the
52 Master Math: Essential Physics

Object m):
The net force Fne acting on object m, is the sum of vectors T, N, and Fg.
Because there is no net force or acceleration of object m, in the y-
direction, Fg and N having opposite directions cancel each other. The
horizontal applied force Fappiied = ma produces the tension T in the rope,
which acts on object m;. The net force on object m; is:
FNet = T= F Applied =mya or T= ma

Therefore, in the positive x-direction of motion: T = ma.

Object mp:
The net force Fue acting on object m, is the sum of vectors T and Fg.
The net force on object m, is the vector sum:
Fye=Fo+T or ma=mgt+T

In the direction of motion the magnitude of mg is positive and T is

negative giving:
ma = mg — T
To solve for the magnitude of the acceleration a we can combine the m,
and m) equations:
T=mja and mg-—T=mma
Adding these equations cancels T and gives: mg = m,a + maa.
Alternatively, solve the m2 equation for T and set both equations equal:
T= mg —- ma= mya
Mg = mat mya
m2g = a(m; + mp)
a= mpg / (m; + m)
Therefore, we can calculate acceleration in this system using:
a= mg /(m; + m))
Note that in this example an equation for acceleration could also be
found by modeling the two objects and the extended (mass-less) rope
between them as one mass, M = m,; + mp. In this model the net force is
FNet = Ma, with the net force acting on the system being equal to the
force of gravity acting on mp), or mg. Therefore:
FNet = Ma = mg
We can solve Ma = mgg for acceleration, a, (remember M = m, + mp):
Ma = mg
(m, + m)a = mg
a= mg/(m, + m)
This is the same equation for calculating acceleration of this system.

e Free pulleys can reduce the amount of force required to lift or move an
object by increasing the distance over which the force acts. A free pulley
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 53

wheel divides the weight over two ropes—one on each side. To lift a
weight, a pulley will exert a force on each rope equal to half the weight.

e Example: Pulley systems with free pulleys allow a weight to be raised

with less force than lifting it directly. If m = 500 Ib, what force F is
required to raise the weight, and how far must the rope be pulled down to
raise the weight 10 ft?
PP ee Pe eT eT we eee
Re

The weight is suspended on 2 ropes, each with T = 250 Ib. Since F = T =

250 lb, any downward force over 250 Ib will raise the weight. To raise
the weight 10 ft, the rope segments on both sides of the free pulley must
shorten by 10 ft. One end of the rope is fixed, so the free end must be
pulled 20 ft. (You can exert twice the force, but the rope must be pulled
twice as far.)

2.4. Linear Momentum and Impulse

e Linear momentum p is the product of an object’s mass m and its

velocity v. Momentum and velocity are both vectors, while mass is a
scalar.
p=mv

e Newton’s Second Law, F = ma, was originally written as the time rate
of change of momentum:
F=Ap/At or F = limao(Ap/At)

We usually think of mass as remaining constant, but it can change. For

example, an accelerating rocket loses mass as it ejects gas. (Although the
total mass of the rocket plus the ejected gas does not change, which is
required in a Newtonian world by the law of conservation of mass.)

Because p = my, force F can also be written:

F = lima:o(Amv/At)
When mass is constant:
F=m limat+o(Av/At)
54 Master Math: Essential Physics

Because acceleration is:

a = limatso(Av/At)
We can again write Force F in terms of m and a:
F=ma

The relationship between applied force and the change of momentum

reveals something we have all experienced—that stopping an object
depends not only on its mass but also on its velocity. Think of someone
walking into you vs. someone running into you.

e Units of momentum: The units for momentum are consistent with the
equation for momentum, p = mv: mass times velocity or mass times
length per time. MKS and CGS units are: kg-m/s and g-cm/s.

e Example: Find the momentum of a 1,000 kg car driving south at

20 m/s. What if the car’s velocity was doubled? Its mass was doubled?
Both velocity and mass were doubled?
Momentum is:
p = mv = (1,000 kg)(20 m/s) = 20,000 kg-m/s, south
Doubling velocity will double the momentum:
p = mv = (1,000 kg)(40 m/s) = 40,000 kg-m/s, south
Doubling mass will double the momentum:
p = mv = (2,000 kg)(20 m/s) = 40,000 kg-m/s, south
Doubling both velocity and mass quadruples momentum:
p = mv = (2,000 kg)(40 m/s) = 80,000 kg-m/s, south

e Example: You are looking into the side of a large fish tank when you
see your friend, who is climbing the stairs next to the tank, drop his new
camera. Oops. Splash! Within a tenth of a second of hitting the water, the
camera’s velocity goes to zero! If the camera weighs one pound and your
friend dropped it from about 10 ft, what average force in Newtons did the
water exert on the camera to stop its fall?
First convert to SI units: Since 1 m ~ 3.28 ft, the camera dropped:
10 ft x 1 m/3.28 ft=3.05m
The camera weighs | pound and | lb ~ 4.448 Newtons (N), or
4.448 kg-m/s*. To find the mass in kilograms divide by gravity 9.8 m/s”:
(4.448 kg-m/s’) / (9.8 m/s’) ~ 0.45 kg
Note that because we are on the surface of the Earth we could have used
the conversion | kg ~ 2.2 Ib: (1 Ib)/(2.2 lb/kg) = 0.45 kg.
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 55

We want to find the value for the average force imposed by the water,
which is a retarding force on the camera. We can use Newton’s Second
Law in terms of momentum:
F = Ap/At = (pz — p,) / At
where in this case the final momentum P2 1s zero.
Next we need the value of momentum p: when the camera hits the water.
We can use the equation for linear momentum:
Dit ulva
We find the value for velocity v, when the camera hits the water using
v’ = 2¢x, which is the equation for an object dropped from rest under the
constant acceleration of gravity. The value for x is the distance the
camera dropped:
(v\) = 2gx = 2(9.8 m/s*)(3.05 m) = 59.78 m’/s”
Take the square root: v; ~ 7.7 m/s.
Knowing v, we can find the momentum p,; = my:
pi = (0.45 kg)(7.7 m/s) ~ 3.5 kg-m/s
Finally, to calculate the force the water exerted on the camera use
Newton’s Second Law in terms of momentum F = Ap/At = (p2 — p;) / At.
The time we observed was “Within a tenth of a second” so we will use
0.1 s for At.
Hia4p pi) At == 35 ke-m/s) (Ol sy= 35 ke-m/s”
Therefore, the retarding force of the water on the camera was about
35 N. (The negative sign denotes that the retarding force was in the
opposite direction of the velocity of the camera.)

Impulse

e Impulse reflects how much momentum changes when a force is

applied for a certain time period. Impulse is a vector since it has both
magnitude and direction. If you tap a ball with force F for time period At,
you have provided an impulse. Note that the force is the average force
applied during the time period.
Impulse = F x At

You can visualize an impulse from a tap by plotting force vs. time:
I This line represents the average
force applied over the time period.
t

e Units of impulse: Impulse has units of force times time or:

Newton:seconds (N:s), dyne:seconds (dyne’s), and pound:seconds (Ibs).
56 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Impulse (FAt) and momentum (p = mv) are related. We can see this
using Newton’s Second Law:
F=ma
Because a = Av/At:
F = m(Av/At)
To develop an impulse, which is F x At, multiply both sides by At:
FAt = mAt(Av/At)
Cancelling At’s on right side:
FAt = mAV = MVgnal — MVinitial
Because mAv represents the change in momentum, or Ap = mAv,
impulse FAt equals the change in momentum:
Impulse = FAt = Ap

We can say that the impulse imparted to an object causes a change in its
momentum. Also the total change in momentum that is caused by a force
depends on how long that force is applied. The preceding equation shows
that the same change in momentum can be caused by a stronger force
acting over a short time or a weaker force acting over a longer time.

We can determine the impulse when force varies. The previous graph
showed an impulse from a tap by plotting force vs. time and drawing a
line to reflect the average force applied during At. A graph reflecting a
constant force, shown below, depicts the impulse as the product of force
and time, which is the area of the shaded rectangle. The graph showing
variable force has the time axis divided into small intervals with the
impulse during an interval approximated by the area of that interval’s
rectangle. The total impulse, which is the net change in momentum, is
the sum of the areas under the curve.
Constant force Variable force
F F
Impulse = FAt Impulse = FAt
= shaded area = shaded area
t t

e Example: Suppose you decide to try your hand at hockey. You whack
a 0.2-kg puck to the goal at the north end of the rink with an average
force of 70 N. Your stick contacts the puck for about a tenth of a second.
What was the impulse experienced by the puck?
Impulse = FAt = (70 N)(0.1 s) = 7 Nes, north
Note that you did not need the mass of the puck in your calculation.
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 57,

e Example: A 0.2-kg hockey puck experiences a 60-N force for a tenth of

a second toward the south goal. What is the puck’s momentum change?
The change in momentum is Ap = mAv. But since we don’t know the
velocity change, we can use the equation that relates impulse, force, and
momentum change:
Impulse = FAt = Ap = (60 N)(0.1 s) = 6 Nes, south

2.5. Conservation of Linear Momentum

e In an isolated system the total momentum is constant:

p = constant

This is called the law or principle of conservation of linear momentum,

and says momentum is conserved in a closed system. Achieving a
perfectly isolated system in reality is not possible, but some systems can
be modeled as closed or isolated when external forces are negligible
compared to the interactions within the system.
In a system of two objects, momentum is:
P = Pi + P2 = MV; + MoV? = constant

An example is to think of two identical air hockey pucks—one is white

and the other gray. Suppose you hit the white puck and it strikes the gray
puck perfectly centered. After the collision the white puck stops and the
gray puck continues the motion of the white puck. If the mass of the gray
puck is equal to that of the white puck and the white puck stops after
hitting the gray puck squarely, the velocity of the gray puck will be the
same as the white puck’s original velocity. The momentum was trans-
ferred from the white puck to the gray puck. The momentum of this two-
puck system was conserved.

m
+ @->6
If instead, the white puck strikes the side of the gray puck and they both
are in motion after the impact, their combined momentum after the
collision will be equal to the momentum of the white puck before impact.

Ge
aes
(>> mv
58 Master Math: Essential Physics

In the isolated system of two air hockey pucks, the total momentum of
the system did not change even though they exerted force on each other.
More generally, in a system of objects in which no external forces are
acting on that system (Fhe = 0), the total momentum of the objects is not
changed by any forces the objects exert on each other (p = constant).
Momentum is conserved.

If two colliding pucks have masses m; and my, initial velocities vj, and
Vj2, and final velocities vr, and Vp, then using conservation of
momentum:

M,Vi1 + MgVji2 = Mj Vg) + MVpp

For an isolated system with no external forces, this holds whether the
objects are air hockey pucks or asteroids.

e Conservation of linear momentum can be proven using Newton’s Third

Law that two bodies exert an equal and opposite force on each other:
F, = —-F,

with F, as the force exerted on object | by object 2 and F, as the force

exerted on object 2 by object 1. If F; and F) are the only forces acting on
the two objects, then using Newton’s Second Law F = ma:

m,a; = —M7a2
Since a = Av/At:
m,Av,/At = —m2Av>/At

Since the time period is the same, the At’s cancel:

m,Av, = —m>Av>

Since p = mv:
Ap; =—Ap2 or Ap, + Ap, =0

The change in momentum is zero and momentum is conserved.

e We can also quickly see that momentum is conserved using the

relationship between force and momentum, F = Ap/At. From this
relationship we can see that if force F = 0, then momentum p does not
change with time, which is conservation of momentum.

e The relationship, p = p; + pp = miv; + mpv2 = constant, is helpful when

solving problems in which initial velocities and masses are known and
final velocities are needed.
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 59

e Example: A 1.5-kg toy train car is sitting on a straight, frictionless

track when it is hit by a second 1.0-kg toy train car traveling 0.1 m/s. If
the two cars link and move forward together, what is their velocity?

eee we & Phe ee

m= 1 Ske
2S 8 MPs se ws

Let m)v, represent the 1.5-kg car’s initial momentum: (1.5 kg)(0 m/s).
Let mpv2 represent the 1.0-kg car’s initial momentum: (1.0kg)(0.1 m/s).
Let vs represent the final velocity of the combined cars: (? m/s).

Because we are ignoring friction and other external forces, we can use
conservation of momentum:
M,Vj + MyV2 = MyV¢ + MoVe

mV; + MyV2 = (m; + m2)V¢5

Ve = (m)Vv; + mMv2)/(m, + m2)
ve= ((1.5 kg)(0 m/s) + (1.0 kg)(0.1 m/s)) / (1.5 kg + 1.0 kg) = 0.04 m/s
Vv; = 0.04 m/s = 4 cm/s (or about 0.09 mph) in the forward direction

e Example: You are in your canoe, which is not moving, with your mini-
cannon. Directly to the north you imagine an enemy battleship and fire
your cannon at it horizontally. The projectile’s mass is m,= | kg, and it
is launched at v,= 250 m/s. You, the canoe, and your gear have a com-
bined mass of m, = 100 kg. What change in velocity do you experience?

Momentum is conserved, so Ap = 0, and m,.v,+ m,v,= 0, or .

V,= —m,Vv,/m, = —1 x 250/100 = ~2.5 m/s or 2.5 m/s, south (quite a kick!)

2.6. Torque

e If a force is applied to an object at a point other than its central axis of

rotation, that force may create a torque. Torque is a measure of how
effective a force is in producing rotation about an axis.

Torque is the product of an applied force F times the length ofa lever
axis of
arm, which is the shortest radial perpendicular distance from the
rotation to a line drawn along the direction of force. Torque can be
60 Master Math: Essential Physics

described in terms of the distance between the point of application of the

force and the axis of rotation multiplied by the component of the force
perpendicular to this distance line.

T torque vector is perpendicular to disk

Gila SS Motion as disk rotates

F
Force F acts perpendicular to lever r along side of disk

When the applied force F is perpendicular to the radial line r from the
axis, the entire force is effective in producing torque 7, and:

Torque T=rxF _ providing F is perpendicular to r

The length of r and the applied force F perpendicular to r determine the

torque. If you push on a swinging gate far from the hinge (long r), the
gate will open more easily than if you push next to the hinge (short r).

If force F is applied perpendicular to the gate near its hinge (rotation

axis) and r is very short, the turning force is minimal (above).

If force F is applied perpendicular to the gate far from the hinge and r is
long, the gate turns, or opens, more easily (above).

e What if the force is applied at an angle other than 90° perpendicular?

ie

Perpendicular
Force Force applied at an angle

If the force is applied at an angle, the perpendicular component of that

force contributes to the torque. Torque is found using:

Torque T= rF sin 0
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 61

where r is the radial distance from the axis of rotation to the point at
which the force is applied, and 0 is the angle between F and the radial
line r that connects the axis of rotation to the point at which the force is
applied. Angle 0 is also defined as the acute angle between the lines of
vector r and the force vector F.

Torque vector is perpendicular to r and F

(pointing down through page).
Line of r
Axis of rotation

Line of force F

e Mathematically, torque is usually expressed using the vector cross

product, or vector product:
T=F Xr=|F| |r| sin0

A force F can be applied to a lever arm, or radius vector r, which has its
initial point located at the center of rotation. The torque is a vector
having a magnitude that measures the force of the rotation and a direc-
tion along the axis of rotation. More generally the vector product or
cross product of two vectors is:
A X B=|A| |B] sin8
where |A| and |B| represent the magnitudes (or lengths) of vectors A and
B and 0 is the angle between vectors A and B. The product exists in three
dimensions with A and B in a plane and A X B normal (perpendicular) to
the plane. The cross product of two vectors produces a third vector with
length |A| |B| sin 6 and direction perpendicular to A and B. The length of
A X B depends on sin 8 and is greatest when 8 = 90° or sin 0 = 1.

A XB

The cross product of two vectors occurs geometrically according to what

is referred to as the right-hand screw rule such that for A X B, if you
move from vector A to vector B through angle 9, the result is vector
A XB, which is perpendicular to both A and B. The right-hand screw
rule can be visualized by curling the fingers of the right hand from A to
B, where A X B points in the direction of the right thumb.

e Note that applying torque does not require that the object possess a
r
physical “lever arm,” just the application of some off-center force. The
62 Master Math: Essential Physics

vector can be a construct that represents the displacement between an

object’s rotation axis and the point where the force F is applied. A force
can, for example, be applied to a free particle of mass such as a meteor in
space.

e Units of torque are force times length. In SI this is Newton-meters

(N-m) or kg-m/7/s’, in the CGS system this is dyne-centimeters (dyn-cm),
in the foot-pound-seconds system this is foot-pounds (ft-lb). The
direction of a torque vector can be positive or negative such that a torque
causing a counterclockwise rotation about the axis is positive and a
torque causing a clockwise rotation is negative.

e Example: Suppose you sit on a seesaw 1.5 m from the pivot axis. What
maximum torque will you cause assuming your mass is 70 kg?

The force you apply to the seesaw is your weight or mass times gravity
(70 kg)(9.8 m/s”). Remember, when the applied force F is perpendicular
to the radial line r from the axis, the entire force is effective in producing
torque. This is when the angle 8 = 90°, or sin 8 = 1. In this example
maximum torque will occur when the seesaw is horizontal because the
full weight acts perpendicular to the lever arm. At horizontal the torque
is:
T =1 x F=(1.5 m)(70 kg)(9.8 m/s’) = 1,029 kg-m’/s” or 1,029 Nem

2.7. Angular Momentum and Conservation of

Angular Momentum

e First remember that as an object moves along a circle, angle 8 changes.

The rate at which angle 0 changes is the angular velocity w. In other
words, the angular velocity @ is a measure of the change in angle @ as an
object moves at a constant speed around a circle.

ey
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 63

The speed of an object moving in a circular path of radius r is: v = ra.

The angular velocity is: o = A0/At, where angle 0 is in radians and is the
measure of where object P is at time t. The velocity vector v of the object
changes direction continually even though its speed may be constant.

¢ Now let’s consider angular momentum: Angular momentum (L) is a

vector quantity having magnitude and direction along the axis of rota-
tion. The direction of the angular momentum vector can bevisualized
using the right-hand screw rule (discussed above for torque). When you
curl the fingers of the right hand along the path of motion, the direction
in which your right thumb points is the direction of the angular
momentum vector L.

For a mass rotating around a central axis:

Axis of rotation

Angular momentum L can be defined as:

L = (distance r from mass m to axis of rotation)
x (perpendicular component of linear momentum, p,)

where L is perpendicular to both the radial vector r and the momentum

vector p and points in its direction according to the right-hand screw
rule. (Subscript , denotes perpendicular.)

Substitute linear momentum p = mv to get angular momentum:

L=rmv,

The perpendicular velocity component is v, = V sin 0. The angle 0 is

of
between vector p (or v) and the r line connecting mass m and the axis
rotation. Therefore, angular momentum is also written:

L=rmv sin 8
64 Master Math: Essential Physics

Angular momentum depends on the perpendicular component of velocity

even though the motion may not always be directly perpendicular. We
use the relationship v, = v sin 8 and can visualize it as:

mass axis mass axis

Vv vv vi=vsind
Vv is perpendicular to r v, is perpendicular component of v
L =rmv sin 90° = rmv L=rmvy, =rmv sin 0

Because the speed of an object moving in a circular path of radius r is

Vv = rq, where v is perpendicular to r, we can substitute this into the
angular momentum expression L = rmv sin 6 to describe a mass rotating
around a central axis:
L=mr’o sin 0

e You will find that angular momentum is often described more

generally using moment of inertia which allows you to model different
geometries other than just a mass rotating around a central axis. The
moment of inertia I for a single mass or particle rotating around a central
axis is 1=mr°. Following are sample moment of inertia values for
different geometries:
A particle revolving around a central axis: I = mr’.
Thin hoop rotating about its center: I = mr’.
Disk rotating about its center: I = (1/2) mr’.
Solid sphere rotating about its center: I = (2/5) mr’.
Thin rod rotating lengthwise through its center about an
axis perpendicular to it: I = (1/12) mr’.

We can express angular momentum using moment of inertia and

angular velocity as:
L = (moment of inertia I) x (angular velocity w) = I@

Remember the definition of linear momentum p: p = mv. Angular

momentum can be thought of as a rotational counterpart of linear
momentum with inertia related to mass and angular velocity related to
liner velocity.

Conservation of Angular Momentum

e A few examples of conservation of angular momentum include: tops

spinning without falling over, a figure skater spinning faster as arms and
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 65

legs drawn in, and gyroscopic compasses giving direction. Earlier in this
chapter we learned that linear momentum is conserved so that when the
net force on an object is zero, the linear momentum remains constant.
Similarly, angular momentum is also conserved, providing no external
torque is applied and the net torque on the object is zero.

We can state conservation of angular momentum as: When the net

torque on an object or system of objects is zero, its angular momentum
will remain unchanged in both magnitude and direction. Therefore:
Initial angular momentum = final angular momentum
li; = Ih providing net torque is zero

Since L = Iw = rmy,:

Remember that the force on an object is equal to the time rate of change
of linear momentum, F = Ap/At. Similarly for angular momentum, the
torque T is equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum:
T=AL/At or T= limaso(AL/At)
From this relationship we can see that if torque T equals zero, then
angular momentum L does not change with time, which conserves
angular momentum.

e Example: One way to visualize conservation of angular momentum is

to imagine yourself spinning on a rotating platform. First you have your
arms outstretched while holding weights, then you bring your arms close
to your body. What will happen? Why? What is the ratio of moments of
inertia if you are initially spinning 0.5 revolution per second, then after
bringing in your arms you spin at | revolution per second?

Of course, you will spin faster when you bring your arms in, but why?
Because initial angular momentum equals final angular momentum, you
will not lose angular momentum. As your arms come in, r gets shorter
and velocity must increase. You can determine the ratio of moments of
inertia using I,@; = I;@, and solve for Ij/I¢:
L/Ip = @¢/a@; = (1 rev/s)/ (0.5 rev/s) = 2
66 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Example: The Earth moves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun. It is

closest to the Sun, a distance of 1.47 x 10° kilometers (perihelion radius),
in December and furthest from the Sun, a distance of about 1.52 x 10°km
(aphelion radius), in June. Given its velocity at the far, aphelion position
is 29.3 km/s, what is its velocity at its close, perihelion position?

laeeshe
mv

Because any external forces are negligible, the angular momentum is the
same at every point on the orbit. Gravity is not an external force (and
exerts no torque). Gravity is an internal force directed along the line
connecting the bodies and provides the center-seeking force behind
the Earth’s centripetal acceleration. Earth’s angular momentum vector
points in a fixed direction so Earth always moves in the same plane and
the product of r and v remains constant throughout the orbit (so v varies
inversely to r).

Using subscript P for perihelion and subscript A for aphelion, by

conservation of angular momentum:
I,@, = Ip@p = raAMVa = rpMVp

TAMVa=fpMVp OF TaAVa=TIpVp
Solve for vp:
Vp = Tava/tp = (1.52 x 10°km)(29.3 km/s) / (1.47 x 10°.km) = 30.3 km/s
Therefore, the orbiting velocity at its close, perihelion position is
30.3 km/s or about 67,779 mph. (This compares to the far, aphelion
orbiting velocity: 29.3 km/s or about 65,542 mph.)

e The units for angular momentum are: kg-m’/s.

In the study of rotational motion, physicists generally measure angles in
radians. Therefore angular momentum units may be thought of in terms
of radians as (kg-m*)(radians/s), although it is simply written kg-m’/s.
Remember, one complete rotation is 27 radians, which is equivalent to
360 degrees, or 27 radians = 360 degrees. Therefore: | radian =
(360 degrees) / (27) ~ 57.3 degrees.

2.8. Center of Mass

e We have discussed the principles of conservation of linear and angular

momentum in the context of a point mass or individual masses, but how
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 67

do you apply such principles to systems or aggregates? We need to find a

single point within a system that behaves according to these principles of
conservation. In a system this point is referred to as its center of mass.

The center of gravity is the point in a object at which gravity can be

considered to act. In the presence of a uniform gravitational field the
center of gravity and center of mass are the same. The center of mass is
the point around which the object’s mass is concentrated so that there is
equal mass on either side of a plane that includes that point. It is the point
that moves as if it were a point mass when subjected to external forces.

For example, if a net force F is acting on an object or system of objects

of mass M, the acceleration of the center of mass of the object or system
1S Aan = F/M. Newton’s Second Law can be written in terms of the
motion of the center of mass as Fyre = Maem. The net force Fret acting on
a system is equal to the product of the total mass M of the system and the
acceleration acm of the center of mass. Note that if the net force acting on
a system is zero, then the center of mass does not accelerate.

Similarly, linear momentum is written in terms of the velocity of the

center of mass as p = MVen. If there are no external forces, the center of
mass of a system of objects moves with a constant velocity.

If a rigid object is projected through the air, its center of mass will follow
a natural parabolic arc even if it spins or rotates. For example, if you
haphazardly toss a baseball bat into the air, while its motion may appear
complicated as it rotates, its center of mass will trace out a parabolic path
similar to a thrown ball.

You can determine an object’s center of mass whether it is uniform or

irregular in shape and density. When an object is supported at its center
of mass, there is no net torque acting on it, and it will remain in static
equilibrium. If an object has a uniform distribution of mass, so that its
density is the same throughout, its center of mass is at its geometrical
center. If an object has a point, line, or plane of symmetry, the center of
mass will lie on that point, line, or plane. Note that the center of mass
does not need to be located within the object itself, such as the center of
mass of a donut being in the hole. In objects such as spheres, cubes, and
rectangular solids, the center of mass is at the central point. If you hold a
rigid pole, measuring stick, broom, or similar object in your hand or
place it on a narrow support, you can physically determine the location
of its center of mass by sliding it along that support until it balances.
68 Master Math: Essential Physics

If an object is uniform, such as a meter stick, the center of mass will be at

its geometric center. If an object is irregular in shape, such as a broom,
its center of mass will be closer to the end with more mass.

You can also visualize the center of mass by considering a system of two
particle masses connected to each other by a ridged massless pole and
balanced on a pivot at the system’s center of mass.
Mm) 6

Because the system is balanced and there is no rotation, there is no net

torque. Assuming a uniform gravity field, the torque around the center
of mass produced by the gravitational force on m, equal to but opposite
the torque produced by the gravitational force on m2. Remember that
torque is T=r x F, providing F is perpendicular to r. Using the balance
of torques for a two object system:
rymg~mmg or rym) ~ mM

You can calculate the center of mass for a two-particle system separated
by distance d. If you select the reference frame as the x-axis of a
coordinate system, you can define m, and m; as being located at x, and
X2 respectively, and the center of mass to be located at Xo.

Xom = (mmyXy + MyX2) / (my + my)

The equation of center of mass X.m, can be expanded to a number n

masses in one dimension, M = m, + m, + m; +... m,, along the x-axis at
n positions x; + X, + X3+... Xp.
Xem — (iyX1 + MyX2+..-+ myx.) / (M)

If you expand this to two or three dimensions, each individual mass is

described in terms of its x-, y-, and z-components, and each dimension is
represented by an equation similar to the center of mass X.m equation so
you also have a y.m equation and a Z., equation.

e Example: Given that the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth is
r= 1.49 x 10'' m, the mean radius of the Sun is r, = 6.96 x 10° m, the
mean radius of the Earth is r. = 6.37 x 10° m, the mass of the Sun is
m= 199 10™ kg, and the mass of the Earth is m. = 5.98 x 107 kg, can
you find the location of the center of mass of the Sun-Earth system?
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws 69

You can model this as a two-particle system where the center of mass
lies on the line connecting the particles (or, more precisely, their
individual centers of mass). Draw a line (x-axis) through the Sun and
Earth and set the Sun at zero on the x-axis.

Center of mass Xem = (m,X, + M,X.) / (m, + m,)

If we include the radii of the Sun and Earth, the center to center distance
is: 1.49 x 10''m + 6.96 x 10°m + 6.37 x 10°m, or writing it out:
149,000,000,000 m is the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth
696,000,000 m is the mean radius of the Sun
a 6,370,000 m is the mean radius of the Earth
149,702,370,000 m is the distance from center to center

We can see that the distance between the two masses is very large
compared to their radii. Rounding, the Sun to the Earth from center to
center gives about: 1.50 x 10'' m. (Note that the way we modeled the
Sun and Earth with Sun at x = 0, the distance between them is x,.)

Xen = (1.99 x 10°°kg)(0) + (5.98 x 10%*kg)(1.50 x 10'! m)

(1.99 x 10°° kg) + (5.98 x 10% kg)
We can calculate the non-zero term in the numerator by multiplying the
two numbers (and adding the exponents):
(5.98 x 10% kg)(1.50 x 10'' m) = 8.97 x 10° kg-m
For the denominator we add the two numbers. We see that the mass of
the Sun dominates the mass of the Earth:

1,990,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg
- 5,980,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg :
1,990,005,980,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 or about 1.99 x10" kg

Kem = (8.97 * 10°? kgm) / (1.99 x 10 kg) = 4.5 x 10° m

(For division we divide the numbers and subtract the exponents. )
Therefore the center of mass between Sun and Earth is 4.5 x 10° m from
the Sun’s center (since we set up the problem with the Sun located at :
zero). Notice that the center of mass between Sun and Earth, 4.5 x 10° m,
is much less than the radius of the Sun, 6.96 x 10° m. The center of mass
in the Sun-Earth system is deep inside the Sun.
70 Master Math: Essential Physics

2.9. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Newton’s Laws of Motion. First Law: Objects maintain at rest or

straight-constant velocity unless acted on by force. Second Law: For
an object with constant mass, F = ma. Third Law: Any action (force)
has an equal and opposite reaction, Fag = —Fpa.
e Mass and weight are related by the acceleration due to gravity: w = mg.
e Normal force: perpendicular reaction force of one surface onto another.
e Linear momentum: p = mv.
e Impulse = FAt = Ap.
e Conservation of linear momentum: Fret = 0, mM) Vi) + M2Vj2 = My Vp) + MVP.
e Torque: T = rF sin 9.
e Angular momentum: L = rmv sin 9.
e Conservation of angular momentum: T,. = 0, rymvj = reMVe.
e Center of gravity: point where gravity effectively acts.
e Center of mass: point where mass is concentrated.

Practice Problems

2.1 (a) A tugboat turned a giant oil tanker 1,000 times its weight, but
could not free itself from a sand bar at low tide. Why? (b) A slingshot
can launch a 1-lb rock at 50 mph horizontally on Earth. What would be
the launch speed be on the Moon where the rock weighs 1/6 as much?

2.2 (a) A truck cruises along a straight highway at a steady 60 mph ina
50 mph crosswind. What forces are acting on the truck.and with what net
force? (b) E.T.’s 10,000-kg spacecraft is falling straight toward Earth at
1,000 m/s. Its deceleration thrusters produce a maximum force of
198,000 N. What is the minimum altitude he can fire the thrusters and
still stop before impacting the ground? (Ignore air resistance and assume
uniform gravity of —9.8 m/s’. (ec) The gravitational attraction of a star on
a small planet is 3.537 x 107” N. What additional information do you
need to compute the gravitational attraction the planet has on the star?
2.3 (a) E.T.’s mass is 40 kg. What would his apparent weight be during
the deceleration phase in Problem 2.2(b)? (b) What are the normal forces
exerted on a gecko weighing 100 g as he (i) walks across the floor, (ii) up
the wall, and (iii) along the underside of a 45° ceiling? (c) Young Ken is
pulling his friend Barbie up a 20° hill in his red wagon at 2 mph. Wagon
and passenger weigh 70 lb. What is the tension on the wagon handle?
(Assume no rolling resistance.) (d) Pulley systems allow a weight to be
raised with less force than lifting directly. If m = 500 lb, what force F is
required to raise the weight?
 Force, Momentum, and Newton’s Laws
71

2.4 (a) A crossbow can launch a 0.1-kg arrow at 200 m/s. The arrow
accelerates from 0 m/s to 200 m/s over distance d = 0.5 mas it is
launched. What is its momentum at launch and what average force was
exerted on the arrow? (b) What impulse did the crossbow impart to the
arrow? (c) The crossbow is used to shoot 2 arrows. One hits a tree and is
embedded into the trunk 0.1 m, and the other hits an iron shield and
embeds only 0.01 m. Which arrow imparts the greater impulse?
2.5 Joe is unable to turn a screw with a thin screwdriver. Jody notices
this and hands him a screwdriver with a much thicker handle. Joe is now
able to turn the screw. Why?

2.6 (a) Will and Bill visit a funhouse at the fair and stand on a large
rotating disk with a 4 m radius. It starts to rotate at an angular velocity
@ = | counterclockwise as Will stands at the outer edge and Bill stands
halfway between Will and the center. They each have a mass of 60 kg.
What is each boy’s linear velocity and angular momentum? (b) Will
thinks he’s about to fly off and steps quickly inward toward Bill, but he
feels his feet go out from under him and falls to his right. What
happened?
2.7 If a sky rocket at a fireworks display explodes, what in general
happens to its center of mass and to its aggregate linear and angular
momentums (ignore air resistance)?

Answers to Chapter 2 Problems

2.1 (a) Despite its high inertial mass, the floating tanker presented very
low opposing frictional forces, so it slowly accelerated in the direction it
was pushed. The weight of the tug on the sand bar created an opposing
frictional force the tug could not overcome despite its much lower
inertial mass. (b) The launch speeds would be the same on the Moon
since neither the force of the slingshot nor the rock’s mass and inertia
change in differing gravitational fields.

2.2 (a) Gravity pulling down and pavement pushing up; force of engine
through wheels pushing forward against resistance of wind, rolling tires,
and drive train; and cross wind pushing sideways against tire friction that
72 Master Math: Essential Physics

is resisting sideways movement. Net force is zero, since velocity is

constant. (b) F,= ma, = (10,000)(—9.8) = —98,000 N. Fret = Fehrust + =
198,000 + —98,000 = 100,000 N. Fret/M = anet= 100,000/10,000 =
10 m/s’. vj) = vo= at. or (0 — (-1000)) = 10t, sot = 100 s; d= (1/2)at =
(1/2)(10)(1007) = 50,000 m or 50 km above the surface. (c) None. The
planet exerts an equal and opposite force on the star.

2.3 (a) Wet. = (Mex)(g + a) = (40)(9.8 + 10) = 792 N. (b) (1) 100 g. (11) Og
(no horizontal component of gravity to produce opposing normal force).
(iii) n = (-100)(sin 8) ~ -70.71 g. (Normal force is negative because it is
opposite to the downward force of his sticky toes on the ceiling!) (c)
Their velocity is constant so the only force is gravity. Fy = mg sin 0 ~
(70)(—-9.8)(0.342) = —234.6 N. T =—Fy= 234.6 N. (d) The weight is
suspended (using 2 free pulleys) on 4 ropes, so each rope has a tension of
125 lb. At steady state, F = T, so any downward pull over 125 Ib will
raise 500 lb. (The rope must be pulled 4 ft to raise the weight | ft).
2.4 (a) p = mv = (0.1 kg)(200 m/s) = 20 kg-m/s. During launch, the
average velocity is 100 m/s. Time to reach 200 m/s = t = d/Vaye=
0.5/100 = 0.005 s. a = (v2-v))/t = (200)/0.005 = 40,000m/s°.
Faye=ma = (0.1)(40,000) = 4,000 kg-m/s’= 4,000 N. (b) Impulse = FAt
= (4,000)(0.005) = 20 Nes. (c) Impulses are the same because Ap is the
same (both arrows go to zero momentum). The shield stops the arrow
with 10 times the force applied over one-tenth the time interval.

2.5 He probably is exerting the same force on the handle, but at a greater
radius from the axis of rotation (torque T= r x F). If the thick handle is 3
times the diameter of the thin handle, the torque is 3 times greater.

2.6 (a) Vw= two = (4)(1) = 4 m/s. vg= rg = (2)(1) = 2 m/s. Lw=
twMwVw = (4)(60)(4) = 960 kg-m’/s. Lg=rpmpvp = (2)(60)(2) =
240 kg-m’/s. (b) To conserve his angular momentum, Will would need
to revolve at 4 times the rate if he moves halfway to the center, but the
disk does not spin faster to accommodate him. Alternatively, Will’s
linear velocity needs to slow to 2 m/s. The disk’s surface is moving
slower than Will’s center of mass as he moves inward, creating a torque
that knocks him over.
2.7 Since no external forces are acting, no changes to center of mass or to
linear or angular momentums occur.
ee
ees ES ee) eee ed) ool

Chapter 3
EQUILIBRIUM AND FRICTION

3.1. Static Equilibrium

3.2. Torques in Equilibrium
3.3. Friction
3.4. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“This most beautiful system of the sun, planets, and comets could only proceed
from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being.”
Attributed to Sir Isaac Newton

3.1. Static Equilibrium

e When the net force acting on an object is zero, there is no acceleration,

and the object is either moving at a constant velocity or it is at rest. When
an object is in motion at constant velocity it is in dynamic equilibrium.
When an object is at rest it is in static equilibrium. For an object to be
in a State of equilibrium there must be no net forces or torques acting on
it. Unless an object is in deep space far away from all other objects so
gravitational forces are negligible, it will have some force acting on it,
though the net force may be zero.

e Static equilibrium exists when forces are balanced so that the net
force on the object is zero and it is at rest. A building is in static
equilibrium relative to Earth.

e The condition of net force being zero can be written as the sum of the
forces equals zero:
>F=0

where > (the Greek letter sigma) denotes the “sum”, and )F = 0
signifies that the vector sum of the forces is zero. The sum ) F is a
shorthand way to write out all of the forces F, + F, + F; + ... that are
acting on an object:
Po eng Fo xa = (0
74 Master Math: Essential Physics

When the forces on an object sum to zero, the components in each

direction or dimension sum to zero. In three dimensions }°F = 0 is:

SF, =0 ©yr, 0 YE,=0

Note that there may be situations where °F, = 0 and )F, = 0, but
>F, # 0, such as a rocket launching straight up.

If you know the forces acting on an object, you can use trigonometric
functions to find the horizontal and vertical components of each force.

e We can also visualize balanced and unbalanced forces using their force
vectors. By doing a graphical sum of the vectors, we can see if they sum
to equilibrium.

Ps Fi Fi Fon obs Fa
PR Fox 7
F, F, Fp Fs

No net force. Forces are not balanced.

>F = 0, in equilibrium. DF # 0, not in equilibrium.

e Example: You and your friend are about to hike across an ice field.
With ice ax in hand, you survey the breathtaking azure and crystal-white
panorama. Uh oh! The ice suddenly shifts beneath you. You slip off a
precipice, and your friend slides in the opposite direction down a 45° ice
incline. Fortunately, you already roped up and your falls are arrested. If
your mass is 60.1 kg and your friend’s is 85 kg, what will become of the
two of you? (Assume no friction and a mass-less rope.)

F sFriend |Fgyou

What you need to know is whether you and your friend are in equili-
brium and )’F = 0 for both of you together, or if the mass of one of you
will overwhelm, and acceleration toward that person will occur. Assume
the tension T is uniform along the rope. The tension your friend creates
on the rope is:
T = mg sin 45° = (85 kg)(9.8 m/s’) sin 45° = 589 N
The tension you create is:
T = (60.1 kg)(9.8 m/s”) = 589 N
 Equilibrium and Friction 75

What a relief! You and your friend are in equilibrium. Now what?
Fortunately, your friend can reach his ice ax. He braces himself using his
ax as you begin climbing up the rope. Good thing you’ve been doing
your pull-ups lately!

e Example: After recovering from your last mishap, you lean against
your backpack and fall asleep. You are awakened by your friend’s voice
shrilly calling to you for help. You don your backpack and crampons and
head toward his voice. You stop suddenly before stepping into a wide
crevasse and are shocked to see him hanging from a suspended rope. His
only question is, “Will this rope hold me? It’s not the thick one we used
earlier.” Can you find the maximum rope tension?

First, you help him out of the crevasse and then the two of you sit down
and calculate. With his gear your friend’s mass is about 85 kg. You
estimate the rope angles at 15° and 20°. To calculate the tensions in each
segment you use equilibrium.
x-components:
Tix + Tx, = 0
or:
—T, cos 15° + T, cos 20° = 0

he=(icos0>)r/ (cos 15°)'=0.973(E)

y-components:
Ty + meg + 15, =0

or: .
T, sin 15° + (85 kg)(—9.8 m/s’) + T> sin 20° = 0
You have two equations and two unknowns:
T, = (0.973)T, and T; sin 15° — (833 N)+ T2 sin 20°=0
Substitute:
(0.973)T, sin 15° — (833 N) + T2 sin 20° = 0
T> [(0.973) sin 15° + sin 20°] = 833
T, = 1,403 N
Substitute:
T, = (0.973)T2 = (0.973)(1,403) = 1,365 N
76 Master Math: Essential Physics

Therefore, the two tensions were T; = 1,365 N and T> = 1,403 N, with
the greater tension on the steeper side. When you get home you can look
up the specs for your rope to see if it was close to snapping.

3.2. Torques in Equilibrium

e For an object to be in a state of equilibrium, there must be no net

forces or net torques acting on it.
>F=0 and )T=0

In rotational equilibrium there is no angular acceleration, so an object is

either rotating at a constant angular velocity or it is not rotating at all.
In rotational equilibrium, net torque is zero and the sum of all acting
torques is zero:
ST=0
Remember: Torque can be created when a force is applied to an object at
a point other than its central axis of rotation. Torque is a measure of how
effective a force is in producing rotation about an axis.

Torque
= T= rF sin0
When Fir then T=rxF
Angle 0 is the acute angle between vector r and force vector F.

The concept of rotational equilibrium can be used to determine the

torque necessary to prevent rotation. In problems involving rotational
equilibrium, the sum of the torques acting in one rotational direction
must equal the sum of the torques acting in the opposite rotational
direction. When performing a rotational equilibrium analysis, you need
to choose a pivot point in a convenient location and be careful when
assigning the plus and minus signs designating the rotational direction
for each term.

Examples of torques in equilibrium include weights on a seesaw, a

person on a ladder, a tall building in a wind, a diving board and diver,
and the tension in the cables of a drawbridge bearing the torque of its
weight.

e Example: You and your friend find a flat board in the woods and set
up a seesaw. Given that your mass my is 55 kg and your friend’s mass
 Equilibrium and Friction 77

mr is 70 kg, if you sit 2 m from the pivot how far must your friend sit on
the other side to keep you off the ground? (Ignore the board’s mass.)

friend

Mpg Myg

To hold you off the ground, the torques will be balanced. Set your torque
axis in the center and make counterclockwise the positive direction.
»T = 0=+ (mpg x ? m) — (myg x 2 m)
mpg X ?m=myg
x 2m
mp X ?mM=myx2m
?m=(55 kg x 2m)/(70kg)=1.57m
Therefore, if your friend sits at least 1.57 m from the pivot you will stay
in the air.

e Example: You and your friend need some R&R after your latest ice-
hiking experience and stop at a resort with a swimming pool. While
waiting your turn to jump off the diving board, you notice it looks a bit
rickety and wonder how much force is on the two diving board supports.
Can you calculate the forces F; and F for each support? Use two
different axes or pivots for your torque calculations. Assume in your
swimsuits your mass my is 55 kg, your friend’s mass mr is 70 kg, and the
board’s mass mg is 50 kg. (Designate board’s mass at its center.)

To determine F, and F> (two unknowns) you will need two equations.
This is an equilibrium problem so )}F = 0 and )}T= 0. You can choose
any pivot or axis, but let’s first use the F; support.
>F = 0 = F, — F2 — mpg — myg — mpg
= F, — F) - (70 kg)(9.8 m/s’) — (55 kg)(9.8 m/s’) — (50 kg)(9.8 m/s’)
F, =F, +1,715N
Now sum the torques around the axis with counter-clockwise positive
and remember T=r x F, if F Lr:
78 Master Math: Essential Physics

y¥T=0
= (0m F,)—(1m* F,) + (2m mpg) + (1 m x myg) + (0.5 m x mpg)
0=-(1mx F,)+ 1,372 N+ 539N+
245 N
F, =2,156N
Substitute into F; = F, + 1,715 N:
F, =2,156N+ 1,715 N =3,871 N
Therefore, F; = 3,871 N and F, = 2,156 N.
To check, we can redo torque using the board’s center as axis:
> T = (0.5m F,) —(1.5m x Fp) + (1.5m x meg) + (0.5 m x myg) + (0 x mpg)
0 =0.5 x (F, + 1,715) — (1.5 x F)) + (1,029) + (269.5)
0 = 0.5 F, + 857.5 — 1.5 F, + 1,298.5
0 =-1F, + 2,156
F, =2,156N
F, =F, + 1,715 N =3,871 N
Same answer using different axis: F, = 3,871 N and F, =2,156N.

3.3. Friction

Peer Peres

ii Fg =uUsFN (static friction)

; = Peponca Fa = UxFn (kinetic friction)
wee cMTPFeecccfeccedecesceees Fy and Fy are perpendicular
Biawcnon Fc = mg

e In a frictionless environment, when a net force is applied to an object, it

accelerates: F = ma. In the presence offriction, acceleration is slowed or
stopped due to the retarding force of friction: Fapptiea — Friction = Ma.
Friction is a retarding force that reduces acceleration. If the friction force
equals the applied force and the net forces are zero, the object can move
at constant velocity: Fapptiea — F friction = Ma = 0.

e When two surfaces come into contact and exert forces on each other,
the microscopic irregularities on each surface interlock, causing the
surfaces to adhere and resist sliding. This resistance to moving across
each other is called friction. There are different types of frictional forces:
static friction, kinetic friction, and rolling friction.

Static friction occurs when there is no motion. It is the frictional force

that resists motion or sliding. Kinetic friction occurs when there is a
 Equilibrium and Friction 79

relative sliding motion. It is the frictional force that retards motion.

Rolling friction occurs when a curved surface rolls along another,
sticking and un-sticking as it rolls. Static friction is stronger than kinetic
friction because motion depresses the microscopic irregularities in the
surface and, when moving, surfaces do not have a chance to interlock so
the adhering is reduced. You may have noticed that it takes a lot of effort
to push a heavy box when it is at rest, but once you get it moving it takes
less effort to keep it sliding.

Note: When we discuss friction we are assuming that it is the only

retarding force on the surfaces and that there is no “digging in” of one
surface or edge into the other surface.

e Properties of the force of friction, F;= pFy:

Its magnitude depends on the properties of the surfaces, which are
reflected in the coefficient of friction p.
It is proportional to the normal force Fy between the surfaces.
Remember, the normal force equals the component of weight
perpendicular to the surface and is Fy = mg for level surfaces and
Fy = mg cos 6 for inclines.
Its direction is opposite motion along, or parallel to, the surface.
For a given weight, friction does not depend on the area of contact
between the surfaces. (A 3-kg cube and a 3-kg thin rectangle have the
same friction.)

e The general mathematical relationships for friction are written:

Fs =p ;Fy static friction and Fa =u,Fx kinetic friction

where the normal force can be written Fy or N. The Greek letter mu, or
Lt, with subscripts s and k represents the coefficients of static and
kinetic friction. The values depend on the contacting surfaces.
Coefficient values range from 0.0 to greater than 1.0 and can be found in
scientific and engineering handbooks. A value of 0.0 would correspond
to zero friction. Examples of u for different surfaces include: wood on
wood pL;0.25—0.5, Lx 0.2; glass on glass p1;0.94, 14.0.4; Teflon on Teflon
us 0.04, px 0.04; ice on ice Hs 0.1, Hx 0.03: waxed wood on wet snow
ut;0.14, u, 0.1; and waxed ski on snow py0.1, Hx 0.05.

e The units for the frictional forces and normal force, Fx, Fax, and Fy, are
those of force whereas 4, and 1, are dimensionless constants having no
units. Remember, force is measured in units of (mass)(length)/(time)”, or
1 N= 1 kg-m/s’ or 1 dyne = 1 g-em/s’. 1 N = 100,000 dynes.
80 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Kinetic friction is a constant motion-opposing force that depends on

the properties of the surfaces and the normal force exerted. For an object
to move at a constant velocity, the net force on the object must be zero.
This means that the magnitude of the applied force must be balanced by
the magnitude of the retarding force due to friction. For example, the
frictional force between a box and the floor depends on the normal force
exerted by the floor on the box and the coefficient of friction.

The normal force Fy, which is always perpendicular to the surface, 1s a

reaction force to the weight of the box. For an object sitting on a flat
level surface, the normal force is: Fy = mg. If the surface is at an angle 9,
the normal force is: Fy = mg cos 8. Because the normal force is equal to
the component of weight perpendicular to the surface, if the surface is at
an incline, you will need to consider the angle of incline. The normal
force and the force of friction are perpendicular to each other because the
normal force is perpendicular to the surface and the frictional force is
parallel to the surface.
Fy =-— Fe cos 8

Surface _
Beare ahs: manage
OF.
Fg = mg Fg
= mg

Static friction occurs in reaction to a force and depends on the

magnitude of the applied horizontal force. If a box is at rest on the floor
and is not being pushed, there is no static friction. Once a horizontal
pushing or pulling force is applied to the box, the static friction increases
until the applied force is greater than the friction, and the box begins to
move. Static friction must be overcome to get an object to begin to slide
across a surface.

e To demonstrate that static friction increases until the applied force

exceeds the force of friction, you can push on a heavy box. Suppose you
push with 5 N of force and nothing happens. You push harder with 10 N
of force—still nothing. Finally you push with 12 N and the box is in
motion!

€ 8 : ri
be2" af< rived
.
Beene Perot Tee eee san.naX¢nn ee eee ESSE ESE e eee

F;,=5N F;, = 10 N Fa, = 11 N

no movement no movement yes it moves!

 Equilibrium and Friction 81

As long as your pushing force is inadequate to move the box, the force of
static friction is equal to your applied force. As you push harder on the
box, the applied force is equal to the force of static friction until a
maximum static friction F,, exists to hold the box in equilibrium. This
maximum static friction occurs just before motion. The coefficient of
static friction U1, corresponds to the maximum static friction just before
movement. Once the box moves it is operating under kinetic friction Fx.

e Example: A large 40-kg wood box is sitting on the floor. If the

coefficients of static and kinetic friction are p, = 0.4 and 1, = 0.2, what
are the forces required to get the box to slide and then to keep it sliding at
a constant velocity?

fone IR =2N @ femme P= 2N

nae - ‘40k
"F,=2N Bese eeeaa F,=?N SBeeseaa

We need to determine the force required to overcome the maximum

static friction. That force is equal to the maximum static friction:
F = Fe = pFy = ping = (0.4)(40 kg)(9.8 m/s’) = 156.8 N
The force required to keep the box moving at a constant velocity must
equal the force of kinetic friction:
F = Fa = pxFw = peg = (0.2)(40 kg)(9.8 m/s’) = 78.4 N

e Example: Adjustable incline planes are used to determine the

coefficient of static friction by placing an object of known weight on the
incline surface and adjusting the angle until it begins to slide. What is the
equation you could use to calculate the coefficient of friction?
Fy = mg cos 0

The normal force is: Fy = mg cos 8

The component ofthe object’s weight parallel to the incline is: mg sin 9
The mathematical relationship for static friction is: Fy = HsFN
Just before the object begins to slide, the component of the object’s
weight parallel to the incline surface equals the maximum force of static
friction so that:
Fg =mgsin@ and Fa =psFn = Usmg cos )
82 Master Math: Essential Physics

Solving for the coefficient of static friction:

u = Fx/Fx = (mg sin 0)/(mg cos 8) = (sin 8)/(cos 8) = tan 8

e When your surface is at an incline you need to consider the angle of

incline, the coefficient of friction, the net normal force, the parallel
component of an object’s weight, and the force of friction.

e Example: Suppose you are wondering at what angle you would begin
to slide down a slope of hard ice in case you slip while hiking. If the
coefficient of static friction between you and the ice is about 0.14 and
you weigh 100 Ib, will you slide if the slope is a 10° incline? What about
a 5° incline? At what angle will you slide?

Angle 10°:
Fy = mg cos 9 = (100 Ib) cos 10° ~ 98.5 Ib
F parallel = Mg sin 8 = (100 Ib) sin 10° ~ 17.36 Ib
The maximum static friction is:
Fe = UsFn = (0.14)(98.5 Ib) = 13.8 1b which is less than 17.36 lb
The static friction value is less than the component of your weight that is
parallel to the slope so you will slide at 10°.
Angle 5°:
Fy = mg cos 8 = (100 Ib) cos 5° = 99.6 Ib
F parallel = Mg sin 0 = (100 Ib) sin 5° ~ 8.7 Ib
The maximum static friction is:
Fe = UsFn = (0.14)(99.6 lb) = 13.9 lb which is greater than 8.7 Ib
Static friction value is greater than the parallel component of weight, so
you will NOT slide at 5°.
The angle just before you begin to slide is where Fy = Fparantet- Or:
Fe = UsF'N = Ls Mg COS O = Foaratel = Mg sin 8
Ls mg cos 8 = mg sin 8
u, cos 8 = sin 8
uu, = sin 8/ cos 0 = tan 0
6 = arctan p,= tan '(0.14) = 7.97 degrees
When the angle exceeds 7.97°, or about 8°, you will begin to slide.
 Equilibrium and Friction 83

e Example: You and your friend have been hiking all day on an ice field
and find a flat place to pitch a tent. Unfortunately there are a few bears
around so you don’t want any food in your tent. You put your food in a
steel box and set it away from your tent (there are no trees from which to
suspend it). Your friend says the slope where you are about to place the
food is too steep and the food would slide if it were bumped. He said that
once it got going, the food would surely accelerate down the hill. What
equation would you use to calculate the acceleration of the food
assuming you can estimate the coefficient of friction for metal on ice?
eee
First remember that the components of gravity acting on the food are
mg cos 8 perpendicular and mg sin 0 parallel to the surface. Write down
the following equations:
Fy = mg cos 9, the normal force.
F parallel = Mg sin 9, parallel component of gravity.
Fa = pxFn = Ux mg cos 9, the kinetic friction force.
Net force along the slope is: Facceteration = Ma = mg sin 8 — Ly mg cos 9.
Net acceleration along the slope is: a= g sin 8 — Lx g cos 8.

e Example: How high can your 70.0 kg friend climb up a 4.0 m, 15.0 kg
ladder leaning at 40° before the ladder begins to slip? Assume the
coefficient of static friction between the ladder and the wall is pt, = 0.2
and between the ladder and the ground 1s [sp = 0.4.

Fy 440
508
Use n

When he reaches maximum height and the ladder is about to slip, UseFn
is at its maximum. As long as the ladder is not moving the forces and
torques balance: )}F = 0 and )'7 = 0.
0 = Uswl'w ate Fn a Mig — Mpg
> Fy-direction =

0 = (0.2)Fw + Fn — (15 kg)(9.8 m/s) — (70 kg)(9.8 m/s)

84 Master Math: Essential Physics

DE aiecton > 0 = LsgFN — Fw = (0.4)

Fn — Fw

(0.4)Fy=Fw or Fy=Fw/(0.4)
Combine and solve for Fw and Fy:
(0.2)Fw + Fy = 833 N
(0.2)Fw + Fw/(0.4) = 833 N
Fy(0.2 + 1/0.4) = 833 N
Fw= 833 N/ (2.7) = 308.5 N
Fy = Fw/(0.4) = 308.5N/0.4 = 771.3 N
Now we need to use the torque balance since it considers lengths and
distances. Use clockwise as direction of torque and choose where the
ladder rests on the ground as the pivot (forces at pivot multiply by zero
length thus are zero). Also, use the center of the ladder as its length when
considering its weight on the ground, since it has an equal distribution of
mass along its length. Also remember the angle 0 in T= rF sin@ used
when calculating torque is the acute angle between extended lines of
vector r and the force vector F.
T= rF sin8 = 0 =— (4 m) Fw sin 50° — (4 m) py,
Fw sin 40°
+ (2m) m,g sin40° + (x) mpg sin 40°
0 =— (4 m)(308.5 N)(sin 50°) — (4 m)(0.2)(308.5 N)(sin 40°)
+ (2 m)(15 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(sin 40°) + (x)(70 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(sin 40°)
0 =—945N— 159N+ 189N + (x)441 N
915N =(x)441N
x =915/441 =2.07m
As your friend reaches about 2.07 m up, the ladder will begin to slip.

Alternatively, choose where the /adder rests on the wall as the pivot:
»T = rF sin 8= 0 = + (4m) Fy sin 40° — (4m) psgFn sin 50°
— (2 m) mpg sin 40° — (4 — x) mpg sin 40°
0 = (4m)(771.3 N)(sin 40°) — (4 m)(0.4)(771.3 N)(sin 50°)
— (2 m)(15 kg)(9.8 m/s*)(sin 40°) — (4 — x)(70 kg)(9.8 m/s*)(sin 40°)
0 = 1983 N — 945N — 189N —- (4—x)441 N
849 N = (4—x)441N
1.93 =4-x
x= 2.07 ta
Same answer using different pivot. The ladder slips as he reaches 2.07 m.
 Equilibrium and Friction 85

3.4. Key Concepts and Practice Proble

ms
eee
e For an object to be in equilibrium: YF = 0 and YT =0.
e Dynamic equilibrium: object in motion at constant velocity.
e Static equilibrium: object at rest.
e Force of Friction: Friction = WEN.
e Static friction: Fg = u.Fy is overcome for an object to begin to slide.
¢ Kinetic friction: Fa = 14.Fy a constant motion-opposing force.

Practice Problems
3.1 The heater in your hot air balloon malfunctions, and you begin to
lose altitude. You estimate your downward acceleration to be —1 m/s’.
The balloon and its payload weigh 500 kg. How many 5-kg sandbags do
you need to jettison immediately to stop the downward acceleration?

3.2 Mario is walking a tightrope across Niagara Falls, holding a 30-ft,

20-lb balance beam at its midpoint. Suddenly a large parrot descends and
perches 2 ft from the left end of his pole and starts to admonish Mario to
be very careful. To keep his balance, Mario must shift the pole 3 ft to the
right. What was the weight of the parrot?

3.3 If your 70-kg friend in the ladder example in Section 3.3 wants to try
again to reach the top of the ladder, at what minimum angle from the
ground must he lean the ladder? (Note: sin 8 = cos(90 — @). The ladder,
wall, and ground form a right triangle with 2 non-90° angles summing to
90°.)

Answers to Chapter 3 Problems

3.1 F, = mg = (500 kg)(—9.8 m/s”) = —4,900 N.

Fyet = ma = (500 kg)(—1.0 m/s”) = —500 N. To stop downward
acceleration, reduce F, by 500 N to —4,400 N. Let m; be mass after
jettisoning sandbags, so F, = (m;)(—9.8) = —4,400 N and m, = 449 kg.
You must reduce the weight by (500 kg — 449 kg) = 51 kg. Jettisoning 11
of the 5-kg sandbags will stop the downward acceleration and begin
slowing your rate of descent.

3.2 After shifting the pole, the left side is 12 ft long (left-midpoint at
6 ft), with the parrot perched 10 ft out, and the right side is 18 ft (right-
midpoint at 9 ft). Each foot of pole weighs 20 Ib / 30 ft = 2/3 lb/ft The:2
sides balance:
(Weeft-pote (Tet) a (W parrot)(parrot) = (Wyight-pole)(Tright)
(12 x 2/3)(6) + (Wparrot)(10) = (18 x 2/3)(9)
48 + (Woarrot)(10) = 108, and (Wart) = (108 — 48)/10 = 6 lb
86 Master Math: Essential Physics

3.3 Using the base of the ladder as the pivot point:

UT =rF = 0 =-(4 m)(Fy sin 8) — (4 m)({y Fy cos 8)
+ (2 m)(m, g cos 8) + (4 m)(m, g cos 8)
= —(4 m)(308.5 N)(sin 8) — (4 m)(0.2)(308.5 N)(cos 0)
+ (2 m)(15 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(cos 8) + (4 m)(70 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(cos @)
= —],234(sin 0) — 246.8(cos 8) + 294(cos 8) + 2,744(cos 8)
1,234(sin 8) = 2,791.2(cos 8)
tan 8 ~ 2.262 or 0 ~66.15° is the minimum angle from ground.
 Chapter 4
NATURAL FORCES

4.1. Gravitation
4.2. Electrostatic Force
4.3. Strong Nuclear and Weak Forces
4.4. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“Your theory is crazy, but it’s not crazy enough to be true.”

Attributed to Niels Bohr

“The chief aim of all investigations of the external world should be to discover
the rational order and harmony which has been imposed on it by God and which
He revealed to us in the language of mathematics.”
Attributed to Johannes Kepler

4.1. Gravitation

e A force acts between any two objects or masses and depends on the
inverse square of their distance from each other. This attracting force is
described by the Law of Universal Gravitation.

e Johannes Kepler (1571—1630) and Isaac Newton (1642-1727) were

both intrigued by gravity and the orbits of planets and moons. Early on,
Kepler developed an explanation of planetary motion and described it in
what are called Kepler’s Laws, which are summarized as follows.

e Kepler’s First Law: Planets move in ellipses, with the Sun at one
focus.
p

2 major axis
emMi-Major axis

minor axis

The figure shows an ellipse and its two focus points, F1 and F2.(A circle
has one focus point at its center.) The long axis is the major axis, and
88 Master Math: Essential Physics

half of this length is the semi-major axis. The short axis is the minor axis.
All points on an ellipse have the property for point P that the:
(distance between P and F1) + (distance between P and F2) = constant

e Kepler’s Second Law: As a planet travels in its orbit, an imaginary

line connecting the planet to the Sun sweeps equal areas in equal
intervals of time.

Perihelion @esaa

Equal areas (shaded) in equal time periods

As the planet moves from point A to point B, a line drawn from the Sun
to the planet sweeps across and creates an area as shown. If the planet
moves for a set period of time anywhere in its orbit, the area swept out
by a line extending from the Sun to the planet during that time period
will always be the same. In other words, if it takes the same time to go
from A to B as from C to D, the areas swept will be equal. By this law
we see that a planet moves slowest at its furthest, or aphelion, position
and moves fastest at its closest, or perihelion, position. This is consistent
with conservation of angular momentum.

e Kepler’s Third Law: The square of a planet’s orbital period is propor-

tional to the cube of its mean distance, or semi-major axis, from the Sun:
oR:

If the period t of the orbit is in years and the semi-major axis R of the
orbit is in units of Sun-Earth distance or Astronomical Units (which is
1.496 x 10'' m or 93,000,000 mi), then the proportionality becomes an
equality and:
eae
This law applies to planets revolving around the Sun.

e Newton further explained the motions of the planets through his Laws
of Motion and the development of the Universal Law of Gravitation.
In fact, these laws describe the motion of everything from falling objects
to planetary motion.

Remember Newton’s Laws of Motion: First Law of Motion: An object

does not accelerate, but rather remains at rest or moves in straight-line
motion at constant velocity, unless it is acted on by an external force.
Second Law of Motion: For an object with constant mass, the
 Natural Forces 89

relationship between force F and acceleration a is F = ma. Third Law of

Motion: For any action (force), there is an equal and opposite re-action,
so that if object A exerts a force on object B, then B exerts an equal,
oppositely-directed force on A, Fan =—Faa.

Kepler’s Laws are consistent with Newton’s Laws, and Newton’s work
revealed that Kepler’s Laws were a natural result of his laws. Newton
reasoned that some force must be exerted by the Sun on the planets and
by the Earth on the Moon. Using centripetal acceleration and Kepler’s
Third Law relating a planet’s distance R and period t (t” = R°), it could
be shown that the centripetal acceleration of a planet varies as the inverse
square of its distance R from the Sun. Remember from Section 1.11 for
an object in circular motion, centripetal acceleration equals
a= Vit (oy ere. If you substitute the period t = 2n/w, and
rearrange to @ = 27/t, centripetal acceleration can be expressed as:
a, = ro = r(2n/t) = 4074/2"
Using a, = 42°r/t” and assuming a nearly circular planetary orbit:
a, oc R/t? where « means “is proportional to”
Substituting Kepler’s Third Law, t’ = R’, gives:
a, oc R/R® or “a, & 1/R?
Newton found that the centripetal acceleration of a planet around the
Sun, or of the Moon around the Earth, depends on the inverse square of
distance.
Because F, = ma,:
F, oc 1/R?
Since gravity provides the centripetal force for an orbiting body:
Fg Oo 1/R?

From his work Newton concluded that a universal force acts between
any two objects or masses and depends on the inverse square of their
distance from each other. This is apparent by the Sun attracting Earth or
the Earth attracting the Moon, but by Newton’s Third Law (for any force,
there is an equal and oppositely-directed force), he realized that a planet
must also exert a force on the Sun, and the Moon must exert a force on
the Earth. Therefore the attracting force between two objects or masses is
called the Law of Universal Gravitation and described as:

where Fg, the force of gravitation, a vector, represents the force acting on
either of the masses m; or mz, and depends on ie UNE square of ;
a4 2 2
distance r between their centers. G = 6.67 x 10° m’/kg’s" or N-m‘/kg’,
90 Master Math: Essential Physics

derived experimentally, is the constant of proportionality, known as the

universal gravitational constant, which characterizes the intrinsic
strength of the gravitational force. This law shows that any two masses
gravitationally attract each other with forces of equal magnitude.

e Note: The universal gravitational constant G was first determined in

1798 by Henry Cavendish, who measured the minuscule force between
two lead balls by using a highly sensitive torsion balance. Since his
experiment there have been slightly more accurate measurements. A
recent measurement using a new torsion balance method obtained:
G = 6.674215 + 0.000092 x 10'' m*/kg:s’. From this an accurate value for
the Earth’s mass was also determined as 5.972245 + 0.000082 x 10° kg
and the Sun’s mass as 1.988435 + 0.000027 x 10°° kg. (Physical Review
Letters v. 85, pp. 2869-2872, 2000.)

e Example: Imagine your friend asks you to help him correlate Newton’s
three Laws of Motion with planetary motion. How could you answer?
First, you suggest approximating the orbits of the planets as circles so the
equations for uniform circular motion apply. You explain that when an
object or planet is in uniform circular motion, in order for it to stay in
that orbit and not fly out, it must be experiencing a constant acceleration
toward the center of its orbit. You explain that apparently Newton noted
that the Moon continuously fa//s in its path around the Earth because of
the acceleration due to gravity, thereby creating its orbit. You point out
that because a planet in uniform circular motion is constantly
accelerating toward the center of its orbit, by Newton’s First Law of
Motion, there must be a center-directed force acting on it. By Newton’s
Second Law, F = ma, you suggest that he can find the magnitude of that
force. Using the equation for acceleration of an object in uniform circular
motion, a, = v’/r, you further suggest he can calculate the centripetal
acceleration. You finally add that from Newton’s Third Law, if there is a
force attracting a planet to the Sun, there must be an equal and
oppositely-directed force attracting the Sun toward the planet. In fact,
you exclaim that not only is a planet accelerating toward the Sun, but the
Sun accelerates minutely toward a planet—though we can generally
approximate the Sun as fixed compared to a relatively small planet.

e Example: Calculate the mass of the Earth using Newton’s Universal

Law of Gravitation. (Use Earth’s radius as 6.37 x 10°m.)
Begin with Fg = Gmgmo/rg’, where m, 1s Earth’s mass, mo is the mass of
some object on the Earth’s surface, and rg is Earth’s radius. We know G
and rp but will need another relationship to determine Fg and mg. We
know that the gravitational force Fg on any object mo on Earth’s surface
 Natural Forces 91

is given by: Fg = mog. We can combine these two equations for Fg and
solve for the mass of the Earth mg:
Fg = Gmgmo/ tz” = Mog or mp= ote /G
Substitute values for g, G, and rg:
me = (9.8 m/s)(6.37 x 10° m)’/ (6.67 x 10"! m’/kg-s’) = 5.96 x 10%*kg
This value for Earth’s mass, 5.96 x 10“ kg, differs slightly from the
more accurate value we reported above, 5.972245 + 0.000082 x 1074 kg,
due to rounding errors.

e Example: Imagine a teacher asks you and your friend to calculate the
force of gravity on the Moon by the Earth. The two of you make the
calculations using two different approaches. What might those two
different methods be?
You like reasoning through things methodically, so you decide to
approach the problem using the Moon’s centripetal acceleration in the
formula Fg = myac. You know that to hold its orbit, the Moon feels a
centripetal acceleration from the Earth of a, = v’/rgy. To determine v you
remember that velocity is distance per time. In the case of the Moon’s
orbit, it is the distance of one revolution around the Earth divided by the
time it takes to travel around once:
v = (orbit circumference) / (orbit period) = 2argy/t
You look up the Earth-Moon distance rgy to be 384,400 km and the
period of the Moon’s orbit as 27.3217 days, and plug into v = 2argu/t:
v = 2n(384,400 km)(1,000 m/km) / (27.3217 days)(86,400 s/day) = 1,023 m/s
Next you plug v into the centripetal acceleration equation and calculate:
a, = v’/tpm = (1,023 m/s)*/ (3.844 x 108m) = 2.7225 x 10° m/s”
Looking up the Moon’s mass as 7.3483 x 10” kg, you finally find the
force of gravity on the Moon using:
Fg = myae = (7.3483 x 107 kg)(2.7225 x 10° m/s’) = 2.00 x 10°” N
Using an alternative approach, your friend looks up values for G, mg,
my, and rem, and calculates the force of gravity on the Moon by the Earth
using Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation, Fg = Gmpmy/Tem :
Fo = (6.6742 x 10! mvkges’\(5.9722 * 10*kg)(7.3483 x 10°kg)/ (3.844 x 10°m)°
= 1.98 x 10°N
You and your friend get essentially the same results—the two answers
round to about 2 x 107°N! You feel that you learned more by reasoning
through your approach, but your friend brags that his way was faster. The
teacher points out that there is often more than one approach to solving a
problem if you reason through and use the applicable formulas.
92 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Satellites: Gravity is the only significant force acting on a satellite. It

provides the centripetal force that keeps a satellite in orbit. For a satellite
in orbit, the gravitational force equals the centripetal force:
2 2
Fg —e Fe = Msa, — MsV /tsp= Gmems/Tsp

where subscript s represents satellite, subscript E Earth, and rs is center-

to-center satellite-Earth distance. Satellites in circular orbits travel at a
constant speed v, while force Fg and acceleration point toward the center
of the Earth perpendicular to v. Can you guess how to calculate that
velocity for a satellite? Simply solve the above equation for v:
2
msV/tsz == Gme_mMs/TsE

fe. = y
v=Gm,/tse or v= [Gme_/rse]

This equation not only calculates the velocity of a satellite orbiting the
Earth, but applies to any object that is orbiting another due to their
gravitational attraction. The mass used is that of the body being orbited.
Therefore, if it is the Sun that is being orbited by Earth, then the mass of
the Sun would be used.

e Example: How would you calculate a satellite’s velocity and circular

orbital period if it is 36,000 km above Earth, given the Earth’s mass is
5.9722 x 10 kg?
To calculate the satellite’s velocity at 36,000 km above Earth you can
use the equation we just developed for satellites:
v’ = Gme_/TsgE

But first remember to add the radius of Earth, 6,370,000 m, to the

36,000 km given in the question, since rsp in the velocity equation
represents the center-to-center distance:
Isp = 36,000,000 m + 6,370,000 m = 42,370,000 m
Now you calculate v:
aes Gmg/tsp
= (6.6742 x 107! m'/kg*s’)(5.9722 x 10 kg)/(42,370,000 m) ~ 9,407,519 m7/s”
Take the square root resulting in the satellite’s velocity: v ~ 3,067 m/s.
To find the period t of the orbit of a satellite, you can first relate
velocity to period. Knowing that velocity is distance per time, you can
reason that the velocity of an orbiting object is the distance around the
orbit divided by the time it takes to travel around once, or:
v = (orbit circumference) / (orbit period) = 2zr/t
Set this equal to the velocity of a satellite, [Gmg/tsz]*:
 Natural Forces 93

V = 2arse/t=[Gme_/tsp]* or t= 2nrgz/ [Gm_/tsp]”

t= 2ntse/ [Gme_]“/[tse]* = 2nrseltse]“/[Gme_]” = 2n{rse°]“/[Gme_]”
t= 20 (tse°/Gme]”
This equation calculates the period for a satellite.
Finally, substitute the values:
t = 2n[(42,370,000 m)*/ (6.6742 x 10! m’/kgs’\(5.9722 x 10**kg)]”* = 86,796 s
Then convert to get the satellite period:
86,796 s x (1 day / 86,400 s) ~ 1 day period

e A satellite can be placed in a geostationary orbit at a certain height

over Earth’s equator which will hold the satellite in a position fixed over
that point so that the period of its orbit will exactly equal the period of
the rotation of the Earth. A satellite must be placed at a certain height
above the Earth’s equator in order to remain geosynchronous.

e Example: Develop an equation for calculating the altitude of a

geostationary satellite. Then make the calculation.
You can begin with the equation just developed for the period t of a
satellite and solve for rsp to determine the height. For a geostationary
satellite the period is one day or about 86,400 s. Begin with:
tO te, (Gmni- of t—2n [te |/[Gmn\”
(vse| =t[(Gme] 7/2
Square both sides to remove the square root:
2
ta = 7’ Gmeg/4n

This equation calculates the distance above Earth’s center for a

satellite. Now substitute the values:
tsp = [t’Gmg /427]”
= [(86,400s)°(6.6742 x 10°! m’/kges’)(5.9722 « 10° kg)/4r°]” ~ 42,241,000m
Since rsg represents the center-to-center distance, we need to subtract the
radius of the Earth, 6,370,000 m, for the height above Earth:
42,241,000 m — 6,370,000 m = 35,871,000 m
Therefore, the height above Earth for a geostationary satellite is just
under 36,000 km (or about 22,289 mi).

e Note that in a geosynchronous orbit, the orbital period is one day, so

that the satellite matches the rotation rate of the Earth. A geostationary
orbit is a special case of a geosynchronous orbit in which the satellite is
in a circular orbit and remains “stationary” over 4 certain point on the
94 Master Math: Essential Physics

Earth’s surface above the equator. For a satellite to remain in a

geostationary orbit above Earth, it must be about 36,000 km above the
equator, have a velocity of about 3.07 km/s, and have a period that tracks
Earth’s rotation. You may notice the values for velocity and height differ
slightly depending on the source. This is likely due to slightly differing
values used in their calculations.

4.2. Electrostatic Force

Note: This section will discuss the electrostatic force. We will introduce
the electromagnetic force and moving charges in Chapters 10 through 12.

e Every charged particle or object exerts a force on every other charged

particle or object. Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that
stationary or slow moving electric charges exert on each other. These
forces can be described by the Electrostatic Force Law, also called
Coulomb’s Law.

e Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons

and neutrons reside in the atom’s nucleus, and the electrons revolve in
“clouds” or “shells” around the nucleus. Protons possess a positive
charge and neutrons possess no charge. Electrons possess a negative
charge that is equal in magnitude to the positive charge of a proton.

(3)Electron
co
Neutron and Proton

In its natural, electrically neutral state, an atom has an equal number of

protons and electrons. The number of protons specifies the atomic
number of an atom or of an element. The element carbon, for example,
has an atomic number of six reflecting its six protons. In its most
prevalent natural state carbon also has six neutrons and six electrons.

The charge on an electron, which is sometimes called the basic unit of

charge, is: Electron charge = —1.602 x 107'? Coulombs.
The equal and opposite positive charge of a proton is:
Proton charge = +1.602 x 10°’? Coulombs.

Note: A Coulomb is based on the measurement of current, which is the

flow of charge through a conducting medium. The Coulomb is defined in
 Natural Forces 95

MKS (meter-kilogram-second) units as the amount of charge that flows

past a fixed point in one second in a current of one Ampere.

e The force that attracts an electron to protons in the nucleus and holds it
in “orbit” around the nucleus is the electrostatic force. Without this
electrostatic force, the electron, which is traveling at a high speed, would
not remain in its orbit.

Netitron and Préton

In nature, unlike or opposite charges attract each other, and like charges
repel each other.
Opposite charges attract: 0 >= ®
Like charges repel: 6 <—> GO and ®<> ©

e Certain atoms can gain or lose electrons, resulting in electrons being

transferred from one atom or group of atoms (object) to another. The
protons, however, tend to be a fixed part of an atom’s nucleus. The
distribution of electric charge usually occurs because of the movement of
electrons. Once electrons are transferred, an atom or object can be left
with either an excess or deficiency of electrons. An excess of electrons
results in a negative charge. Conversely, a deficiency of electrons results
in a positive charge.

Conservation of Charge: Electric charge cannot be created or

destroyed, only transferred or redistributed. The total amount of electric
charge in an isolated system remains constant.

Electrostatic fields exist around charged particles or objects. These

fields create the force that acts between charged particles causing them to
either attract or repel one another. The fie/d lines point toward negative
charges and away from positive charges.
aS

Ss ee

Electrostatics can involve the study of the buildup of charge on the

surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces. When two surfaces
contact each other, charges can transfer and electrostatic forces can
develop. These charges can remain until they either bleed off to ground
96 Master Math: Essential Physics

or are neutralized with a discharge—the familiar experience of static

shock.

e In 1785 French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb studied

electrostatic forces using a sensitive torsion balance similar to the
balance Cavendish used to study the gravitational force. Coulomb found
that the electrostatic force between two charged objects varies as the
inverse square of the distance between them. Remember, the
gravitational force also varies as the inverse square of the distance
between two masses. The electrostatic force is proportional to the
product of the charges involved. This is similar to the gravitational force
with respect to masses. The electric force acting on a point charge q, as a
result of the presence of a second point charge q2 is described by the
Electrostatic Force Law or Coulomb’s Law given as:
Fr; = Kaqiqo/r

This law shows that the force of electrostatic attraction or repulsion

between two electric charges at rest is directly proportional to the product
of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. In the equation: Fx is the force of electrostatic
attraction or repulsion (in Newtons); q, and q2 represent the charges (in
Coulombs C) of the two particles or objects (note upper-case Qs may be
used); r is their separation (in meters); and K is Coulomb’s Constant
K © 8.98755 x 10° Nem’/C* = 9.0 x 10° N-m’/C’.
Coulombs Law of Electrostatic Force can also be written as:

Fr; = qiq2/4neor where & = 1/4nK

and where & ~ 8.8542 x 10°” C?/N-m’ and is called the permittivity of
free space or electric constant, which measures the effect of a substance
(or a vacuum) on the electric field.

You can quickly see the similarity between the Coulomb’s Electrostatic
Force Law, Fr = Kq)qz/t’, and the Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation, Fg = Gm ,m,/t’. The electric force F, is a vector quantity
having magnitude and direction. The direction depends on the signs of
the charges. If the signs of q; and q2 are different, the force is attractive
and the direction of the force on each charge is toward the other. If the
signs of q; and q2 are the same, the force is repulsive and the direction of
the force on each charge is away from the other. Similar to gravitational
force calculations, the distance of the charges is considered to be the
center-to-center distance.
 Natural Forces 97

From Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatic Force we can see that electrostatic

force depends on (1) the type of charges—like charges repel and
opposite charges attract; (2) the amount of charge—more charge equals
more force; and (3) the distance between charged objects—the closer
together, the greater the force (by the inverse square).

e Example: Hydrogen atoms contain a proton and an electron having

charges of plus and minus 1.6 x 107’ C. If the average distance between
the proton and electron in the hydrogen atom is 5.3 x 10°'! m, what is the
electrostatic force between them?
Use Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatic Force with K = 9.0 x 10° N-m’/C:
Fg = Kagap/r”
= (9.0 x 10’ N-m7/C’)(-1.6 x 107? C)(1.6 x 107°C) / (5.3 x 107! my?
=-2.3 x 10°°/(5.3 x 10") = -0.082 x 10° = -8.2 x 10°N
The negative sign reflects the attractive force between the proton and
electron.

e Example: Suppose your friend noticed you solve the previous example
and thought he could trip you by asking you how fast the electron is
traveling around the nucleus of the hydrogen atom.
You remind yourself that in order to maintain “orbit” there must a
centripetal acceleration, a, = v’/r. You also know that, since the
electrostatic force is the dominant force, the centripetal force,
F, = ma,= mv’/r, must be about equal to the electrostatic force,
Fr = Kqeqp/r’. Therefore:
F, = Fe = m.a, = m.v7/r= Kaqegp/t”

Since we calculated F; in the previous example as Fg= 8.2 x 10 °N, we

can solve for v in terms of Fg:
Fe = m.v/t
v’ = Fer/m.
You look up the mass of an electron to be about 9.1 x 10°' kg andr
was given in the last example as 5.3 x 10°'' m, so v’ becomes:
Ve = Fett,
Vv? = (8.2 x 10°®N)(5.3 x 107! m) / (9.1 x 10°! kg) = 4.78 10" m’/s”
You take the square root to get velocity: v = 2.19 x 10° m/s.
“Wow, that little whiz is moving pretty fast!” your friend muses. The he
asks, “How does it keep from flying away from its nucleus?”
“At close range the electrostatic force between electrons and protons 1s
one of the strongest forces in the Universe!” you respond. “It’s way more
98 Master Math: Essential Physics

powerful than gravity. Even though the proton and electron in the
hydrogen atom possess the fundamental force of gravity, each proton and
electron can also develop a much stronger electrostatic force. While the
electron is rocketing around its nucleus trying to get away, the
electrostatic force is pulling the proton and electron together. These
effects balance and maintain the electron in orbit.” You pause, “Hey, just
for fun let’s calculate the force of gravity between the proton and
electron in the hydrogen atom.” You set up the gravity equation:
Fg = Gm.m,/r

= (6.67 x 10° m/kg-s)(9.1 x 10°! kg)(1.67 x 10°77 kg) / (5.3 x 10! my’
=3.6x1077N
“Wow, it is certainly a lot less than the attractive electrostatic force of
~8.2 x 10° N,” your friend remarks.

e Example: Imagine there are three charges: q; = —S uC, q2 = +10 uC,

and q3 =—5 uC. What is the net force or charge on q2? (Note that p,
pronounced “mu”, designates micro or 10°.)

TSEC ge F
qi q) to qo distance is 0.2 m
qo to q3 distance is 0.2 m
q2 Dd 43
+10 uC oli.

This is a vector problem, which means we calculate the forces along the
x- and y-directions. From Section 1.7, the component vectors of V are
V, = Vcos 8 and Vy = V sin 9, where V has magnitude |V| = [V+ Vol
and the direction is the angle V makes with x-axis, or: 0 = tan '(V\/V =:
For x-direction: The force on qp 1s from q3, with no x-component from q,
because it is perpendicular and cos 90° = 0.
Fix= Kqpqy/t" = (9.0 x 10’ N-n°/C’)(10 « 10 °C)(—5 x 10°C)/(0.2m)? =-11.25N
where the minus sign reflects that the forces are attractive.
For y-direction: The force on qp is from q;, with no y-component from q3
because it is perpendicular.
Fry=Kaqoqi/t” =(9.0 x 10°N-m/C’)(10 x 10 °C)(—5 x 10° C)/(0.2 mY =-11.25N
The magnitude of the net force or charge is vector F:
[F| = [FY + Fy]? = [11.25? + 11.257]? = 15.91 N
The direction is the angle @ above the x-axis, which we can see by
inspection, but let’s calculate to show method:
6 = tan (F,/F,) = tan'(11.25/11.25) = 45°
 Natural Forces 99

e Example: You can charge an electrically neutral object by transferring

electrons. This can occur by friction (rubbing it against another material),
conduction, or induction. You can actually lift an object using
electrostatic force. Imagine you take your socks out of the dryer ona
cold, dry day. You notice a small half-ounce sock stuck to the top of the
dryer, so you peel it off. If you immediately hold the sock 0.2 m below
an object carrying a charge of 30 uC and the sock is pulled up to the
object, how much charge must the sock have had?
In this example the electrostatic force between the charged object and the
charged sock must be equal to the weight w of the sock.
Fy = Wiltz MgockZ os Kadica/t

We are given or can look up the values:

Fe = Mock = W = (0.5 0z)g = (0.014 kg)(9.8 m/s’) = 0.14 N
K = 9.0 x 10? N-m7/C”
object = 30 x 10°C
We can rearrange to solve for qgock:
K object = (0.14 N)(0.2 m)*/ (9.0 x 10’ N-m7/C’)(30 x 10°C)
sock = WI"/
AOC 00x 10°C: or 0.02 1C
So 0.02 uC is the minimum charge required to overcome the sock’s
weight.

¢ Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatic Force models stationary charges or

charged objects and is a good approximation for forces between slow
moving charges or objects. When movement of charges occurs, magnetic
fields are produced, which alters the force on the two charged objects.
The magnetic interaction between moving charges is likened to having
the force from an electrostatic field combined with relativistic effects
caused by very high speeds. The electromagnetic force is discussed later
in the book.

4.3. Strong Nuclear and Weak Forces

“Just when you thought you were beginning to

understand reality, we take a brief detour into
the ever-so-strange world of nuclear physics!”

The information presented in the following pages 1s meant to provide you

with some foundational information on nuclear physics and introduce
you to the jargon. In the future when you hear words like “quark” and
“gluon”, you will have an idea what they mean and how they fit into
your greater universe. |
100 Master Math: Essential Physics

e If you think for a moment, there are undoubtedly many questions you
have about the subatomic universe that exists all around you. This
section offers a brief glimpse into our strange subatomic world. This
world is filled with fascinating concepts and yet-to-be-discovered
answers to our reality. Perhaps you may be intrigued by this strange
world and decide to seek answers to some of the many remaining
questions surrounding nuclear physics.

One question you may be wondering about is: What holds protons in a
nucleus of an atom together, considering the strong repulsive
electrostatic forces they exert on each other and the miniscule space they
occupy?

Nucleus with protons and neutrons

Let’s estimate the electrostatic repulsive force between two protons. If

the typical distance between protons in a nucleus is about 2 x 107° m,
the electrostatic force is:
Fe = Kqpqp/t™
=1(9.0 x 10° Nm7/C’\(
1.6 «107 C\1.6.x 10-2 C2 107m) 253. N
58 N is a huge force for such a tiny space. In fact, it is the same force as
the weight of a 6-kg object! So why don’t protons blow apart in the
nuclei of atoms due to their strong repulsive force? The answer is the
presence of an even stronger force called the strong nuclear force. But
before we go into that, let us back up and look at some of the most
fundamental particles that make up our Universe.

The Fundamental Building-Block Particles

@ Based on current research, the Universe seems to be composed of

twelve fundamental building-block particles and governed by four
fundamental forces. The current thought on how the twelve particles and
three of the four forces (gravity excluded) fit together is described by the
“Standard Model.” The Standard Model is a description of the
elementary particles and forces in the Universe.

: “Did you know you and everything around you is made up

of unimaginably small and strange particles?”

You know about protons, neutrons, and electrons, but there are particle
building blocks even more fundamental. In fact, the matter around (and
inside) us is made of two basic categories of particles called fermions.
 Natural Forces 101

The two categories of fermions are quarks and leptons. Each category
consists of six kinds of particles (6 quarks and 6 leptons), which are in
related pairs. Quarks are the building blocks of protons and neutrons.
Interestingly, the Standard Model of physics also posits that everything
has an exact opposite, or antiparticle. The universe of particles around
us includes not only the fermions (matter particles), but also four force
“particles” called bosons, which we introduce in the next subsection.

FERMIONS BOSONS
Matter particles Force Carriers
QUARKS LEPTONS
Up +2/3 Electron —1 GLUONS—Strong Force
Down —1/3 Electron-neutrino 0
Charm +2/3 Muon —1 W & Z Bosons—Weak Force
Strange —1/3 Muon-neutrino 0
Top +2/3 Tau —1 PHOTONS—Electromagnetic Force
Bottom —1/3 Tau-neutrino 0
Also: Also: GRAVITONS—Gravitational Force
6 antiquarks 6 antileptons (Gravitons are as yet unverified)

Note: The above numbers reflect the charge.

e There are six types or “flavors” of quarks, together with their six
associated antiparticles. The six quarks are paired in three subgroups—
the Up and the Down quark, the Charm and the Strange quark, and the
Top and the Bottom quark. It is the Up and Down quarks that are the
constituents of neutrons and protons. Quarks carry a type of “charge”
called “color”, which can be red, blue, or green, with antiparticles anti-
red, anti-blue, or anti-green. These are not actual colors but rather
properties, and can add up to be colorless the way blue, green, and red
light add up to white light. Quarks are believed to be held together by
this so-called color charge or color force, which we discuss below.

Quarks also carry fractional electrical charges, as noted in the above

diagram. Since protons and neutrons are made up of quarks we can get
some insight into their positive and neutral charges. A proton is made up
of two Up quarks and one Down quark, and has a total charge of
(+2/3) + (+2/3) + (-1/3) = +1, which is the net charge on a proton.
Similarly, a neutron is made up of two Down quarks and one Up quark,
giving it a total charge of (—1/3) + (-1/3) + (+ 2/3) =0, which is the net
charge on a neutron.

Particles made up of quarks are called Hadrons. Particles made of two

quarks are called Mesons, and particles made of three quarks are called
Baryons. Neutrons and protons are Baryons. Only quarks interact
102 Master Math: Essential Physics

through the strong force, but they can also interact through the weak and
electric forces.

e There are six types or “flavors” of leptons together with their six
associated antiparticles. The six leptons are paired in three subgroups—
the electron and the electron-neutrino, the muon and the muon-neutrino,
and the tau and the tau-neutrino. The electron, the muon, and the tau all
have an electric charge and a mass, whereas the neutrinos are electrically
neutral with very little or negligible mass. Leptons are susceptible to the
electric and weak forces but not the strong force. Neutrinos are leptons
and are produced in processes such as beta decay and reactions that
involve the weak force and also in nuclear fusion reactions. Neutrinos
interact through the weak force and the much weaker gravitational force,
have no electric charge, very little or negligible mass, move at close to
the speed of light, and are difficult to detect.

e There are also four boson “particles” that transmit or “carry” the
fundamental forces. As we will discuss below, each fundamental force
has its own corresponding boson particle that transmits or carries that
force. The boson particles are the gluon (for the strong force), the
photon (for the electromagnetic force), the W and Z bosons (for the
weak force), and the not-yet-discovered “graviton” (for gravity).

The Four Fundamental Forces

: “Here’s an introduction to the truly bizarre fundamental

forces that act in our strange and astonishing Universe!”

e There are four fundamental forces of nature at work in the Universe:

the strong force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and the
gravitational force. They have different strengths and ranges. The
Standard Model states that strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces
between interacting matter particles occur by the exchange of boson
force carrier particles. As mentioned, each fundamental force has its
own mediating or “carrying” boson particle such that the gluon carries
the strong force, the photon carries the electromagnetic force, the W
and Z bosons carry the weak force, and the yet-to-be-discovered
graviton would carry the gravitational force. These four basic forces of
nature can be summarized as:

(1) The strong nuclear force, or strong force, carried by the gluon is
the strongest force, but acts only at very short range. Strong nuclear
forces hold protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei and help
 Natural Forces 103

power the Sun. Only quarks interact via the strong force, but quarks
can also interact through the weak and electric forces.
(2) The weak force, carried by the W and Z bosons, acts at very short
distances, and is stronger than gravity. Weak nuclear forces are
responsible for decay of radioactive nuclei, specifically Beta decay,
and the changing of types or “colors” such as changing a quark from
one type to another. Weak nuclear forces exhibit some peculiar
symmetry characteristics not seen with the other forces. Quarks and
leptons can interact via the weak interaction.
(3) The electromagnetic or electric force, carried by photons, acts
between electrically charged particles at up to very long distances,
varies as the inverse square of distance, and causes electrical and
magnetic effects. Electromagnetic forces and interactions are
responsible for visible light, X-rays, microwaves, radio waves, etc.,
and are fundamental to the telecommunications and electronics
industries. Quarks and leptons can interact electromagnetically.
Transient virtual photons carry the electrostatic force.
(4) The gravitational force, carried by the still elusive “graviton”, is
the weakest force, but acts between all masses at up to extremely
long distances and varies as the inverse square of distance.

e The Standard Model does not include the gravitational force due to
the lack of confirmation of the theoretical graviton and mathematical
inconsistencies when modeling the macro and atomic worlds. Quantum
Theory models the atomic world and general relativity models the larger
world. We look forward to the day with these two models may be
seamlessly joined. Fortunately, in the scale of particle physics, the effects
of gravity are negligible so the Standard Model for describing the strong,
weak, and electromagnetic forces works well.

If you study the Standard Model you will find that the weak and electro-
magnetic forces, also called interactions, are alternatively described
together as the electroweak theory. This theory presents the force-
carrying particles for the weak interactions as behaving similarly to how
photons behave when carrying the electromagnetic interactions. That 19;
W and Z bosons mediate the weak force just as photons mediate the
electromagnetic force. The electroweak theory involves the four force-
carrying boson particles: photons, W , W’, and Z” bosons. The W and Z
bosons have much greater mass that the photon.

oe “This is a fascinating, evolving, and dynamic field of study!

Thefollowing subsections should give you a little insight into
the strong and weak forces and the strange nature of the
world in which you live.”
104 Master Math: Essential Physics

The Strong Nuclear Force

e The strong nuclear force, also referred to as the “strong force,” is the
strongest of the four basic forces in nature. It has the shortest range and
acts at extremely short distances so that particles must be very close to
each other before its effects are felt—the distance of about the diameter
of a proton or a neutron. This force is not an inverse-square force like the
electromagnetic and gravitational forces. The strong nuclear force
maintains the stability of nuclei even though strong repulsive forces are
present. It acts between protons and neutrons, protons and protons, and
neutrons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are collectively referred to
as nucleons since, except for protons having a charge, protons and
neutrons share many properties.

Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks. The strong nuclear force
that holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom acts
between the quarks. The strong force is called an exchange force and 1s
mediated by the exchange of gluons between the quarks. The strong
force between quarks is the primary force holding an atom’s nucleus
together. The force holding protons and neutrons together is referred to
as a residual strong force since it is a second order effect of the primary
strong force between quarks.

Interestingly, isolated quarks have not been observed, suggesting they

are permanently bound together by strong nuclear forces. In spite of that,
studies of high-energy collisions between electrons and protons suggest
the quarks that make up a proton appear to be nearly free and somewhat
unbound. How can nuclear forces be strong enough to overcome
repulsive forces and hold quarks together while, in experiments, they
appear weak enough for quarks to seem more free? It turns out that the
strong nuclear force that holds quarks together actually increases as the
quarks are pushed apart, but weakens as quarks move extremely close
together.

This seeming dichotomy is explained through Quantum Chromodynamics

and asymptotic freedom. Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) is a model
of the strong nuclear force in which quarks are held together by
exchanging gluons when they are at a distance of about the diameter of a
proton. Asymptotic freedom explains the discrepancy that high-energy
collision experiments revealed when they showed characteristics of a
much weaker force and freer quarks at extremely close distances. When
asymptotic freedom was overlaid on QCD, it established QCD as the
viable theory describing the strong nuclear force. Asymptotic freedom is
a phenomenon allowing quarks to behave as free particles when they are
 Natural Forces 105

extremely close together, while becoming very strongly attracted to each

other as their distance from each other increases. Asymptotic freedom
allows the interaction between particles to be weak at very short
distances (asymptotically approaching zero) and provides some
understanding of the behavior of matter under extreme conditions.

The gluon exchange that occurs between quarks in atomic nuclei in

QCD is similar to the photon exchange that occurs as electrons interact.
In Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), the force between two electrically
charged particles is mediated by the exchange of a photon or particle of
light (which has no charge). Similarly in Quantum Chromodynamics,
the force between two quarks is mediated by the exchange of a gluon.

As mentioned above, quarks carry a type of “color charge.” While

electrically charged particles can be positive or negative, the “color
charge” of the strong force has the properties of “blue”, “green’’, or
“red”. These are properties, not actual colors, and can add up to be
colorless the way blue, green, and red light add up to white light. The
interactions of these color charges form the strong force or interaction,
so that quarks are believed to be held together via this so-called color
charge or color force. The color force is believed to be mediated by the
exchange of gluons. The color charges also have an antiparticle nature, or
anti-red, anti-blue, and anti-green. Even gluons carry color charges.
When quarks exchange gluons, a change in color can occur. Even more
interesting—quarks are also surrounded by “virtual” gluons which can
affect the quarks’ color.

To summarize, the strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons

together, acts between quarks at very short distances of about a proton-
diameter distance, gets weaker as quarks get closer, gets stronger as
quarks move further apart, manifests as gluon exchange, and overcomes
the repulsion of positively charged protons. Further, remember that
quarks make up both protons and neutrons, and the presence of neutrons
supplies strong force through gluon exchange. By their neutral presence,
neutrons also help mitigate some of the repulsive proton-proton
electrostatic force.

The Weak Force

e The weak force, also called weak nuclear force and weak interaction,
is one of the four fundamental forces of nature and the most recent to be
discovered. Though it is called weak, it is stronger than gravity. Gravity,
however, can act over extremely long distances while the weak force acts
over extremely small distances.
106 Master Math: Essential Physics

The weak interaction was discovered while scientists were studying and
classifying types of nuclear radioactive decay processes including alpha,
beta, and gamma decays. Scientists could explain alpha and gamma
decays through the electromagnetic and strong interactions between
nucleons, but beta radiation had unusual characteristics. Further studies
led to an understanding of the weak interaction and its role in governing
beta decay.

As we discussed above, neutrons and protons are made up of quarks.

During beta decay a neutron having two Down quarks and one Up quark
disappears and is replaced by a proton having two Up quarks and one
Down quark, an electron, and an anti-electron neutrino. An intermediary
in this process is a W boson which decays to produce the electron and
anti-electron neutrino. In fact, the weak interactions involve the
exchange or production of W and Z bosons (or more specifically W’,
W_, and Z” bosons). Like the strong force exchanging gluons, the weak
force is mediated by an exchange of W and Z boson particles.

Weak interactions are also responsible for a quark changing from one
type or flavor to another. This phenomenon of the weak force changing
the flavor of quarks enables decays of certain nuclear particles which
require a quark change. The weak interaction uniquely provides a
process in which flavor can change, thereby allowing transformation of
quarks and leptons and the particles that contain them such as protons
and neutrons. The weak interaction is in fact the only process by which a
quark can change to another quark, or a lepton to another lepton, which
occur through so-called flavor changes. (This ability for these
fundamental particles to change is an important part of our Universe
even though it may be difficult to visualize.)

The weak interaction acts between both quarks and leptons, whereas the
strong force does not act between leptons. In fact, all fundamental
particles except gluons and photons are believed to be subject to weak
interactions. These interactions occur at very short distances of
approximately 10 '* m or about a tenth of a percent of the diameter of a
proton. Weak interactions are also noted for having strange properties as
they exhibit peculiar symmetry features not seen with the other forces
and allow effects that seem to violate normal behavior.

e Weak interactions are important to the functioning of the Universe. For

example, in the Sun the transformation of hydrogen into deuterium (an
isotope of hydrogen with one neutron rather than zero neutrons) occurs
via the weak force before helium is formed. Also, the phenomena of
radioactive decay, including radioactive elements used in medicine and
 Natural Forces 107

technology, and the beta-decay of carbon to nitrogen in carbon-14

dating, involve the weak interactions.

e The deeper you dig into the world of nuclear physics, the more
mysterious it gets! This interesting world leads to some of the most
fascinating quests and questions, including the ever-elusive attempts to
unify the fundamental forces between all of the elementary particles into
a single framework.

4.4. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Kepler’s Laws tell us: planets move in ellipses with the Sun at one
focus, the Sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time, and the
square of a planet’s orbital period is proportional to the cube of its
mean distance from the Sun.
e The Law of Universal Gravitation is: Fg = Gmm)/r’.
e Velocity of an object orbiting the Earth or a large body: v= (Gmg/r)”.
e The Electrostatic Force Law or Coulomb’s Law is: Fr = Kqiqo/t’.
@ Matter is made of fermions, including 6 types of quarks and 6 types of
leptons.
e The forces are transmitted or carried by boson “particles”.
e Bosons include: gluons, photons, W and Z bosons, and undiscovered
gravitons.
e There are four fundamental forces of nature at work in the Universe:
Strong nuclear force, or strong force: carried by gluons, strongest
force, acts at very short range, and holds protons and neutrons together.
Weak force: carried by W and Z bosons, acts at very short range, is
stronger than gravity, and is responsible for Beta decay.
Electromagnetic force: carried by photons, acts at up to long distances,
varies as inverse square of distance, is responsible for light, X-rays, etc.
Gravitational force: may be carried by the still elusive “graviton”, is
the weakest force, varies as the inverse square of distance, and acts at
up to long distances.

Practice Problems

4.1 At what distance from the center of the Earth in the direction of the
Sun are the gravitational forces equal and opposite? Assume the distance
between the centers of the Earth and Sun is 1.497 x 10° km, the Sun’s
mass is 1.99 x 10°° kg, and the Earth’s mass is 5.98 x 10° kg.
108 Master Math: Essential Physics

4.2 Two objects are rubbed together, causing a transfer of electrons from
one to the other. Without losing the electrostatic charge, the objects are
separated by | cm and found to attract one another with a force of
0.09 N. How many electrons were transferred?

4.3 In this chapter we have been discussing a lot of weird particles. Have
you wondered how they were discovered? Subatomic particles are often
identified in linear or circular accelerators. In a linear accelerator, groups
of electrons can be accelerated through a copper structure of discs and
cylinders using an electromagnetic wave. This wave is made up of
magnetic and electric fields, which are created by high energy
microwaves. These microwaves are guided into the accelerator and
create a pattern of oscillating electric fields pointing down the accelerator
and oscillating magnetic fields in a circular pattern, forming an
electromagnetic wave which travels down the accelerator. Once you
produce your unknown particles by colliding electrons and positrons
(antimatter electron counterpart), what do you need to know to identify
them—charge, mass, momentum, speed, energy?

Answers to Chapter 4 Problems

4.1 Begin with F, = Gm m,/r’. The distance from Earth’s center is r and
the distance from the Sun’s center is (1.497 x 10'') —r. Fe= Gm,m,/r
and Fs = Gmsm,/(1.497 x 10''—r)’. We want to find the value for R
where Fe = Fs. Gmemy/r* = Gmgm)/(1.497 x 10’! =r)’.
Met ms (1.497 x10" =n) or (1.497-< 10; er)mp Toms
(2.241 x 107) — (2.994 x 10'Pr + =1(1.99 x 10)(5.98 « 10%)
(3.33 x 10°)r° + (2.994 x 10'')r
—(2.241 x 10”) =0
Using the quadratic formula —b + [b* — 4ac]”/2a and taking the smaller
root which represents the side closer to the Sun, we get r ~ 2.58 x 10° m.
Because the Earth’s radius is 6.37 x 10°m, the altitude is about
2.52 x 10° m or about 157,000 mi. Don’t worry about falling into the Sun
if you fly too high—your rotational velocity will keep you and the Earth
in orbit around the Sun!

4.2 Fe = Kqiqp/t’ or qiq2 = Fer/K = 0.09(0.01)/(9.0 x 10°) = 1.010 5C.

Since the 2 objects have equal and opposite charges, take the square root,
yielding 3.16 x 10 °C. One electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10''’ C, so the
number of electrons transferred was (3.16 x 10°°)/(1.6 x 10°!”) =
1.976 x 10'' or about 200 billion electrons.
4.3 You can identify a particle by determining its charge and mass.
While in theory, you would say we can calculate a particle’s mass if we
know its momentum and either its speed or its energy, it turns out that
when a particle is traveling near the speed of light, uncertainties in
 Natural Forces 109

momentum or energy require us to measure momentum, speed, and

energy. Detectors within the accelerator are set up to measure and track
as many resultant particles as possible. They have several layers that
identify the charge (if any) and the track each particle takes, as well as its
momentum, velocity, and energy. Isn’t it interesting that we use these
familiar basic physics concepts of mass, velocity, momentum, and charge
to understand this very strange and somewhat elusive subatomic world!
110 Master Math: Essential Physics
 ee
RE i ee 8 Se ols

Chapter 5
ENERGY AND WORK

5.1. Work
5.2. Kinetic Energy
5.3. Potential Energy
5.4. Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces
5.5. Gravitational Potential Energy When h Is Large
5.6. Electrostatic Potential Energy
5.7. Introduction to the Electron Volt
5.8. Rotational Kinetic Energy
5.9. Conservation of Energy
5.10. Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
5.11. Power
5.12. Principles of Simple Machines
5.13. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“It is evident that an acquaintance with natural laws means no less

than an acquaintance with the mind of God therein expressed.”
Attributed to James Prescott Joule

5.1. Work

@ Work involves an applied force and the distance or displacement

through which the force acts. For example, if you lift a weight, you are
exerting the force required to overcome gravity and raise the object a
certain distance upward. If you push an object, you are applying a force
which can overcome friction and move the object a certain distance in
the direction of the force. Mathematically, work W is the product of the
component of force in the direction of the displacement and the
displacement.
Work = (component of force in the direction of displacement Fa)
x (displacement produced by the force d)

| W = Fd cos 8 |
a2 Master Math: Essential Physics

The angle 9 is the angle between the applied force vector and the .
displacement of the object once it is moved. The formula for work is also
written using the component of force in the direction of displacement Fg
times displacement d:
W = Fyd = Fd cos 8
or as the dot product (discussed below):
W = F-d = Fd cos 0

e When the applied force and displacement are parallel to each

other, the angle 0 between the applied force and displacement vectors is
zero. Because the cosine of zero equals one, cos 0 = 1, the work done by
the force is simply the product of the magnitude of the force and the
magnitude of the displacement:

e Example: Suppose you push a box 10 m using a force of 50 N in the

direction you want it to move. What is the work done on the box?

Because the applied force and displacement are parallel, so 0 is zero,

the work done on the box is force times displacement: W = Fd.
W = Fd = (50 N)(10 m) = 500 N-m or 500 Joules
e Units of work are the product of force and distance. In SI units this is
Newton-meter (or N-m), which is kg-m/s” x mor kg-m’/s’. A N-m is also
defined as a Joule (J) in honor of James Prescott Joule (1818-1889), so
work is measured in kg-m’/s’ = N-m = J. In CGS (centimeter-gram-
seconds) units, work is in dyne-cm, which is an erg. | J = 10’ ergs. In
English units, work is in foot-pounds (ft-lb).

e If you push (or lift) a box with a constant force and it moves with a
constant velocity (due to opposing gravity or friction). The acceleration
is zero, and there is no net external force. When the applied force is just
enough to overcome the forces of friction or gravity, then Fyre = 0.
Whether an object moves at a constant speed or is accelerated, if it is dis-
placed from one point to another due to an applied force, work is done.

e Example: Suppose you push a 20-kg box with a constant velocity in

the direction you want it to move 10 m over a surface having a friction
coefficient of 0.2. What is the work done on the box?
 Energy and Work 113

Fa
Because the applied force and displacement are parallel, angle 8=0
and cos 0 = 1, so the work done on the box is: W = Fd. Also, because the
box is sliding at a constant velocity, the net force acting on the box is
zero and your pushing force is equal to the opposing force of friction.
Remember from Chapter 3, the force required to keep the box moving at
constant velocity must equal the force of kinetic friction, F,, = UF =
Luxmg, where py is the coefficient of kinetic friction and Fy is the normal
force, which is the weight of the box. We can calculate work using:

W = Fd = Fad = pFxd = pymgd = (0.2)(20 kg)(9.8 m/s?)(10 m) = 392 J

e When the applied force and displacement are NOT parallel to
each other, work is the displacement of an object multiplied by the
component of the force in the direction of that displacement.
W = Fd cos 8

e Example: Suppose you push a 20-kg box with a constant velocity 10 m

over a surface having a friction coefficient of 0.2. Instead of pushing in
the direction of motion, you push downward at a 40° angle. What is the
work done on the box?

Because the applied force and displacement are NOT parallel, angle
§ (which is between the applied force and the displacement) must be
used to find the component of force in the direction of motion. The work
done on the box is the component of force in the direction of motion that
overcomes friction (F cos 0) times displacement d:
W = Fd cos 0 = tx Fnd
We are given d but need to find F. Because velocity is constant (no
acceleration), tlie net force is zero and the horizontal force F cos 8 equals
the frictional force:
F cos 8 = uk Fn
where the normal force Fy includes the weight of the box, mg, and the
downward component of F from you pushing, which is F cos 50°, or
equivalently, F sin 40°:
114 Master Math: Essential Physics

Fy = [(20 kg)(9.8 m/s’) + (F)(sin 40°)]

Let’s write the forces and then solve for F:
F cos 40° = uy Fn = px [(20 kg)(9.8 m/s’) + (F)(sin 40°)]
F cos 40° = (0.2)(196 kg-m/s’) + (F)(0.2)(sin 40°)
F cos 40° = (39.2 kg-m/s’) + (F)(0.129)
F cos 40° — (F)(0.129) = (39.2 kg-m/s’)
F(cos 40° — 0.129) = (39.2 kg-m/s’)
F261.5N
The work done on the box is:
W = Fd cos 8 = (61.5 N)(10 m)(cos 40) ~ 471 J
Note that this is greater than the work needed to push the same box the
same distance in the previous example (392 J), in which the force was
applied parallel to motion, due to the greater opposing frictional force
resulting from the additional downward force on the box.

e Work W is a scalar not a vector even though it is the product of two

vectors, the force F vector and the displacement d vector. Even though
work is a scalar and has magnitude but no direction, the direction of the
vectors F and d matter during the calculation since work is the product of
the component of force in the direction of displacement times
displacement. As we discussed above, when applied force and
displacement are parallel so that F acts along the direction of d, then
W = Fd, since cos 0 = 1. But when F and d are not parallel, the angle
between them must be calculated.

The product Fd cos 6 is called a scalar product of vectors F and d. A

scalar product is also called the dot product. The dot product of two
vectors A and B is written A‘-B = AB cos 9, where 0 is the angle between
A and B. In words, the dot product of two vectors is the product of the
magnitudes of the two vectors multiplied by the cosine of the angle in
between those vectors.

e Work is not always done when a force is exerted. There are two
primary cases when is work zero:
When displacement d = 0, then W = 0, because W = Fd = (F)(0) = 0. If
you hold a huge rock, there is no displacement, so no work is done. (You
do work to lift the rock, but not to hold it.) If you push against a 10-storey
building, there is no displacement and no work done. If you lift your
refrigerator 2 ft off the ground and set it back down in the same spot, you
have done no work on the refrigerator. This is because the displacement
of the refrigerator was zero. Also, as you lifted and lowered the
refrigerator there was no frictional force that you were moving against.
 Energy and Work 115

(Remember, displacement is a vector representing the separation and

direction between two points and is different from distance traveled.)
When the applied force is perpendicular to displacement, there is no
work done. When F d, 6 = 90° and cos 90° = 0. Therefore,
W = Fd cos 90° = 0 and no work is done. If you walk 10 m horizontally
at a constant speed while carrying 10 large bricks, no work is done on
the bricks. This is because your force holding the bricks is opposite
gravity, which is perpendicular to the direction of motion. (If you carry
the bricks up or down an incline there is a component of gravity acting in
the direction of motion and work is done.) If you tie an object to a rope
and twirl it in a circle horizontally over your head, there is no work done
on the object by the rope since the tension T in the rope is always
perpendicular to the motion.

e Example: Suppose you either drop a 10-kg rock off a 1,000-m cliff or
shoot it horizontally off the same cliff using your rock launcher. Which
scenario has greater work done on the rock by gravity after it is in
motion?
When you drop the rock, gravity is the force acting on the rock, and the
gravitational force mg is parallel to the rock. Work done on the rock is
W = med. When you shoot the rock horizontally, gravity is still the
acting force. In this case, F and d are not parallel and work is the force
times the component of displacement in the direction of force, so that
work done by gravity is still the same, mgd. The work done by the force
of gravity is the same whether the rock drops directly downward or is
shot horizontally and falls in a parabolic curve. This happens because the
force acting on the rock is the gravitational force, which does no work in
the horizontal direction since gravity and the horizontal component of
displacement are perpendicular. Therefore the work done on the rock by
gravity is the same.

e Example: Imagine you and your friend have been out snowshoeing and
sledding all day. At the end ofthe day you pile all your stuff on one of
your sleds and push it 200 m at a constant velocity up a 20° incline to the
lodge. If the sled and contents have a mass of 30 kg and the snow has a
kinetic friction coefficient of 0.05, how much work will you do pushing
the sled? What ‘ithere is no friction?
116 Master Math: Essential Physics

To push the sled you must overcome the forces of gravity and friction.
(See Chapter 3 for discussion of friction.) The work done involves the
component of gravity in the direction of displacement and the friction
force that is opposite to motion. The force of gravity along the slope is:
Fo = mg sin 0 = —(30 kg)(9.8 m/s*)(sin 20°) ~ -100.6 N
Remember sin 8 = opposite/hypotenuse and cos 8 = adjacent/hypotenuse.
Also, the negative sign shows force opposite motion. Force of friction
along the slope and opposite to motion is the product of the kinetic
friction coefficient and the normal force, which is the component of the
weight of the sled perpendicular to the slope:
Fa = UxFN = Lxmg cos 8 = —-(0.05)(30 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(cos 20°) ~ —13.8 N

The force you need to exert to push the sled up the incline must over-
come the combined parallel components of Fg and Fg, that the sled exerts
on you, which are:
Fg + Fa =—100.6 N + -13.8 N=-114.4N

The work is W = Fd cos 9, but F and d vectors are parallel and cos 0 is
one, so the work you must do to overcome gravity and friction and push
the sled at a constant velocity up the slope is:
W = Fd = (114.4 N)(200 m) = 22,880 J
If there is no friction (you put on your crampons), the work would only
be against gravity, so:
W = Fgd = (mg sin 0)d = (30 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(sin 20°)(200 m) = 20,111 J
As we will discuss later, this can also be calculated W = mgh, where h is
the total height. We calculate height using trigonometry as sin 20° =
opposite/hypotenuse, or h = (sin 20°)(200 m), so:
W = mgh = (30 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(sin 20°)(200 m) = 20,111 J
(It’s the same math, just a different formula.)

e Calculus note—area and the integral: Work done can be calculated

using an integral. In fact, the value of the work done is the value of the
integral, which can be represented as the area under the curve of a graph
of force versus distance that is defined by that integral. We have learned
that if an object is displaced distance x by a constant force F, then the
work done is W = Fx. When an object is displaced by a variable force
acting in the direction of motion from point x; to point x», work can be
represented by the integral: ,\/*? F(x) dx.
 Energy and Work A177,

Whether there is constant or variable force, the motion can be repre-

sented along an axis of a coordinate system, which can be shown on a
graph of force vs. displacement. The work done is equal to the area
under the curve or line that runs between the beginning and ending
points of displacement. In the graph below, the work done in lifting a
500-Ib crate 10 ft from x; = 0 to x» = 10 ft is the shaded area. Work is:
Shaded Area = W = (500 Ib)(10 ft) = 5,000 J

F Force vs. Displacement

500
X
>) = 0 x, = 10

The integral describing work done to lift a 500-lb crate 10 ft is:

o!'° (500) dx = (500)(10) — (500)(0) = 5,000 ft-lb
The more general definition of work using the integral considers that
force can vary in magnitude and direction and the path can also vary. For
example, if motion varies along curve ds from s; to s>, then the total
work done can be represented by the integral:
sl” F-ds = J” (F cos 8) ds

e When work is done on or by a system, there is a change in the total

energy of the system. We will discuss energy in the next few sections.

5.2. Kinetic Energy

e Energy is the ability to do work or the capacity to produce an effect. It

is a property of matter, causing movement or a change in condition.
Energy allows change to occur. Energy exists in many forms including
mechanical, chemical, nuclear, thermal, electrical, electromagnetic, and
electrostatic energy. In an isolated system, energy can be transformed
from one form to another, but the total amount of energy is considered to
be conserved. Solving problems using energy equations is often simpler
than using Newton’s Laws. Energy can be divided into two general
categories: kinetic energy which involves motion and potential energy
which involves position. Energy can be transferred by matter or by
waves. In fact, much of the information scientists gather about the distant
Universe comes from detecting and analyzing waves.

e Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. An object in motion carries

kinetic energy and can perform work on another object that it collides
with or pushes. An object in motion is able to use its motion to do work.
118 Master Math: Essential Physics

The faster an object is moving, the more energy it can transfer to another
object it contacts. Kinetic energy exists in different forms including:
rotational—the energy of rotational or turning motion; vibrational—the
energy of vibrational or oscillating motion; and translational—the energy
of moving from one location to another. Kinetic energy can involve
waves, molecules, substances, and objects in the form of radiant, thermal,
sound, and motion energy.

Kinetic energy (KE = (1/2)mv’), momentum (p = mv), force (F = ma =

Ap/At), and work (W = Fd) are interrelated. Kinetic energy is related to
momentum because a moving object’s momentum affects the force it
will apply if it strikes another object. That force is also related to the
amount of work performed. If you bump into your friend and move him a
short distance, the work done on your friend is the force times the
distance he was displaced. When you crash into your friend, you use
your motion to do work on him. If you hit him and stop moving while he
begins moving, you transfer kinetic energy to him.

e We can develop the equation for kinetic energy using relationships we

already know. If an object is at rest with no force acting on it, and then a
constant force is applied, the object will accelerate (F = ma). The object
will move some distance, x = (1/2)at*, at which time its velocity will be
v = at. (Remember, when initial velocity vo is zero, then v = vo + at and
X = vot + (1/2)at* become v = at and x = (1/2)at*.) The work done on the
object as it moves in the direction of the applied force is:
W =F x d= max (1/2)at” = (1/2)m(at)’
Because v = at:
W = Fd = (1/2)mv’
The work that has been done on this object is W = Fd and, due to its
motion, it has gained the equivalent energy of (1/2)mv~. The energy an
object gains due to its motion is called kinetic energy. Therefore, for an
object of mass m moving at velocity v, its kinetic energy (KE) is defined
as:

KE = (1/2)mv’

e Like work, energy is a scalar. Units for kinetic energy, like work, are
in Joules. Units in SI are J = kg-m’/s° = N:m; in CGS are dyne-cm or erg;
and in the English system are ft-lb.

e Example: If you are moving 2 m/s and have a mass of 50 kg, what is
your kinetic energy?
KE = (1/2)mv’ = (1/2)(50 kg)(2 m/s)’ = 100 J
 Energy and Work 119

e Example: If you are traveling at a certain speed and then double that
speed, what is the change in kinetic energy? What if you halve the speed
instead?
Always begin these types of problems by looking at the equation or
relationship. In this case kinetic energy KE = (1/2)mv~. You can see that
KE is directly proportional to the square of velocity, KE « v*. Therefore
if velocity is doubled, KE will quadruple. To see this, choose a speed of
v =4 where v’ = 47 = 16. If v= 4 is doubled to v = 8, you have v= k=
64. Sixty-four is 4 times 16.
If the speed is halved, the kinetic energy is quartered. Again, we see this
by selecting a speed of 4 so that v’ = 4° = 16. When halved, v = 4
becomes v = 2 and 2’ = 4. Four is one quarter of sixteen.

e Example: Suppose a 10-kg ball at rest receives a 20-N force evenly for
5s. What is the resulting kinetic energy and work on the ball?
When the applied force and displacement are parallel, the work is:
W = Fd. To find d, we can use: d = vot + (1/2)at”. Since initial velocity is
zero:
d = (1/2)at* = (1/2)(F/m)(t)” = (1/2)[(20 N)/(10 kg)](5 s)” = 25m
Work done is: W = Fd = (20 N)(25 m) = 500 J.
The kinetic energy is: KE = (1/2)mv’.
To find velocity we can use: v = Vo + at.
Since initial velocity is zero:
v = at = (F/m)(t) = [(20 N)/(10 kg) ](5 s) = 10 m/s
Remember a Newton, N, is kg-m/s°. The kinetic energy is:
KE = (1/2)mv’ = (1/2)(10 kg)(10 m/s)’ = 500 J
All the work done, 500 J, is transformed into kinetic energy, 500 J.

The Work-Energy Theorem

e When work is done to or by a system, the energy of the system

changes. This relationship is referred to as the work-energy theorem.
We said earlier that energy is the ability to do work. We can also think of
work as a measure of the transfer of energy. If work is done on an object,
then that amount of energy is transferred to it. When that energy is
kinetic energy, and it moves the object some distance with a certain
force, the work-energy theorem is between work W and kinetic energy
KE. This means that the net work done on an object by an external net
force equals the change in kinetic energy of the object:
W = KE;— KE; = (1/2)(m)(v? —v?) or W=AKE
120 Master Math: Essential Physics

If you apply a force to an object in the direction of displacement causing

it to accelerate, and the object’s speed increases (vr > vj), the force is
doing positive work on the object (W > 0), and its KE increases. If you
apply a force (opposite to direction of displacement) to decelerate an
object, the force is doing negative work on the object (W < 0), and the
object’s KE decreases. (Since applied force is decelerating the object,
the object is doing work on the source exerting the net force).

The relationship between work and kinetic energy, W = AKE, can be

used to find the velocity of an object.

e Example: (a) Suppose you do 500 J of work pushing a 20-kg crate

across your garage, but friction between the crate and ground creates 400 J
of heat. What is the final velocity of the box? (b) Suppose you pushed
the 20-kg crate, and then it slides with an initial velocity of 2 m/s across a
smooth section of your garage floor. If a 2-N frictional force is acting
against the crate, what is the crate’s final velocity after it slides 10 m?

(a) The work done on the crate equals the kinetic energy it gains, and the
work done by the crate equals the amount of kinetic energy it loses. In
this case, the crate gains 500 J of kinetic energy from you pushing it and
has a friction loss of 400 J from its kinetic energy to friction, resulting in
a net gain of 100 J of kinetic energy. We can calculate the final velocity
using the equation for kinetic energy, KE = (1/2)mv’:
v’ = 2KE/m = 2(100 J)/(20 kg) = 10 kg-m’/s*kg
v ~3.16 m/s

(b) The initial kinetic energy of the crate is:

KE = (1/2)mv’ = (1/2)(20 kg)(2 m/s)’ = 40 J
The crate decelerates due to friction as the floor does work on the crate
opposite to the crate’s motion:
W = Fd = (-2 N)(10 m) = -20J
As work is done on the crate, its kinetic energy decreases and after
sliding 10 m, the crate’s kinetic energy becomes 40 — 20 = 20 J.
Therefore, the final kinetic energy of the crate is 20 J. Using the equation
for kinetic energy, KE = (1/2)mv’, we can determine final velocity:
v’ = 2KE/m = 2(20 J)(20 kg) = 2 kg-m7/s’kg or v~1.41 m/s
 Energy and Work 421

° Example: How will the final velocities differ in the two scenarios
depicted if h is the same (ignore friction)?

C:) C)
YZ YZ
aie eed it emma
By the work-energy theorem, W = F-d = KE;— KE = (1/2)m(viF Ve),
whet in this case, F-d = mgh. Rearranging mgh = (1/2)m(v2 ~v;’) gives
y== 2gh. Gravity is the only force doing work on you and your sled, and
only the change from initial to final vertical position matters. Since the
final and initial heights are equal in the two scenarios depicted, when you
ignore friction, the final velocities are equal.

5.3. Potential Energy

e Potential energy involves the position of an object or the arrangement

of its constituents or atoms. It can be thought of as stored energy or
energy stored in an object. Potential energy comes in different forms
including gravitational, mechanical, chemical, nuclear, and electrical. An
object acquires potential energy when work is done on it that causes a
change in its position (e.g. lifting), its configuration in relation to other
objects, or the position of its constituent parts resulting in a change in its
shape (e.g. compressing a spring).

e Gravitational potential energy involves position and reflects the

potential for work to be done on an object by the gravitational force. If
you lift a brick upward to height h above the ground, there is work done
against the force of gravity as you lift: W = F,h = —mgh. (The negative
sign reflects the brick is lifted in the opposite direction of the force of
gravity.) Doing —mgh of work on the brick increases its gravitational
potential energy by mgh. The force of gravity has the potential to do mgh
of work on the brick at height h, so the brick has mgh gravitational
potential energy. The gravitational potential energy is:
| PEc = mgh |

where m is the mass of an object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and

h is the object’s height above the ground or above a reference height.
This equation is accurate when the distance h is small relative to
Earth’s radius, h << Rg, allowing us to ignore any variation ofg with
height.
122) Master Math: Essential Physics

e Units for potential energy, like kinetic energy and work, are: Joules J
= kg-m’/s’= N-m in SI; dyne-cm or erg in CGS; or ft-lb in English system.

e The higher an object is above the ground, the greater its gravitational
potential energy. For example, if you hold a 1-kg ball 2 m above the
ground, it will have a gravitational potential energy of PEg = mgh =
(1 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(2 m) = 19.6 J. If you hold the same 1-kg ball 200 m
above ground, it will have a gravitational potential energy of
PEg = mgh = (1 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(200 m) = 1,960 J.

e While any object on Earth’s surface has some gravitational potential

energy (PE<) reflecting its distance to Earth’s center of gravity, PEg is
usually defined as zero at some low point of rest, and then it is acquired
as the object is raised to a new higher point of rest.
gi} PE, = mgh
h
Ji} PE, =0

If a brick having mass m is at rest, and you lift it above its location to
height h and let it rest at its new higher location, you have done work W
against gravity to move the brick higher to the distance h. Notice,
however, that the brick would have no net change in velocity, so it would
acquire no kinetic energy. Would the brick have energy after its move?
Yes, the energy of position. If it were to fall to its original location, it
would travel a distance h and acquire a velocity v = [2gh]”, or v’ = 2gh.
Note that we developed this equation, v’ = 2gh, in Section 1.5 for an
object falling from rest using x = (1/2)at* = (1/2)gt’, which we rearranged
to t” = 2x/g or t = [2x/g]*. We also used the average acceleration
dave = Av/At = g, and rearranged it to v = gt. By substituting t = [2x/g]*
into v = gt, we got ie 2gx. Since distance x is the height h, y= 2gh.
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the falling brick, if it had been lifted to
height h, would be:
KE = (1/2)mv’ = (1/2)(m)(2gh) = mgh
where mgh is equal to the work W that would need to be done to over-
come the force of gravity g on the brick (or any mass m) and lift it a
distance of height h:
KE= W= Fd meh

For any raised object, the work done to overcome the gravitational
force to lift the object is stored in the object as potential energy. At the
raised position the object has acquired the energy mgh that would
become kinetic energy if it fell a distance of h. Therefore, an object lifted
to a height h acquires a gravitational potential energy of mgh:
 Energy and Work 123

PEg = mgh
So:
KE = (1/2)mv’ = W = Fd = PEg = mgh
e Example: You and your friend are on another expedition, this time to
Ptarmigan Peak. (a) You climbed about 8 m up a high rocky cliff but
forgot your camera. If your camera weighs 0.5 kg, what velocity will
your friend need to toss it up so you can catch it? (b) You climbed
further up the cliff and knocked a 30-kg rock down near to where your
friend was standing (oops). If the rock hit the ground near him at 25 m/s,
how high above him were you when you bumped it (ignore air
resistance)?
(a) The kinetic energy of the camera when your friend throws it must
equal the camera’s potential energy at the top of the cliff where you are
standing, so KE = PE or (1/2)mv’ = mgh. Solve (1/2)mv? = mgh for v:
First cancel m’s: (1/2)v* = gh.
v = 2gh = (2)(9.8 m/s”)(8 m) = 156.8 m’/s*_ or v~ 12.5 m/s
Your friend would need to throw the camera at a velocity of at least
12.5 m/s for it to reach you.
(b) The initial PE of the rock equals the final kinetic energy of the rock
as it hits the ground. First find KE:
KE = (1/2)mv’ = (1/2)(30 kg)(25 m/s)” = 9,375 J
PE = KE = mgh = 9,375 kg-m1’/s’ = (30 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(h)
h = (9,375 kg-m’/s”)/(30 kg)(9.8 m/s’) ~ 31.9 m
We could also calculate this without using mass:
(1/2)mv? = mgh so h= v7/2g = (25 m/s)’/(2)(9.8 m/s”) ~ 31.9 m
You were about 32 m above your friend when you bumped the rock.

5.4. Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces

e In this chapter we learned that work done can be changed into kinetic
energy. It is also clear that if work done on an object changes its
potential energy, then the change in potential energy can be equal to the
work done. If we do work to lift an object, the gravitational potential
energy gained 1s:
| PEg = W = Fh= mgh |

This equation is accurate when the distance h is small relative to

Earth’s radius, h << Rg. As you can see, energy can be changed from
one form to another. Work is done on an object to lift it. When it falls
from rest it begins with PEg and no KE. As it falls toward the Earth’s
124 Master Math: Essential Physics

center, it loses PEg and gains KE. Just before it hits the ground its initial
PEg has been transformed into an equal amount of KE.
=| PE = mgh

ees KE = (1/2)mv"
Just like lifting an object causes a conversion in energy, winding a watch
spring does work that changes its shape, which is stored as potential
energy. That potential energy is then converted to kinetic energy as the
spring regains its original shape. The equation for potential energy is
expressed in different forms depending on the type of potential energy
described.

e We have learned that when an object is lifted or lowered (and no

friction is present), the gravitational potential energy gained or lost only
depends on the vertical displacement h, not on the path taken. Whether
the path is straight up or along a diagonal or incline plane, as /ong as
friction is ignored, the work to lift an object depends only on vertical
displacement h. We saw this in our example near the end of Section 5.1
when you pushed a 30-kg sled up the 20°-incline hill to the lodge. When
friction was ignored, you could calculate work using either W = Fed or
W = mgh. The result was the same. When you pushed the 30-kg sled
200 ft up the incline, you did the same work as raising it straight up to
the final height (h = (sin 20°)(200 m) in the sled problem). If you lift a
mass from a low resting point up to a higher point, the work done is
W = mgh and does not depend on path taken, providing there is no friction.

W = mgh regardless of path taken providing friction is zero

e When you move an object and the work done against a force depends
only on the initial and final positions of that object, not on the path taken,
that force is a conservative force. The work a conservative force does on
an object when moving it depends only on the end points of the
motion—1t is independent of the path taken. When work is done by a
conservative force, it is stored as some form of potential energy. The
gravitational force fits this definition and is a conservative force. The
electrostatic force and the spring force are also conservative forces.
Conservative forces often act in a certain direction regardless of the
direction of motion of the object the force is acting on. For example, the
gravitational force acts in a downward direction regardless of the
direction an object is moving.
 Energy and Work 125

e A non-conservative force is a force that depends on the path between

the initial and final positions. The work a non-conservative force does on
an object when moving it depends on the path taken. Non-conservative
forces like friction are considered dissipative forces since energy can be
dissipated, primarily as heat energy. The force of friction is a non-
conservative force since the work done against friction to move an object
depends on the path taken and its length, not just the initial and final
positions. Pushing a box over rough ground in a circle does require work
against friction even though the starting and ending points coincide.
Friction and air resistance are non-conservative and act against motion
regardless of the direction of the motion.

e We have learned about relationships between work and kinetic energy,

W = KE = (1/2)mv’, and work and potential energy, W = PE, = mgh.
In our discussion of gravitational potential energy we mentioned that
W = mgh does not depend on path taken, providing there is no friction.
When friction, which is a non-conservative force, is present, work
depends on path taken. Therefore, potential energy is equal to work
only when work is done against a conservative force.

This is true because potential energy is a stored energy as an object is

lifted, building potential energy, and then, as the object falls, its potential
energy is transformed back into kinetic energy. The work put in to raise
the object can be retrieved. Conversely, work done against a non-
conservative force, like pushing against friction, is not stored for later
use in a form that can be readily retrieved.

The work-energy principle states that work done on an object by a net

external force equals the total change in energy of that object,
providing the net external force is a conservative force. This is written:
W =AKE+
APE

where PE includes any other acting forces including gravity. Note that
mechanical energy is defined as the sum of potential and kinetic energy.

5.5. Gravitational Potential Energy When h Is Large

I

e We have learned that when we are near Earth’s surface where the
gravitational force can be considered as nearly constant, and an object is
raised a certain height that is small relative to the radius of the Earth Rg,
the work done to lift is W = mgh and the gravitational potential energy of
the raised object is PEG = mgh.
126 Master Math: Essential Physics

What if the distance that an object is lifted is significant compared to the

Earth’s radius Rg? Then the variation of the gravitational force must be
considered. Remember from Section 4.1, the Law of Universal
Gravitation: Fg = GMm/r’, where Fg is the force of gravity acting on
either of the masses M mf m, r is the distance between their centers, and
G = 6.67 x 10"! m’/kg:s" is the experimentally derived universal
gravitational constant. This formula tells us that Fg varies as tr’.

a5 qm rlick
YT) T2

To calculate the work required to raise an object having mass m from an

initial distance from Earth’s center r; to a final further distance from
Earth’s center r, we write the force on the object at r; and ry:
Fig=GMm/r, and) Fxg = GMm/rp”
The work done on the object is the average force Fg exerted times the
distance that the object is raised, or W = Fgd, where d =r) — 1).
Force F, which varies as 1/r°, is normally found using calculus, but in
this case also works out to be the geometric mean of Fig = GMnmr,? and
Fog = GMmi/r,”. The geometric mean of two numbers is the square root
of their product, which gives us the average force Fg as:
Fo = ((GMm/r,’)(GMm/r,’)]* = GMm/r,1>
This gives us the work to raise the object from r to r:
Wo = Fad = Fe(tm — 11) = (GMm/r1r2)(1%) — 11) = (GMm)(1/1, — 1/12)
Therefore: W)2 = (GMm)(1/r, — 1/12).

The gravitational potential energy of the raised mass equals the work
done to raise it. Therefore when the distance that an object is lifted is
significant compared to the Earth’s radius Rg, the gravitational
potential energy created by raising an object from r; to rp is:
PEg = (GMm)(1/r, — 1/2)

Remember, the gravitational force is conservative, so PE, depends on

the initial and final positions, not the path taken. Also, when the distance
the object is raised is small compared to Earth’s radius Rg, this equation
reduces back to PEg = mgh. To show this, substitute Rp for r, and Rg +h
for r2, then if h << Rg, ECs= GMmh/R,”, where Fg =GMm/R,’. Since
GMIR;’= g, so GMm/Re’ = mg or GMm = Re’ mg, combining this with
PEg =GMmh/R;’ reduces to PEg= mgh.

The potential energy is generally set equal to zero at r = infinity since

when two objects are extremely distant from each other, they have no
 Energy and Work 197

influence on each other’s movements. Taking the potential energy to be

zero at infinity gives the simple form for potential energy:

PEg = —GMm/r
Gravitational potential energy near a planet is negative, since gravity is
doing positive work as the mass approaches. Once a mass is near a large
body, it is held until sufficient energy is provided for it to escape.

e Example: What is the escape velocity an object needs to leave Earth’s

surface and move away an “infinite” distance (ignore air resistance)?

Esurface + PEGeurtace = KE: + PEGo

K
We begin with all kinetic and end with all potential, leaving:
((1/2)mv’), = (GMm)(1/Rp — 1/1) 500
As r, 1/r—0, so: (1/2)mv? = GMm/Rg.
Solve for v7: Viera = 2GM/Reg.
Substitute mean radius of the Earth, Rg = 6.37 x 10°m, mass of Earth
M =m, =5.97 x 10“kg, and G = 6.67 x 10°'' m*/kg:s”:
Vescape = 2(6.67 x 107" m*/kg-s’)(5.97 x 10 kg)/(6.37 x 10°m)
Take square root of result to get Vescape for leaving Earth:
VescapeEarth ~ 11,181 m/s is escape velocity (just over 25,000 mph)
If you escaped Earth you would encounter the gravitational force from
the Sun before escaping the solar system. To escape the Sun, you need
VescapeSun- Lhis involves using the Sun’s mass (M = 1.99 x 10° kg) for M
and the Sun-Earth distance for Rg (1.496 x ie: m), so:
Vescape’ = 2(6.67 x 10°'' m’/kg-s”)(1.99 x 10°°kg)/(1.496 x 10"! m)
VescapeSun © 42,125 m/s is escape velocity (over 94,000 mi/h)

Note: The energy balance can also estimate an incoming impact velocity.

5.6. Electrostatic Potential Energy

EEE EIU UEEIIEEIEEE
i

e Remember from Section 4.2 the Electrostatic Force Law or

Coulomb’s Lav is: Fg = Kaur. where q, and q are charges of two
particles or objects, r is their separation, and K is Coulomb’s Constant,
K ~9.0 x 10? N-m’/C’. Fe is the force of electrostatic attraction or
repulsion between two electric charges at rest and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.

Except for the fact that the sign on the charges can be positive or
negative, the electrostatic force and gravitational force have similar
128 Master Math: Essential Physics

forms. They both have a dependence that is inversely proportional to the

square of the distance between their respective masses or charges.
Correspondingly, the electrostatic potential energy has a form similar to
the gravitational potential energy (PEg = —Gm mz,/r). The electrostatic
potential energy is the potential energy ofacharge q in the vicinity of
source charge q):

PEs = Kqiq2/r

Remember, if the signs of q; and q» are different, the force is attractive,

PEx < 0, and increases (becoming less negative) with separation. If the
signs of q; and qp are the same, the force is repulsive, PEs > 0, and it
decreases with separation.

We learned the gravitational potential energy of a raised mass equals the

work done to raise it from r, to m2, or: Wj2 = PEg = (GMm)(1/r; — 1/r2).
Similarly, the work done to move a charge from r, to r, equals the
change in electrostatic potential energy:
| Wi2 = APEg = (Kqiqz2)(1/2 — 1/11) |

Note that the term (1/r — 1/r,) is reversed (or a negative sign inserted)
since the electrostatic force is attractive like gravity when the term q)qp is
negative. When work is done against the forces Fg or Fg, the potential
energy increases and W > 0 and APEg > 0. Conversely when work is
done by Fg or Fg, potential energy decreases and W < 0 and APE, < 0.

e Example: In Section 4.2 we calculated the force between the proton

and electron in a hydrogen atom given that the charges are plus and
minus 1.6 x 10°" C. If the distance between the proton and electron is
increased from 5.3 x 10'' m to 53 x 10|! m, what is APE;?

APEg = (Kqiqz) x (1/r2 — 1/1)

APEg= (9.0 x 10° Nem“/C’)(1.6 x 10°? C\(-1.6 x 10° C)
x [L453 10- m)= (4/53: 1074 am)
APEe ==2:3 10," x =1:698 x 10 =3.9-<10 89
APE¢ > 0 reflects work done against the attractive force to separate the
proton and electron.

5.7. Introduction to the Electron Volt

e The electronvolt or electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy commonly

used in atomic and nuclear physics. It is equal to the energy an electron
 Energy and Work 129

gains when it travels or accelerates through a potential difference

of one
volt. One eV is equivalent to 1.602 x 107! J.
+

1} — @g > #: +] 2
+

Potential difference, V

Work is required to move positive charge q froma negatively charged

environment at plate | to a positively charged environment at plate 2. If
1 Joule (J) of work is needed to move a | Coulomb positive charge from
point | to point 2, then the potential difference between the two points or
plates must be | volt (V). The potential difference between two points
is a measure of the work per unit charge required to move a charge from
one of the points to the other. The potential difference is expressed:

Potential difference: AV = W/q

In measured units: 1 V=1 J/C

The potential difference between two terminals or points in an electrical

circuit is the voltage between the two points. Potential difference is
measured in units of volts. For example, a 12-V battery has a potential
difference of 12 V between the positive and negative terminals. A zero
potential is considered ground, and potential differences are often
measured with respect to ground.

e Example: If a charge equal in magnitude to the charge of one electron

or one proton, which is +1.602 x 10'’ Coulombs, is moved from one
point to another point against a potential difference of 1 V which exists
between the two points, how much work has been done on the charge?
W =qv =eV =(1.602 x 10” C)(1 V) = 1.602 x 10° J

This example shows that the work or energy to move the charge of an
electron or proton across a | V potential difference is 1.602 x 10°
This unit of work or energy is called an eV or electronvolt.
1 eV =(1.602 = 10°? C)(1 V) = 1.602 = 10°”
1,000 eV = 10° eV is a kiloelectronvolt (keV) and 1.602 10°'°J
1,000,000 eV = 10° eV is a megaelectronvolt (MeV) and 1.602 x 102")
1,000,000,000 eV = 10° eV is a gigaelectronvolt (GeV) and 1.602 x (Ore

e Example: If a proton leaves a resting position and crosses a potential

difference of 1 keV (from positive to negative), what is its final velocity?
130 Master Math: Essential Physics

The kinetic energy of the moving proton is: KE = W=qV.

KE = (1.602 x 107 C)(1 keV) = (1.602 107? J(10° eV) = 1.602 x 10°'°J
The KE of the proton in terms of velocity is: KE = (U2 ties :
Solve for v7: v7 = 2KE/Mproton = 2(1.602 x 107'° J)/(1.67 x 10°” kg)
The square root of the result is its velocity: v ~ 4.38 x 10° m/s.

e Note that the electronvolt can be used as a unit of energy for particles
that have not moved though a potential difference. A neutral particle
such as a neutron, which has no charge and does not experience an
electrostatic force or move through a potential difference, can
nevertheless have its energy measured in electronvollts.

5.8. Rotational Kinetic Energy

e In this chapter we learned about kinetic energy for an object moving in

a straight-line direction—up, down, sideways, etc—known as
translational motion. Suppose an object does not have translational

—
motion, but is rotating about an axis through its center of mass. This
object would have rotational kinetic energy.

t
' 4
Pete edpeneeetty

1
'

The sphere is rotating at angular velocity w. Each particle or atom within

this sphere rotates around the central axis with the angular velocity o.
Remember from Section 2.7 we discussed that as an object moves along
a circle, angle 8 changes, and the rate at which angle 0 changes is the
angular velocity w = A0/At, where @ is in radians. The speed of an object
moving in a circular path of radius r is: v = ra, where vector v changes
direction continually even though its speed may be constant. The kinetic
energy of the particle is (1/2)mv’, and velocity can be written v = ro.
Therefore: KE = (1/2)mv* = (1/2)m(rm)” = (1/2)mr’@*. Since the sphere
is full of particles, the rotational KE of the sphere is the sum of all its
particles’ rotational KEs: KE, = (1/2)(S:mr’)w*, where Ymr’ is the
rotational inertia I = Yr’ of the particles in the sphere and represents
the distribution of mass. (Remember, I is the moment of inertia.)
Therefore, we can write the rotational kinetic energy as:
KErot= (1/2)1@"
For an object with both translational and rotational KE, the total KE is:
K Evotal = K Erranslational + K Evotational or KE wotal 7 (1/2)mv? a (1/2)Ia*
 Energy and Work 131

Examples of moment of inertia I configurations were given in Section

2.7 including: Particle rotating I = mr’; particle revolving I = mr’;
thin
hoop rotating I = mr’; disk rotating I = (1/2)mr’; solid sphere rotating
I = (2/5)mr’; thin rod rotating lengthwise I = (1/12)mr’.

e Example: Ifa solid sphere rolls from rest down an incline from 1 m
height to the floor, what translational velocity will it have after it leaves
the incline (ignoring friction)?
By conservation of energy, KE; + PE; = KE, + PE; or PE, = KE,
where KE) = (1/2)mv’ + (1/2)I”.
Therefore: PE, = mgh = (1/2)mv’ + (1/2)I’.
Substitute I = (2/5)mr’ for a sphere and v = ra:
mgh = (1/2)mv~ + (1/2)((2/5)mr’)(v/ry’
Cancel and reduce:
gh = (1/2)v’ + (1/5)v? = v*(1/2 + 1/5) = (7/10)v?
v = (10/7)gh = (10/7)(9.8 m/s?)(1 m) = 14 m?/s?
Taking the square root gives velocity: v ~ 3.74 m/s.

5.9. Conservation of Energy

e The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of

energy in an isolated system remains constant, so that in an isolated
system energy is neither created nor destroyed, but can change form.
With the conservation of energy, the sum of the various forms of energy
remains constant in a physical process. We saw this above when we
discussed the transfer of work done W to lift an object into gravitational
potential energy PEg. When the object falls from rest it loses PEg and
gains KE until just before it hits the ground, when all the energy has been
transformed into an equal amount of KE.

Conservation of energy allows us to design machines which can use

energy to produce work such as burning fuel (thermal energy) to turn a
turbine (mechanica! energy) and generate electricity (electrical energy).
The law of conservation of energy applies to any closed system and
suggests that the energy in the Universe is constant. In light of relativity,
conservation of energy may be thought of in a larger picture as the
conservation of mass-energy, i.e., the total mass-energy of the Universe
is constant even though energy can be transferred, transmitted, and
transformed.
132 Master Math: Essential Physics

A closed system is defined as a system where no energy leaves the

system and no energy from the outside enters the system. In reality,
while a truly closed system does not exist since energy is often dissipated
to some extent through heat, sound, or friction, there are situations where
it is reasonable to ignore these losses and assume a closed system.

Conservation of mechanical energy is one form of the more general law

of conservation of energy and is useful when solving problems. When
frictional forces are present, energy is dissipated as heat and sound, and
the mechanical energy is not conserved. Therefore, conservation of
mechanical energy only applies when the system is closed. Consider a
box sliding over a rough surface where the force of friction creates heat
in the box and surface. In this case, mechanical energy is transformed
into heat energy, but the total energy stays constant. When the forces
acting on a system are conservative, energy is conserved. We learned
earlier that if the net work done on an object is by conservative forces
(and non-conservative forces such as friction are zero) the total energy of
the object is conserved and does not change.

AKE + APE = 0
KE + PE = constant

The law of conservation of energy is very useful when solving a variety

of problems such as finding an object’s velocity or height. We can use
the equation for the law of conservation of energy:
AKE + APE = 0
and write it for an object at two different points, 1 and 2:
KE, — KE, + PE, — PE; =0

Rearrange:
KE, at PE, a KE, ar PE,

Substitute definitions:
((1/2)my’);
+(mgh), =((1/2)mv?)> +(mgh),
Cancel m’s:
((1/2)v’),
+ (gh), =((1/2)v”) + (gh),
This relationship can be used to solve unknown velocities and heights.

e Example: You and your friend decide to go up to the mountains for

some sledding. If you begin your sled ride gliding 5 m/s on the top of a
50-m high hill, then slide down into a valley and up to the top of a 40-m
high cliff, how fast will you be sliding when you fly off the cliff and
head across the chasm toward the other slope (neglect friction)?
 Energy and Work 136

(Don’t try this at home ©)

3B

9 +

You two and your sled have a combination of KE and PE throughout

your ride. The sum of KE and PE at each position remains constant since
we are neglecting friction.
KE + PE = constant
On each peak:
KEs9 + PEs = KE49 + PE4o
To determine the velocity at the 40 m peak, you need to isolate KE.9:
KE49 = KEs9 + PEso — PEao
Substitute the definitions:
((1/2)mv")4o = (1/2)mv")so + (mgh)so — (mgh)4o
Same mass throughout, so m’s cancel:
((1/2)v")ao = ((1/2)v")s0 + (gh)s0 ~ (gh)4o
V-40 = Vso + 2g(hso — hyo) = (5 m/s)” + 2(9.8 m/s”)(10 m) = 221 m°*/s”
vao ~ 14.87 m/s
The velocity of you, your friend, and the sled when you launch off the
cliffisabout 14.87 m/s (about 33 mph, yikes!). Notice that the mass
canceled out and did not matter in this frictionless problem.

e Example: You survived your sledding expedition and decide to test the
capabilities of your favorite rock launcher. Loading and readying the
launcher involves compressing a spring with an average force of 100 N
over | m. If you shoot a 1-kg rock straight up, what will be its velocity as
it leaves the launcher? What will be its maximum height?

AL
The compressed spring’s potential energy is equal to the work done on it
(assuming 100% efficiency).
PE = W = Fd =(100 N)(1 m) = 100 J = 100 kg-m’/s
The exit velocity of the rock occurs when all the potential energy in the
spring is converted to kinetic energy: PE = KE = (1/2)mv’.
Solve for v2: v? = PE / 2m = (100 kg-m’/s’) / (2)(1 kg) = 50 m*/s"
Take the square root: v ~ 7.07 m/s.is the exit velocity.
134 Master Math: Essential Physics

If we have position | as just prior to launch when the spring compressed

and position 2 as maximum height, by conservation of energy:
KE, + PE, = KE, + PE», where the energy is all PE at position | and also
at the top when the rock stops for a moment before descending under
gravity at position 2.
This leaves: PE; = PE, or 100 J = mgh»
Solve for hy: hy = (100 kg-m7/s’) / (1 kg)(9.8 m/s’) ~ 10.2 m
The maximum height of a 1-kg rock is about 10.2 m (or about 33.46 ft).
(Uh oh, the rock is coming back down—got to go!)

e When the forces acting on an object are conservative, energy is

conserved. But what if non-conservative forces (such as friction) are also
acting? When a non-conservative force such as friction does work on an
object, energy is lost to the environment (as waste heat) and is not
conserved.

e Example: After running from your rock launcher, you head back to the
relative safety of your garage. There is an elevated section in your garage
which can be accessed either by steps or a 30°-incline ramp. To take your
mind off the near miss you just had with the rock, you decide to measure
the coefficient of friction between the ramp and the 20-kg crate you had
been moving in an earlier example. If the crate begins from rest and
slides 3 m down the ramp in exactly | s (making it an average of 3 m/s),
what is the coefficient of friction between the crate and ramp?

The energy lost through friction will be the difference between the
crate’s potential energy at the top and its kinetic energy at the bottom of
the 3-m ramp. The initial potential energy is PE = mgh. (Remember to
find h, we use sin 0 = opposite/hypotenuse or sin 30° = h/3 m.)
PE = mgh = (20 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(3 m x sin 30°) = 294 J
The kinetic energy 3 m down the ramp where the crate has a velocity of
(3 m)/(1 s) or 3 m/s is:
KE = (1/2)mv’ = (1/2)(20 kg)(3 m/s)’ = 90 kg:m?/s”
PE —-KE = 294 J—90J=204J
The 204 J of energy lost to friction is the work done against the force of
friction as the crate slid a distance d of 3 m, or:
 Energy and Work 135

W = 204 J = 204 kg-m’/s?

To determine the coefficient of friction, we write the work done against
friction in terms of the force of friction: W = F rd.
Remember, the force of friction F; along the ramp and opposite to motion
is the product of the kinetic friction coefficient uy and normal force Fy.
Fy is the component of the weight of the crate perpendicular to the ramp
at an angle cos 30° to Fg.
W = 1.Fnd = by, mg (cos 0) d
Solve for Lx:
LU = W / (mg (cos 8) d)
Lx = (204 kg-m’/s’) / (20 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(cos 30°)(3 m) ~ 0.4
The coefficient of friction between the crate and the ramp is 0.4.

e Where does lost energy go? Remember in the example several pages
ago when you were doing work to push your 20-kg crate across your
garage? The friction between the crate and ground caused a transfer of
heat to the ground. What happened to the energy that was created as you
moved the crate? Similarly, in the preceding example where the crate slid
down the ramp, what happened to that energy? In the presence of non-
conservative forces, energy is converted to other forms such as heat,
internal thermal energy, or sound. The internal thermal energy reflects
the kinetic and potential energy of atoms and molecules as they move.
When you pushed the crate, both the garage floor and the crate gained
internal thermal energy. There was also undoubtedly some sound wave
energy created during the time the crate slid across the floor. Frictional
forces are pervasive and produce heat, although sometimes friction’s
effect is small enough we can neglect it when solving a problem. Even
electric energy produces heat. An example is an incandescent light bulb,
which does not convert all the electrical energy to light and gets too hot
to touch. Sound waves are also slowly converted into heat as air
molecules vibrate and the sound fades.

5.10. Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

nnn

e When objects collide, momentum (p) can be transferred among the

objects, but the momentum of the entire isolated system is conserved
and remains constant. To understand what happens to energy during
collisions, they are categorized as elastic or inelastic. In elastic collisions
kinetic energy is conserved. In inelastic collisions some kinetic energy 1s
converted to other forms of energy including internal energy, such as
heat, or lost to the environment in the form of heat and sound waves.
136 Master Math: Essential Physics

e In an elastic collision, both conservation of kinetic energy and

conservation of momentum hold. If there is no loss of kinetic energy
during the collision, then no dissipative forces are present and the
collision is completely or perfectly elastic. In this case, the initial kinetic
energy before the collision is present after the collision. In an elastic
collision, the objects bounce off one another without deforming each
other permanently, the kinetic energy remains constant, and the internal
energy does not change. For example, in an elastic collision a ball
dropped onto a fixed surface will bounce up to its original height.

Elastic collision of ball bouncing off

a fixed surface to its original height.

In reality, for collisions involving macroscopic objects you can see, such
as a bouncing ball or sliding pucks on ice, there is some loss of kinetic
energy into internal energy and other forms of energy such as sound,
heat, or friction. If these losses are negligible, we can model the collision
as elastic. At the atomic or subatomic level, elastic collisions can occur
as long as the internal energy of the particles remains unchanged.

e Collisions between two objects that can be modeled as hard spheres

may be nearly elastic, and by using conservation of momentum and
conservation of kinetic energy you can calculate final velocities. The
formulas for conservation of momentum and energy are used to predict
the results of elastic collisions. Consider one sphere with mass m, and
initial velocity v;; which collides along one dimension, or straight on,
with a second sphere of mass m, that is at rest or moving in the same
dimension.

What will be their velocities vj and Vp after the collision? Let’s develop
the equations for this one-dimensional case for vp, and vp. Using:
Conservation of momentum: mj,v;; + m2Vv,;2 = M,V_, + MVP
Conservation of KE: (1/2)m,vj1° + (1/2)mpvir” = (1/2)
myve? + (1/2) mvp"
Set the initial velocity of sphere 2, vir, to zero to simplify.
Rearrange conservation of momentum equation: m\(vj — Va) = Mvp
Rearrange conservation of KE equation: m(v;;" — Va’) = Mvp?
Use relation (a° — b’) = (a — b)(a + b): mi(Vit — Va)(Vin + Vn) = Mvp”
Divide rearranged KE equation by rearranged momentum equation:
(mm (Vin — Veu)(Vin + Ver) = MgV—"] / [Mi(Vin — Va) = mov]
Vii + Ve = Vp oOrrearrange to) Vy = Vp — Vi
 Energy and Work 1137

Substitute vm = Vp — vi, into conservation of momentum:

M1Vii = M)(Vp — Vi) + MVp

M)Vi1 + M,Vi1 = Mj Vp + MVP
2m)Vii = Vep(m, + mp)
Vr = Vii2m, / (m; + m2) is sphere 2’s final velocity
Substitute vi; + Vv" = Vp to find va:
Vil + Ver = Vii2m, / (m, + m2)
Va = [Vin2m)/(m, + mg)] — [vin] = vis[2m,/(m, + m2) — 1]
Ver = Vii[2m)/(m, + mg) — (m; + m))/(m, + my)]
Ver = Vii[(m; — m2)/(m, + m2)] is sphere 1’s final velocity
If v; = 1 and if spheres are equal m, = mp, then vp = v, = 1 and Vr = 0.
In this special case, all of the first sphere’s energy and momentum is
transferred to the second sphere. (Note in problems with m, = mp, the
conservation equations can be simplified quickly.)
What if vi; = 1 and the masses differ? If the first sphere is 5 times the
mass of the second, then:
Vp = Vii2m,/(m, + m2) = (1)(2)(5)/(5 + 1) = 5/3 and
Va Vinay — M5)
/(My eo) ((S = 1/5 +1) = 273
The first sphere will continue moving in the same direction, but will lag
the speed of the second by 1.
If v;, = 1 and the second sphere is 5 times the mass of the first, then:
Vp = Vii2m,/(m; + m2) = (1)(2)(1)/(1 + 5) = 1/3 and
Vila vii[(m, = m),)/(m, aF m>)| a (1d = SACL a 5) = —2/3

The first sphere bounces back in the direction from which it originated.
Its speed is slower, but interestingly, the difference in the velocities of
the two spheres after the collision again is 1.

e When some of the kinetic energy is converted into some other form of
energy such as internal thermal energy, heat, or sound, the collision is
called an inelastic collision. For example, in an inelastic collision a ball
dropped onto a fixed surface will not bounce up to its original height.

‘e Inelastic collision of ball bouncing off

!
v a fixed surface and losing kinetic energy.

If two objects collide and stick to each other rather than rebounding,
kinetic energy has been converted into internal energy and the velocity of
the stuck-together objects after impact is determined by conservation of
momentum. These types of collisions are sometimes referred to as
completely inelastic. In inelastic collisions, momentum is conserved
138 Master Math: Essential Physics

even though some of the kinetic energy is converted to other forms of

energy. As mentioned, most collisions are inelastic to some degree
because kinetic energy is transferred to other forms of energy or lost to
the environment. If you are given a problem where you are asked to
determine if a collision is elastic or inelastic, simply calculate the kinetic
energy of the objects before and after the collision. If the kinetic energy
remains the same, then the collision is elastic. Remember, momentum is
conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions.

e Example: Two round blobs of play putty, having masses m, = | and

m = 3, collide straight on and stick together. At impact, m, has velocity
Vi; and m, has velocity vj. = 0. What is their combined final velocity?

m, Ve

The combined mass after impact is: mj +m), =1+3=4

Use conservation of momentum m,V;; + M2Vj2 = M;Vp, + MoVp, OF:
lvi; = lve + 3v_¢ where ve is for the combined play putty blob
Vip =4Vp OF = Ve= Vi /4
After collision the combined play putty blob travels in the same direction
as m,’s initial velocity v;,, but with a new velocity v, that is 1/4 of vj).

e In a straight-line collision, the relative velocity after impact divided by

the relative velocity before impact is called the coefficient of restitution
e. This formula is developed using conservation of momentum and is:
€ = (Vp — Va)/ (Vii — Viz)
This relative ratio of velocities is e = | for elastic, e < 1 for inelastic, and
e = 0 when objects stick together (completely inelastic).

e If collisions are not straight on and occur in two dimensions, we

model them in a similar manner to one-dimensional collisions.
Momentum is still conserved, and for elastic collisions, kinetic energy is
also conserved. The difference between one and two dimensional
collisions is the need to account for the x- and y-components of the
momentum so that momentum is conserved in both the x direction and
the y direction.

For example, if a sphere m, traveling v;, m/s hits another sphere of equal
mass and is deflected at angle 0;° (while the second sphere is sent at an
angle of 02°), you can find the direction and velocity of the hit sphere
using the conservation of energy and momentum equations. If the initial
velocity of mz is zero, the initial components of momentum p would be
Px = mjvi; and py = 0, and the post-collision components would be:
Px Component: m,Vv;; + M2Vi2 = M);V¢ COS 8; + MyV—~ Cos 8) or
 Energy and Work 139

M) Vil = MV
COS 8) + M2VpCOos A)
Py Component: mjvii + M2Vj2 = M)VF) Sin 8; + MyVp sin @> or
0 = miVp sin 8; + mvp sin 8,
For an elastic collision, conservation of energy is:
(1/2)myvin? + (1/2)mpvio" = (1/2)myvp_2 + (1/2) mv
When m, = m, and v = 0 the energy equation becomes:
Vir = Va + Vp"
To solve final velocities and the unknown angle, we would use the
simplified equations for the x and y components of momentum and the
simplified kinetic energy equation.

e Example: If two spheres have an off-center collision, what is the final

velocity of the second sphere vp, if the final velocity of the first sphere is
Vr = 10 m/s. Given m, = 0.6 kg, m2 = 0.4 kg, vi; = 20 m/s, vir = —40 m/s,
and 9, deflects downward 30°.

05
m, ‘ } i aaey ' O59° =—30° <8 m)

Remember, from Section 1.7, the component vectors of V are

Vx = Vcos0@ and V, = Vsin@. V has magnitude |V| = [V,° + V,’]’ and its
direction is the angle V makes with x-axis, or: 0 = tan '(V,/V,). In this
example, we first find the x and y component vectors of final velocity
using conservation of momentum.
Px component: m,Vi, + M2Vi2 = M, Ve; COS 8; + MyVp Cos Oy or
M Vii + MyVi2 = M) Vp COS O; + MVxAp
(0.6 kg)(20 m/s) + (0.4 kg)(40 m/s) = (0.6 kg)(10 m/s) cos(—30°) + (0.4 kg)vxt2
Vig = ao
py component: 0 = m; Vf, sin 0; + Mvp sin 8) or
0 = m)Vr Sin 0; + M2Vyp
0 = (0.6 kg)((10 m/s) sin(—30°)) + (0.4 kg)vyr
Vets
The Vp velocity is: |v| = [Vxm" + Vyn’]* = 24 m/s
Because 0 is measured from the minus x-axis, we use +23 for V x2:
0 = tan '(Vyp/¥ “p= fan (7.5/23) = 18° up from the negative x-axis
Note: When measured from the positive x-axis 9 is 162, which is also
the arctan of (7.5/—23). You can test this by taking the tangent of 162.

e Example: Is the collision in the previous example elastic?

You can determine whether a collision is elastic or inelastic if kinetic
energy was lost. Calculate the before and after KE.
140 Master Math: Essential Physics

(1/2)m,vix2 + (1/2)movg? = (1/2)(0.6 kg)\(20 m/s)" + (1/2)(0.4 kg)(40 m/s)’ = 440 J

(1/2)m,v_7 a (1/2)movp = (1/2)(0.6kg)(10 m/s)’ + (1/2)(0.4kg)(24 m/s)” =145J
No, the collision is inelastic because of the loss of kinetic energy.

5.11. Power

e Power is the rate work is done or energy is expended or changes its

form or location. It is the work per time. Power is a scalar quantity.
P = work/time = W/t

Average power reflects the change in work or energy per time:

Average power = AW/At = AE/At

Pies = W/At= F(Ad/At) = F°Viave

where At is the time interval in which the work is done.

A machine or engine may not be limited by how much work it can do,
but rather by how fast it can do that work. If one machine can push a box
up a ramp in 6 s and a second machine can push the box up the ramp in
2 s, the second machine works at 3 times the power of the first machine.
Similarly, the power of an automobile depends on how quickly it can
transform chemical potential energy to mechanical energy.

e Units for power are work/time or energy/time. In SI: Joules/second =

kg-m’/s’, which is a Watt (W), where 10° W is a kilowatt (kW) and
10° W is a megawatt (mW). In CGS: ergs/s. In English: ft-lbs/s or
horsepower (hp) where | hp = 550 ft-lbs/s = 746 Watts. Be careful not to
confuse the use of W for Watts with W for work.

e Example: Suppose your friend asks you to help him stack one-hundred
15-kg boxes of books from his warehouse floor onto a 2-m high shelf. If
you each lift 50 boxes in 4 min what is your combined power working
together and your individual power?

ae:
P = W/t = (number of boxes)mgh/t
Progether = W/t = (100)(15 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(2 m)/(4 min)(60 s/min) = 122.5 Watts
Paione = Wit = (50)(15 kg)(9.8 m/s)(2 m)/(4 min)(60 s/min) = 61.25 Watts
Each of you works at half the power of both combined.
 Energy and Work 141

e Example: In an example in Section 5.1 you pushed a 30-kg sled up a

20° slope to the lodge. When friction was ignored and you put on your
crampons and pushed the sled, the work was only against gravity:
W = Fad = (mg sin 8)d = (30 kg)(9.8 m/s*)(sin 20°)(200 m) = 20,111 J
We also said this can be calculated W = mgh, where h is the total height.
W = mgh = (30 kg)(9.8 m/s*)\(sin 20°)(200 m) ~ 20,111 J
If ittook you 20 min to push the sled up the slope, calculate the velocity
using power.
The power is: P = W/t = (20,111 J)/(20 min)(60 s/min) = 16.76 Watts
Power in terms of velocity is: Paye = W/At = F(Ad/At) = F-Vave
Force is against gravity, so:
Fg = (mg sin @) = (30 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(sin 20°) = 100.6 N
Pave =FVave or v=P/F=(16.76 W)/(100.6 N) = 0.17 m/s
Check this result calculating v using 200-m slope in 20 min:
(200 m)/(20 min)(60 s/min) = 0.17 m/s

When a steady force is applied to an object, the change in the amount of

work done on the object is the force times the change in the object’s
displacement. Therefore, we see that power can be calculated using force
and velocity: P = AW/At = F(Ad/At) = Fev.

e Example: What power does it take to steadily push a 20-kg box 100 m
over a surface with a friction coefficient of 0.2 in 10 min?
The applied force and displacement are parallel, angle 0 is zero, so
W = Fd. Remember from Chapter 3, the force required to keep the box
moving at constant velocity must equal the force of kinetic friction,
Fa, = UF = uxmg. So, W = Fd = py.Fud = pxme)d.
The power is given by P = W/At = pxmgd/At. So:
P = (0.2)(20 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(100 m)/(10 min)(60 s/min) = 6.53 Watts
Alternatively, using velocity v = (100 m)/(600 s) = 0.1667 m/s:
P = FeVave = WKMZVAve = (0.2)(20 kg (9.8 m/s’)(0.1667 m/s) = 6.53 Watts

5.12. Princip!es of Simple Machines

e A simple machine is an apparatus that is constructed to help perform

work. Remember, W = F-d. A simple machine is designed to reduce the
include
force needed by increasing the displacement. Simple machines
of
levers, pulleys, and incline planes. In each case, some required amount
distance d and thereby decreasi ng
work W is performed by increasing the
142 Master Math: Essential Physics

the force F needed. (The simple machine does not lower the total work
required, it rather allows for less force by increasing distance.)

e A lever can lift a heavy object. When a force is applied (downward) to

one end of the lever, it rotates about a pivot, and the other end of the
lever exerts the force (upward) to do the work of lifting. When the lifting
end of the lever is close to the pivot, the force that needs to be applied to
the longer end is less than the force the lever is exerting on the object.
This occurs because the applied force is acting over a longer distance.

more force oS a less force

less displacement more displacement

e A pulley or system of pulleys also reduces the amount of force

required by increasing the distance over which the force is applied. If a
free pulley wheel divides the weight of an object over two ropes, then,
when lifting an object, the pulley exerts on each rope a force that is equal
to half the weight of the object. For a simple one-pulley system, in order
to lift an object a certain distance and therefore do a certain amount of
work, twice as much displacement of the rope is required. In a one-pulley
system, one half the force is applied over twice the displacement to lift
the weight.
(1/2)Fg
ELE eter eke Lies as
é ;
Ee
|
é
( ‘

In Section 2.3 using the center figure above, we showed that 250 lb of
force is required to lift 500 lb, and that the free end of the rope must be
pulled 20 ft to raise the weight 10 ft. Adding more pulleys can further
reduce the force required while proportionally increasing the required
displacement of rope or cable. In question 2.3(d) at the end of Chapter 2
we found that in a two-free-pulley system which suspends a weight on 4
ropes, a 500 lb object can be lifted by pulling down with a force of
125 |b (figure on right above).

e An incline plane is also considered a simple machine that lifts an

object with less force than its weight.
 Energy and Work 143

e The effectiveness of machines can be measured by calculating the

mechanical advantage, which is the ratio:

mechanical advantage =
(force required to do work without machine)/(force required with machine)
For a lever, if the object is 1/4 the distance from the pivot as the point
where the force is applied, the force needed would be 1/4 the object’s
weight, and the mechanical advantage would be 4. Note you have to
move your end of the lever 4 times as far as the object moves. For a
single free pulley, the load is spread over two ropes, so the mechanical
advantage is 2. A frictionless incline plane with an angle of 10° from
horizontal would provide mechanical advantage of about 5.8 (i/sin 10°).

5.13. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Work: W = F-d = Fd cos 0.

e Energy is the ability to do work or produce an effect.
e Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. KE = (1/2)mv’. AKE = W.
e Potential energy PE is the energy of position.
e Gravitational PE: PEg = mgh. For large h: PEg = (GMm)(1/7 — I/r).
e KE = (1/2)mv’ = W = Fd = PEg = mgh.
e When net force is conservative: W = AKE + APE.
e Electrostatic: PEp = Kqiqo/r; Wiz =APEg = (Kqiq2)(1/r2 — 1/r1).
e Electronvolt: 1 eV = 1.602 x 10°" J.
e Potential difference: V = W/q.
e Rotational kinetic energy: KE;o: = (1/2)Io”.
e Energy is conserved: AKE + APE = 0; KE, + PE; = KE) + PE.
e Elastic collisions, KE and p conserved.
Inelastic collisions, p conserved.
e Power: P = work/time = W/t = AW/At = AE/At = F(Ad/At) = FeVave-

Practice Problems

5.1 Your boss tells you to push a box up a 10-m incline. You apply a
force of 100 N parallel to the incline to overcome friction and gravity as
you perform the task. As you finish, the boss returns and says he changed
his mind, so you push the box back down the incline to where you started
(displacement = 0). Pushing down was much easier, requiring a parallel
force of only 20 N. How much work, if any, did you perform on the box?
144 Master Math: Essential Physics

5.2 (a) Standing on a sheer cliff, you throw a 1-kg rock straight up at
30 m/s. What amount of work did you perform on the rock and what is
its kinetic energy as it leaves your hand? (b) The rock narrowly misses
you on the way down and continues, falling past the cliff’s edge and then
hitting the ground below you at 150 m/s. Ignoring air resistance, how
much work did gravity perform on the rock from the time you released
the rock until it hit bottom?
5.3 (a) To wind a grandfather clock, you turn the 8-inch (in) winding
crank 10 times with a force perpendicular to the radius of 1 Ib. As a
result you raise the 10-lb weight 4 ft. How much work did you perform
turning the crank? (b) How much of that work was transformed into
gravitational potential energy? (c) What happened to the rest of the work
you expended?

5.4 (a) An icy bobsled run is 2,000 m long and has an average slope of
10°. As the team jumps on board, the bobsled is moving at 5 m/s, and
when it crosses the finish line it is moving at 50 m/s. The combined mass
of the bobsled and crew is 40 kg. What is the loss of potential energy?
(b) What is the gain in kinetic energy? (c) What non-conservative forces
were at work?

5.5 (a) You build a super rocket and shoot it straight up toward the
moon. By the time it reaches the Moon’s altitude it has run out of fuel
and has zero velocity. Unfortunately, the Moon has moved to the other
side of the Earth. Your rocket has little angular momentum and therefore
falls almost straight back toward Earth. Assume it reached an altitude
above the center of the Earth of 3.84 x 10° m and the Earth’s upper
atmosphere begins 6.8 x 10° m above Earth’s center. If you consider only
the effects of Earth’s gravity, how much kinetic energy will your 10-kg
rocket have when it enters the upper atmosphere? (b) At what speed will
it be falling?

5.6 In the example in Subsection 5.6, if the distance between the electron
and the proton is further increased from 53 x 10”'' m to an infinite
distance, what is the APE?

5.7 (a) What work is required to move a 1-C charge from the positive to
the negative terminal of a 9-V battery? (b) What is this expressed in eV?

5.8 A metal hoop is released and rolls down a 50-m hill. How fast is it
moving at the bottom (disregard air resistance and friction)?

5.9 (a) A baseball with a mass of 0.0145 kg is popped up above home

plate. It leaves the bat at a vertical speed of 40 m/s and reaches a height
of 70 m. How much of its initial kinetic energy was lost to air resistance?
 Energy and Work 145

(b) You shoot a hockey puck with a mass of 0.02 kg across the ice at
15 m/s. When it reaches the goal 20 m away, it is moving at 14 m/s.
Assuming the only resistive force is friction with the ice, what is the
coefficient of friction 1 between the puck and the ice?
5.10 (a) Two spheres collide head on. Sphere A has a mass of 1 kg and
an initial velocity of 10 m/s. Sphere B has a mass of 10 kg and an initial
velocity of —1 m/s. If the collision is perfectly elastic, what are the
spheres’ final velocities? (b) If their coefficient of restitution is 0.5, what
are their final velocities? (c) If the collision is totally inelastic, what are
their final velocities?

5.11 If the same power required to light a 100-Watt bulb is used to power
an electric winch that is 90% efficient (90% of power is converted into
useful work), how long will it take the winch to raise a 10-kg mass 10 m?

5.12 (a) A wheel with a diameter of 2 ft turns an axle with a diameter of

1 in. What is the mechanical advantage? (b) If you attempt to turn the
wheel by grasping the axle, what is the mechanical advantage?

Answers to Chapter 5 Problems

5.1 The vertical movement up and down (against and with the force of
gravity) resulted in no net work, but pushing against friction in both
directions did positive work in both directions. Solution 1: Compute
work pushing both up and down. Wot = Fupd + Fand = (100 N)(10 m) +
(20 N)(10 m) = 1,200 J. Solution 2: Find the frictional force Fr and
gravitational force F,. We know Fr+ F, = 100 and F; — F, = 20.
Therefore, Fy = 60 and F, = 40. No work is done vertically, so the only
work done is pushing against Fs. W = Fd = (60)(20) = 1,200 J.
5.2 (a) W= (1/2)mv? = (1/2)(1)(30) = 450 J. All the work was
transformed to kinetic energy, which is also 450 J as you released the
rock. (b) W = (1/2)m(v? — v7) = (1/2)(1)((-150)° — 30°) = 10,800 a
(Alternatively: up 30 m/s to zero m/s; (1/2)mv7 = (1/2)(1)(30)° = 450 J;
down zero m/s to 150 m/s: (1/2)mv? = (1/2)(1)(150)’ = 11,250 J;
the difference is 10,800 J.)

5.3 (a) W = Fd = F(10 turns)(2ar) = (1)(10)(22(0.667)) = 41 9 ft-lbs.

(b) PE = F,h = (19)(4) = 40 ft-lbs. (¢) Converted to heat (friction),
clicking noise of ratchet, and similar losses.

5.4 (a) PE = mgh = (40)(—9.8)(—2,000(sin 10°)) ~ 136,140 J. (b) KE; =

(1/2)mv;" = (1/2)(40)(5°) = 500 J. KEr= (1/2)(40)(50 ) = 50,000 J. .
KE;— KE, = 50,000 — 500 = 49,500 J. (c) Air resistance, blade friction,
brakes, hitting sides of channel, etc. Note how much PE was not
converted to KE but lost.
146 Master Math: Essential Physics

5.5 (a) The rocket’s loss of gravitational potential energy will equal its
kinetic energy. PE, = G(mem,)(1/r; — 1/12) =
(6.67 x 107!')(5.97 x 1074)(10)[1/(3.84 x 10%) — 1/(6.8 x 10°)] =
5.7 x 10°. Therefore KE = 5.7 x 10°J. (b) KE = (1/2)mv’.
v = [2KE/m]’ = [2(5.7 x 10%)/10]* ~ 10,700 m/s ~ 24,000 mph.
5.6 APE, = (Kqiq2)(1/t — 1/r)) = "
(9.0 x 10°)(1.6 x 10°)\-1.6 x 107*)[ 1/00 — 153 x 10°"')] = 4.35 « 1077.
5.7 (a) W = qV =(1)(9) =9 J (b) leV= 1.602 x 10°’ J, so
1 J=1/(1.602 x 10°") eV = 6.24 x 10'8 eV, and 9 J = 5.62 x 10” eV.
5.8 All the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy so
PE =mgh=KE. KE =(1/2)mv’ + (1/2)Ilo@’. I= mr’ and v = ra.
mgh = (1/2)mv? + (1/2)(mr’)(v/r)”.. gh = (1/2)v’ + (1/2)v? =v"=
(9.8)(50) = 490. v ~ 22.14 m/s or about 50 mph.

5.9 (a) With no air resistance, all the initial KE would be transformed
into PE. (1/2)mv* = mgh. h = v7/2g = (40)°/(2)(9.8) = 81.63 m. The
difference in PE between 81.63 m and 70 m is mg(81.63 — 70) =
0.0145(9.8)(11.63) = 1.65 J. (b) KE; — KEr= (1/2) mv,’ — (1/2)mv¢ =
(1/2)(0.02)(225) — (1/2)(0.02)(196) = 0.29 J lost to friction.
W = Fd = uF,d = umeg)d. p = W/megd = 0.29/(0.02)(9.8)(20) = 0.074.
5.10 (a) MaVia + MBVip = MaVea + MpVyp, SO Vea =
(MaVia + MpVip — MpVey)/Ma = (1(10) + 10-1) — 10vV¢3)/1 = —10V—p.
So Vea = —10vey. Also, (1/2)mavia? + (1/2)mpvip? = (1/2)mavea” +
(1/2)mpvrp’, 80 (1/2)(1)(10)° + (1/2)(10)(-1)° = (1/2) va) +
(1/2)(10)(vp)?. 55 = (1/2)vin? + 5¥e3-. So Vex? = 110 — 10Vm7. Using
substitution: (-10vm)’ = 110 —10vm?. 100vm? + 10vm? = 110. vm = 1
and vs, = —10. So, each sphere bounces back in exactly the opposite
direction and at its initial speed. (b) Using vg, =—10Vpp ;
© = (Vp — Vra)/(Via — Vip). 9.5 = (Ven — Vea)/(10 — (-1)).. Veg — Vea = 5.5.
Substituting, Vrs — (—10vip) = 5.5, 11V3 = 5.5. Veg = 0.5 and Vea = —S.
So when e = 0.5, the spheres bounce back at one half the initial speed.
(c) The initial total momentum was zero, and it will be zero after the
totally inelastic collision. Therefore, the two spheres will each have zero
velocity and will appear to stick together.

5.11 (100 Watt)(90%) = 90 Watts. Work = mgh = (10)(9.8)(10) = 980 J.

Power = Work/t. t = Work/Power = 980/90 = 10.9 s.

5.12 (a) One rotation of the wheel’s circumference is 24 times the

distance of one rotation of the axle’s circumference, so the required force
is 1/24 as large. Therefore the mechanical advantage is 24:1. (b) 1:24.
eee
ee ee See LoS BURSA: anh Hon teg i

Chapter 6
ELASTICITY AND HARMONIC MOTION

6.1. Elasticity and Hooke’s Law

6.2. Stress and Strain
6.3. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
6.4. Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion
6.5. Simple Pendulum
6.6. Damped Oscillations and Resonance
6.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“One cannot escape the feeling that these mathematical formulae

have an independent existence and an intelligence of their own,
that they are wiser than we are, wiser even than their discoverers,
that we get more out of them than was originally put into them.”
Attributed to Heinrich Hertz

6.1. Elasticity and Hooke’s Law

e Some solid materials and objects exhibit the property of elasticity and
can be stretched or compressed. These materials will resist changes to
their size and shape and, when the deforming force is removed, will tend
to return to their original size and shape.

The elastic property of solid materials is due to electric forces present in

the atoms and molecules making up the material. When a force is applied
that changes the atomic arrangement of the solid, work is done that raises
potential energy. When the force is removed, the material returns to its
original state of lower potential energy. If you stretch a piece of rubber,
some electrons are pulled further from positive nuclei than in its natural
state, causing a stronger attractive force until you stop stretching and
allow the rubber to return to its original length.

e Hooke’s Law states that the force needed to stretch (or compress) a
given spring is proportional to the distance the spring is stretched (or
compressed). Said another way, if the degree to which a spring stretches
148 Master Math: Essential Physics

is directly proportional to the force that deforms or stretches it, the spring
obeys Hooke’s Law. Other materials can also obey Hooke’s Law, so that
the material’s or object’s deformation is directly proportional to the
force that deforms it. Mathematically Hooke’s Law is:

where k is the spring constant or force constant of the spring which

depends on the material, size, shape, and type of spring, and x is the
distance the spring is displaced from its original natural or equilibrium
position. Units for F are Newtons N, and units for k are N/m.

:ANAAAAAARAARAAAN OP ees spring at equilibrium

AANARARARASAAAAAAAA stretched spring

e Example: If a force of | N is needed to stretch a spring 0.1 m, how

much force is needed to stretch that spring 0.2 m?
Use: F=kx =1N=k(0.1m)
Determine k: k = (1 N)/(0.1 m) = 10 N/m
When x = 0.2 m, F is: F=kx = (10 N/m)(0.2 m) =2 N

e Example: What work W is required to stretch the spring in the

previous example 0.2 m?
Use average force from initial to final positions: Fay. = (Fr— F;)/2
At initial position zero force is applied, so: Faye = (1/2)Fr = (1/2)kx
Work is: W = FayeX = (1/2) Fex = (1/2) kx? = (1/2)(10 N/m) (0.2 m) =0.2J

In this example we showed work done by an external force F is:

Wee x (li lkexe

The force to stretch or compress a spring varies from F at initial position

where F; = 0 to F at final position, Fr = kx. We showed that since force
increases linearly with x, we can use the average force between F; and
Fi, which is Faye = (F¢— F,)/2 = (1/2)F ¢= (1/2)kx, or:
Fave = (1/2)kx

The potential energy stored in a stretched or compressed spring is equal

to the work required to stretch or compress it, W = Fayex = (1/2)kx”. The
work is stored as potential energy:

|W = PE, = (1/2)kx? |
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 149

When X =0 and the spring is at equilibrium, PE, = 0. When the spring is

not in equilibrium, PE, > 0. Whether the spring is stretched or compressed
a given distance, it has the same potential energy.

¢ Materials and objects often possess an elastic limit. Beyond this elastic
limit the internal structure of the solid is permanently distorted. When
deformed past its elastic limit, a bent, stretched, or compressed material
will not return to its original shape and may even reach a breaking point
and fracture. The elastic limit depends on the material and may also
depend on external factors such as humidity and temperature.

elastic limit

howd
If deformation exceeds the elastic limit, the restoring force is no longer
proportional to the displacement. The restoring force is the force that
returns an object or material to its original position or shape. When a
force F = kAx is applied to compress a spring distance Ax, then according
to Newton’s Third Law, if the spring is held in a compressed position,
the spring is also exerting an equal and opposite force F, = —kAx. This is
referred to as a linear restoring force and is in the opposite direction of
displacement. The sign of F, indicates the spring is resisting either
compression or stretching.

e Example: You decide to see how fast you can get a 1-kg block sitting
on a table to slide by holding it securely against a spring that is com-
pressed 0.1 m. If you let go, what will be the velocity of the block as it
leaves the spring? (The spring constant is k = 75 N/m and the coefficient
of friction between the block and table is 0.1. Assume mass-less spring.)
The energy and work are interchangeable so: W = AKE + APE. Work is
against friction. Initially all energy is PE:
—Ffriction X = ((1/2)mv? — 0) + (0 — (1/2)kx°)
—yymg x = (1/2)mv_° — (1/2)kx?
ve = 2((1/2)kx” — pymg x) /m
ve = 2[(1/2(75 N/m)(0.1 m)” — (0.1)(1 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(0.1 m)]/(1 kg) = 0.554
vp= 0.74 m/s

e Example: What is the equation for force if a mass is suspended

vertically and hanging from a spring?
150 Master Math: Essential Physics

If the displacement is small and the spring’s elastic limit is not exceeded,
Hooke’s Law is still valid. When the mass is in equilibrium, the net force
on the system is zero:
F=kX-—mg=0
If the weight is pulled down by distance x, the net force is:
F =ma=k(X + x)—mg=kX + kx—mg
Since kX — mg =0: F=kx.
Even in the presence of gravity, Hooke’s Law can still be applied.

6.2. Stress and Strain

e Solids can be deformed in different ways, including compressing or

stretching the length, twisting or shearing to change internal angles, and
squeezing to change bulk volume. Liquids and gases are also subject to
bulk deformations and volume changes. A stress is a force that causes
deformation and a strain is the resulting change in a material.

e The stress applied to an elastic material is equal to the applied force F

divided by the affected cross-sectional area A of the material. Units of
stress are N/m’.
Stress = F/A

A force that acts to stretch a material is a tensile stress. A force that tends
to compress a material is a compressive stress. Tensile and compressive
stresses act along straight lines.
F F F F
a>OEE
tensile stress compressive stress

e A stress produces an effect in a material called strain. The strain

represents the fractional deformation of a material or substance. The
strain caused by a tensile or compressive stress is equal to the fractional
change in the material’s length L, and is dimensionless having cancelled
units. For length deformations:
Strain = AL/L

where L is the original natural length of the material and AL is the change
in length caused by the applied stress. Stretching may cause the cross-
sectional area to slightly decrease while volume is constant (as depicted
below).

pe Ge
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 151

e When strain AL/L in a material is directly proportional to its stress F/A,

Hooke’s Law is obeyed. When an applied stress becomes too great,
Hooke’s Law will break down and the linear relationship will not
continue. Stress and strain can be graphed for a given material.

Strain vs. Stress

Pee Becomes inelastic and eventually fractures.
Tensile yield point—material may siill perform.

Strain
(tensile)
0 Straight line follows Hooke’s Law.
0 ‘Stress
(tensile)

In an “ideal” material, Hooke ’s Law would hold for all stress values and
the graph would be linear (dashed line in figure). In real materials,
however, increasing stress eventually causes a material to no longer
follow Hooke’s Law’s linear relationship, though it may still be able to
return to its original shape until continued stretching exceeds its elastic
limit. Beyond the elastic limit the material may still perform for a while,
but cannot return to its original shape. Eventually increased stress will
cause fracturing.

The stress-strain graph for a compressive force is similar for metal

springs and metal objects, and the slope of the Hooke’s Law line is also
the same. Other materials, however, do not graph the same for tensile
and compressive forces.

Shear Stress and Torsion Stress

e Shear stress occurs when an object is held fixed at one end and a
lateral stress is applied to the opposite end. Torsion stress occurs when
an object is held fixed at one end and a twisting stress is applied to the
opposite end.
Shear stress Torsion stress

Fixed base Fixed base

Shear stress is measured as force per area F/A and shear strain as
Ax/L = tan 0, where Ax is the displacement parallel to the force and L
152 Master Math: Essential Physics

is the length or in the above figure, the height. Shear stress and shear
strain are related through the shear modulus G, where:
G = (stress) / (strain) = (F/A) / (Ax/L)

Torsion stress is more complicated and involves the polar moment of

inertia, which is mr*/2 for a solid cylinder.

Young’s Modulus and Bulk Modulus

e If a material obeys Hooke’s Law, the relationship of stress F/A to strain

AL/L is linear, and the ratio of stress to strain is constant. The ratio of
stress to strain is called the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus Y:

Young’s modulus Y = stress/strain = (F/A)/(AL/L) = constant

(stress) = (Y)(strain)

Units for Young’s modulus are N/m’. Young’s modulus ranges include
approximately 0.05 x 10'° N/m’ for rubber to 20 x 10'° N/m’ for steel.

e Example: When visiting your friend’s warehouse, you notice a 10 m

long aluminum rod with about a 2 cm diameter. It is securely suspended
from the ceiling. You can’t help but wonder if it would actually stretch if
you held it and took your feet off the ground. If the Young’s modulus for
this aluminum is 6.9 x 10'° N/m? and your mass is 60 kg, how much will
the rod stretch?

Y =(F/A)/(AL/L) or AL =(FL)/(AY) =(mgL)/(nr’Y)

AL = (60 kg)(9.8 m/s”)(10 m)/1(0.01 m)?(6.9 x 10'° N/m?) = 0.271 mm

e While solids can undergo shear and length deformations, solids and
liquids can undergo bulk deformations. When stress is applied uniformly
to all surfaces of an object, such as when it is submersed in fluid or at a
high atmospheric pressure, its volume can change. The bulk modulus
involves this change in volume V and is the ratio of volume stress to
volume strain. The volume stress on a substance or material is the applied
force per area (AF/A) or pressure change AP. The volume strain is the
fractional change in volume AV/V. The ratio of the applied pressure to
the fractional change in volume is the bulk modulus B:
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 153

B = pressure stress/volume strain = (AF/A)/(AV/V) = -(AP)/(AV/V)

(stress) = —(B)(strain)

The negative sign reflects the fact that volume decreases as pressure is
applied. Bulk modulus ranges include approximately 0.22 x 10!° N/m?
for water to 16 x 10'” N/m’ for steel, and about 10° N/m? for air. Liquids
in general are difficult to compress, which makes them useful for
transferring forces in hydraulic systems.

e Example: After hanging from the aluminum rod, your friend asks you
to help him with his experimental apparatus. He puts a block of
aluminum in a small tank of liquid and applies a pressure of 500 atm as
measured by a gauge he has hooked up. He tells you that the density p of
aluminum is 2.7 x 10° kg/m’, and its bulk modulus is 7.7 x 10!° N/m’.
He wants to find the fractional change in density of the aluminum.

You write the bulk modulus, B = —AP/(AV/V), and solve it for AV/V:
—AV/V = AP/B = (500 atm)(101,325 N/m?/atm) / (7.7 x 10'° N/m’)
~ —0.00066 or —0.066%
You remember density = mass/volume or p= m/V, so V = m/p, or
m = Vp. Since mass m is constant V)p; = V2po:
P2= pi(Vi/V2) = pi (Vi/(V1 + AV))
If we set V; as 1 unit: V; + AV =(1 + (—0.00066)) = 0.99934
Substituting in:
P2= pi (1/0.99934) = 2.7 x 10°(1 / 0.99934) = 2.70178 x 10°
Finally, the fractional change in density is:
Ap/p = (p2— P1)/p2= (1.78)/( 2.70178 x 10°) = 0.0006588 ~ 0.066%
which is the same as the (negative of ) fractional change in volume.
Note: A formula for very small fractional changes you may encounter Is:
Ap/p = —AV/V.

6.3. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

e Materials are to some degree elastic and many elastic materials can
vibrate or oscillate. If a guitar string is deformed or perturbed, it will
vibrate or oscillate. A material can aiso oscillate independently of its
elastic properties such as a pendulum. Oscillations or vibrations occur
because a restoring force is returning the material or system to its
natural equilibrium.
154 Master Math: Essential Physics

In an elastic material if a force is applied that causes deformation, and

then the force is released, internal forces (restoring force) cause the
material to return to its equilibrium shape. If momentum carries the
oscillation through the equilibrium shape and beyond, the material
becomes deformed again, but with the displacement in the opposite
direction. Then, the restoring force again acts to return the material to
equilibrium, when momentum carries it through to the original
displacement, and the cycle continues. If energy did not dissipate, the
oscillation would continue indefinitely.

We have just described simple harmonic motion (SHM), which

involves oscillations or vibratory motion. The vibratory or oscillating
motion of a mass attached to a spring is a good illustration of SHM and
its equations. Suppose a block is at rest in its equilibrium position on a
frictionless surface. If an external force displaces the block to the right,
there will be an opposite restoring force F exerted on the block by the
spring directed to the left.

CM) Fvctore
SHAS

spring at rest in equilibrium stretched by Ax, called amplitude A

If the displacement of the block by the amount Ax has not stretched the
spring beyond the range where Hooke’s Law is valid, Hooke’s Law can
be used to model the system. Often it is the restoring force rather than the
applied force that is of interest in SHM, so a negative sign is used when
writing Hooke’s Law to highlight that the restoring force points opposite
the displacement of the mass from its equilibrium position:
F = -kx

We can use Newton’s Law, F = ma, to write an equation for the motion
of an object experiencing simple harmonic motion as:

Force F = ma = —kx

Acceleration a = —kx/m

e If a block is released from its initial stretched position +Ax, it will be

accelerated back to the left by restoring force -F. Maximum acceleration
occurs at x = +Ax as the block begins to move back toward x = 0. As the
block approaches x = 0, its acceleration decreases to zero and its velocity
reaches maximum. Passing x = 0, the momentum of the block will carry
it to the left side of x = 0, or negative x, and the spring is compressed
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 155

until it reaches x = —Ax. As it travels to the left of x = 0, the restoring

force and acceleration are directed back to the right and the block slows.
At x = —Ax, motion will stop and the acceleration which is still toward
the right will cause the block to reverse its motion and move toward
x = +Ax again. The block oscillating or vibrating forward and back
between x = +Ax and x = —Ax forms what is referred to as a cyclic,
oscillatory, periodic, or SHM with an amplitude A of Ax.

Frestgre F restore
AX

compressed —Ax = —A equilibrium x = 0 stretched +Ax = +A

If a pen is attached to the block and a roll of paper is vertically scrolled

as the block is oscillating, the motion can be recorded as a function of
time. A sinusoidal pattern will be drawn showing the SHM. The figure
below is a rotated view of the spring-mass above to show how it graphs
as a sine wave.

The graphs of the sine and cosine functions are described by:
y=sinx and y=cosx
The graph of y = cos x is the graph of y = sin x shifted by 7/2 to the left,
since cos x = sin(x+7/2). (See Master Math: Trigonometry.) The
amplitude A is the maximum deviation from the centerline (x-axis)
along the y-axis in the cosine graph above. Changing the amplitude
changes the y-component of a sine or cosine graph. The amplitude ofa
sine or cosine function is changed by multiplying the equations by
amplitude A:
y=Asinx and y=Acosx

The period t represents one complete cycle of the sine or cosine function
along the horizontal x-axis. The periods of y = sin x and y = COS X,
including y = A sin x and y = A cos x, are 27 or 360°. ihe periods are
changed when the functions of sine and cosine have a multiplier b of x
and are written:
y=Asinbx and y=Acos bx
156 Master Math: Essential Physics

where the period t is 27/b and b > 0, or b is 2x/t. When sine or cosine is
graphed for displacement x of the block as a function of time t, or x(t),
we can write the equation for the cosine graph of the block and spring
above as x(t) = A cos Dt, or:
| x(t) = A cos 2nt/t |

This equation describes the harmonic motion as displacement as a

function of time, and we will further develop it in the following pages. In
this equation, t is the period of the repeating motion, and A = Ax is the
maximum deviation from centerline, or amplitude. This equation
describes the ideal case where friction is ignored and the oscillation
occurs indefinitely with no decrease in amplitude. We have learned that
when a material or system obeys Hooke’s Law and the displacement of a
block attached to a spring varies sinusoidally with time, the system is
said to display simple harmonic motion. In SHM, the displacement,
velocity, and acceleration all vary sinusoidally with time.

Looking at Simple Harmonic Motion Through Circular Motion

e In simple harmonic motion, or oscillatory motion, a particle or object

moves back and forth between two fixed positions along a straight line.
The connection between SHM and uniform circular motion can be
visualized by projecting the image of a particle moving steadily in a
circular path onto a screen (perpendicular to the plane of the circle). By
projecting the circular path from its side, the projected image looks like a
particle moving back and forth (or up and down) in a straight line. The
shadow of the particle translates to simple harmonic motion. We see that
the back-and-forth motion of a simple harmonic oscillator is the same as
the projection of the motion of a particle traveling uniformly in a circular
path.

Another way to visualize the correlation between a particle moving

around a circle in circular motion and its corresponding harmonic motion
is to imagine the image of the moving particle projected onto the circle’s
y-axis or x-axis. The position of the particle can be represented by vector
r, and the projection of r onto the x-axis (where the vertical line is drawn
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion GY

down from point P) is a certain length x(t) along the x-axis. The length
x(t) varies with time as the particle moves around the circle. The
maximum displacement occurs when the full length of vector r is
projected on to the axis. This maximum displacement corresponds to the
amplitude A. The vertical line drawn to the x-axis forms a right triangle
with sides vector r and the x-axis itself, and corresponds to the particle’s
location. Remember, trigonometric functions can be defined using
ratios of sides of a right triangle, angles in standard position in a
coordinate system, and arc lengths on a circle of radius one (unit circle).
(See Master Math: Trigonometry.) Also, remember for a right triangle
that sin ¢ = opposite/hypotenuse and cos = adjacent/hypotenuse.
Therefore, for the right triangle drawn in the circle, sin @ = y/r and
cos ) = x/r, or rearranging, y =r sin d and x = rcos . Since r is the
maximum length that x or y can reach, it is the amplitude A. Therefore:
y=Asing and x=Acoso

Let’s look at x = A cos : Note that x is positive when the displacement

is to the right and negative when the displacement is to the left where
cos o < 0. In the circle drawn on the previous page, the position of the
particle is given by the angle , which is measured in radians. As we
learned in Section 1.11, the rate of change of is the angular velocity
of the particle. The angular velocity @ is the change in angle divided
by the change in time t, or:
wo = Ao/At
If the motion is uniform, angular velocity is constant, and the angular
displacement is related to the angular velocity by:
d= ot
Substitute into x = A cos @:

where A is the amplitude or maximum displacement of the motion from

the equilibrium position. In Section 1.11 we learned the time required
for one revolution or period is: t = 27/w and rearranging gives ® = 2n/t.
The w in the SHM equation represents the angular frequency. It is
related to the frequency f of the motion, and inversely related to the
period t, so that = 2n/t = 2nf and f= I/t. The frequency isthe number
of oscillations per second and has units of Hertz (Hz). Substitute for «:
| x(t) = A cos 2nt/t |

This equation for projected circular motion is the same equation we

derived for (one-dimensional) SHM of a spring! The projection of
circular motion is simple harmonic motion.
158 Master Math: Essential Physics

Velocity in Simple Harmonic Motion

e In SHM, the velocity changes as a particle or object oscillates. When

the displacement is at maximum amplitude, the velocity is zero, and
when the displacement returns to zero, the velocity is maximum. In
circular motion as a particle moves around a circle, the direction of
motion and the velocity vector is tangent to the circle. The velocity
vector tangent to the circle at point P has a cosine component cost, a
sine component sin t, and points in the direction the particle is moving.
The acceleration a particle in circular motion experiences is centripetal
acceleration, which points inward along the radius r line.
— sin t = horizontal velocity component

tangent = velocity cos t = vertical velocity component

point P

height

By comparing the motion of the particle moving around the circle with
its projection (as shown in the previous figure), it is evident that even
when the velocity of the particle is constant, the projected velocity of the
particle slows to a stop at each end (top and bottom). By rotating a right
triangle around a circle the relationships between sine, cosine, distance,
and velocity can be visualized. The equation for displacement is
x(t) = A cos wt, where A is the amplitude or maximum displacement, and
the velocity equation is:
| v(t) =—A@ sin @t where Aw is the maximum speed |

Since @ = 27/t:
V(t) = —Vimax $1n 270t/t

We can also see the connection between displacement and velocity

through the cosine and sine wave curves. A particle moving around a
circle can be translated into a particle moving along a cosine or sine
curve. Just as oscillatory displacement can be graphed as a cosine or sine
wave, the velocity of the oscillatory motion can also be related to a sine
or cosine wave pattern. By definition, the velocity is the rate of change
of distance, and the slope of a cosine or sine curve at a given point
represents the velocity at that point. It turns out that the slope or velocity
at each point along a cosine curve graph is equal to the corresponding
value of the displacement of that point on the sine curve graph and vice
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 159

versa. In calculus, the derivative (or rate of change) of distance is

velocity. Also, the derivative of sine is cosine and the derivative of
cosine is negative sine.

m/2

3n/2
Sine graph--slope per point of cosine and projection of circular motion onto y-axis

m/2

3n/2
Cosine graph--slope per point of sine and projection of circular motion onto x-axis

Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion

e The acceleration also oscillates in SHM and therefore can be described

by a sine wave or sinusoid. In the SHM of a mass on a spring, when the
displacement is zero, the spring is applying no force and the acceleration
is also zero. When the displacement is maximum, the spring is applying
maximum force and the acceleration is maximum. The force applied by
the spring is in the opposite direction as the displacement. The
acceleration for simple harmonic motion is:

| a(t)=—Aw’ cos wt where the maximum acceleration is Aw |

Since @ = 2n/T:
a(t) =—Amax Cos 27t/t

We can also develop this equation using the particle revolving around the
circle, where the acceleration acting on the particle is centripetal
acceleration a,. If we project the revolving particle as we did above, we
can write:
a(t) =—a, cos wt

where the negative sign reflects the opposite directions of the acceleration
and displacement. The centripetal acceleration of the revolving particle
is a, = V’/r, and a, is related to velocity and radius (maximum amplitude)
by:
a= Vit vA

Since the speed of the object moving in a circular path of radius r is

v = rq, and the radius r corresponds to the amplitude A:
a, = (AoA = Aw
160 Master Math: Essential Physics

Acceleration for simple harmonic motion is therefore given by:

iia 2
a(t) =—Aw* cos wt where the maximum acceleration is A@

e We have also described acceleration of a mass undergoing SHM using

the restoring force described in the spring-mass system as: a = —kx/m,
where k is the spring constant and m is mass. If we substitute x with the
displacement x(t) = A cos wt for SHM, acceleration for simple
harmonic motion can also be written:
= —kx/m = —(kA/m) cos wt = —(kA/m) cos 2nt/t

where kA/m is the maximum acceleration, and the negative sign shows
acceleration in the opposite direction from displacement.

Notes on Amplitude, Period, and Frequency

e The amplitude A is the maximum deviation or displacement from the

centerline of a horizontally drawn repeating or oscillating graph in the
vertical direction. In an oscillating system, the amplitude is the
magnitude of a wave. In a sine or cosine function, the amplitude is
changed by multiplying the equations by A: y = A sin x.and y = A cos x.
Period and frequency in SHM are independent of amplitude.

e The period t represents one complete cycle of a repeating or oscillating

function. In SHM the period Tt is the time it takes to go through one
complete cycle of the oscillating motion. In the figure of the cosine graph
of the spring-mass system above, t is time interval between any two
successive corresponding points on the sinusoidal curve. The periods of
y = sinx and y = cosx, including y = Asin x and y = Acosx, are 27 or
360°. In circular motion the period t is the time required for one
revolution or period. (Also, see following paragraphs.)
t=2n/@

e In SHM frequency f is the number of oscillations or cycles per time

(seconds). If there are 10 complete cycles of an oscillatory motion each
second, the frequency is f= 10 cycles per second. Since a cycle is not a
physical quantity or unit, units of frequency are ins ', called a Hertz (Hz).
Therefore, 1 cycle per second = | Hz. If the frequency of an oscillation is
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 161

10 Hz or 10s", each complete cycle takes 1/10 s. Therefore, frequency f

and the period t are related. (Also, see following paragraphs.)

The angular velocity « is also the angular frequency, and is

distinguished from frequency f in that f describes the number of
complete oscillations or cycles per second, while @ describes the number
of radians the angle ¢ in circular motion completes per second. In
circular motion each complete cycle corresponds to a change in of 360°
or 27 radians, so that m = 27 radians. Angular frequency, or angular
velocity, ® is measured in radians per second, while frequency f is
measured in Hz.

e In our discussion of acceleration above, we showed that acceleration of

a mass undergoing SHM can be written: a = —kx/m = -(k/m) A cos at.
We also described acceleration in SHM as: a(t) =—A@” cos at.
By comparing these two equations,
a(t)=—Aw@*’cos@ and a=-(k/m) Acos at
we see that @ must equal k/m:
o =k/m or w= [k/m]*

This shows the relationship between the frequency w and mechanical

properties described by the spring (or force) constant k and mass m.
Since period t = 277/@ and «” = k/m, the period for simple harmonic
motion can be written:
t = 2n/w@ = 2n[m/k]”

Also, since frequency f= 1/t, frequency for single harmonic motion

can be written:
f= 1/t = w/2n = (1/27)[k/m]”

Equation Summary
x(t) = A cos wt = A cos 2nt/t
v(t) =—A@ sin wt = —Vimax Sin 27t/t

a(t) = —Aw’ cos wt =—(kA/m) cos 21t/t

@ = 2n/t = [k/m]”
t = 2n/w = 2n[m/k]*
f = @/2n = (1/2n)[k/m]”*
162 Master Math: Essential Physics

6.4. Energy and Simple Harmonic Motion

e When an oscillating mass is displaced from its equilibrium position, the

work needed to displace it a distance x is: W = Faye X, Where Faye is the
average force applied over the displacement, which is Faye = (Fr— F})/2.
At the initial position, zero force is applied, so: Faye = (1/2)F‘.
If we substitute Hooke’s Law F = kx (see Section 6.1), Faye becomes:
Pave = (1/2)Fe— (1/2)kx
The equation for the work done by an external force becomes:
Wisk x= 2)
Since the work required to stretch (or compress) a spring or system is
stored as potential energy, W = PE:
W = PE = (1/2)kx’

The energy of a simple harmonic oscillator translates between potential

and kinetic energy with: PE + KE = constant. The kinetic energy is:
KE = (1/2)mv~. As the oscillator moves, x and v change, and energy
shifts to the extremes of kinetic and potential. At x = A, or maximum
displacement (amplitude), the velocity is zero and energy is all PE. When
x returns to zero, x = 0, velocity is maximum and energy is all KE.
Therefore, the energy of the simple harmonic oscillator is:

(1/2)kx? = (1/2)mv?
(1/2)kA? = (1/2)
mV max”
Solving for maximum velocity:

Vax
=kA7/m OF Vmax
= A[k/m]”
e Example: In a frictionless horizontal spring-mass system where the
spring constant is 2,000 kg/s’, if the 2.5-kg mass is displaced 2 cm so that
the spring is compressed, what is the maximum velocity and maximum
force on the mass?
Maximum velocity occurs at x = 0, or equilibrium position, and is:
Vmax = kA’/m = (2,000 kg/s*)(0.02 m)*/(2.5 kg) = 0.32 m’/s”
Vax ~ 0.57 m/s
Maximum force occurs at x = A and is given by Hooke’s Law:
F = kx = kA = (2,000 kg/s’)(0.02 m) = 40 N

e Example: You decide it’s time to test out all this spring stuff for
yourself. Suppose your mass is 50 kg and at equilibrium with you
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 163

holding on, the spring stretches 3.5 cm. If your friend pulls down on you,
stretching the spring an additional 3.0 cm, and then lets go, what is your
displacement, velocity, and acceleration 7 s later?

The equations we can use are:

x(t)=Acos2nt/t V(t) =—Vmax Sin 2nt/t a=—(kA/m) cos 2nt/t
We need to find k and t. Note that the cosine angles are in radians, so set
your calculator. We can use values at equilibrium displacement:
k = F/x = mg/x = (50 kg)(9.8 m/s”)
/(0.035) = 14,000 kg/s?
t = 2n/@ = 2n[m/k]” = 22 [50kg /14,000 kg/s’]” ~ 0.375 s
Maximum displacement A was at t = 0, so displacement at t = 7s is:
x(t) = A cos 2nt/t = (0.030 m) cos(2n(7s)/(0.375s)) = —0.015
Velocity at t= 7s, where Vmax = A[k/m]” is:
v(t) = —Vmax Sin 2nt/t = —A[k/m]? sin 2nt/t
v(t) =—(0.030 m)[14,000 kg/s*/50 kg] sin(27(7s)/(0.375s)) = —0.435 m/s
The negative sign shows velocity opposite displacement.
Acceleration at t = 7s is a(t) = —-(kA/m) cos 2zt/t, or:
a(t) =-[(14,000 kg/s”)(0.030 m)/(50 kg)] cos(2(7s)/(0.375s)) © 4.2 m/s”

6.5. Simple Pendulum

e In a simple pendulum all of the mass is considered to be the same

distance from the support point, and the rope, string, chain, or cable
holding the mass is considered mass-less. A simple pendulum can be
approximated as a simple harmonic oscillator when the angular ampli-
tude is small. A mass on the end of a string will oscillate back and forth
if disturbed, and if the amplitude of the swing motion is small it can
approximate SHM.

Q is in radians
L is length of pendulum
x is displacement

When angle @ and therefore the amplitude is small, this pendulum

(depicted above) approximates a right triangle so, sin 0 = x/L, or
x = Lsin 9. When x is sufficiently small:
x = LO
164 Master Math: Essential Physics

Angle 8 can be up to 0.25 radians (14.3°) before the difference between 0

in radians and sin 8 reaches 1%. Gravity is the source of the restoring
force that brings the pendulum to its equilibrium position after it is
disturbed. The restoring force is F = —mg sin 9, or for small 0:

F = —mg0
F ~ —(mg/L)x

Because the restoring force is proportional to the angular displacement

§ and also displacement x, when the amplitude is small the motion of a
pendulum is consistent with Hooke’s Law and approximates SHM.
F = —-kx

We can develop the equation for the pendulum force constant, which is
(restoring force)/(displacement) by combining the previous two
equations to give the force constant for a pendulum:

e The period for a simple pendulum approximating SHM can be derived

using the period for SHM:
t = 2n/@ = 2n[m/k]* = 2 [m/mg/L]* = 2n[L/g]*
Therefore, the period for a simple pendulum is:
t = 2n|Lig|*

where @ = [k/m]* = [mg/Lm]* = [g/L]”.

e Example: If a pendulum having a 1-kg mass takes 1.5 s for each

sideways motion, what is the pendulum’s length?
If each sideways motion takes 1.5 s then the period is 3 s.
We can solve t = 2n[L/g]* for L:
L = (t/2n)’g = (38/2n)°(9.8 m/s’) = 2.2 m

6.6. Damped Oscillations and Resonance

e Simple and damped harmonic motion and resonance are all described
by sinusoids. If the amplitude of the motion remains constant (no
frictional forces), then the motion is simple harmonic motion. If the
amplitude decreases over time (frictional loss), the motion is called
damped harmonic motion. If the amplitude increases over time, the
motion is called resonance.
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 165

Damped Oscillations

e So far in this chapter we have been modeling systems that are

considered ideal in that no energy is dissipated from friction or other
forces. In the real world, friction is present in an oscillating system, and
the motion can become damped. In a system undergoing damped
oscillation, energy is dissipated (mostly as heat), and the motion
eventually comes to a stop.

In a system with weak damping the oscillations persist for many cycles
before stopping. A weakly damped system can somewhat approximate
SHM. Even though the amplitude gradually decreases, the period
remains constant. In a weakly damped system the SHM formulas for
period may be useful, although the equations for displacement, velocity,
and acceleration may not be valid. A system undergoing strong damping
is not a good approximation of SHM. Nevertheless some SHM modeling
may be useful. Strong damping is often deliberately introduced into
mechanical systems in order to restrain and control oscillations.

simple harmonic motion ) damped harmonic motion resonance

y

time time time

Resonance

e If the amplitude of an oscillating system increases over time, the motion

is called resonance. Vibrating or oscillating systems possess one or more
natural frequencies at which they will naturally oscillate. The period t, in
fact, depends on the intrinsic characteristics of an oscillator.

If an external force is applied to an oscillator (such as a pendulum or

spring-mass system) with a frequency other than its natural frequency,
the oscillator will vibrate with the frequency of the applied force
providing that force is much greater than the natural internal restoring
force of the oscillator. If an external force pushes on an oscillator forcing
it to oscillate at some frequency, and the applied force is comparable to
the natural restoring force of the oscillator, the oscillator will have a
vibration in which the amplitude varies according to whether the two
oscillations are in or out of phase. If the natural frequency and the
applied external force have the same period and are in phase, the applied
force and restoring force will be acting together and the amplitude will
increase—especially if the applied force occurs at the same point in
every cycle and is in phase. When the applied and natural forces have the
166 Master Math: Essential Physics

same frequency or period and are in phase, the system is in resonance. In

other words, when an oscillator with a natural frequency is acted on by a
sinusoidal force whose frequency is close to the natural frequency, the
amplitude of the oscillations will become larger. When the applied force
equals the natural frequency, the oscillator will be in resonance with the
acting force.

6.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Hooke’s Law F = kx: deformation is proportional to deforming force.

e Stress is a force that causes deformation; strain is the resulting change.
e The ratio of stress to strain is the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus.
e SHM occurs because a restoring force returns a system to natural
equilibrium.
e In SHM: x(t)=Acos ot; v(t) =—A® sin @t = —Vinax Sin Ot;
a(t) =—A@* cos wt = -(kA/m) cos wt; and @ = 2n/t = [k/m]’*,
t = 2n/w@ = 2n[m/k]”, f= 0/20 = (1/2n)[k/m]*.
e Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator translates between PE and KE.
e W = PE =(1/2)kx’; (1/2)kx? = (1/2)mv*; (1/2)kA? = (1/2)mVmax’3
Ven Akin
e A simple pendulum approximates SHM for small angular amplitude,
and F ~ —mg@ ~ —mgx/L; k = mg/L; t = 2n[L/g]’; = [k/m]’ = [g/L]”.
e In simple harmonic motion—amplitude remains constant.
e In damped harmonic motion—amplitude decreases (frictional loss).
e In resonance—amplitude increases.

Practice Problems

6.1 If your truck has rear springs with a combined spring constant
k = 50,000 N/m, what mass can you load over the axle without lowering
the rear more than 10 cm?

6.2 You submerge a volleyball with a volume of 5,270 cm? into a column
of water to a depth of 10 m. It displaces a volume of water equal to only
4,640 cm’. You look up water pressure at a depth of 10 m and find it is
2 atm. What is the bulk modulus B of the volleyball?

6.3 (a) A puck with a mass of | kg is attached to the free end of a

perfectly elastic horizontal spring affixed to a frictionless surface. You
push the puck | m, compressing the spring, and then release the puck.
You observe that it takes 1 s to shoot out 2 m and return to the release
point. What is the spring’s constant k? (b) What is the puck’s maximum
 Elasticity and Harmonic Motion 167

velocity and acceleration? (c) What will the period t be if the experiment
is repeated with a 2-kg puck? (d) With a 0.5-kg puck?

6.4 (a) In the example in Subsection 6.4, you notice that after 50
oscillations, your amplitude has decreased from 3 cm to 2 cm due to
energy losses to the environment. How much energy has been lost?
(b) What has happened to your frequency of oscillation? (c) What is your
new maximum velocity?

6.5 You see a big branch overhanging a pond. You shimmy up the tall
tree and out the branch and attach a 100-ft rope that doesn’t quite reach
down to the water. You climb back down the tree, retrieve the free end of
the rope, bring it up the bank, and stretch it taught. Then like Tarzan you
grab onto the rope so your center of gravity is 102 ft from the end tied to
the tree branch and launch yourself over the pond. How long does it take
to swing the maximum distance out over the water? (Assume small 0.)

6.6 How is a high-pitched screech when a microphone is placed in front

of a speaker in a PA system an example of resonance?

Answers to Chapter 6 Problems

6.1 F = mg = kx, so m = kx/g = (50,000)(0.10)/9.8 = 510 kg.

6.2 B = -AP/(AV/V) = —2/ ((4,640 — 5,270)/5,270) = 16.73 N/m’.

6.3 (a) t = 2n[m/k]”, so k = m(2n)*/1? = 1(2n)’/1? = 39.48 N/m.

(b) Vmax = A@ = (1)(27) ~ 6.28 m/s; amax = KA/m = (39.48)(1)/1 =
39.48 m/s’, (also amax = AW” = (1)(22)’ = 39.48). 7
(c) t = 2n(m/k)” = 2n[2/39.48]” = 1.414 s, or greater by 2”.
(d) t = 2n[0.5/39.48]” = 0.707 or less by the square root of 1/2.
6.4 (a) Ejost = (1/2)kx;? — (1/2)kx?? = (1/2)(14,000)(0.03° — 0.027) = 3.5 J.
(b) Frequency is the same; it does not vary with amplitude.
(c) Vmax = Aw = A[k/m]” = 0.02[14,000/50]” ~ 0.33 m/s.
6.5 t = 2n[L/g]” = 2n[ 102/32] = 11.2s. Since reaching max distance out
takes one-half of your pendulum’s period, you reach max distance after
5.65.

6.6 If the amplificd sound wave coming from the speaker has a greater
amplitude (louder) than the sound initially entering the microphone, a
positive feedback loop is created where a louder sound begets an ever
louder sound until the volume (amplification) is turned down or the
microphone is moved away from the speaker.
168 Master Math: Essential Physics
 a
oeoa en re eee
Chapter 7
FLUIDS

7.1. Pressure and Static Fluids

7.2. Archimedes’ Principle and the Buoyant Force in Static Fluids
7.3. Surface Tension and Capillary Action
7.4. Fluid Flow, Continuity Equation, and Bernoulli’s Equation
7.5. Viscosity, Reynolds Number, and Terminal Velocity
7.6. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“It is not certain that everything is uncertain.”

“Nature is an infinite sphere of which the center is everywhere and the

circumference nowhere.”

Both attributed to Blaise Pascal

e Except when a solid is deformed, its atoms and molecules remain

mostly fixed in place by strong intermolecular forces. The intermolecular
forces in a fluid, however, are weaker and its molecules do not remain
fixed, but are able to move more freely. A fluid has no rigid structure
and no fixed shape or form, and has the ability to flow. Both liquids and
gases are considered to be fluids, but have some important differences.
In liquids the binding forces between molecules are strong enough that
the molecules tend to sustain fixed distances from each other so that the
liquid possesses a specific volume while allowing molecules to still
move past one another. We see this when placing an amount of liquid
into a container and it fills to a certain level. In a gas the forces between
molecules are so weak that molecules can move much more
independently. Because of this gases do not have a definite volume, so
that when an amount of gas is placed into a container it will expand to
uniformly fill the container. Also, because gas molecules are farther apart
and do not have a fixed spacing, they can be compressed more easily
than liquids.
170 Master Math: Essential Physics

7.1. Pressure and Static Fluids

e Pressure is force per unit area.

| Wess ss |

Force per area measures pressures in solids and fluids. For example, a |-
mm diameter nail tip driven into a solid surface with 10 N of force exerts
a pressure: P = F/A = F/nr’ = (10 N)/(0.0005 m)* = 1.3 x 10’ N/m’.

e There are many units for measuring pressure including N/m’ and
Pascal (Pa), where 1 N/m’ = | Pa. Other units include atmospheres (atm),
where: | atm= 1.013 x 10° N/m? = 1.013 bar= 1.013 x 10° dyn/cm? =
14.7 Ib/in? = 760 torr = 760 mm Hg = 1.013 x 10° Pa.

e Fluids, including liquids and gases, exert forces. A fluid that fills a
container exerts forces that are distributed over the container’s surface
where the fluid contacts that container. (As we will see, the pressure
increases with depth.) A fluid has no rigidity so that when a fluid is static
or at rest it cannot exert a force parallel to a surface. The force a static
fluid exerts on the surface of a container is always perpendicular to the
surface. In the figure of two completely filled containers the arrows
show force perpendicular to the surface and increasing with depth.

mm &
Atmospheric Pressure

e Atmospheric pressure is pressure in the surrounding air near the

Earth’s surface. The atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and
altitude above sea level. The atmosphere is a layer of air around Earth
which is held down by gravity. Because gas is easily compressed,
approximately 90% of the air in our atmosphere is concentrated within
about 16 km (or 9.9 mi or just over 52,000 ft) of the surface. The air
around Earth has weight and exerts a force on the surface. At sea level
this force is 1.013 x 10° N per square meter and is defined as
1 atmosphere or just 1 atm. This means that under normal conditions,
the pressure the atmosphere exerts on the surface is:
1 atm= 1.013 x 10° N/m’ = 1.013 x 10° Pa

e Example: Your friend asks you to estimate the mass of the air above
Earth’s surface.
 Fluids 171.

If you assume the force of gravity remains at 9.8 m/s” and weight =
F = mg, then per square meter, the mass of the atmosphere is:
m = F/g = (10° N)/(9.8 m/s?) = 104 kg for each square meter of surface.
“Wow! That’s really heavy,” your friend exclaims. “How come we don’t
get crushed?” You think for a moment. “I guess because our tissues must
have the same pressure pushing back.”

Pascal’s Principle

e In the seventeenth century Blaise Pascal noted that the pressure at any
depth of a container or body of water is the pressure of the weight of the
water above plus the atmospheric pressure acting on the water’s surface.
In addition, the pressure at any point at any depth acts equally in all
directions. Pascal’s principle goes further to state that: a pressure
applied to the surface of a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished by
the fluid in all directions and to all points within the fluid. This principle
is used in the development of hydraulic systems which use fluids to
transmit pressure and force.

e The container below has two openings and is filled with liquid so that
the levels are equal. If two negligible mass pistons are placed on the fluid
in the two openings and a force F; is applied to the small piston having
area A,, the pressure exerted on the fluid in this opening and therefore
the pressure exerted by the fluid on the piston will be P = F;/A).
Providing no other external forces are applied, the application of the
force F, will cause the other piston to rise. To hold both pistons at their
original level, a force F, must also be applied to the second piston so that
the pressure is the same: P = F,/A, = F2/Ao. In this equation, since area
A» is larger than A,, F2 must also be correspondingly larger than F\.
Therefore, when the fluid in this system is static, the pressure exerted by
the fluid on each piston is the same and P = F\/A; = F2/Ad.

If we apply a pressure to the smaller piston P = F,/Aj, it will be

transmitted to all the inner surfaces of the container including the larger
piston. Each point in the container will experience a change in pressure
by P = F,/A\. This is described by Pascal’s principle which we stated
a7. Master Math: Essential Physics

above: a pressure applied to the surface of a confined fluid is transmitted

undiminished by the fluid in all directions and to all points within the
fluid. Because of Pascal’s principle, a downward force F; on the small
piston is converted into a larger upward force F, on the larger piston. The
force is multiplied by the ratio of the areas of the pistons but acts over a
displacement that is decreased by the same ratio.

F, Fy

If the small piston is pushed down, the pressure exerted on all sides of
the container is equal to the applied force divided by the area of the small
piston. The resulting force on the large piston equals the pressure times
the area of the large piston (since F = PA), so that the force exerted on
the small piston has been multiplied by the ratio of the piston areas:
F,/A, = F,/A, or F, = F,A,/A>

These types of hydraulic systems allow a relatively small force to create

a large force.

e Example: Suppose you want to build a platform that will lift you 2 m.
If your mass is 50 kg, the piston’s radius is 20 cm, and the diameter of
the round lift is 100 cm, what is the force on the piston needed, and how
far must the piston be displaced?

F
y [rim

The pressure is the same throughout: P = F,/A, = Fi/A,

The force on the piston needed is F,:
F, = FLA,/At = (50 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(2)(0.2 m) / ()(0.5 m)” = 78.4 N
The ratio of the areas of the lift to piston is:
A/Ap = ()(0.5 m)* / (1)(0.2 my’ = 6.25
Therefore the ratio of displacements is also 6.25, so the displacement of
the piston required is 6.25 x 2 m= 12.5 m.

Density and Specific Gravity

e Average density is mass divided by volume.

| p= m/V |
 Fluids 173

The density of solids and liquids remains mostly constant except for
some slight variations if the material is compressed or deformed or if
temperature is changed. In fact, the density of the water at the bottom of
the ocean is only slightly greater than the density of the water at the
surface. In contrast, the density of gases is susceptible to changes in
pressure and temperature, and gases compress easily. The air contained
in a vertical tube held at the surface of the Earth will be more
compressed (by the weight of the air above it) at the bottom of the tube
than at the top. Similarly, the atmosphere of the Earth has a much higher
density near the surface than at high altitudes. Because of their sensitivity
to temperature and pressure, the density of gases is often stated with
reference to particular temperatures and pressures.

e Units for density are in mass per volume and include kg/m’ and g/cm’,
where 1,000 kg/m’ = 1 g/cm’. The density of water is approximately
1 g/cm? = 1,000 kg/m’.

e Density can be used to identify an unknown substance. For example, if

an unknown liquid has a measured mass of 18.5 g (or 18.5 x 10° kg)
while taking up a volume of 23.4 milliliters (or 23.4 x 10° m’), its
density is:
p = (18.5 x 10° kg) / (23.4 x 10° m’) = 791 kg/m’
After determining this value you can search for substances with this
same density. You can perform other measurements and tests to
confidently identify the substance in question.

e The specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the

density of water (at a specified temperature).

| Specific gravity SG = Psubstance / PH20 |

Since the density of water in CGS (centimeter-gram-seconds) units is

1 g/cm’, the specific gravity of a substance in g/cm units works out to be
the same as the value of the density. In MKS (meter-kilogram-seconds)
units the density of water is 1,000 kg/m’. A reference temperature for the
density of water that is often used is 4 °C. An object with a specific
gravity less than ' g/cm’ will float in water. If its specific gravity 1s
greater than | g/cm’, it will sink in water.

e Example: If the density of silver is 10,490 kg/m’, or 10.49 g/cm’, what

is the specific gravity of silver?
SG = Pyabstance / Pr20 = (10,490 kg/m’) / (1,000 kg/m’) = 10.49
174 Master Math: Essential Physics

Variation of Pressure With Depth

e The pressure in a fluid at any depth in a container or body of water is

the pressure due to the weight of the water above plus the atmospheric
pressure acting on the water’s surface. In certain cases the atmospheric
pressure may be negligible compared to the fluid’s weight.

If you have a container of fluid filled to a height h, the fluid will exert a
force equal to its weight mg on the bottom of the container. The pressure
exerted by a liquid because of its weight (ignoring overhead air pressure)
can be determined if you know its density and volume. For example, the
pressure at the bottom of a tank with vertical sides having length |, width
w, and height h is the weight of the water in (above the bottom of) the
tank.

pascal alg
ae, | h P = F/A = mg/A = (plwh)g/Iw = pgh

The volume of water is area times height, or: V = Ah = Iwh.

Since density p is mass/volume, mass is: m = pV = pAh = plwh.
The weight or force of the water is: F =mg = pVg = pAhg = plwhg.
The pressure is: force/area = P = F/A = pAhg/A = pglwh/|w.
Since area cancels, pressure exerted by a liquid is:

Therefore the fluid pressure at any depth of h with density p is pgh.

This equation can be thought of as including a column of liquid h high
with a cross-sectional area of | x w = one x one.

e Example: The Mariana Trench is the deepest area in Earth’s oceans.

The deepest point within the trench based on a number of measurements
is about 11,000 m. What is an estimate of the pressure?
Let’s make our estimate assuming the water is not compressed and has a
density of 1,000 kg/m’. Also assume the atmospheric pressure of the
overhead air is negligible. We can calculate the pressure using:
P = pgh = (1,000 kg/m*)(9.8 m/s”)(11,000 m) = 1.08 x 10° Pa
The pressure is therefore about 1.1 x 10° Pa (or 16,000 psi).

Measuring Air Pressure

e Air pressure is measured using different methods and under differing

circumstances. Two illustrative methods include a mercury barometer
and an aneroid barometer.
 Fluids 175

e In a mercury barometer a tube containing mercury (Hg) is inserted

upside-down in an open reservoir of mercury so that the pressure from
the weight of the mercury in the tube is pressing on the mercury trapped
in the tube, and the weight of air is pushing on the mercury in the open
reservoir. Note that the top end of the inserted tube develops a vacuum,
so only the weight of mercury in the tube is pressing down. In a mercury
barometer the height of mercury in the evacuated tube is determined by
the atmospheric pressure acting on the mercury in the reservoir. At
normal sea-level atmospheric pressure of 1 atmosphere, the height of a
tube of mercury is: 760 mm Hg = | atm = 1.013 x 10° Pa.

vacuum
h = 760 mm for Hg at | atm

atmospheric pressure P, Pug pressure from weight of Hg

Hg reservoir

Since the pressure in a fluid is P = pgh and the density of mercury is

1.36 x 10* kg/m’, we see that the height in the tube at atmospheric
pressure is h = P/pg, or:
h = (1.013 x 10° Pa) / (1.36 x 10° kg/m*)(9.8 m/s’) ~ 0.76 m or 760 mm

e Another type of barometer is called an aneroid barometer, which has

an evacuated chamber with flexible walls that deflect as ambient pressure
changes. The deflection is linked with a pointer which moves across an
indicating scale. This type of barometer is portable and is used in
portable instruments and aircraft altimeters.

Gauge Pressure

e Mechanical pressure gauges generally measure the difference in

pressure between some volume the gauge is connected to and the
ambient atmosphere. The Standard Atmospheric Pressure is defined at
sea level and is 1 atm = 1.013 x 10° Pa. In English units the Standard
Atmospheric Pressure is 14.696 psi or about 14.7 Ib/in’. The gauge
pressure is the pressure measured by a gauge and reflects the pressure
difference between some system or volume and the surrounding
atmosphere. The gauge pressure is:
Pe = Ps — Pa
s.
with pg, ps, and p, being gauge, system, and atmospheric pressure
176 Master Math: Essential Physics

7.2. Archimedes’ Principle and the Buoyant Force in

Static Fluids

e Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force on a submersed

object is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. To understand this,
imagine a piece of driftwood floating in the water. There is a buoyant
force acting on the wood that holds, or buoys, it up. But how does the
buoyant force work? First, remember that due to the weight of the liquid
above, the pressure in a body of liquid increases with depth. Also,
remember that the pressure at any depth acts equally in all directions.
Because of the increasing pressure “below” and the fact that pressure
“pushes” equally in all directions, we can imagine there would be an
upward-acting pressure on any submerged object which would
counteract the weight of the object.

Going further, the buoyant force Fg on any submersed object reflects the
difference between the force due to pressure acting downward on the
upper surface (which is at lower pressure) and the upward force due to
pressure acting on the lower surface (which is at higher pressure). This
net upward force caused by the pressure difference between the upper
and lower ends of a submerged object is equal to the weight of the
volume of liquid that the object takes up or displaces. Archimedes (in the
third century B.C.) discovered this buoyant force on submersed objects,
finding it to be equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

e We can develop an equation for the buoyant force on a submersed

object. First, remember that pressure is: P = F/A.
In a fluid, pressure is: P = pgh.
It follows that force is pressure times area: F = PA = pghA.
Also, in a static fluid, the horizontal forces acting on the object cancel
each other so we only need to consider the vertical forces. To develop an
equation, let’s use a cylinder submerged in a fluid having density py.

The downward pressure due to the fluid acting on the upper surface at
depth h, 1s:
Pa = prghy
 Fluids 7/7/

The downward fluid force acting on the upper surface at depth h, is:
Fu = (prghy)A
The upward pressure due to the fluid acting on the bottom surface at
depth hy is:
Pies prghy
The upward fluid force acting on the lower surface at the depth h, is:
FL = (prghi)A
The buoyant force Fx is the difference between the forces due to pressure
acting on the upper and lower surfaces. With A representing the area of
the upper and lower surfaces, buoyant force is:
Fp = PLA = PAA = prg(hy = h,)A

Since the volume of the cylinder is V. = (hy — h,)A, we can write:

which describes the buoyant force of a cylinder or similar object.

e It is also useful to understand the net force Fy, acting on the cylinder:
(The downward direction is negative.)
Foet = —mg — F, + Fy = —mg + (Fr — Fy) = —mg + p,g(hy — h,)A

Since the volume of the cylinder is V, = (hy — h,)A and the mass of the
fluid displaced by the cylinder is m¢= prV:

Fret = ing + prg(hy — hy)A = —mg + pig Ve= —ng + meg = —g + we

where wy is the weight of the fluid displaced by the cylinder. This gives
the net force acting on the cylinder as:

where wr is the buoyant force, which is the amount that the downward
force due to gravity mg is reduced. Since the buoyant force is the weight
offluid displaced by the object, net force can be written:

where
Fp WY fe prVgZ

e The net force equation,

Fret = 1b a

reveals that if the buoyant force wy exceeds the weight of the object mg,
then Fret is positive or upward and the object will move upward in the
fluid. This occurs when the density p of the submersed object is less than
178 Master Math: Essential Physics

the fluid density p;. If the top of the object begins to rise above the
surface, the volume of liquid displaced by the object will decrease until
the buoyant force decreases to a value that equals mg. When mg = wy, the
net force is zero, Fy; = 0, and the object will remain partially submerged
and floating.

An equilibrium is reached when the buoyant force is equal to the weight

of the object—this is the level where the object floats. We see this with
floating ice. Since the density of ice is about 0.9 g/cm’, which is slightly
less than the density of liquid water, 1 g/cm’, only about ten percent of
the volume of an iceberg protrudes above the surface as it floats. When
an object is partially submerged and floating, the buoyant force is equal
to the weight of the volume of liquid displaced by the submerged portion
of the object. As a floating object sinks down in a fluid, the buoyant
force becomes greater than its weight, and will push the object upward. If
a floating object rises above the equilibrium position, the buoyant force
becomes less than the weight and the object will again sink to a lower
level. Eventually an equilibrium level will be reached.

e Example: Humans have a density that is about the same as water—

with muscle tissue being slightly more dense and fat tissue being slightly
less dense. Suppose your mass is 50 kg and you are very muscular
without much excess fat on your body. Since a muscular person has a
density of just slightly more than that of water, you can estimate your
density to be about 1.03 g/cm’, providing you have not taken a deep
breath (which increases your volume more than your weight). What
would be your effective weight in water?

Since your density py is about 1,030 kg/m* , your volume is about:

V =m/p, = (50 kg) / (1,030 kg/m’) = 4.85 x 10° m°
Since the density py of water is about 1,000 kg/m’, the buoyant force is:
Fp = we= prVg = (1,000 kg/m’)(4.85 x 10? m*)(9.8 m/s”) = 475 N
Your effective weight w, in water is your weight in air minus the
buoyant force:
Ww = Wa — Fg = (50 kg)(9.8 m/s”) — (475 N)=490N—-475N=15N

which is about 3.37 lb.

 Fluids 173

Finding the Density of an Irregularly Shaped Object

¢ We developed Archimedes’ principle using a cylindrical object since

we could easily calculate the pressure difference between its upper and
lower surfaces. While we can develop equations using other geometric
shapes, there is a straightforward method that shows Archimedes’
principle works for objects other than cylinders. Consider an irregularly
shaped object with volume V that is submerged in a static fluid with no
forces acting on it other than its own weight and the buoyant force.
Imagine an equal size and shape blob or volume of fluid next to it at rest
at the same depth. Since the object and the equivalent blob of liquid are
at the same depth and are in equilibrium, the weight and the buoyant
force must be equal. This is stated by Archimedes’ principle—that the
buoyant force on the submerged object must be equal to the weight of an
equal volume of fluid. This principle helps us determine the density of an
object.

We learned earlier in this chapter that the average density p of any object
is mass divided by volume: p = m/V. If you know the mass and volume,
you can quickly calculate density. But what ifyou need to determine the
density of an object that has an irregular shape? It can be a challenge to
determine the volume of an irregularly shaped object. It turns out that we
can use Archimedes’ principle to find the density of an irregular object
without needing to determine its volume. To do this we measure the
weight of the object in air w, (ignoring negligible buoyancy effects of
air). We also measure the object’s immersed weight w; while it is
submerged in a fluid such as water having known density py.

measures mg = W, measures immersed weight w;

We have learned that according to Archimedes’ principle the buoyant

force, Fz = wr= prVg, equals the amount that the downward force due to
gravity (object’s weight mg) is reduced when it is submerged. The
buoyant force is also the weight of fluid displaced by the object. It .
follows that an objeci’s immersed weight w; must be equal to its weight
in air, w, = mg, minus the buoyant force, Fz = wy, pushing upward.
Wj = Wa— We

For any object having a volume V, the weight w; ofthe fluid the object
displaces is:
wr
= prev
180 Master Math: Essential Physics

Therefore, w; = Wa — Wr becomes w; = Wa — prgV, Or:

prgV = Wa Wi

V =(wa— wi) / (peg)

which is the volume of the object in terms of its weight in air, weight in
fluid, gravity, and fluid density. Since the density p of the object is:
p = m/V = (w,/g)/V
Substituting for V gives:
P = (wa/g) / [(wa — Wi) / (Pr8)]
Rearranging gives:
P = (wa)(Pr) / [Wa — Wi)]

which is the density of the object in terms of its weight in air, its weight
in fluid, and the density of that fluid. We do not need to directly know
the mass or volume of the object!

e Example: Imagine a friend comes to you with a bracelet her boyfriend

has just given her. She said the boyfriend claimed it was “pure gold,” but
she is suspicious and said that “it does not seem to be pure gold and
undoubtedly contains some silver.” She had heard the story of how
Archimedes’ had tested a crown to see if it was pure gold and asked if
you could help her determine if the bracelet was really pure gold.

You weigh the bracelet at 1.06 oz, which converts to about 0.03 kg. You
look up the density of gold as 19,300 kg/m’. If the bracelet was pure gold
it would have a volume of:
V, = m,/p, = 0.03 kg / 19,300 kg/m? = 1.6 x 10° m°
To determine if the bracelet is pure gold, you weigh it in air:
w, = mg = 0.03 kg x 9.8 m/s’ = 0.294 N
Then you weigh it while it is immersed in water: w; = 0.274 N.
The bracelet’s density 1s py = (Pwater)(Wa)/[(Wa — Wi)]:
Pp = (1,000 kg/m’)(0.294 N) /(0.294N — 0.274.N) = 14,700 kg/m*
The bracelet’s measured volume is Vj = (Wa — Wi)/(PwaterZ):
Vp = (0.294 N — 0.274 N)/[(1,000 kg/m*)(9.8 m/s*)] = 2.0 x 10° m°
“Wow!” your friend says. “The bracelet’s measured volume is definitely
greater than it would be if it were pure gold, which would have a volume
of V,= 1.6 x 10° m’. It must have silver or some other alloy in it.” Her
face became serious. “Do you think I should tell him the truth about the
bracelet? What would I say?” You thought for a moment. “Just tell him
gold’s density is 19,300 kg/m’ and silver’s is 10,490 kg/m’, so gold has a
 Fluids 181

greater density that silver, and therefore for the same weight, its takes up
less volume.”
She then asked, “So how did Archimedes figure out the crown’s purity?”
“Ok, here’s the story as I’ve heard it,” you respond. “Archimedes made
two masses—one gold and one silver—which were the same weight as
the crown. He then filled a container to the very top with water and put
the mass of silver into it, noting that the volume of water that overflowed
was equal to that of the mass of silver. In the same way Archimedes
filled the container again and put in the mass of gold. He noted that less
water overflowed with the gold. This is because gold has a greater
density than silver, and therefore gold takes up less volume for the same
weight. He again refilled the container and put in the crown.” “I bet more
water overflowed for the crown than for the equal-weight mass of gold,”
your friend surmised. “You’ve guessed right,” you said. “Archimedes
figured the gold had been blended with silver.”

e Example: You and your friend decide to go on another mountain

climbing adventure. You really want to go but are feeling a bit tired. You
notice the tank of helium in the corner of your lab and have a brainstorm.
What if you attach a large helium balloon to yourself to reduce your
effective weight? Even a “lift” that would reduce your weight by 20%
would feel good! If your mass is 60 kg, how big of a helium balloon
would you need?
Just like with liquid, the buoyant force is the weight of air displaced:
Fg = Wr = prVgZ
You estimate the mountain temperature and look up the density of air as
about 1.22 kg/m’. You want a buoyant force of 20% of your weight:
(0.2)(60 kg)(9.8 m/s’) = 117.6 N
You then need to determine the volume of air that weighs 117.6 N.
Since the density of air is 1.22 kg/m’, volume is:
V = wy/ pig = (117.6 N)/(1.22 kg/m’)(9.8 m/s’) ~ 9.84 m’
The volume of a sphere is V = (4/3)nr°, so the radius would be:
P =3V/4n = (3)(9.84 m*)/(4n) = 2.35 or r=([2.35]°=1.33 m
“There you have it!” you exclaim. “My helium balloon needs to have a
radius of about | 33 m.”
“Wow, that’s a diameter of about 8.7 ft! What about the weight of the
helium balloon?” your friend says. eee
“Good point,” you respond. You estimate the density of helium in a
balloon at Standard Temperature and Pressure (20 °C, 760 mm Hg) as:
on= 0.18 g/L = 0.18 kg/m’. The balloon’s weight is:
o:Vg = (0.18 kg/m’)(9.84 m’)(9.8 m/s’ )=17N
182 Master Math: Essential Physics

“Let’s add a bit for the Mylar balloon itself and estimate an extra 20 N,”
you suggest. “This adds to my 588 N weight. So even accounting for a
few percent extra weight for the balloon itself, I will still get a decent lift.”
“Yes, and that huge balloon will also scare wild animals away!” your
friend teases.

7.3. Surface Tension and Capillary Action

Cohesive Forces and Surface Tension

e There are intermolecular cohesive forces that hold together molecules

of the same type in a solid or liquid. These cohesive forces are attractive
forces that exist between nearby molecules of the same type. It is these
attractive cohesive forces between molecules in a liquid that keep it in a
condensed state and create the phenomenon called surface tension.

While the cohesive forces between molecules within a liquid are shared
with molecules all around them, the molecules on the surface have no
liquid molecules above the surface and consequently form stronger
cohesive forces with neighboring molecules along the surface. This
forms a “skin” of like molecules along the surface that is a bit stronger
and more impenetrable than other sections within of the fluid below the
surface. This property of stronger intermolecular forces along the surface
of a fluid is called surface tension.

Cohesive forces between molecules

shown by the small arrows.

Additionally, because there are no liquid molecules above the surface to

exert attractive forces that counteract the attractive forces between
molecules below the surface, molecules on the surface experience a
slight net downward force. This downward force creates a slight
compression of the surface that minimizes the surface area of a liquid.

Cohesive forces and surface tension are on display when you observe a
droplet of water. A water droplet is held together generally by cohesive
forces and has an especially strong layer of cohesive forces along its
surface creating surface tension. Another demonstration of surface
tension occurs when a liquid surface supports small objects that are
denser than the fluid. We observe this when certain insects walk across a
pond or when we place a needle on a water surface and it “floats”.
 Fluids 183

® Because energy is required to stretch the surface area, the surface has
some amount of potential energy. This potential energy is referred to as
surface energy. Surface energy increases as the surface area is
increased. The potential energy per unit of area of the surface is defined
as the surface tension or the coefficient of surface tension.
coefficient of surface tension = o = PE/A

Consistent with this equation, the coefficient of surface tension has

units in the MKS system as J/m’. The coefficient of surface tension is
not only a measure of potential energy per unit area, but because work
can represent the change in energy, it is also the amount of work needed
to increase the surface area by some amount. Suppose you have a
rectangle of thin wire, and you create a thin layer of liquid across it by
dipping it in soapy water. If the size of your wire rectangle can be
increased by sliding out one side, its area can then be increased. This will
enable you to measure not only the increase in surface area but also the
work performed, (which equals the increase in potential energy of the
liquid surface). The coefficient of surface tension is then given by:

coefficient of surface tension = o = PE/A = W/AA

where W is the work performed, and AA is the increase in area.

Adjustable rectangle
with liquid film. l
moving side a

In this model the work required to increase the surface area of the water
film is equal to the force times the displacement of the adjustable side.
The surface tension o is described in terms of force per unit length:

coefficient of surface tension o = W/AA = FAd/lAd = F//

where force F is required to overcome the surface tension, and the

increase in area is equal to the width / of the rectangle times Ad
displacement.

e Example: Your friend points out that there are actually two surfaces of
the soapy water film in the figure above (front and back) and suggests
the force F should be multiplied by 2. Is the previous equation for o
correct?
Yes there are actually two surfaces of the soapy water film in the figure
above. You can consider the force needed to pull the adjustable side of
the
the rectangle as 2F, one F on each surface. Therefore, as you move
wire by Ad, the work done is W = 2FAd. The increase in surface area of
184 Master Math: Essential Physics

the film would then be 2/Ad and the work per unit area and the surface
tension come out the same: o = W/AA = 2FAd/2/Ad = F// is still correct.

e We can visualize the fact that increasing the surface area of a liquid
requires work by imagining dipping a glass tube into soapy water and
allowing a film of the liquid to spread across one end of the tube. If you
were to gently blow on the other end of the tube, you would increase the
surface area of the liquid film by creating a protruding soapy bubble. By
blowing you have exerted a force on the film and displaced it a certain
distance. You have done work against the cohesive forces in the film in
order to increase the surface area. The bubble you created now possesses
some amount of potential energy. When you stop blowing, the film will
return to its original state of minimum potential energy.

e Surface tension is measured in units of dynes/cm, as the force in dynes

needed to break a surface skin of length | cm. For example, if the surface
tension of water is 72.8 dynes/cm at 20 °C, it would take a force of
72.8 dynes to break a surface film of water 1 cm long. Surface tension is
also described as a surface energy in units of ergs per square centimeter.
Examples of surface tension values include: 72.8 dynes/cm for water at
20°C; 22.3 dynes/cm for ethyl alcohol; and 465 dynes/cm for mercury.
In MKS units surface tension is in J/m* = N/m. The value for the surface
tension of a liquid depends on the type of gas the liquid contacts.

e Example: Why are water droplets nearly spherical? Why are falling
raindrops not perfectly spherical?

The surface of a water droplet is in a state of minimum potential energy,

which is reflected in it being in a state of minimum surface area. The
surface area will be smallest when it takes the shape of a sphere. Tiny
raindrops mostly retain their spherical shape, but as they grow in size, air
pressure, air resistance, and other external forces cause them to flatten
and change shape. (They are not teardrop shaped.)

e Example: Why does hot water clean better than cold water? Why does
adding detergents and soaps clean even better than just hot water?

The surface tension of water, which is due to the polarity of water

molecules, decreases with increasing temperature. (Polar molecules
possess an uneven distribution in the density of their electrons allowing
electrostatic attraction between the more negative region of one polar
molecule and the more positive region of another.) Because the surface
tension decreases with rising temperature, hot water can permeate
smaller cracks and holes in a surface and acts as a better cleaning agent
 Fluids 185

than cold water. Adding detergents and soaps further reduces water’s
surface tension for even better penetration.

Capillary Action or Capillarity

e Have you ever seen a liquid in a small tube climb up the walls so that
its surface forms a meniscus? This is called capillary action or
capillarity and is a result of surface tension and the adhesive forces
between the liquid and the tube. We learned there are cohesive forces
between /ike molecules in a liquid that hold the molecules in the liquid
together and create the surface tension. There are also attractive forces
between unlike molecules called adhesive forces.

Adhesive forces can exist between molecules in a liquid and the molecules
in a container holding the liquid that attract the liquid molecules to the
container walls. The adhesive forces between water and the walls of a
tube cause an upward force on the water at the water-tube interface,
which result in an upward bending meniscus. The surface tension holds
the water surface together as the water at the water-tube interface is
reaching upward onto the walls of the tube.

In the presence of these adhesive forces, the surface of a liquid in a tube

can either curve upward or downward at the wall depending on whether
the adhesive forces between the liquid molecules and the wall are greater
or less than the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules.

Adhesive forces Cohesive forces

dominate. dominate.

When the adhesive forces between the liquid and the wall are greater
than the cohesive forces between liquid molecules, the liquid will curve
upward forming a meniscus. This is what we see with water in a glass
tube. An upward meniscus will rise until the upward force due to
adhesion equals the weight of the upward sloping liquid.

e If you insert one end of a tiny open-ended glass tube into a cup of
water, the water will rise to a certain height in the tube. The upper
surface of the water in the tube will have a concave shape that is lower in
the center and higher along the edges where it touches the tube’s wall.
The water in the tiny tube will climb up the wall until the upward
adhesive force due to the surface tension is balanced by the weight of the
raised water. The rise of a liquid in a tube is called capillary action or
capillarity. The up and down movement of the water in the tube depends
the
on which is stronger: the cohesive forces between water molecules or
186 Master Math: Essential Physics

adhesive forces between the water molecules and the molecules in the
glass tube. The upper surface of the water meets the glass wall at a
certain angle 8 shown in the figure.

Adhesive forces Cohesive forces

dominate. dominate.

Raised level. Depressed level.

When the adhesive forces dominate and a liquid adheres to a tube and
rises, the angle 6 that the fluid makes with the tube wall will be less than
90°. The greater its adherence to the tube, the smaller angle 9 becomes
and the fluid rises. Conversely, if the cohesive forces between molecules
in a liquid are large compared to the adhesive forces between the liquid
molecules and wall, the angle @ will be greater than 90°. In this case, the
level of the liquid in the tube will fall below the level offluid in the
container. This can be seen with mercury in a glass tube.

When adhesive forces are large and a liquid can easily rise in a tube, the
liquid is said to wet the tube wall. The better a fluid can wet, the smaller
the angle 0 between the liquid and wall. For example, water and ethyl
alcohol, which will completely wet a clean glass tube, have an angle 0 of
near 0°. Mercury does not wet glass well and has an angle 0 near 140°.

e We can develop an equation for how high bha liquid will rise (or be
depressed) in a tiny tube, or capillary tube, if one end is submerged in a
liquid. The force pulling the liquid upward is due to surface tension and
depends on the angle 0.

Adhesive forces Cohesive forces

dominate and dominate and
fluid rises by fluid falls by
h in tube. h in tube.

To develop the equation we begin by setting the upward force equal to

the downward force, since height h is where the liquid stops moving and
equilibrium is reached. The upward force due to the surface tension
balances the downward force, which is due to the gravitational force
acting on the water column. (For the upward force imagine strong
adhesive forces between the tube and the liquid pulling on the surface of
the liquid and dragging it upward.) The downward force is the
gravitational force on the cylindrical water column, which is its weight:
downward force = mg = pVg = p(mr-h)g
 Fluids 187

The upward force due to the surface tension at the edge of the meniscus
acts along the surface of the liquid. At the liquid-tube interface, the
surface tension makes an angle with the tube that is equal to the angle 0
between the liquid and the tube wall. Since angle 6 is between the
direction of the surface tension (parallel to the surface) and the vertical
side of the tube, the upward force is equal to the upward component of
the force per unit length, which is the vertical component of the surface
tension (o cos 8) times the length of the line of contact which is the
circumference of the meniscus (27r). In other words, the upward force is
equal to the cosine of 0 times the surface tension (6 = W/AA = FAd/lAd
= F//), where / is the length of the line of contact which in this case is the
circumference of the tube (2rr):
upward force = (2mr) o cos 0
Then we set the upward and downward forces equal:
2nro cos 6 = pmrhg
Solve for the height h a liquid will rise (or be depressed) in a tiny tube:

| h= 20 cos
8/ pgr |

When the surface tension is strong and lifts the edges of the meniscus up
so they are nearly vertical, the angle 6 will be very small and cos 8 wiil
be nearly 1. In this case, when angle 0 is small, h becomes:
h = 20/ pgr

e Example: You have two identical glass 0.15-mm-radius tubes in your

air-conditioned laboratory. What would be the heights if you stick the
lower end of one into a container of water and the other into a container
of mercury? Assume angle 0 is about 1° for water and 140° for mercury.

Because angle 6 for your water tube is small, height h is:

h = 2o0cos0/pgr ~ 20/pgr
You look up the surface tension for water o as about 0.073 N/m, and the
density p as 1,000 kg/m’, then calculate height using h = 20 / pgr:
h= (2)(0.073 N/m)/(1,000 kg/m*)(9.8 m/s”)(1.5 x 10m) ~ 0.099m= 9.9cm
This is a large distance due to the tiny diameter of the tube.
For mercury angle 6 is 140°, so height h is: h = 20 cos 0 / per.
You look up the surface tension for mercury o as about 0.465 N/m, and
the density p as 1.36 x 10’ kg/m’ and calculate height using:
h = 20 cos 0/pgr

= (2)(0.465 N/m)(cos 140°) / (1.36 x 10? kg/m>)(9.8 m/s*)(1.5 x 10 *m)

=~ —0.0356 m =—3.56 cm
188 Master Math: Essential Physics

The negative sign indicates that the “height” is actually the amount that
the mercury in the tube is below the level in the container.

e Capillary action causes a number of phenomena we observe in our

environment such as the wicking action of liquids onto various fabrics
and materials and even the movement of groundwater in soil. While
water spreads through a cotton fabric via capillary action, some materials
such as wool are not easily wet by water and have the property of being
more “water resistant.”

7.4. Fluid Flow, Continuity Equation, and Bernoulli’s

Equation

e The study of fluids in motion is a broad and complex subject with

many practical uses, including understanding blood flow through veins
and arteries, the delivery of water and other fluids through pipes and
nozzles, and flows around objects such as aircraft and ships. This section
provides an introduction to the smooth (laminar) flow of fluids that does
not involve turbulence or high viscosity and require complicated
mathematics. Note that laminar flow of a fluid is smooth, non-turbulent,
streamlined, and is often described as flowing smoothly in parallel
layers, without rotating eddies or mixing.

The Equation of Continuity

e When a fluid is in motion, it moves in a way that conserves mass. A

basic principle of fluid flow is that the amount of fluid that enters one
end of a pipe equals the amount of fluid that exits the other end. Going
further, when fluid flows smoothly and in a steady state, continuous
manner, the rate of flow (flow rate) into one end of a pipe equals the rate
of flow out the other end. This flow rate can be defined as the mass of
fluid per second that passes some point in the pipe.
flow rate = m/t = pAd/t = pAv
where m is the mass of fluid, p is the density of the fluid, d is the dis-
tance a fluid particle travels during time t, A is the cross-sectional area of
the pipe, and pAd is the mass of fluid that flows past some point at time
t. Note that if we set the last two terms equal we have flow velocity v as:

For pipes with a variable cross-sectional area, a liquid must flow with a
faster speed in a narrow section than in a wider section (in order to have
the same mass-per-time flow rate).
 Fluids 189

| ec
= ae A>

If a pipe has a cross sectional area A, at point 1 and area A, at point 2,

the flow rate must be the same at each point:

PiAivi = prAovo
which is the continuity equation for steady, laminar, one-dimensional
flow. Since most liquids are not very compressible, the density does not
change, so that p; = po:

This is the equation of continuity for an incompressible liquid and

describes the relationship between flow velocity and cross-sectional area.
We see this principle in a flowing river or stream, which has higher flow
velocities at narrow sections and slower flow velocities at wide sections.

e Example: You decide to test this “flow rate in equals flow rate out”
concept by setting up an apparatus with one large tube connected to 10
small tubes. The radius of the large tube is 2 cm and each small tube is
0.5 cm. If you deliver a flow velocity of water in the large tube at
v, = 0.2 m/s, what is the velocity v2 in one of the small tubes?
We can use Av; = Aov2, where A, is the cross-sectional area of the large
tube and A> is the combined cross-sectional areas of the 10 small tubes.
The flow in each small tube is: Ay = (0.1)A>, or (10)Ag, = Ao, so the
equation becomes:
Aiv; = (10)Agv2
Solve for v2:
V2 = Vi(Ai/(10) Ast) = vi (0. 1)(Ai/Ast)
Since a tube’s cross-sectional area is mr’: (Aj/A) = (ry’/mry’) = (117/12)
Velocity v2 in one of the small tubes becomes:
V7 = Vv(0.1)(r)/tg)° = (0.2 m/s)(0.1)(2 em/0.5 cm)’ = 0.32 m/s
The velocity in the large tube was delivered as 0.2 m/s and we found
each of the 10 small tubes should have a velocity 0.32 m/s.

Bernoulli’s Equation

e The behavior of many fluids in motion can be described by Bernoulli’s

equation, developed by Daniel Bernoulli in the 1700s. It 1s primarily
applied to liquids, but can be applied to gases when pressure differences
are very small and compression is minimal. Bernoullt’s equation relates
the pressure, density, and velocity of a flowing fluid and can be derived
190 Master Math: Essential Physics

by assuming that the fluid is incompressible and is flowing smoothly

(laminar flow) without turbulence or viscous effects.
dy

We can derive Bernoulli’s equation by considering fluid flow in a pipe.

Since an external force is required to drive the flow, this force is doing
work on the fluid. In turn, work is also being done by the fluid on other
fluid elements in the pipe. In the diagram we can imagine that work is
done on the fluid at cross-section point 1, and work is done by the fluid
at cross-section point 2. The net work W done on the fluid causes a
change in the potential energy and kinetic energy of the fluid:
W = APE? AKE

At point | the work done on the fluid involves moving a volume V, of

fluid with force F, for a net displacement of d, at a constant velocity v;.
Therefore, the work done on the fluid is W = F,d; and volume V, = A;d;
has been displaced distance d;. At point 2, because the fluid is
incompressible, the volume displaced through point | must equal the
volume displaced at position 2, so that a volume of fluid with cross-
sectional area A, and a length d, is displaced d, at a constant velocity v2,
where Ajd; = Apdo. Since the volume of fluid moves by pushing on the
next element of fluid in front of it, the work done on the fluid at point 2
is F,d>. The net work done on the fluid is:

W = Fd, — Fido
Since F; = P,A, and F,= P»Az:
W = P, Ayd; — P2Aod>
Since V = V,; = Ayd; = V2 = Ando:

Ws (P= Pav
As the fluid is moved from point | to point 2, a mass of fluid (m= pV) at
a pressure P), traveling with velocity v, at height h,, becomes an equal
mass of fluid (m = pV) at pressure P,, moving with velocity v2 at height
hj. Since work done between points | and 2 is the change in kinetic and
potential energy:
APE = A(mgh) = mg(Ah) = pVg(hz — hy)
and
AKE = A((1/2)mv’) = (1/2)mAv? = (1/2)pV(v2" — v1’)
 Fluids 191

If we substitute APE = pVg(h> — hy), AKE = (1/2)pV(v2’ — v,7), and

W = (P;— P2)V, into W = APE + AKE we get:

(Pi — P2)V = pVg(hp — hi) + (1/2)pV(v2" — v1’)

Divide by V and multiply:
P, — Py = pghy — pgh; + (1/2)pv.’ — (1/2)pv,
Rearranging to set point 1 conditions equal to point 2 conditions gives
the Bernoulli equation:

P, + pgh; + (1/2)pvi? = P2+ pgho + (1/2)pv2

Since points | and 2 in the figure could have been chosen elsewhere,
Bernoulli’s equation shows that the value of P + pgh + (1/2)pv’ will be
the same for any location in a pipe and connects the fundamental
characteristics P, p, and v at different points in the flowing fluid. The
Bernoulli equation has numerous practical uses and applications.

e If velocity is zero and the fluid is static, the velocity terms in

Bernoulli’s equation are zero, and the equation reduces to:
P, + pgh, = P2+ pgh»o
Py—P2= petits = hy)
This mimics the familiar equation: P = F/A = mg/A = pVg/A = pgh.

e You may be wondering if you can model a body of water such as a

pond or a fish tank that is leaking fluid through a pipe or holes using
Bernoulli’s equation. To test this, imagine you decide to measure the
flow velocity of fluid leaving the drain in the bottom of your rather large
2 m long, | m wide, 1.5 m high fish tank. If the drain tube that leaves the
fish tank has a 1-cm diameter, what would the flow velocity in the tube
be once you open the valve?

You can model this as a pipe with a variable cross-sectional area where
the open top of the tank is the inlet of a pipe (cross-section 1) and the exit
of the drain tube as the exit of a pipe (cross-section 2). This allows you to
use Bernoulli’s equation:
P| r pen ale (1/2)pvi" = Po+ pgh> ate (1/2)pva"

Since the top of the tank and the exit of the drain tube are both open to
atmospheric pressure, P; = Po:
pgh; + (1/2)pvi’ = pgho + (1/2)pv2"
Because flow rate in will equal flow rate out:
AAV = 209
192 Master Math: Essential Physics

Rearrange the modified Bernoulli equation and substitute for

Vie V2(A2/A}): F

(1/2)pv2" — (1/2)p[v2(A2/Ai)] = pghi — pghs

(1/2)pv2[1 — (Ao/A1)'] = pg(hi — ha)
If the surface area of the body of water, in this case the upper surface of
water in the fish tank (A,), is much greater than the surface area of the
exit pipe (A), the ratio of areas (A2/A,) will be minuscule. Since
A> = 1(0.005 m)? = 7.85 x 10° m’ and A, =2mx 1m=2m’,
(Ao/A\) = 1.5 x 10°’, which is near zero. The equation becomes:

(1/2)pv2"[1] = pg(hi — hz)

or

v2 = 2g(h; — hz)

This simplification of Bernoulli’s equation is called Torricelli’s

equation, because it was discovered by E. Torricelli before Bernoulli’s
work. Interestingly, the flow velocity depends on height just as an object
falling through height h = h, — hy, in the familiar equation wi=2ehi

We now can calculate the flow velocity from our 1.5 m high fish tank:
vy = 2(9.8 m/s’)(1.5 m) = 29.4
Taking the square root: v2 ~ 5.4 m/s.

e Another variation of Bernoulli’s equation involves understanding the

dynamics of liquid flowing through a horizontal pipe that has segments
with different cross-sectional areas. When the height is constant, so that
h, = hy, those terms cancel and the Bernoulli equation becomes:
P, + (1/2)pvy7 = P) + (1/2)pv2’
We can see from this equation that where the flow velocity is high (in
segments with smaller cross sections), the pressure will be lower. We can
rearrange the equation to isolate the pressure difference between two
points in a horizontal pipe corresponding to v, and vp:
P, — P)= (1/2)p(v2" — wi’)
The interesting property is that narrower regions of a pipe have higher
flow velocities and lower pressures exerted on the pipe walls, as shown
by the height differences in the liquid in the side tubes off the pipe:

(v2> vi)
(ParPn)
 Fluids 193

. Example: If you want to see this for yourself and set up an apparatu
s
like the above figure, how would you determine the difference in the
heights of liquid from the vertical tubes off the wide section 1 and the
narrow section 2?
First, the difference in the heights Ah the liquid rises in the vertical tubes
1s proportional to the pressure difference, and obeys the equation for
fluid pressure:
P, = P, =e pgAh

You can substitute into P; — P= (1/2)p(v2’ — v,’) for a horizontal pipe:

pgAh = (1/2)p(v2"— v1’)

Ah = (1/2¢)(v—vi-)
which is the difference in the heights of the of liquid in the vertical tubes.
Note that if the fluid is an incompressible liquid like water, and you can
calculate v2 using: A;v, = Aovo.

e Just like a fluid flowing through a pipe, when a fluid flows across a
surface, it exerts less pressure when the flow velocity is high than when
it is low. This principle is often presented as a simplified version of how
lift is generated for airplane flight. The explanation of lift is more
complicated and involves the turning of gas (air) by a solid object
(airplane wing) such that when the flow of air is turned in one direction
lift is generated in the opposite direction. See NASA’s website or a
similar reliable source if you are interested in an explanation of lift.

7.5. Viscosity, Reynolds Number, and Terminal Velocity

Viscosity

@ All real fluids exhibit some amount of viscosity, though in some cases
a fluid can be considered to have negligible viscosity. /deal fluids by
definition have no viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is the result of
internal interactions, or internal friction, among the molecules of a liquid
or gas. Viscosity can be thought of as a measure of a fluid’s ability to
flow. It causes a fluid to be resistant to flow, so that the higher the
viscosity the more resistant it is to flow. A viscous fluid will also resist
the motion of an immersed object through it. A fluid like honey is more
viscous than water.

Viscosity in liquids results from cohesive forces between liquid

molecules and adhesive forces between the liquid and walls of containers
or pipes through which it flows. Because the interaction between gas
194 Master Math: Essential Physics

molecules is weaker than that between liquid molecules, gases are much
less viscous. Gases do, however, have frictional forces acting within
them and, like liquids, vary in their viscosity. Viscosity varies with
temperature. This can be observed by placing cooking oil in the
refrigerator—it will become more thick and viscous. If you subsequently
heat it, it will become thinner and less viscous. For liquids, an increase in
temperature leads to lower viscosity. This is not the case for gases.

e The degree of viscosity in a fluid can be evaluated by the amount of

lateral force required to make it move sideways. This is called shearing
and can be done by horizontally sliding two plates separated by a layer
of fluid. In this setup, the coefficient of viscosity n can be found by
measuring the force required to slide the upper plate at velocity v across
the stationary lower plate. The viscous force F, resisting motion is
proportional to the velocity v and surface area A of the plates and
inversely proportional to plate separation d:
F, =n vA/d
where 1 is the coefficient of viscosity. (Note that u is also often used to
represent the coefficient of viscosity.) Values for 7 are relatively small
for less viscous substances such as air, and greater for more viscous
substances such as oil or honey. The coefficient of viscosity decreases
with increasing temperature in liquids, but it increases with rising
temperature for gases.

Units of y in SI are N-s/m’ = Pars. In CGS units are dyne-s/cm’ = Poise

(P) after the French physicist J. Poiseuille. 1 Pars = 10 P.

Turbulence and Reynolds Number

e Fluid flow through a pipe is generally smooth and laminar at low

velocities. If flow velocity increases, a critical speed is reached when the
laminar flow is no longer consistently smooth, and transient circular
eddies begin to appear. This transition velocity where flow is no longer
laminar depends on fluid properties and pipe diameter. As velocity
increases further, the flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent flow is
generally associated with the presence of eddies and chaotic motions.
Turbulence commonly occurs with low viscosity fluids at higher flow
velocities. The onset of turbulence in flow has been found
experimentally to obey the Reynolds number (R):

R = 2rvp¢/n = Dvp:/n

where v is the average flow velocity, p is the fluid density, r is the pipe
radius, D is diameter, and 7 is the coefficient of viscosity. The Reynolds
 Fluids 195
number has no units and is called a dimensionless number. It reflects the
ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. The Reynolds number is used to
determine whether a flow will be laminar or turbulent. Approximate
Reynolds number values for flow in a pipe range from R < 2,300 for
laminar flow, R > 4,000 for turbulent flow, and transient effects occur
between about 2,300 and 4,000. In turbulent flow, inertial forces
dominate viscous forces. In laminar flow, viscous forces dominate. The
Reynolds number also applies to an object moving through a fluid, where
D represents the size in one dimension, and p, and n refer to the fluid.
Just as with fluid flowing through a pipe, when an object moves through
a fluid, the flow around it can be either laminar or turbulent.

e Example: If the water leaving your 3/4-in garden hose is flowing at

10 gallons/min, is it laminar or turbulent?
We can use the Reynolds number R = 2rvp¢/n = Dvpy¢/n.
Convert: 10 gal/min = 6.3 x 10~* m’/s and a 3/4-in hose = 0.019 m.
We need flow velocity which relates to volume flow rate by v = V/A
where A is cross-sectional area:
v = (6.3 x 10% m’/s) / 2(0.0095 m)’ = 2.22 m/s
The density and viscosity of water are 1,000 kg/m’ and 0.001 Pass.
R = Dvp;/n = (0.019 m)(2.22 m/s)(1,000 kg/m*)/(0.001 Pars) = 42,180
Definitely turbulent!

Terminal Velocity

e One of the effects of viscosity is that it retards the motion of an object

falling through a fluid until terminal velocity is reached. When an object
falls through a fluid such as water, oil, honey, or even air, the rate that it
falls is slowed by viscous effects. If a rock falls through water or oil
under the acceleration of gravity it experiences the downward force of
gravity and the retarding upward forces due to buoyancy and viscous
friction. As the rock accelerates downward, the viscous force increases
with increasing velocity until equilibrium is reached between the up and
down forces when the net force becomes zero. At this point terminal
velocity is reached, there is no further acceleration, and the rock con-
tinues falling at its constant, cerminal velocity. (See Section 1.6.)

The terminal velocity rates for the rock falling through water, oil, or
honey will differ. For the same distance, the rock falls through water
much faster than through the more viscous oil due to higher frictional,
viscous forces in the oil. As the rock falls, it initially gathers speed,
accelerating under gravity while the viscous force increases until the
frictional force begins to balance its weight. This is the point where
196 Master Math: Essential Physics

maximum (terminal) velocity is reached. As the rock continues down, it

will fall at this terminal velocity with no further acceleration. If the rock
falls through air, which has relatively low viscosity, it will accelerate to a
greater speed until it reaches its terminal velocity in air, which is greater
than what it reaches in water, oil, or honey. When terminal velocity is
reached it will stop accelerating.

The frictional or viscous force that retards the motion of an object that is
either falling or moving through a fluid, such as the motion of an aircraft
or submarine, is called drag. When the flow of fluid around a moving
object is laminar, the drag or viscous force is proportional to the
velocity.

7.6. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Fluid (liquid or gas) has no rigid, fixed structure or shape and flows.
e Pressure is: P = F/A. Fluid pressure at depth h is: P = pgh.
e Pascal’s principle: pressure applied to the surface of a fluid is trans-
mitted undiminished in all directions and to all points within the fluid.
e Average density p = m/V and specific gravity SG = Pgubstance / PH20-
e Archimedes’ principle: buoyant force equals weight of fluid displaced.
e Buoyant force of cylinder or similar object: Fg = prVg.
e Volume of irregular object: V = (Wair — Wimmersed) / (PauidZ)-
e Surface tension is due to cohesive forces between molecules in a liquid.
e Capillary action results from surface tension and adhesive forces.
e Height h liquid rises (or lowers) in a tiny tube: h = 20 cos 0/ pgr.
e When a fluid is in motion, it moves in a way that conserves mass.
e Laminar pipe flow: flow rate in = flow rate out. Flow rate = m/t = pAv.
e Continuity equation, laminar 1-dimensional: p,;A;Vv; = p2Aov.
If (Op (Oar, Aw) = AdV>.

e Bernoulli equation: P; + pgh; + (1/2)pvi° = P2 + pgho + (1/2)pv2’.

e Viscosity results from internal friction among fluid molecules.
e Reynolds number: R = 2rvp;/n = Dvp;/n reveals laminar or turbulent.

Practice Problems

7.1 (a) A basketball is filled to a pressure of 12 Ib/in? as measured by a

mechanical gauge. If transported to the Moon, what would the gauge’s
pressure reading be for the basketball? (b) You blow up a balloon to a
pressure of 3 atm. If you make a pinprick 1 mm in diameter in the
balloon, what will be the pressure of the escaping air in Pa? (c) You
 Fluids 197

estimate that 70% of a duck on a pond floats above the water. Based on
this observation, estimate the duck’s specific gravity.

7.2 (a) If the 50-kg person discussed in the example in Section 7.2 is
submerged in the Dead Sea (density of 1,240 kg/m’ due to dissolved
minerals), what will be his effective weight? (b) When in equilibrium,
what percentage of his body would float above the surface?

7.3 (a) In the example in Section 7.3 of 0.15-mm tubes in water and
mercury, if you use a tube with a radius of 1.5 mm rather than 0.15 mm,
how high will the water rise (assume cos 0 remains close to 1)? (b) What
height will the water reach in a tube with a radius of only 0.015 mm?
(c) Why should the heights be different?

7.4 (a) If water is flowing through a 1-in garden hose at 2 ft/s, what will
be its exit velocity through a nozzle with diameter 0.1 in? (b) If a large
reservoir with a surface elevation of 1,500 m is drained through a 3-m
diameter conduit with an exit point at elevation 700 m, what will be the
velocity of the water exiting the conduit (ignoring friction and viscosity)?

7.5 In a wind tunnel of 0.1 m diameter, at what velocity will laminar

flow begin to break down? Assume air density of 1.3 kg/m? and a
coefficient of viscosity of 1.73 x 107 Pars.

Answers to Chapter 7 Problems

TAG) Dee — Dog — Pen. SO Pry — Daauge t Data — 12 + 14.7 = 26.7. On the
Moon, where atmospheric pressure is effectively zero, the gauge would
read 26.7 psi. (b) The pressure is the same regardless of the size of the
hole because pressure is measured as force per area, such as N/m’. Since
the outside pressure is 1 atm, the pressure difference at the small hole is
3 — 1 =2 atm, but as the air leaves the balloon its pressure immediately
drops to 1 atm. (c) Since a volume of water that occupies 30% of the
duck’s volume weighs the same as the duck, the duck’s density is about
30% the density of water, which is 1,000 kg/m’. Therefore SGguck =
Pduck/Px20 = 300/1,000 = 0.30.

7.2 (a) Fa = posVg = (1,240 kg/m’)(4.85 x 10° m*)(9.8 m/s’) = 589 N.

Ww = Wa — Fp = 490 — 589 = —99 N or upward “weight” of 22 Ibs.
(b) Equilibrium is reached when the weight of the displaced Dead Sea
water equals his body weight. (1,240)(percent submerged) = 1,030.
Percent submerged = 83%, so 17% of his body would float above the
water.

7.3 (a) Using h = 2p/pgr, ifris increased by a factor of 10, h is reduced

by a factor of 10, so h= 0.99 cm. (b) If ris decreased by a factor of 10,
198 Master Math: Essential Physics

h is increased by a factor of 10, so h = 99 cm or about 39 in. (c) This is

an example of scaling. In (a) the diameter along which the lifting force
works is 10 times longer, but the area of water to be lifted (ar) is 100
times greater, so the ratio of the lifting force to the amount of liquid
being raised is 1/10 as great.

7.4 (a) Since the cross-sectional area of the nozzle is 1/100 that of the
hose, the exit velocity must be 100 times as great to conserve mass, or
200 ft/s. (b) Using Torricelli’s equation, yi = 2g(h; — ho) =
2(9.8)(1,500 — 700) = 15,680. Therefore, v ~ 125 m/s.

7.5 The threshold Reynolds number for the breakdown of laminar flow is
near 2,300. R = Dvp/n so v = Rn/Dp = (2,300)(1.73 x 10°°)/(0.1)(1.3) =
0.31 m/s.
 ee
A Ye ets ee Pale

Chapter 8
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

8.1. Temperature
8.2. Thermal Expansion
8.3. Heat as Energy
8.4. Heat Transfer
8.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“Do not imagine that mathematics is hard and crabbed, and repulsive to
common sense. It is merely the etherealization of common sense.”

“Overwhelmingly strong proofs of intelligent and benevolent design

lie around us...”

Both attributed to Lord Kelvin

8.1. Temperature

e While we think of temperature as a measure of hotness or coldness, it is

telling us the average kinetic energy of the molecules that make up a
substance or material. Heat and temperature are often used in tandem as
we think of a hotter substance as having a higher temperature. There is,
however, a difference between heat and temperature. Heat is a form of
energy (thermal energy), while temperature is a property of a material
which depends on that material. More specifically, heat is the energy
that flows due to temperature differences, and temperature is a measure
of the average internal or kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules in a
substance or system. We will discuss heat later in this chapter.

The Scales—Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Absolute Kelvin

e Scales and measurement devices have been developed to study and

understand temperature. Temperature is measured on three scales:
Fahrenheit, centigrade or Celsius, and Kelvin.
200 Master Math: Essential Physics

Water Water
Freeze Point Boil Point
Fahrenheit
—459.67 °F 322k DO mar
Celsius
=273.1 € OAC Looe
Kelvin
OK PUB NS VK BiB

The Celsius, or centigrade, scale is clearly related to the

boiling/vaporizing point and the freezing/melting point of water. The
absolute, or Kelvin scale, is thought of as the more fundamental, having
an absolute zero, 0 K, which is the lowest theoretical temperature a
material or substance can have.

e The Fahrenheit scale (which is not metric) is the most commonly used
scale in the U.S., though Celsius is the predominant scale used through-
out the world and with many U.S. scientists, particularly physicists. D.G.
Fahrenheit originally devised the Fahrenheit scale so that negative
numbers would not often occur. The scale was developed with the value
of 32° corresponding to the freezing point of water, and the value of 212°
corresponding to the boiling point of water (both at sea-level atmospheric
pressure). In the Fahrenheit scale, comfortable room temperature is about
70° and the human body temperature is just under 100° (98.6°).

e The Celsius, or centigrade, scale, which is metric, is set directly to the

freezing and boiling points of water at sea-level pressure. It has the
freezing point of water or melting point of ice corresponding to 0°C and
the boiling point of water corresponding to 100°C.

e By subtracting the differences in boiling and freezing points, we see

that 1 centigrade degree is (212 — 32)/(100 — 0) = 180/100 = 9/5 larger
than | Fahrenheit degree. To convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius, we
use the fact that the freezing point of water is 0 °C and 32 °F, anda
change in temperature of 9 °F corresponds to a change of 5 °C. The
equations relating the two (which are worth memorizing) are:

Tc = (5/9)(Tr — 32)
Tp = (OS)1G 32

where Tc represents the Celsius temperature and T; the Fahrenheit

temperature. Using from Tc = (5/9)(T; — 32) we see that comfortable
room temperature, 70 °F, corresponds to about 21.1 °C, and a normal
human body temperature of 98.6 °F is 37.0 °C.
 Heat and Temperature 201

e Example: Find the temperature where the Fahrenheit and Celsius

scales are equal.
Set Tp = Tc = T in either Tc = (5/9)(T; — 32) or Tp = (9/5)Tc + 32 and
solve for T.
T = (5/9)(T — 32) = (5/9)(T) — (5/9)(32)
(9/9)T — (5/9)(T) = =(5/9)(32) or T =-~(5/9)(32) / (4/9) = —40
Or
Ta OLy® 32, or, 1 —(9/5)¥ =32 or 1(5/5.— 9/5) = 32
T = 32/(—4/5) = —40

e The Kelvin, or Absolute, scale, was developed by British scientist

Lord Kelvin and is used by scientists. Absolute zero or zero Kelvin is the
coldest theoretical temperature. At 0 K atoms and molecules would
possess the least possible amount of thermal energy. The Kelvin scale
therefore has zero set to what is believed to be the lowest possible
temperature a material can theoretically have, which is 0 K = —273.15°C
= —459.67 °F. Note that zero on the Celsius scale is: 0 °C = 273.15 K. On
the Kelvin scale, water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K.
Temperature on the Kelvin scale is always a positive number.

The Kelvin scale is metric having the same degree size as the centigrade
scale so that a change of | °C is the same as a change of | K. Because a
degree size or change on the absolute scale equals a degree size or
change on the Celsius scale, we can convert between Celsius temperature
Tc to Kelvin temperature Tx:

Tk= {Vos 273

Note that 273.15 K is often rounded to 273 K and the degree symbol (°)
is not shown. To convert between the Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales we
can combine:
To = (5/9)(Tr — 32) or Tp = (9/5)Tc + 32 with Tk =Te + 273
Thermometers

e Thermometers 2%¢ devices used to measure temperature. There are

various types of thermometers, though they are typically designed to take
advantage of the expansion or contraction of a given material or
substance in the presence of temperature changes. A thermometer can
then be calibrated by the amount of thermal expansion and contraction
that occurs within the substance it uses. Following are well-known types
of thermometers:
202 Master Math: Essential Physics

The common “bulb” thermometer is usually a glass tube containing a

liquid, such as mercury or alcohol. The liquid level in the tube rises or
falls with changing temperature. These thermometers generally contain a
reservoir or “bulb” of mercury or other liquid at the bottom end of the
thermometer. As the mercury or other liquid expands or contracts with
temperature change, that effect is amplified in the small-bore calibrated
tube that extends from the bulb thereby showing the mercury moving up
and down the tube. Temperature is read using calibrated marks along the
tube.

The bi-metal strip thermometer converts a temperature change into

mechanical displacement by moving a pointer back and forth along a
calibrated scale. This thermometer consists of a strip of two layers of
metals which have different coefficients of thermal expansion and bend
(moving the pointer) as the temperature changes. While metals do not
expand by a large amount, if a thin coiled strip of two bonded metals is
heated, the end of the strip can bend enough to direct the pointer. These
thermometers are used in thermostats and air temperature thermometers.

Based on the voltage difference generated between the ends of a wire

that is in a temperature gradient, a thermocouple works by measuring
the voltage, or temperature difference, between two joined dissimilar
metals (usually wires) that are each experiencing the same temperature
gradient. A thermistor is a temperature-sensing device that exhibits a
change in resistance with changing temperature. The silicon bandgap
temperature sensor, which uses the principle that the forward voltage of
a silicon diode is temperature dependent, lends itself to being included in
silicon integrated circuits.

The popular Galileo’s thermometer has several spheres or weights

having various densities which are suspended in a clear liquid contained
in a sealed glass cylinder. As the temperature of the liquid changes, the
density of the liquid also changes, causing the suspended weights to rise
and fall, so that each weight remains at the position where its density is
equal to the density of the surrounding liquid (according to Archimedes’
principle). If the weight’s density is less than the liquid it will float, and
if it has greater density than the liquid it will sink to the level of equal
density. Because the weights each have a specific density, they will sink
at a particular temperature, thereby showing the temperature of its
surroundings. The temperature is read from engraved numbers on discs
hung from each weight.
 Heat and Temperature 203

8.2. Thermal Expansion

i
e You may have observed the phenomena of materials and substances
expanding and contracting with temperature changes. While there are
exceptions for certain substances at certain temperatures, when most
substances are heated they expand and when cooled they contract. The
thermal expansion of materials must be considered in the design of
structures and precision instruments. For example, bridges are designed
with expansion joints and sidewalks are laid with gaps to allow for
expansion and contraction. The phenomenon of thermal expansion
applies not only to the change in length of a solid object but also to the
change in volume of solids, liquids, and gases.

Linear Expansion

e Substances and materials vary in their amount of thermal expansion

when exposed to changes in temperature. While an object can expand or
contract in all dimensions, it may be that just one length dimension is
important to the integrity of a larger structure. When a change in
temperature causes a solid object to have a change in length, it is referred
to as linear expansion, even though other dimensions also expand. It has
been shown that the linear expansion, or change in length, of most solid
materials is a function of the initial length Lo, the temperature change
AT, and the material’s coefficient of linear expansion. We write this:

AL=aLoAT or AL/Lo =aAT

where AL is the change in length, Lo is the initial length, AT is the

temperature change, and a is a proportionality constant called the
coefficient of linear expansion which is characteristic of the particular
material. This coefficient is equal to:
ao = AL/LoAT

reflecting the fractional change in length per degree of temperature

change. The coefficient of linear expansion o is normally evaluated for
the centigrade scale, with units in inverse Celsius degrees °C orin
inverse degrees Kelvin K_!. The value of a depends only on the material
and varies from one substance to another. Some typical values include:
2.9 x 10°C" for lead, 1.2 x 10° °C! for concrete, and 0.06 x 10° °C!
for quartz.
204 Master Math: Essential Physics

Values for the coefficient of linear expansion usually have some variation
with temperature, though in many cases it is small enough to be considered
constant. A few substances, however, have negative linear expansion
coefficients for certain temperature ranges. These substances shrink as
the temperature increases and expand when temperature decreases.

Because the linear expansion for most solids is directly proportional to

the change in temperature AT, you can plot length vs. temperature for a
given material, such as a rod made of iron or copper, and the graph will
be a straight line. As the temperature of the rod is raised the change in
the length AL of the rod will increase linearly with the change in
temperature AT. The change in length is also proportional to the rod’s
original length, as reflected in: AL = LoaAT. After a change in
temperature, the rod’s new length becomes:
Lnew = Lo + AL.= Lo + @LgAT = Lo(l + GAT)
e Example: Temperatures in Fairbanks, Alaska, can range from as low
as about —50 °C in the winter to as high as about 35 °C in summer, a AT
of 85 °C. If you were building a highway, what seasonal variation in
length would you need to allow for in each 10-m long section of
concrete?
Using a coefficient of expansion of 1.2 x 10° °C"! for concrete, the
change in length you would want to allow for is:
AL alo AT = (222610° °C-)(10.m\85.°C)=.0.0102 m= 102 mm
You would need to consider that each 10 m long section could expand
10.2 mm in length.

e Example: If a metal rod is heated and stretches according to the figure,

what is its coefficient of expansion?

4.0024m

4.0000m

PAUTE 45°C

a. = AL/LoAT = (4.0024 m — 4.0000 m) /(4.0000 m)(25 °C) = 2.4 x 10° °C!

which is close to the coefficient of expansion for aluminum.

e Example: Your friend holds up two | m long rods. One is copper with
a coefficient of expansion of 1.7 x 10° °C", and the other is brass with a
 Heat and Temperature 205

coefficient of 1.9 x 10° °C". He says they fit into an apparatus pointing
toward each other, and at room temperature of about 21°C there is a
1-mm gap between them. He asks you if you can determine the
temperature at which the rods would expand enough to make contact.

a tape ES

For brass ALi = a, Lo,AT and for copper AL, = aL, AT.
As the rods are heated, they will expand and touch when the sum of the
two changes in length equals the initial width of the gap. Therefore:
Allg AL, = a,LosAT + aelo-AT = 0.001 m
Solve for temperature change:
AT(QpLop + O&cLoc) = 0.001 m
AT =0.00Im / (o,Lo, + aLo.)
AT = 0.001 m/[(1.9 x 10° °C')(1 m) + (1.7 x 10° °C") m)] = 27.78 °C
Since the initial temperature was 21 °C and AT is 27.78 °C, the final
temperature is about 48.78 °C.

Thermal Stress

e In Section 6.2 we discussed stress, strain, and the elastic, or Young’s,

modulus. Remember a stress is a force that causes deformation and a
strain is the resulting change in a material. The ratio of stress to strain is
called the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus Y and is:
Young’s modulus Y = (F/A)/(AL/L) or F/A=YAL/L

We discussed stress and strain in terms of a physical pulling, pushing, or

twisting deformation of a material, but a stress can also be created when
an object or material expands or contracts due to a change in
temperature, especially when different sections of the object expand or
contract at different rates. We can imagine a glass object cracking when
it is suddenly heated or cooled and the thicker sections cannot expand or
contract as quickly as the thinner sections. If an object has a cross-
sectional area A, an elastic modulus Y, and a coefficient of linear
expansion a, we can combine the linear expansion with Young’s
modulus Y by substituting AL/L = aAT into F/A = YAL/L to get an
equation for thermal stress:
F/A = aATY

where stress now depends on the cross-sectional area, the temperature

Y.
change, coefficient of linear expansion ©, and Young’s modulus
206 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Example: In the example in the previous subsection you calculated the

expansion of the 10 m long sections of concrete to allow for temperature
changes in the highway you are constructing in Fairbanks, Alaska. What
will happen if you construct your highway out of 10 m long sections of
concrete in Fairbanks, Alaska, without leaving a gap for expansion?
Suppose you lay your highway when the temperature is about 5 °C and it
rises to 35 °C. The compression strength for concrete is 2 x 10’ N/m’,
Young’s modulus for concrete is 2 = 10’° N/m’, and the coefficient of
expansion for concrete is 1.2 x 10° °C’.

The stress created during the summer when the concrete heats up is:
FAS GATY= (12 107 °O@ \G0°O)0 10). Nim y= 72-310 Nan
You find that the stress, 7.2 x 10° N/m”, is less than the compression
strength for concrete, 2 x 10’ N/m’, so your highway will not crumble.
(Your friend tells you it is still a good idea to put in the extra space
between sections in case there is a weak spot in the concrete.)

Volume Expansion

e When an object, material, or substance is heated or cooled it can

expand or contract in all three dimensions. We studied the change in
length above, but sometimes it is important to consider the change in
volume, especially when the substance is a liquid or gas.

The equation for volume expansion is similar to the equation for linear
expansion (AL = aLoAT) and is:

AV=BVoAT or AV/V)= BAT

where AV is the change in volume, Vo is the initial volume, AT is the
change in temperature, and is the coefficient of volume expansion.
Rearranging, we see the coefficient of volume expansion:
B = AV/V,AT
The units for f, like that of the linear coefficient a, are normally given in
inverse Celsius °C ' or Kelvin K '. Typical values of B range from
Saar Gator lead, 3.6 x 10° °C! for concrete, 0.18 x 10° °C"! for
quartz, to 21 x 10° °C! for water (at about room temperature). Note that
as water is cooled and reaches the range of 0 °C to 4 °C, its thermal
expansion coefficient drops to zero and then becomes negative.
 Heat and Temperature 207

Just as with linear expansion, the equation for the new volume
Vey after
a change in temperature is similar to the equation for the new linear
thermal expansion (Lyey = Lp + AL = Lo(1 + aAT)), and is written:

Vaew = Wo + AV = Vo + BVoAT = Vo(1 + BAT)

For solids that expand or contract uniformly in all three dimensions, for
small temperature changes the volume expansion coefficient B is
approximately equal to 3 times the coefficient of linear expansion a.
B =3a

Over small temperature ranges, thermal expansion for length, area, and
volume can be written in terms of the linear expansion coefficient o as:
linear AL = aLoAT, area AA = 2a A0AT, and volume AV = 3aV,AT.

e Example: If you completely fill your 16-gallon steel gas tank on a cool
10 °C morning and park the car without driving, what will happen if the
tank heats up to 40 °C during the hot summer afternoon? The linear
expansion coefficient for steel is about 1.2 x 10° °C"', and the volume
expansion coefficient for gasoline is about 95 x 10° °C".
The expansion of the steel tank is: AV = 30V AT.
AVeae=(3)0.2.% 10° °C (16 gal\(30-°C) ~0.0173 gal
The expansion of the gasoline in the tank is: AV = BVoAT.
AVgas= (95 * 10° °C ')(16 gal)(30°C) = 0.456 gal
The gasoline in the tank will expand more than the tank by:
AVeas— AVtank = 0.456 — 0.0173 = 0.439 gal
Therefore, about 0.44 gallons of gasoline will spill from the tank. Note as
gas is spilled, it will stop contributing to the expansion.

Volume Changes Affect Density

@ While we have been discussing the effect of temperature changes on

volume, you may have been realizing that for most substances most of
the time, as volume increases, density decreases, and as volume
decreases, density increases. This occurs because, while changes in
temperature can affect volume, the amount of mass remains constant.
The relationship between mass m, volume V, and density p 1S:
p=m/V or V=m/p
We can see that if mass is constant, an increase or decrease in volume
in
will cause an inverse change in density. Therefore, a fractional change
volume AV/V corresponds inversely to a fractional change in density
208 Master Math: Essential Physics

Ap/p. For example, if there is a 1 percent increase in volume,

approximately a | percent decrease in density occurs. As we learned a
change in temperature leads to a fractional volume change:
AVIV = BAT
In Section 6.2 we determined the fractional change in density of an
aluminum block using the bulk modulus and the formulas m = pV,
Vipi = V2P2, and Ap/p = (p2— P1)/ Po. This led to a result that was con-
sistent with an equation that applies for very small fractional changes:
Ap/p = —AV/V
In cases where this applies we can write an equation relating changes in
temperature, volume, and density:
Ap/po = —AV/Vo = —BAT
where the negative sign reflects an increase in the change in density Ap
when the change in volume AV is decreasing (shown by negative sign).

Temperature Changes and Gases

e The behavior of gases in the presence of temperature increases is more

complicated than solids and liquids since gases will expand as much as
pressure or volume will allow. If the pressure of a gas is fixed and
temperature is increased, the gas will expand uniformly with increasing
temperature. While liquids and solids have a range of expansion
coefficients, gases respond more uniformly to changes in temperature.
The coefficients of expansion for gases are, therefore, nearly the same,
though they vary with temperature. At constant pressure and 0 °C the
volume expansion coefficient B for any gas is approximately
3.67 x 10° °C! and at 100°C it is about 2.68 x 10° °CT.
e Example: If you have an unknown gas at 0 °C held in a container by a
floating piston, which provides a constant pressure but allows
temperature and volume to increase, what temperature increase would
cause the gas to increase in volume by 10%?
We can use AV = BV~AT. Let Vo = 1. Therefore:
AT = AV/BVo = (0.1) / (3.67 X 10° °C (1) = 27.25 °C

Because significant volume expansion can occur in gases, it is important

to be vigilant when gases are in closed containers. This is why propane
tanks should not be completely filled, as they can explode if temperature
rises during a hot afternoon. Gases are affected by changes in tempera-
ture, pressure, and volume, which we will discuss in the next chapter.
 Heat and Temperature 209

8.3. Heat as Energy

aE Ee ee ee ne
Internal Energy, Temperature, and the First Law

¢ Molecular movement occurs continually within the atoms and

molecules that make up all types of matter, including solids, liquids, and
gases. The molecular movement reflects that atoms and molecules
possess internal thermal energy in the form of the kinetic energy. Of
the three primary types of matter, solids have the least kinetic energy as
their molecules vibrate in place. In liquids, molecules have more kinetic
energy and can move around one another allowing flow. Molecules in a
gas have even more kinetic energy and are able to float freely and
disperse enough to expand and fill a container. The thermal properties of
a substance or material are based on the movements, or kinetic energy, of
its individual atoms and molecules. At absolute zero temperature,
molecules possess the least possible amount of kinetic energy.

Temperature is a measure of the average internal or kinetic energy of

the atoms and molecules of a substance. In other words, the temperature
is related to the degree to which the atoms and molecules in a substance
move. Higher temperatures reflect more rapid movements. Higher
temperatures also generally cause thermal expansion and lengthening
distances between atoms and molecules in a material or substance.

In situations involving work or energy transfer, the internal energy of an

object or substance only needs to be considered when it changes during
the process. In these cases the internal energy of an object may be raised
(reflecting increased movement of atoms and molecules) by a frictional
force such as the internal energy in a train track when a train is screech-
ing to a halt or when a metallic material is being hit or crushed by an
outside force. The internal energy increase will be evident by an increase
in temperature. In processes that are considered ideal, frictionless, or
perfectly elastic, the internal energy does not need to be considered.

e Internal energy is increased by adding heat. \f a material or substance

is heated, its atoms and molecules move faster, whereas when it is
cooled, its atoms and molecules move more slowly. If you place a metal
rod over a flame, you will add energy to the rod in the form of heat and
increase its internal energy. Heat is a form of energy that can be
transferred to an object using a difference in temperature. In other words,
heat is the thermal energy transferred from one object or system to
another due to differences in temperature. Just as an object does not
but
possess work but rather does work, an object does not possess heat
210 Master Math: Essential Physics

rather transfers heat due to a temperature difference. Both work and heat
are measures of energy transfer. A hot object has an amount of thermal
energy which it can transfer to a cooler object as heat. Note that when
two objects or systems are at the same temperature, there is no net heat
transfer between them, and they are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.

e When the thermal properties of a material are examined and its internal
energy changes during a process, we need to consider the internal
energy U of the material and the amount of heat or thermal energy Q
that is transferred to the material. If a material or substance absorbs heat
Q, its internal thermal energy U increases by that amount, so that:
Ora aU

If an object or substance does work W when heat Q is added to it, its

internal energy U will decrease by the amount of work done by the
object or substance. The /aw of conservation of energy applies to heat
and work so that if heat Q is added to a substance or object and the
substance or object does work W, the increase in internal energy U plus
the work W done by the substance or object will equal the amount of
heat added:

By conservation of energy: the change in an object’s or substance’s

internal energy AU equals the heat received QO minus the work done by
the object or substance W. This equation describes the principle of
energy conservation when thermal energy is included and is called the
First Law of Thermodynamics (discussed in the next chapter).

When we say the system “does work,” we are referring to the definition
of work: force times the distance moved in the direction of the force. An
example of a thermodynamic system doing work is a piston in a cylinder
that is driven upward by an expanding gas. When the gas is heated it
expands, thereby doing work on the piston by lifting it. If the piston is
pushed down, it is doing work on the gas (while the gas does negative
work on the piston).

Gas
expanded
 Heat and Temperature PAANAl

Measuring Heat

e Because heat is a form of energy, it is measured in the same units used

to measure energy, such as Joules (J). The British thermal unit BTU is
the amount of heat required to raise | lb of water 1°F. 1 BTU = 1055 J.
Another popular unit for measuring heat is calories (cal) using lower
case “c”: | cal is the amount of heat required to raise 1 g (gram) of water
by 1°C. Also, 1 cal = 4.186 J. (Note there are different defined values
ranging from 4.184 to 4.19.) Alternatively, heat is measured in Calories
(Cal) with a capital “C”: 1 Cal is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of | kg of water by 1 °C. This unit, Calorie, is more properly
called the kilocalorie (kcal), kilogram calorie, or large calorie, and is
1,000 calories. 1 Cal = 4,186 J = 4.186 kJ. Depending on your weight, if
you run a 10 min mile (6 mph) for | hr, you will burn 500 to 800 Cal.

e Example: Your friend is doing some reading on James Prescott Joule

and tells you that Joule developed sensitive thermometers to use in his
experiments on heat and work. He told you about one of Joule’s
experiments in which he let a 5-kg mass, which was attached to a paddle
wheel immersed in a container of water, fall a distance of 2 m. As the
mass fell it turned the paddle in the water, which generated heat in the
water from the friction of the rotating paddle. Your friend said the mass
of the water in the container was | kg and asked you to figure out the
increase in water temperature.
You quickly realize that the work done on the water by the falling mass
can be described by the potential energy of the mass:
W = mgh = (5 kg)(9.8 m/s’)(2 m) = 98 J
Since | Cal = 4,186 J:
(98 J) / (4,186 J / 1 Cal) ~ 0.0234 Cal
It takes 1 Calorie or 1 kcal of heat to raise the temperature of | kg of
water by | degree. There is 1 kg of water in the container so: 0.0234 Cal
corresponds to 0.0234 °C increase in temperature of the water.

Specific Heat

e In general terms, the specific heat, or specific heat capacity, c is the

amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of a
substance by a unit change in temperature. In more narrow terms, the
to
specific heat c of a substance is the amount of heat energy required
Celsius or
raise the temperature of | kg of the substance by 1 degree
Kelvin. The specific heat relates heat and temperature:
Da. Master Math: Essential Physics

where Q is the amount of heat that needs to be supplied to or removed

from a material or substance having mass m and a specific heat of c in
order to produce a temperature change of AT. The specific heat c can be
written:
c=Q/mAT

The specific heat capacity of a material or substance depends on the

properties of the material or substance, such as molecular structure and
phase (solid, liquid, or gas). This equation does not apply if a phase
change occurs since, during the change, the heat added or removed is not
changing the temperature.

e Units for specific heat c are: (heat energy)/(mass)(temperature change)

= J/kg:°C = cal/g-°C = Cal/kg-°C. For example, the specific heat of
water is | Calorie (kcal) per kilogram per degree, or Cwater= 1 Cal/kg*°C
= 1 cal/g-°C = 4,186 J/kg:°C = 4.186 J/g-°C. This means it takes 4,186 J
of heat to raise | kg of water by 1 °C. Since the BTU is the amount of
heat required to raise | lb of water 1 °F, the specific heat of water can be
expressed as | BTU/lb-°F. The specific heat of water is higher than many
other substances including metals, which makes water useful in
processes that require temperature regulation.

While the specific heat of a substance can vary with temperature, near
room temperature it remains mostly constant. Each material or substance
has its own specific heat value. Substances that are easily heated have
lower values, such as copper (0.0921 Cal/kg-°C) or lead (0.038 Cal/kg:°C),
whereas substances that are difficult to heat have a higher values, such as
ice (0.5 Cal/kg:°C) or plastic (0.4 kcal/kg:°C).

e Example: What is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature

of 1 liter (L) of water 10°C if it is at an initial temperature of 10°C?

We can use Q = mcAT, but first we need the mass m of water:

m= pV =[(1,000 kg/m*)(1 m?/1,000 L)](1 L) = 1 kg
Since the specific heat of water is 4,186 J/kg:°C:
Q = mcAT = (1 kg)(4,186 J/kg-°C)(10 °C) = 41,860 J

e Example: If your friend places 10 oz of hot gold at 70°C into the

container holding | kg of water, which is now at 20°C, what will be the
equilibrium temperature, providing no heat is lost? (Specific heat of
water is 4,186 J/kg-°C, gold is 130 J/kg-°C, and 10 oz ~ 0.28 kg.)
You realize that if no heat is lost, energy will be conserved and the heat
will be transferred from the gold to the water until a new equilibrium
 Heat and Temperature 23

temperature T' is reached—somewhere between 20°C and 70°C.

You
decide to balance the heat transfer from the gold to the water and solve
for Tr:
Mgoid€goid
AT gold = MwaterCwaterATwater
MgotdCgold(T
gold —Ts) = MwaterCwater(T¢ — Twater)
(0.28 kg)(130 J/kg-°C)(70°C ~ T,) = (1 kg)(4,186 Ikg-°C\(T; —20°C)
2,548 — (36.4)(Ts) = (4,186)(T;) — 83,720
86,268 = (4,222.4)(T;)
Te 20.43 °C
Ty is only slightly higher because the specific heat of water is much
larger than the specific heat of gold and there is a greater mass of water.

e Example: After you go through your calculation in the previous

example and are satisfied with your answer, your friend says it would be
more accurate to include the 0.2-kg aluminum container in which the
water and gold are held. If the specific heat of aluminum is about
900 J/kg-°C, recalculate the final equilibrium temperature.

Mpyoid@goidA
Tgold = MywaterCwaterA
1water + MarCarATa
(0.28 kg)(130 J/kg-°C)(70°C — T;) =
(1 kg)(4,186 J/kg:°C)(T; — 20°C) + (0.2 kg)(900 J/kg-°C)(T; — 20°C)

2,548 — (36.4)(T;) = (4,186)(T;) — 83,720 + (180)(T,) — 3,600

89,868 = (4,402.4)(T»)
Tr 20.41 °C
You point out to your friend that 20.41 °C is pretty close to 20.43 °C

e Specific heats of gases can be affected by changes in pressure or

volume, which can occur with temperature changes. When examining
specific heats of gases, we can look at what happens when we add heat
while either the volume remains constant or the pressure remains
constant. If heat Q is added to a certain mass of gas m and the
temperature changes by AT while the volume is held constant, the
specific heat at constant volume is:
cy = Q/mAT,

When volume is held constant, the heat added to the gas increases the
internal energy of the gas and therefore the temperature of the gas.
the
Alternatively, if heat Q is added to a certain mass of gas m and
so
temperature changes by AT while the volume is allowed to expand
214 Master Math: Essential Physics

that the pressure does not increase, the specific heat at constant
pressure is:
C, = Q/mAT,

When pressure remains constant, some of the heat added to the gas does
work as the gas expands so there is less of an increase in internal energy
and therefore temperature for the same Q. This means that:
Tet
For a given value of Q and m that means:
Cay
This shows that for gases, the specific heat at constant pressure is greater
than the specific heat at constant volume. Typical values of c, and c, near
room temperature are: c, = 1,010 J/kg-°C and c, = 718 J/kg:°C for air;
Cp = 1,040 J/kg-°C and c, = 743 J/kg-°C for N2; cy = 919 J/kg-°C and
Cy, = 659 J/kg-°C for Os; ¢, = 5,190 J/kg-C and c,.=3.120 J/ke-°C for
He; and c, = 14,320 J/kg-°C and c, = 10,160 J/kg:°C for Hp.

Phase Change and Latent Heat

e When heat is added to or removed from a substance, the result may be

a temperature change, a phase change, or both (sequentially). While the
specific heat reflects the heat required to increase the temperature of a
substance, the latent heat of transformation, Q,, reflects the heat
required to change the phase of a substance. A phase change occurs
when a substance changes between existing as a solid, liquid, or gas. For
example, as liquid water forms ice or steam a phase change is occurring.
During the process of a phase change when the internal structure of the
substance is changing, the temperature does not change until the
substance has changed its phase. This suggests that a certain amount of
heat is added or removed for a phase change to occur.

The heat that is necessary for the phase change to occur (without a
change in temperature) is called the latent heat or specific latent heat.
The word “latent” means hidden and signifies that there is no change in
temperature during the phase transition. The specific latent heat is the
quantity of heat energy required to change the state or phase of a unit of
mass of a substance:
Qi= mL
where Q is the heat transferred in Joules, m is the mass in kilograms,
and L is the latent heat in Joules per kilogram. Values for latent heat L
are tabulated for /atent heat offusion and latent heat of vaporization for
various substances.
 Heat and Temperature 215

When the phase change concerns the transition between a liquid

and a
solid, that is, melting or solidification (freezing), it involves the
(specific) latent heat of fusion. The latent heat of fusion is the quantit
y
of heat energy removed or released when 1 kg of a liquid solidifies, or
fuses, without its temperature changing. The latent heat of fusion is also
the quantity of heat energy required to transform | kg of a solid into a
liquid. For example, during this phase change, the temperature of pure
water remains constant at 0°C.

When the phase change is from a liquid to a gas or a gas to a liquid, it

involves the (specific) latent heat of vaporization. The latent heat of
vaporization is the quantity of heat energy required to vaporize | kg of a
liquid into a gas without its temperature changing. The latent heat of
vaporization is also the quantity of heat energy removed or released
when | kg of a substance is transformed from a gas to a liquid. For
example, during this phase change, the temperature of pure water
remains constant at 100°C.

Certain substances, such as solid carbon dioxide, transition directly from

solid phase to gas phase at standard pressure in a process called
sublimation. The heat required to sublimate is the sum of the latent heat
of fusion and the latent heat of vaporization of that substance.

e Units for latent heats are in J/kg, kcal/kg, or cal/g. Values for latent
heats depend on the properties of the substance. For water, the latent heat
of fusion is about 3.33 x 10° J/kg or 80.0 kcal/kg, and the latent heat of
vaporization is about 2.260 x 10° J/kg or 539 kcal/kg.

e Example: With thermometer in hand, your friend asks what the final
temperature would be if you added half of a kilogram of ice (at 0°C) to
2 liters of hot water at 70°C? (The specific heat of water is 4,186
J/kg°C, and the latent heat of fusion of water is 3.33 x 10° J/kg.)
You need to write an equation with two terms for the heat gained by the
ice. One term represents the heat required to melt the ice having the
latent heat of fusion for the ice L; and mass of the ice m;. The second ice-
related term describes the heat required Q = m,c,,AT to raise the tempera-
ture of the melted-ice water m; from 0 °C to Tyna. (If the ice were even
colder than its freezing point there would be a third ice-related term for
the heat gained by the ice as its temperature warmed up to the melting
point.) The two ice-related terms must balance the heat lost by the initial
container of 70°C liquid water Q = m,cwAT. We set these equal to find
the final equilibrium temperature. First find the mass of water:
216 Master Math: Essential Physics

My = pwVw = [(1,000 kg/m*)(1 m°*/1,000 liter)](2 liter) = 2 kg

Lim; + micy(T ginal — 0°C) = Mycy(70 °C — Téinat)
(3.33 x 10° J/kg)(0.5 kg) + (0.5 kg)(4,186 I/kg-°C)(Trinar — 0°C)
= (2 kg)(4,186 J/kg:°C)(70 °C = Tiina)
166,500 J + 2,093 J Tyna = 586,040 J — 8,372 J Tina
10,465 J Trina = 419,540 J
Teen = 40.09 °C

e The melting point temperature of a substance is where it changes

(melts) from solid to liquid as heat is applied. The boiling point
temperature is where it vaporizes from a liquid to a gas as heat is
applied. Certain substances, such as solid carbon dioxide, can transition
from solid to gas (without passing through a liquid phase) depending on
pressure in a process called sublimation. When a gas is cooled (heat
removed) through its boiling point, it will condense into a liquid. When a
liquid is cooled (heat removed) through its melting point, it will solidify.
Certain substances in a gas phase can deposit directly into a solid when
cooled, depending on pressure. Transitions points vary with pressure.
sublimation
eS IE
SOLID melting point LIQUID boiling point GAS
Sid ¢ ——$————————— I CONCeNSe
deposition

Endothermic and Exothermic

e Note that in addition to phase changes there are other processes, such
as chemical reactions, that involve the transfer of heat energy. In fact,
chemical reactions occurring between atoms and molecules either require
or release heat energy. Reactions that require or absorb heat energy are
called endothermic reactions and can be described by:
A+B+ heat — C
where A, B, and C are atoms or molecules. And reactions that release
heat energy are called exothermic reactions and can be described by:
A+B-—C + heat
Note that when a chemical reaction occurs, the heat energy absorbed or
released is a term in the energy conservation equation.

A familiar example of an exothermic reaction is combustion, or burning,

which is the rapid oxidation of a material or substance. Combustion can
occur under the right conditions involving temperature, oxygen
 Heat and Temperature 2A,

availability, and the heat of combustion of the material or substan

ce. The
heat of combustion of a substance or material is the amount of heat
energy (in Joules or calories) released per unit mass (kg) when
combustion occurs. An example of a simple exothermic reaction is the
combustion of hydrogen and oxygen (one type of rocket propellant):
2H2 + O2 — 2H,O(vapor) + heat

8.4. Heat Transfer

eS

¢ Remember, temperature reflects the average internal energy of atoms

and molecules in a substance or system, and heat is the energy that flows
due to temperature differences. Heat energy flows naturally and
spontaneously from a hotter object or substance toward a colder object or
substance (according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics). The heat
transfer from hotter to colder changes the internal energy of the objects
or substances involved (according to the First Law of Thermodynamics).
If two objects having different temperatures are placed in contact with
each other, heat will flow from the hotter object to the colder until they
both reach the same temperature and are therefore in thermal
equilibrium. Because of energy conservation, the heat that flows out of
the hotter object will equal the heat that flows into the colder object.
Using energy conservation we can calculate equilibrium temperature.

e Heat can be transferred from one object or substance to another by

three primary processes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction involves contact, convection involves fluid motion, and
radiation involves electromagnetic waves.

Conduction

e When two objects or substances having different temperatures come in

contact with each other, heat energy is primarily transferred through
conduction. If an object is heated at one point the heat will eventually
spread throughout the object by conduction. Conduction is a common
process of heat transfer and occurs through matter by direct contact.
More specifically, conduction involves the transfer of heat energy by
intermolecular collisions. While heat is transferred by molecular agita-
tion within a material or substance, there is no net motion or displace-
ment of the material as a whole that is responsible for the heat transfer.

then
For example, if one end of a metal rod is at a higher temperature,
energy will be transferred by conduction down the rod toward the colder
218 Master Math: Essential Physics

end due to collisions of the higher speed molecules with the slower ones
resulting in a net transfer of energy to the slower ones. If no further
heating of one end of the rod occurs, an equilibrium will be reached, and
the average kinetic energy per molecule will be the same throughout the
rod. Similarly, to boil water on a stove, heat is transferred through the
bottom of the pot by conduction where water molecules at the bottom
transfer their kinetic energy to the molecules above them through
collisions. This process continues along with convective processes
(discussed below) until all of the water is at thermal equilibrium.

e Heat flows from hot to cold in response to temperature differences. In

fact, in most substances the rate of heat flow at any point is proportional
to the temperature gradient. For example, if heat energy is flowing down
a thin rod that is heated at one end and wrapped in insulation so that the
heat does not escape from the surface, the heat energy flow can be
thought of as Joules per second passing some fixed point in the rod. This
can be written:
AQ/At o AT/L
where Q is in Joules, AT in degrees Celsius or Kelvin, L is the length in
meters along the rod, and « means proportional. The quantity AT/L is the
temperature gradient along the rod. The heat flow rate AQ/At is in Joules
per second, or Watts. Note that if the cross-sectional area of the rod was
doubled, the rate of heat flow would also double. Also, if heat is supplied
at a steady rate to one end of the rod and is simultaneously released from
the other end, the temperature distribution along the rod will become
AT/L = constant, which reflects a linear change along the rod between
the two ends. Because the amount of heat conducted per time (rate)
AQ/At between the two ends of the rod is directly proportional to the
temperature gradient AT/L for heat flow across a certain cross-sectional
area A (in square meters), we can write the rate of conduction heat
transfer as:
AQ/At=KAAT/L or Q=KAtAT/L
where k is the proportionality constant called the coefficient of thermal
conductiyity of the substance. From this equation we see that thermal
conductivity « will be large for materials that are good heat conductors
and small for materials that are poor conductors or good insulators.

e Units for the coefficient of thermal conductivity « are J/m:s-°C or

Watts/m-°C or cal/cm:s:°C. Approximate « values in J/mrs*°C at about
room temperature for select substances include: 401 for copper, 429 for
silver, 310 for gold, 0.6 for water, 1.0 for glass, 0.17 for oak wood, and
0.025 for air. Metals are generally good conductors of heat compared to
 Heat and Temperature 219

wood or air. Not surprisingly, air in the atmosphere heated by conduction

is heated by direct contact with the Earth’s surface. Materials that
conduct heat well are often also good conductors of electricity.

e Example: Your friend walks into your lab with a silver rod having a
diameter of 10 mm and a length of 30 cm. He wants to know how long it
will take to melt a 2-kg, well-insulated, cubic, 0 °C block of ice if he
fixes one end of the (insulated) rod to a 100 °C heat source and the other
end to the ice block.

You first realize you need to determine the heat energy Q to produce the
phase change and melt the ice. You look up the latent heat offusion L of
water (given in the previous section), which is 3.33 x 10° J/kg. The latent
heat to melt the ice is:
Q.= mL; = (2 kg)(3.33 x 10° J/kg) = 6.66 x 10° J
The coefficient of thermal conductivity x for silver given above is
429 J/m:s-°C. You assume the temperature gradient remains uniform
along the length of the rod. Therefore, we can find the time it will take to
melt the ice using:
OO] KAA. soe at =—OU/KAAT
t = (6.66 x 10° J)(0.30 m) / (429 J/ms:°C)(m x 0.005 m?)(100°C — 0°C)
= 5:9 x 10's
Time in hours is: (5.9 x 10* s) / (60 s/min)(60 min/h) ~ 16 h.

e While conduction occurs in liquids and gases, the more dominant form
of heat transfer is convection.

Convection

e While conduction involves atoms and molecules transferring heat

energy by intermolecular collisions, convection involves the atoms and
molecules themselves moving from one place to another. Convection
involves heat transfer by the movement of mass from one place to
another as a heated fluid is caused to move away from a source of heat,
carrying energy with it. It occurs in liquids and gases. Heat energy can be
carried from one place to another in the currents of fluids and gases in
the process of convection.

.
When most substances are heated, they expand so that their volumes
. When a liquid or gas is heated in
increase while their densities decrease
a localized region, the heated fluid will experience a buoyant force and
a pot
will rise through the cooler surrounding fluid. For example, when
220 Master Math: Essential Physics

full of water is heated from the bottom (heat is initially transferred by

conduction), the warm water expands, becomes less dense (more
buoyant) than the cooler water, and rises, beginning a convective process
which transports energy. As the warm, less dense water rises, it is
replaced with cooler water that is then heated, becoming less dense and
rising. This forms a circulation of convection. This process of convection
circulation within a fluid depends on the change in density that results
from heating or cooling.

While convection can be induced by something external, such as a fan

which causes a liquid or gas to move, it also occurs without an externally
driven flow, such as when air next to a hot surface moves as a result of
density differences or when we heat water in a pot. Convection is
believed to be involved in the movements of the hot magma within the
Earth and also in the transporting of energy from the center of the Sun to
its surface.

To quantify convection with an equation, the particular situation needs to

be taken into account, such as velocity of the fluid and distance traveled
by fluid elements or bubbles. Nevertheless, convection is proportional to
the temperature gradient and the surface area.

Radiation

e When you stand near a fire or place your hand near an incandescent
light bulb, you feel heat. Some of that heat is due to conductive and
convective processes, but most of it is due to radiation. Radiation is a
type of heat or energy transfer in which heat energy is not transferred by
molecules or mass but by electromagnetic waves. In essence, it is heat
transfer by the emission of electromagnetic waves which carry heat
energy away from the emitting object.

Heat transfer by way of electromagnetic waves (electromagnetic radiation)

includes microwaves, sunlight, and infrared radiation. Radiation is the
only way heat can be transferred through the relative emptiness of space.
Other forms of heat transfer require motion of molecules. Energy arrives
in the form of radiation from the Sun. Heat from the Sun reaches us as
radiation in the form of invisible electromagnetic waves and visible light
waves. A familiar example of energy transfer by radiation is a
microwave oven, which transmits electromagnetic waves into food
causing molecules in the food to vibrate faster.

Electromagnetic waves are generated by the atoms in any substance or

material, which are always in motion. This motion increases with
 Heat and Temperature 221

temperature so that collisions occur and some of the kinetic energy of

the
colliding atoms is absorbed by the atom’s electrons. The atoms do not
retain this extra energy and the electrons quickly return to their normal
lower energy states in the atom as the energy that had been absorbed is
emitted in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This process allows
some of the kinetic energy of the rapidly moving atoms to be converted
to radiant energy. Therefore, as atoms and molecules transform their
kinetic heat energy into electromagnetic waves, that heat energy is then
transmitted by the waves.

Forms of electromagnetic radiation or waves include radio waves,

microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
The only feature that distinguishes different types of electromagnetic
radiation from one another is their frequencies or wavelengths.
Otherwise they all have the same basic properties. For example, X-rays
and ultraviolet radiation have higher frequencies than visible light, while
radio waves and microwaves have lower frequencies.

Any object with a temperature above absolute zero emits radiation. The
wavelength of the radiation is dependent on the temperature of the
object. At room temperature radiation is mostly in the infrared region of
the electromagnetic wave spectrum, with wavelengths longer than those
of the visible spectrum. This means a human body or the walls of a room
are glowing, but the glow can only be detected by special sensors. Hotter
objects such as a stove burner or a star are visible because they are hot
enough to emit radiation in a range of wavelengths that includes visible
light. When a nonflammable object is heated, the radiation it emits
increases in frequency as the temperature rises.

e Experiments have shown that the amount of energy radiated per

second, or rate of energy emission, Q./t, by a glowing object is
proportional to the fourth power of its temperature. Besides temperature,
energy radiated per second has also been shown to be proportional to an
object’s surface area and to its emissivity e. This tells us that a heated
object radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation at a rate
that is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature (in degrees K)
of the object. Therefore, the rate at which emitted energy Q, leaves an
object per second is the radiated power:
Out cont
.
where e is the emissivity, a dimensionless number between 0 and |
n.
which represents the ability or efficiency of the object to emit radiatio
is called the
The symbol o is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (this equation
222 Master Math: Essential Physics

Stefan-Boltzmann Law). Letter A represents the surface area of the

radiating object, and letter T is the temperature of the radiating object on
the Kelvin scale. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant o is universal and is:
o = 5.67 x 10° J/s:m*K* = 1.36 x 10°" cal/s-em”-K*. Technically, the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law describes the total energy being emitted at all
wavelengths by a blackbody and describes the fourth power relationship
between energy radiated and temperature. (A “blackbody” is a simple
idealized body or object which is a perfect absorber, and therefore also a
perfect emitter).

When a heated object is radiating energy to cooler surroundings which

are at temperature T,, the net loss in radiation from the emitting object is:
Ovt—ecA( 31, )

Note that you will often see Q,/t written as P for power, since power is
the change in energy per time.

The emissivity of a substance varies with its shininess. A shiny polished

metal has a nearly zero value of e and a black substance such as coal has
a value near one. Dark objects usually have an emissivity of 0.9 or
greater whereas light-colored or shiny objects have values of e = 0.2 or
less. A perfect radiator would have e = 1. For example, carbon black soot
has e = 0.95, and polished aluminum has e = 0.05. Objects that are good
emitters of radiation are also good absorbers. For example, if you take
two identical sheets of aluminum, except one is polished and the other is
coated with carbon black, and place them in direct sunlight, after they
reach equilibrium the temperature of the black sheet will be greater than
the temperature of the shiny sheet. This is due to difference in emissivity.
The black sheet will absorb energy and increase its temperature until the
rate of absorption is balanced by the rate of emission. (The black sheet
absorbs more and therefore must emit more radiation.) The polished
sheet will reflect most (absorb less) of the incident energy and emit
energy at a lower rate as it maintains equilibrium at a lower temperature.

e Example: If one object is twice as hot as another, how much more

energy will it radiate?

2* = 16 times more energy per unit of surface area.

 Heat and Temperature 223

8.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Temperature reflects the average internal or kinetic energy of the

atoms
and molecules in a substance.
e Heat is a form of energy that flows due to temperature differences.
= Hoists oF (5/9)(Tr fr 32); Desa = (9/5)T¢ rte32) Tian 7 Te tellOe
e Linear (length) expansion: AL = aL,AT, with linear expansion
coefficient a.
e Thermal stress: F/A = aATY, with expansion coefficient a, Young’s
modulus Y.
e Volume expansion: AV = BV,AT; with volume expansion coefficient B.
¢ For uniform solids volume expansion coefficient B: B = 3a.
e Internal energy is increased by adding heat.
e First Law of Thermodynamics (energy conservation): AU = Q— W,
internal energy change AU is heat in Q minus work done.
e Specific heat capacity c is heat required to raise the temperature of a
unit of mass by a unit change in temperature: Q = mcAT.
e Latent heat of transformation Q; = mL is heat required to change
phase.
e Heat energy flows spontaneously from a hot substance to a cold
substance.
e Heat is transferred by: conduction via intermolecular collisions;
convection via fluid motion; and radiation via electromagnetic waves.

Practice Problems

8.1 At what temperature are Fahrenheit and Kelvin degrees the same?

8.2 (a) A copper electrical cable is strung between two towers. Before
being energized, the 20°C cable is 400 m long. On a hot day it carries a
large current and heats up to 90 °C. Assuming a coefficient of expansion
of 1.6 x 10° °C', how long does the cable become? (b) A round pond
with a diameter of 1 km has a thick sheet of ice at a temperature of —5 °C.
On acold night the ice’s temperature drops to —35 °C. What happens to
the ice? Assume ice’s coefficient of expansion is 5.1 x 102 Cr..

8.3 You and your friend are winter camping and need | liter (L) of water
for freeze-dried meals and hot drinks. You propose taking snow with a
temperature of -10 °C and heating it to 60°C. Your friend proposes
drawing | L of 5 °C water from an open stream and first heating it to
100 °C to make sure it is safe. You are running low on fuel. Whose plan
uses the least fuel? Assume a specific heat of ice of 2,000 J/kg-°C.
224 Master Math: Essential Physics

8.4 (a) Your electric space heater has four Nichrome cylindrical heating
elements with diameters of | cm and lengths of 25 cm. You turn it on
“low” in a cold room at 10°C and the elements take on a dull red glow,
implying a temperature of 500 °C. At what rate is the heater radiating
energy? Assume an emissivity coefficient of 0.7. (Remember to use
Kelvin.) (b) You turn the heater to “high” and the elements begin to glow
red-orange, implying a temperature of 1,000 °C. What is the new rate of
energy radiation?

Answers to Chapter 8 Problems

8 Te = (9/5)Te = 273.15) + 32 and Te = 1, = T.

T — (9/5)T = (9/5)(-273.15) + 32, (-4/5)T = 459.67, T ~ 574.6 degrees.
8.2 (a) Lacy = Lal + GAT); Gay 4000 (sel 0F 2Cr@0) a
400.45 m. (b) Lrew = 1,000(1 + (5.1 x 10° °C™')(-30)) = 998.5 m. The
ice may crack in places to relieve stress.

8.3 | L=1 kg of water. The energy to heat the stream water is

Q = mcAT = (1)(4,186)(100 — 5) = 397,670 J. The energy to heat your
snow up to 0° is (1)(2,000)(10) = 20,000 J. The energy to melt the snow
is Q = mL; = (1)(3.33 x 10° J/kg) = 333,000 J. To heat the melted snow
to 60° takes Q = (1)(4,186)(60) = 251,160 J. The total energy using
snow is 604,160 J, or about 52% more than your friend’s proposal. (To
save more fuel, you could heat less than 1 L of stream water to 100 °C
and then cool it back to 60°C with snow!)

8.4 (a) The surface area of a cylinder is length x circumference, so the

heating surface = (4(0.25))(0.012) = 0.0314 m*. Q,/t = eoA(T* — T.*)
= (0.7)(5.67 x 10°*)(0.0314)(773.15° — 283.15°) = 437.3 Js.
(b) Q./t = (0.7)(5.67 x 10°*)(0.0314)(1,273.15* — 283.15*) = 3,266.4 J/s.
 eer
A Moe ate eo Ae) fen. soe

Chapter 9
GAS AND THERMODYNAMICS

9.1. Definitions—Mass, Moles, and Amu

9.2. The Gas Laws
9.3. Kinetic Theory
9.4. Diffusion and Osmosis
9.5. The Laws of Thermodynamics
9.6. Vaporization, Vapor Pressure, and Phase Change
9.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“At quite uncertain times and places,

The atoms left their heavenly path,
And by fortuitous embraces,
Engendered all that being hath”
Attributed to James Clerk Maxwell

9.1. Definitions—Mass, Moles, and Amu

Before learning about gases, let’s review a few key definitions:

e The Periodic Table of Elements lists the elements and their isotopes,
atomic numbers, and atomic masses.
e Atomic number is the total number of protons in an atomic nucleus.
e Mass number or atomic mass number is the total number of nucleons
(protons and neutrons) in an atomic nucleus.
e Atomic mass is the rest mass of a neutral atom in its ground state
measured in atomic mass units (amu). It is approximately equal to the
sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus.
° PLOINE mass unit (amu or u) is the unit of mass defined such that the
atom "°C or carbon-12 (carbon with 6 protons and 6 neutrons) has a
mass of exactly 12 amu. It is defined as 1/12 the mass of one "C atom
in its ground state and is used to express the masses of atomic particles.
Therefore: 1 '*C atom has a mass of 12 amu. | amu also has the value
of about 1.66 x 10°?” kg = 1.66 x 10“ g, which is about the mass of
226 Master Math: Essential Physics

one nucleon (proton or neutron), which is about 1.67 x 10°’ kg. Also,
1 amu = | gram/mole.
e Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number (same number of
protons in their nuclei) but different mass numbers. Atoms of a
particular element by definition have the same number of protons but
can have different numbers of neutrons. For example, **U and **°U are
isotopes of uranium, each having an atomic number of 92.
e The atomic weight of an element is the weighted average of the atomic
masses of the different isotopes of an element.
e The mass of any specified nucleus is about equal to its mass number
(total nucleons) multiplied by the atomic mass unit (1.66 = 10°~* g).
e Avogadro’s number N, is the number of atoms in one mole of an
element, N, = 6.022 x 10” molecules/mole. One mole (mol) of any
substance contains the same number of basic matter units (molecules)
as does one mole of any other substance. Therefore, a mole of oxygen
contains the same number of molecules as a mole of hydrogen. A mole
of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of molecules.
e One mole of a pure substance (such as '*C) is a mass of that substance
in grams equal to its molecular mass (total nucleons) in atomic mass
units. Since the mass of one '’C atom is 12.0 amu, then one mole of
'*C atoms has a mass of 12.0 grams.
e A mole is also defined as the number of '*C atoms in exactly 12 grams
of °C. A mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of
molecules, Na = 6.022 x 10”. Therefore, in the case of '"C:
6.022 x 10 atoms "C = 12 g "C
1 atom '7C = 12 amu
6.022 x 107° atoms = 1 mole of atoms
The molar mass in g/mol of a single '*C atom is:
(12 ¢'"C)/(6.022 x 10” atoms) x (6.022 x 10” atoms)/(mole) = 12 g/mol ?C
which is called the molar mass of ‘°C. The molar mass is the mass of
one mole of a substance. Note that if you weighed a 12-g sample of
carbon, it would have 6.022 x 10” atoms of carbon.

If you have two different elements with mass numbers | (for H) and 12
(for C), then | gram of H will contain the same number of atoms as 12
grams of C, which is true for all elements and is Avogadro’s number
Ne= 6.02210 Therefore, the number of atoms in | gram of
hydrogen is 6.022 x 10”°, and the number of atoms in 12 grams of
carbon is also 6.022 x 10°. Similarly water, which has a combined
mass number of 18, has 6.022 x 10°° molecules in a quantity whose
mass is 18 grams.
 Gas and Thermodynamics 227

9.2. The Gas Laws

e A gas can expand and contract in volume, depending on temperature

and pressure. In the 17th and 18th centuries the behavior of gases was
studied by a number of people including Amontons, Boyle, Charles, and
Avogadro. Together they discovered important relationships that were
combined into the Ideal Gas Law:
PV =nRT
where T is temperature and must be given in degrees Kelvin; P is
pressure; V is volume; n is the number of moles of gas molecules with
1 mole = 6.022 x 107 molecules; and R is the Universal Gas Constant,
or 8.314 J/mol-K. By observing the equation you can see that P and V are
each directly proportional to T, and P and V are inversely proportional to
each other. This equation helps us see how T, P, or V change with
respect to the others, particularly when one is held constant. Note: The
characteristics of an ideal gas include assumptions that collisions
between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic, there are no inter-
molecular attractive forces, internal energy exists as kinetic energy, and
any change in internal energy is reflected in temperature. The Ideal Gas
Law is useful in solving problems because it serves as a good model for
the behavior of real gases at low densities.

Development of the Ideal Gas Law

e Amontons’ Law: Amontons discovered that there is a linear increase

in pressure with temperature. Amontons’ Law, as it is called, states that
the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature in
Kelvin at constant volume. (Subscripts denote initial and final.)
Po T when Vis constant
P;/Pr = T;/T¢

e Boyle’s Law: Boyle discovered that when the temperature of a

confined gas is held constant, the volume is inversely proportional to
the pressure. This means that when temperature 1s constant and pressure
increases, the volume will decrease, and vice versa. Therefore:
Po1l/V or PV=constant when Tis constant
P;V; = P;V;_ when T is constant so T; = Tr

You can model this by submersing a gas-filled cylinder in an ice-water

bath and decreasing its volume by pressing on a plunger in the cylinder.
d by
When you slowly decrease the volume of the gas, the heat generate
work being done on the gas will immediately escape to the environment
228 Master Math: Essential Physics

so that the gas remains at its initial temperature T;. This type of constant
temperature system is called an isothermal (equal temperature) system.

e Charles’ Law: Charles discovered that when the pressure of a

contained gas is held constant, the volume and temperature are directly
proportional:
V oT when Pis constant
Vi/T; = V-/Ts when P is constant

If you plot volume versus temperature at constant pressure, a linear

relationship will result, which is Charles’ Law. If you extrapolate the line
to zero on the volume axis, it will also cross the temperature axis at
—273.15 °C. This was foundational to understanding absolute zero.
Charles’ Law explains the principle behind hot air balloons such that the
air in the balloon expands when heated making it less dense than
surrounding air and able to “float” (until cooled).

e Avogadro’s Law or Hypothesis: This hypothesis states that equal

volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain
equal numbers of molecules. It also states that at a constant temperature
and pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
number of moles, n, of that gas:
Von or V/n=constant when P and T are constant
Because of Avogadro’s Law, the ideal gas constant is the same for all
gases.

e The relationships or laws of Amontons, Boyle, and Charles, when

combined with Avogadro’s Law, form the relationship:
PY aT

The proportionality constant, when one mole of a gas is present, is the

Universal Gas Constant R, which is R = 8.314 J/mol-K. This gives:
PV=RT _ for 1 mole
For n moles of a gas the law is:
EAN h

which is the standard form of the Ideal Gas Law. It is also written in
terms of the number of molecules N and the Boltzmann Constant k:
PY. NkKL

where N = number of molecules, k = R/Na = 1.38 x 107 J/K, and

Avogadro’s number Na = 6.022 x 10°’ molecules/mole. Therefcre, we
can express the Ideal Gas Law in terms of the number of molecules N in
 Gas and Thermodynamics 229
a sample or the number of moles n. We can equate the Boltzmann
Constant k and the Universal Gas Constant R:
Nk
= nR
Because the ratio N/n is the number of molecules per mole, which is
Avogadro’s Number:
N= N/n or N=nN,
where Na is Avogadro’s number and n is the number of moles. The gas
constant R is:
R = Nk/n = Nak or k = R/N,g

e It is often useful to write the Ideal Gas Law as:

P;V;/n;T; = P-V¢/ngT ¢ or P;/P x Vi/V¢_ X n,/n; = T;/Ts

where the subscripts denote initial and final. We have seen that gases can
be described in terms of the four variables: pressure P, volume V,
temperature T, and the amount of gas n. When certain variables are held
constant, the Ideal Gas Law reduces to one of the simpler laws we just
discussed. If the number of moles remains constant, then:
P;V;/T; a PrV4/Te

If the temperature and number of moles remain constant, we have

Boyle’s Law:
PVG teve

If the pressure and number of moles remain constant, we have Charles’

Law, which is useful for modeling gases that remain at constant
atmospheric pressure:
V;/T; = VedTe or Ve = V;T A/T;

e Because gases depend on temperature and pressure, it is important to

specify their values. Gases are often quoted or referenced according to
conditions of standard temperature and pressure (STP). The standard
temperature is the freezing point of water 0 °C = 273.15 K, and the
standard pressure is one atmosphere or 1.013 10° Pa. Note that at STP,
the standard volume that one mole of an ideal gas will occupy is
22.4 liters (L). Therefore, at the same temperature and pressure, any two
gases will occupy the same volume, and at 0 °C and | atm pressure, that
volume is 22.4 L.

e Example: Prove that the standard volume that one mole of an ideal gas
will occupy is 22.4 L.
We can solve PV = nRT for V, and set n= 1 mole, T = 273.15 K, and
P = 1 atm= 1.013 x 10° Pa:
230 Master Math: Essential Physics

V =nRT/P = (1 mol)(8.314 J/mol*K)(273.15 K)/(1.013 x 10° Pa)

V = 0.0224 m= 22.41
Note that 1 liter = 1,000 cm?’ = 0.001 m?, or 1 m’ = 1,000 L.

e Example: Suppose your friend asks you what the pressure of a gas will
be if it is held in a cylinder at constant temperature while a piston
compresses it to half its original volume.
You model this as an ideal gas and realize that at constant temperature
(and no change in number of moles) the Ideal Gas Law, PV = nRT, can
be written as Boyle’s Law, P;V; = PrV¢. You see that the pressure and
volume are inversely proportional. If volume is reduced to half the initial
volume, the pressure will double.

e Example: Satisfied with your last response, your friend comes up with
another scenario for you to answer. If a gas in a sealed cylinder is heated
from 0 °C to 273 °C, what will happen to its pressure?
You realize the volume is held constant due to the closed cylinder (and
no change in number of moles), so you model this as an ideal gas using
the Ideal Gas Law, PV = nRT, which becomes P;/T; = P;/T;. Since
temperature needs to be measured in Kelvin, 0 °C to 273 °C is 273 K to
546 K, which you realize means that the temperature doubles. We can
see according to the gas law equation that pressure and temperature are
directly proportional, so if temperature is doubled, then the pressure will
also double.

e Example: If you partially evacuate a 1-m’ cylinder toa pressure of

0.01 atm, what is the mass of nitrogen gas, which has a molecular weight
of 28, if the temperature is 10 °C?
You treat this as an ideal gas and solve PV = nRT for n: n= PV/RT.
The temperature in Kelvin is 283 K.
n=(0.01 atm)(1.013 10° Pa/atm)(1 m*)/(8.314 J/mol‘K)(283 K) ~ 0.43 mol
The mass contained in this amount of gas is:
m = (0.43 mol)(28 g/mol) ~ 12 g = 0.012 kg

e Example: If a helium balloon designed to survive high altitudes is

filled with 300 m’ of helium and released from sea level at 10°C and
rises to an altitude where the pressure is about 0.01 atm and the
temperature is about —50 °C, what will be its volume? (Ignore pressure
due to the elasticity of the balloon.)
The number of moles remain constant so if we model as an ideal gas,
P;V;/T; = PeVs/Ts, we can solve for V¢:
 Gas and Thermodynamics 231

Ve = PV Vel.
Using: initial volume as 300 m’; initial and final temperatures as 283
K
and 223 K; and initial and final pressures as 1 atm and 0.01 atm. Note
that if we multiply pressure in atm by 1.013 x 10° Pa/atm to get pressure
in Pa, the values of 1.013 x 10° will cancel, so we can leave this in atm.
Vr= (1 atm)(300 m*)(223 K)/(283 K)(0.01 atm) = 23,640 m?
Note: 23,640 m’ is almost 79 times greater gas volume than 300 m°. This
illustrates why high altitude balloons are initially only partly filled.

9.3. Kinetic Theory

e The kinetic theory of gases describes gases as aggregates of individual

particles. It relates the microscopic molecular properties of velocity and
kinetic energy which obey Newton’s Laws to the macroscopic properties
of temperature and pressure which can be modeled using the Ideal Gas
Law. The development of the kinetic theory makes the following
assumptions about ideal gases:
The number of molecules (or atoms) in a sample is large enough that
statistical modeling of the average behavior of the particles is valid.
The separation between molecules is great compared to molecular size
so the molecules do not influence each other (except when colliding).
- The molecules impact the walls of a container, a surface, or each other
in perfectly elastic collisions. There are no other forces exerted and no
kinetic energy transferred or converted to potential energy or radiation.
The molecules obey Newton’s Laws of motion.
The molecules are in random motion with a distribution of velocities
that remains constant: (v,°) Re = (vy) Ave = (Graver (discussed below).

e We can now develop equations that relate the velocity and kinetic
energy of gas molecules to the macroscopic properties using a sample of
molecules. These equations will be valid for ideal gases or gases that can
be modeled as ideal gases. We begin by imagining a sample of ideal gas
molecules moving with random velocities confined within a cubical
container having side length L. A single molecule has velocity vector v
with components vx, vy, and v,. The momentum p of the molecule in the
x direction is p, = Mvx, where m is its mass. If the molecule collides
perpendicularly with the wall of its container in an elastic collision, the
velocity components vy and v, do not change. The momentum of the
molecule after collision is —-mv,, so the change in momentum 1s:
Ap = my, — (—mv;x) = 2mvx
232 Master Math: Essential Physics

After the molecule collides with the right-hand wall, it bounces back to
the left wall and then returns to the right wall. In this cycle it passes
through a distance of 2L. Because the velocity is distance per time
interval, v, = 2L/At, the time it takes to complete one round trip is:
At =2Liv,
The average force (F = ma = mv/t) over time At that this one molecule
exerts on the wall of the container is:
Bee Ap, /At=2mvi bie) mua 0
Now we extend this to N molecules in the container to determine the
total force in the x direction on the container wall:

KR eaNnv ieee
where (v,°)ave is the average of the square of the x component of
velocity, not the square of the average. This is an important distinction
we can see by comparing (Vaye) and (V°)aye. For example, for velocities
beeeand:5:
(Vayey =[(1+2+3)32=4 and Wave = (1? + 274+ 3°73 = 4.67
To find the total force exerted on any of the walls, we also consider the
y- and z-components of velocity. Since the gas molecules move randomly,
the average velocity components in all three dimensions are equal:
Gore a aane = (V2")ave

2 = 2) 2 2 aa 2
(v Nave (Vx Wave as (Vy Dave Up (Vz Dave ie 3(Vx ave

Substituting Ga = mye nes we find the total force F exerted on any

single wall by N gas molecules is:
F = Nm(v)ave(BL
Since the area A of each wall is L’, the pressure P is:
P = F/A = FIL? = Nm(v )ave(3L? = Nm(v)aye/3V or P= Nim(v’)aye/3V
where V is the volume of the container. We can also write this as:
PV = ANm(V’)ave
Since the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule is:
(KE) ave = (1/2)(m)(V")ave
 Gas and Thermodynamics 233
then:
PV = (2/3)(N)(KE)
ave
We can now combine the Ideal Gas Law developed in the preceding
subsection, PV = NkT, where N is number of molecules and
k = 1.38 x 10% J/K, with the previous equation describing gas molecules
to obtain an equation in terms of temperature:
PV = (2/3)N(KE)aye= NkKT
(KE) ave = (3/2)kT

This equation for average kinetic energy per molecule shows that the
temperature of an ideal gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy
per molecule and that the average kinetic energy does not depend on
mass, just temperature. Also, k = R/Na = 1.38 x 10-7 J/K is the
Boltzmann constant. We can also write the average kinetic energy per
mole of an ideal gas using the Universal Gas constant, R = Nk/n = Nak =
8.314 JMmol-K):
(KE) ave = (3/2)RT
We can now solve for molecular velocity by taking the square root of
‘care which gives us the root mean square velocity v,,; (rather than
the average velocity Vay-). The root mean square velocity is the square
root of the mean square velocity (V*)ave. First solve
(KE)ave = (3/2)kKT = (1/2)(m)(v")ave
for ale

(rae = 3kT/m

Taking the square root gives the root mean square speed of the
molecules in a gas:
vee oktimy"
where m is mass, T is temperature in Kelvin, and k = 1.38 x 10° J/K is
the Boltzmann constant.

e Example: Your friend wants to know the average kinetic energy and
root mean square velocity of the oxygen molecules in the 30 °C ee 1S
breathing. (O has a molecular mass of 32, and there are 1.66 x 10~' kg
per amu.)
You realize that the type of gas doesn’t matter, just the temperature. You
remember you need to use temperature in Kelvin and write the equation
for the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a gas:
(KE)aye= (3/2)KT = (3/2)(1.38 x 10°” J/K)(303 K) = 6.27 * 10)
234 Master Math: Essential Physics

Your friend comments on what an unwieldy number this is and

remembers that 1.602 x 10°’? J=1 eV (electronvolt). Therefore:
(KE) ave = (6.27 x 107! J)(1 eV/1.602 x 107"?J)= 0.039 eV
Next you write the root mean square velocity aS Vims = (3kT/m]*, or:
Vans = [(3)(1.38 x 103 J/K)(303 K)/(32 amu)(1.66 x 10°’ kg/amu)]”* ~ 486 m/s
“Wow! That’s over a thousand miles per hour,” your friend exclaims.
You remind him there are a lot of collisions with other molecules so each
molecule doesn’t get too far.

e The velocities of the molecules within a gas vary and can be described
as a distribution of velocities. The distribution of the velocities is given
by Maxwell velocity distribution functions, which were developed by
James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist, in the 1800s. Without
considering the directions of the gas molecules, we can imagine the
distribution of their speeds. If a gas is at a certain uniform temperature,
the speeds of the molecules depend on the temperature of the gas. The
general form of the Maxwell distribution of speeds for molecules in an
ideal gas can be described by:
n(v) = 4n[m/2nkT]*” v2 @ my * v2kT)

where n(v) is the relative number of molecules having speed near v, m is

mass, k = 1.38 x 10°*° J/K is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the
temperature in K. The most probable speed and the mean speed for the
distribution are:
Vp=[2kT/m]* and vm=[8kT/nm]*
As we described above, the root mean square speed of the molecules in
the gas is:
Vee (ok Dim
If you graph n(v) the relative number of particles having speed v, you
can locate the most probable speed v,, mean speed vm, and root mean
square speed V,ms. This graph depicts a gas at two different temperatures
T; and Tz (where T, < T2), with Vp, Vm, and Vims Shown for T>.

oN T, <T)

Vp Vm Vrms

The Maxwell distributions for T; and T, show that the range of velocities
for the molecules is greater at higher temperatures. We can also see that
the distribution is not symmetric as there are more molecules at greater
 Gas and Thermodynamics 235
speeds. If you consider the gas around a planet, the velocities of gas
molecules that significantly exceed Vins may allow them to eventually
escape from the atmosphere if they exceed the escape velocity for that
planet. The Maxwell distributions can be used to determine certain
characteristic speeds of the molecules ina gas such as the fraction of
molecules having speeds over a particular value at various temperatures.

9.4. Diffusion and Osmosis

—_—_—_—_—_—_——————

Diffusion

e Consistent with kinetic theory, the molecules in both gases and liquids
are in constant random motion due to internal thermal kinetic energy.
This motion causes the molecules to collide with each other as well as
any nearby surface. The motion caused by their kinetic energy results in
the diffusion of individual molecules from one location to another. The
high velocities of the molecules, which are associated with their thermal
energy, cause them to diffuse. The process of diffusion allows gas
molecules to fill an evacuated chamber or allows two or more different
types of gas molecules to intermingle.

For example, if you have two gases separated by a barrier, the molecules
of both gases, which are in constant motion, will continually collide with
each other and the barrier between them. If you remove the barrier, the
random motion of the gases will cause them to intermingle. After some
time the gasses will reach equilibrium and a uniform mixture of both
types of gas molecules will occur.
Gas A Gas B Mixture ofA and B
0 oO Orig 0
e ° ®@ e
0 O

If you open a bottle of perfume in the corner a sealed room with no wind
or temperature gradient, the perfume will eventually diffuse throughout
the room until the concentration of perfume molecules everywhere in the
room is the same.

e What drives diffusion? Diffusion in a gas or liquid is driven by and

therefore occurs in response to a concentration gradient. As long as
there is no obstruction, molecules will move from regions of higher
concentration (or higher energy) to regions of lower concentration (or
reflect
lower energy). Diffusion can be described using equations which
the driving force being a concentration gradient. It Cras the concen-
air at
tration (molecules per unit volume) of perfume molecules in the
236 Master Math: Essential Physics

position 1, C) is the concentration at position 2, and Ax is the distance

between, the molecules will tend to diffuse from the region of higher
concentration (C>) toward the region of lower concentration (C,). The
rate of movement will be proportional to the concentration gradient
between C, and C;. The concentration gradient is:
(Cy — C,)/Ax = AC/Ax
If there is a concentration gradient perpendicular to a permeable surface
the rate molecules diffuse across that surface is proportional to the
surface area A. The number of molecules AN that diffuse across the
surface during time interval At is AN/At:
AN/At = —-DAAC/Ax = —DA(C2 — C,)/Ax

This is called Fick’s Law. The negative sign indicates that the direction
of diffusion occurs from high to low concentration and is therefore
opposite to increasing concentration. D is the diffusion coefficient, also
called the diffusivity, of the particular substances and is in units of
length’/time, or m’/s or cm’/s. Just as the rate of diffusion depends on the
speed of the diffusing molecules (which depend on mass and tempera-
ture), the diffusivity D depends on molecular mass of the diffusing gas or
liquid and the temperature, as well as on the pressure and properties of
the fluid in which diffusion takes place. Diffusivity is a measure of how
quickly a substance diffuses through a medium. The diffusivity or
diffusion coefficient mathematically is a proportionality constant
between the molar flux due to molecular diffusion and the driving force
for diffusion, which is the concentration gradient of the diffusing atoms
or molecules. (Note: Flux is the rate of flow of particles, fluid, or energy
through an area.) Sample diffusion coefficients for O in air is 0.2 cm/s
= 2.0 x 10° m/s, and O; in water is 2 x 10° cm*/s = 2.0 x 10° m’/s.
e Fick’s Law can also be written in terms of density p, with the letter J
used rather than AN/At to describe the mass flow rate in kg/s or mol/s:
J = DAAp/Ax = DA(p2 — p,)/Ax
where J represents the mass flow rate more generally called the diffusion
flux, D is the diffusivity or diffusion coefficient, and Ap/Ax is the
concentration gradient. The negative sign is not used since this models
mass flow rate and has a time component. Note also that we are
presenting Fick’s Law in a simple form without using calculus and
assuming one-dimensional steady state diffusion. Because J represents
the mass flow rate or m/t, the time required for diffusion can be
modeled by solving for t:
t= (mAx) / (DA(p2 — p1))
 Gas and Thermodynamics 2a

To consider volume, we multiply the numerator and denominator

by Ax
and remember that AAx = Volume V:
t = (m(Ax)’) / (DV(p> — p1))
Since the average density is Pave = (P1 + P2)/2 = m/V:

t= ((Ax)"Pave) / (D(p2 — pi) = (Ax)°(p1 + p2)) / (2D(p2 — p))

These equations are true whether the concentrations are in kg/m? or
mol/m’. Note that as molecules move they collide with other molecules
repeatedly, and randomly change direction in each collision proceeding
in what is called a “random walk” rather than straight-line motion.

e Example: If you open a bottle of perfume at one end of a closed room

with static air, how long will it take, on average, for a perfume molecule
to diffuse 10 m? Assume the diffusion coefficient is | x 10° m/s.

We begin with: t = ((Ax)"(p1 + p2)) / (2D(p2 — pi).

But since the initial density is 0, the equation reduces to:
fs) (1m) 2 10 m/s) 5 10's

Osmosis

e Osmosis involves selective diffusion through a porous barrier or semi-

permeable membrane that is permeable to certain substances but not
others. A semi-permeable membrane or barrier may allow or block atoms
and molecules according to their size or some other property such as
charge. Suppose you have two chambers separated by a semi-permeable
membrane with pure water on one side and a sugar solution on the other
side. Imagine that the semi-permeable membrane allows the smaller
solvent (water) molecules to pass but not the larger solute (sugar)
molecules. It turns out that the solvent will tend to diffuse across the
membrane from the side with either zero or a lower concentration of
solute to the side containing the solute or having a greater concentration
of solute. This process is called osmosis.

The fine dots represent the solvent (water), the large dots the solute
(sugar), and the dashed vertical line the semi-permeable membrane. The
solvent particles can pass through the membrane while the solute cannot.
the side
The figure shows that the solvent (water) diffuses toward
238 Master Math: Essential Physics

containing solute (or a higher concentration of solute). The solvent will

flow until the solvent reaches equilibrium so that the partial pressure of
the free-flowing solvent is the same on both sides of the membrane. At
equilibrium for the solvent, there will be the additional partial pressure of
the solute which makes the pressure on the solute side greater.

To visualize this using the figure, we see that initially before osmosis the
total liquid pressure is the same in both chambers because the liquid
levels are equal, but the pressure due to water molecules is greater in the
pure water chamber. Since all the molecules are in thermal motion, the
water molecules are hitting the membrane from both sides, and the sugar
molecules are hitting the membrane from the right side. The semi-
permeable membrane allows water molecules to pass freely but sugar
molecules cannot pass. The rate that the water molecules reach the
membrane surface is smaller on the side containing sugar molecules
since the sugar molecules near the membrane block some of the water
molecules. This allows for a greater rate of transport of water molecules
through the membrane from the pure water side. Therefore, during
osmosis the water flows from higher water pressure on the pure water
side to lower water pressure on the sugar side. This net flow of water into
the sugar side continues until the pressure due to water molecules hitting
the membrane is the same on both sides.

After osmosis, the water pressure is the same on both sides of the
membrane, although there is additional pressure due to the sugar that is
all on the sugar side. The total pressure in any fluid (liquid or gas) is
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of its various constituents. After
osmosis, the side with the sugar has a greater total pressure than the side
with only water, and the difference measures the osmotic pressure
which is equal to the partial pressure of the sugar. This is depicted as the
difference in liquid levels after osmosis, h (as shown in the above figure),
and measures the pressure difference pgh, which also reflects the
osmotic pressure of the sugar solution. The osmotic pressure of a
solution therefore depends on the concentration of particles that will not
pass through the membrane.

e Interestingly, osmosis allows the creation of a pressure difference or a

greater pressure difference across a membrane. During osmosis, a semi-
permeable membrane acts both as a filter by allowing some substances to
pass but not others, and as a pump by allowing the creation of a pressure
difference. Both functions are important in biological systems including
the transport across cell membranes, the stiffness of plants and leaves,
and the filtering function of waste removal by the kidneys.
 Gas and Thermodynamics 239

on 1887 J-H. van’t Hoff discovered that osmotic pressure IT varies

directly with both solute concentration C and absolute temperature
T.
Using R as the proportionality constant he found:
It =R,CT
where C = n/V = (number of moles of solute)/(unit volume of solution).
Therefore:
ITV = nR,T
This has the same form as the Ideal Gas Law equation PV = nRT, where
the Universal Gas Constant is R = 8.314 J/molK. However, the constant
R, is determined from osmotic pressure measurements as:
Ry = 0.0827 atm-L/mol-K
If we transform the conventional units of the gas constant R, into R:
R= 0.0821 atm-L/mol-K
where L is liters, R is the gas constant in units 0.0821 L atm/mol‘K. This
means II = R,CT represents an approximation of the Ideal Gas Law
equation for the solute molecules. Van’t Hoff realized that the gas law
PV = nRT applied to liquids by relating the molecules of solute (acting
as a gas) moving though the solvent (acting as the medium or Universe).
We can see that the Ideal Gas Law can be written as P = (n/V)RT, where
(n/V) is moles divided by liters, which is molarity. The equation
ITV = nR,T is only valid, however, for concentrations of solute in the
solvent that are not too large (tenths of mol/I or less). For larger solute
concentrations, the osmotic pressure is greater than that predicted by this
simple equation and requires more advanced mathematics.

9.5. The Laws of Thermodynamics

e Dynamics studies objects in motion and, since “thermo” refers to heat,

thermodynamics is the study of heat that is moving or flowing. There are
four laws of thermodynamics you will likely encounter which are labeled
Zero through Three. You may discover that the laws are presented a little
differently depending on the discipline. In general, thermodynamics
studies the effects of heat, energy, and work on a system at the
macroscopic level. Its development and early focus involved the design
and operation of steam engines. It is a complement to kinetic theory
which involves the microscopic level.

The Zeroth Law involves thermodynamic equilibrium, temperature, and

temperature measurement. The First Law involves heat, energy, work,
and the conservation of energy. The Second Law involves entropy. The
Third Law involves absolute zero temperatures and thermal motion.
240 Master Math: Essential Physics

Each law leads to definitions of thermodynamic properties which help us

understand and model physical systems.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

e The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics involves thermodynamic

equilibrium and states that when two objects are each in thermodynamic
equilibrium with a third object, they are in thermal equilibrium with each
other. That means if two systems or objects have the same temperature,
they are in thermal equilibrium. For example, if objects A and B have the
same temperature and are therefore in thermal equilibrium, and if objects
B and C have the same temperature and are therefore in thermal
equilibrium, then objects A and C have the same temperature and are
therefore in thermal equilibrium.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics has been used as the basis for
measurement of temperature and setting its scale by creating a
thermometer. We can calibrate the change in a thermal property, such as
the volume of mercury (or the length of a column of mercury), by putting
a thermometer in thermal equilibrium with a known physical system at
several reference points. For example, Celsius thermometers have their
reference points fixed at the freezing and boiling points of pure water. If
we then bring the thermometer into thermal equilibrium with any other
system, such as a cup of coffee, we can determine the temperature of the
coffee by measuring the change in the thermal property. Therefore,
measuring temperature involves the use of a reference object or system
that has some thermodynamic property such as volume which changes
reliably with changing temperature and can be measured (such as the
height of a column of mercury).

Because of the Zeroth Law, when two objects of different temperatures

come into contact with each other, heat (which is a form of energy) will
flow from the higher-temperature object to the lower-temperature object
until they reach thermal equilibrium. When two objects are in thermal
equilibrium, they have the same temperature.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

e Energy can exist in and be converted between various forms including

internal (atomic vibrations), chemical (in chemical bonds), electrical,
potential, and kinetic. Conservation of energy, which is a statement of
the First Law of Thermodynamics, says that energy cannot be created
or destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another or moved
from place to place. (See Section 5.9 for a discussion of conservation of
 Gas and Thermodynamics 241
energy. Also as mentioned in Section 5.9, in light of relativity,
conservation of energy may be thought of in a larger picture as the
conservation of mass-energy.)

Heat and work are forms of energy or a means of transferring energy.

Any heat or work that is absorbed or done to a system, or released or
done by a system, will affect the internal energy of that system. Internal
energy U arises from molecular motion and is mostly a function of
temperature. It is associated with the random motion of the particles.
When heat Q is added to (or released from) a system, and the system
does work W on its surroundings (or the surroundings do work on the
system), then the internal energy U in a system changes. Energy is
related to heat and work by the First Law of Thermodynamics, which
can be written:
AU=Q-W

where energy, heat, and work are in the same units, Q is heat added to
the system, and W is work done by the system. The First Law of
Thermodynamics defines the internal energy change of a system, AU,
as equal to the heat transfer Q into a system minus the work W done by
the system to its surroundings. Note that we can also write the First Law
on a per unit mass basis as: Au = q — w, with units in J/kg.

e When heat is transferred into the system, Q is positive, and when heat
is transferred out of the system, Q is negative. When the system does
work on its surroundings, work W is positive, and when the surroundings
do work on the system, W is negative. Note that work is subtracted from
Q so there is a negative sign before W. You will therefore see the
assignment of the positive and negative to work written both ways. Let’s
show some examples:
If a system does 3 Joules of work on its surroundings while 4 Joules of
heat is added to the system:
AU =Q-W=[4]J heat in] — [3 J work out] = 1 J change in U
Alternatively, if a system does 3 Joules of work on its surroundings
while 4 Joules of heat is released from the system:
AU =Q-W=[-4 J heat out] — [3 J work out] = —7 J change in U
If a system has 3 Joules of work done on it by its surroundings while
4 Joules of heat is added to the system:
AU = O— W = [4J heat in] — [—3 J work in] = 7 J change in U
If a system has 3 Joules of work done on it by its surroundings while
4 Joules of heat is released from the system:
in U
AU =Q- W =[-4 J heat out] — [-3 J work in] =—1 J change
242 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Any thermodynamic system that is in a state of equilibrium possesses

the so-called state variable internal energy (AU = Q — W). If there is a
change from one state of equilibrium to another, there will be a change in
the internal energy. While work and heat depend not only on the initial
and final state of a gas but also on process, the difference between the
heat flow into a gas and the work done by a gas depends only on the
initial and final states of the gas and not on the process or path which
produces the final state. Therefore the change in internal energy (Q — W)
of the gas depends only on the state of the gas and not on any process.
Internal energy is a form of energy just like potential energy or kinetic
energy, and they can be transformed from one to the other.

e Example: In Section 8.3 we introduced the First Law of Thermo-

dynamics and illustrated a piston holding a contained gas under pressure.
We said that if the gas is heated, it expands, thereby doing work on the
piston by lifting it against gravity, and that if the piston is pushed down,
the piston does work on the gas. Suppose heat is added to the piston
system. Instead of letting the gas heat up (which increases its pressure
thereby pushing up the piston), you slowly lift the piston and reduce the
gas pressure so that the temperature remains constant. What happens to
the heat energy that is added to the system?

Cylinder eae eae

ee See ah eas
Syne atConan
expanded
hee aie tere add heat Q

Because the temperature remains constant, the internal ‘energy of the

system remains constant (AU = 0). The First Law becomes:
AU=Q-W=0 or Q=W
As the gas expands, it performs work W on the piston because the force
of the gas’s pressure acts on the piston through a vertical distance,
helping you lift the piston. Because AU = 0, the work done by the gas on
the piston must be equal to the amount of heat Q added to the gas.
Therefore, all of the heat energy is converted into work as the gas
expands its volume, pushing up the piston. Note that the sum of the work
done by the gas and the work done by you in lifting the piston equals the
total work performed on the piston.

e Just as we described the Ideal Gas Law with certain conditions held
constant, thermodynamic processes can be undertaken and described by
restricting the change in certain variables. Work can be performed under
the conditions: adiabatic with constant heat, isothermal with constant
temperature, isochoric with constant volume, and isobaric with constant
pressure. When we describe these processes we assume they proceed
 Gas and Thermodynamics 243
slowly enough that the temperature and pressure are the same throughout
the gas or system. This slow change is referred to as being quasi-static.

Constant Heat: Adiabatic

e If a system is thermally insulated from the outside environment, it is

possible to have a thermodynamic process and change of state in which
no heat is transferred into (or out of) the system. This is called an
adiabatic process and Q = 0. The change in internal energy:
AU=Q-W becomes AU=-—W
The work done in compressing the gas goes into the internal energy.
Work done in any adiabatic process is independent of path or process, so
that the final state will be the same for a certain amount of work
regardless of how it was performed.

e For an adiabatic process temperature and pressure can be described

using simple equations. In Section 9.3 above we learned that the average
kinetic energy per mole of an ideal gas is:
(KE) ave = (3/2)RT where R = 8.314 J/(mol-K)

For an ideal gas the internal energy can therefore be written:

U=@G/2)nRT or AU=(3/2)nR(Tr- Ti)
where the initial temperature is T; and the final T;. Since AU = —W, the
work done in an adiabatic system is:
W = (3/2)nR(1; — Te)

If the temperature decreases, the gas does work on its surroundings. The
work done in an adiabatic process can be seen from the graph of pressure
versus volume as the area under the “adiabat”’, which is the adiabatic
curve plotted.

adiabat is solid curve

Pe T; isotherm (higher temperature).
Pressure ~~ T; isotherm (lower temperature).
Work is area under solid adiabat curve.

V; V- Volume

Constant Temperature: Isothermal

allowing
e A system in which a gas is held at constant temperature by
process . The system usually has a
heat flow in or out is an isothermal
t tempera ture T to maintai n
large heat reservoir which is held at a constan
244 Master Math: Essential Physics

the temperature. While the temperature remains constant in an isothermal

system, other variables such as volume and pressure can change. In an
isothermal system of an ideal gas where temperature is constant, the
internal energy is U = (3/2)nRT (which we discussed above in the
adiabatic system) and will remain constant:
AU=0=Q-W or Q=W

In an isothermal system having a contained ideal gas and a piston that

maintains the temperature of the gas constant, if you add heat and the
volume increases (raising the piston) the product of volume V and
pressure P remain constant since temperature T is constant. This follows
from the Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT, where R = 8.314 J/(mol-K) and T is
in degrees Kelvin. To derive an equation for work we need to use some
simple calculus. Calculus is beyond the scope of this book, but I will
show you this simple integral so you know how the equation for work in
an isothermal system evolved. When a gas changes from an initial to a
final state, the work done can be described by the integral:
W =i" PdV
From the Ideal Gas Law we can replace P with P = nRT/V:
W =oRT yi! (/V)dV
where nRT is a constant so it can be removed from the integral. Since the
integral of (1/x) is by definition the natural log of x, or (In x), we have
(nRT)(InV) evaluated at V; minus V;:
W = nRT(InV;_— InV;j)

Using a property of logarithms that (log x — log y = log(x/y)) work done

in an isothermal system is given by:

W = nRT In(V//V;)
As volume changes, work can be shown on a graph of pressure versus
volume as the area under the isotherm curve. (Note that an integral
equals the area under a curve.)

T isotherm curve.
Pressure
Work is area under isotherm curve.

V; Vr Volume

In this diagram we see that a contained ideal gas obeying PV = nRT held
at constant temperature T while pressure and volume are allowed to
slowly vary, plot out a curve on the P vs. V plane, which is called an
isotherm at temperature T.
 Gas and Thermodynamics 245

e Example: If you have an isothermal system at 25°C with 1 mole ofa

contained ideal gas having a piston and you add heat while it expands
from a volume of 0.05 m? to 0.06 m*, what is the internal energy change
AU, work W, and heat Q added?

The internal energy change for an isothermal system is AU = 0.

Because AU = 0, Q = W so all the added heat becomes work done. We
can calculate the work using (remember to use Kelvin):
W = nRT In(V¢/Vj) = (1.0)(8.314)(25 + 273.15)In(0.06/0.05) = 452 J
Because Q = W, the heat added is 452 J.

Constant Volume: Isochoric

e An isochoric process means one in which volume remains constant

while other system properties such as pressure and temperature vary. If
you sketch a constant volume system on a pressure versus volume graph,
you get a vertical line from P; to P;. You realize that if there was a curve,
work would be the area under the curve, but since there is no curve, the
work in an isochoric system must be zero:

ce
Pressure W=0
Pi

Vi=Ve Volume

No work is done during an isochoric process, since no area accumulates

under a vertical curve. Therefore, since W = 0:
AU=Q-0 or AU=Q
We see that any energy transfer in the form of heat reflects the change in
internal energy AU. In other words, Q provides the energy input and U
will increase (and temperature increases).

Suppose a sealed container such as a can of gas has an increase in tem-

perature and the pressure increases, it will maintain a constant volume
(PV =nRT). If the pressure becomes too great, however, it can even-
tually burst. As long as the can maintains its integrity, no work is done.

Constant Pressure: Isobaric

other
e In an isobaric process a gas is held at constant pressure, while
system properties such as volume can vary. In an isobaric system:
AU =Q-W
246 Master Math: Essential Physics

If you imagine a piston holding down on a contained gas and then the
container is heated, the piston can rise to alleviate any pressure so that it
remains constant. Meanwhile, as the floating piston allows the pressure
to remain constant, the temperature and volume can increase. Let’s look
at the work on an isobaric system. Remember W = Fd, force times
distance. We can make substitutions using area A to express it in terms
of pressure P and volume V as follows:
W =Fd=PAd=PV
As the gas expands the volume V will increase, so we write work done
in an isobaric system as:
W = PAV
Providing the quantity of gas remains constant, we can substitute using
the Ideal Gas Law, PV = nRT (where n is the number of moles, R is the
gas constant 8.314 J/mol-K, and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin), to
write work done in an isobaric system:
| W='PAV =nRAE |

The graph of an isobaric system shows that at some fixed pressure P, as

volume changes from V; to V;, the work can be shown on a graph of
pressure versus volume as the area under the curve.

Pressure Work Work is area under the curve.

done

Vi Ve Volume

e Example: You have an isobaric system having a piston with | mole of

a contained ideal gas at 25 °C. If you add heat allowing it to expand from
a volume of 0.05 m? to 0.06 m’, what is the work and new temperature?
Assume pressure is 1.013 x 10° Pa.
Work is: W = PAV = (101,300 Pa)(0.06 m* — 0.05 m*) = 1,013 J
Using W = PAV = nRAT:
AT = W/nR = (1,013 J) / (1 mol)(8.314 J/mol-K) = 121.8 K
The Celsius and Kelvin scales are the same so the new temperature is:
25°C + 121.8 = 146.8 °C

Specific Heat Capacity

e In the last chapter we learned that the specific heat, or specific heat
capacity, c is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit of mass
by a unit change in temperature. More specifically, the specific heat is
 Gas and Thermodynamics 247
the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of |
kg of a
substance by | degree Celsius or Kelvin. The specific heat c relates
heat
Q and temperature T: Q = mcAT. The specific heats of gasses are
affected by changes in pressure or volume as temperature changes, and
are measured with either volume or pressure held constant while the
other varies. The specific heat at constant volume c, and the specific
heat at constant pressure c, are:

Cy = Q/mAT, and c, = Q/mAT,

At constant pressure: T, < Ty

This means for given values of Q and m, we find: Coeey
If we divide c, by cy, the ratio is given the symbol y: y = Cotes

e The heat capacity of a gas depends on whether it can expand in

volume or is held at constant volume (raising its pressure) when heated.
When volume is constant, the heat goes into the internal energy of the
gas molecules, AU = Q, and the temperature increases. If the gas can
expand when heated, AU = Q ~ W, and part of the energy goes into work.
We see that for a given temperature increase more heat input is needed
for an expanding gas. The difference in the required heat input to change
the temperature for a constant pressure and a constant volume gas is the
amount of work done (W) by the expanding gas. Work is given by:
W = FAd, where F is the force exerted on the gas and Ad is the distance
over which the force is exerted. As we just showed above using substi-
tutions for area A, we write W in terms of pressure P and volume V:
W = Fd= PAd = PV. For an expanding gas, work is therefore:
W = PAV, which we recall is work in an isobaric system. Therefore, the
heat required for a given temperature change is more than PAV if the gas
expands (pressure is constant) than if volume is constant.

It is useful to describe this in terms of specific heat. Since more heat is

required to raise the temperature of a unit quantity of a substance one
degree (the specific heat) for a constant-pressure gas than a constant-
volume gas, the specific heat at constant pressure c, is larger than the
specific heat at constant volume c,. To find the difference between Cp and
c, we can convert the specific heat to the molar heat capacity, which is
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a mole of gas by
1°C. The molar heat capacities for constant pressure and constant
volume are written C, and Cy. Since the mass in kg of a mole of gas is
numerically equal to the molecular weight m, we can relate the specific
heat capacities to the molar heat capacities as:
C,=me, and Cy=mcy
248 Master Math: Essential Physics

To increase the temperature AT of n moles of gas under constant pressure

requires nC,AT heat and under constant volume requires nC,AT heat.
The difference between C, and C, is PAV. Therefore:
Fh ya Meat aya el DANNY
Substituting the Ideal Gas Law, PV = nRT, when P is constant is
PAV = nRT, which we can substitute into the above equation as:
ne Al Sal AT =a Al,
or
(Ce

When heat Q is added to a gas at constant volume, it causes a change in

internal energy, AU = Q. When a gas is made up of single atoms
(monatomic gas), and heat is added, it goes into increased internal
kinetic energy of the atoms, resulting in a rise in temperature. The
internal energy can be written: U = (3/2)nRT, where R, the gas constant,
is 8.314 J/mol-K. If the temperature of the gas changes by AT, the
internal energy U changes by:
AU = (3/2)nRAT =nC,AT
We can obtain equations for C, and C, by first solving for Cy:
C, = (3/2)R
Using Co — C, = K, weiget, C, "GC, FR (3/2 )R>- Re or:
| COIR |
For gases that are not monatomic the molar heat capacity is larger.

e Note that if you insulate a cylinder-plunger system, making it adiabatic,

and then decrease its volume, heat cannot leave the gas so the work done
on the gas is transformed into internal energy and the temperature will
rise. If you know the initial pressure P;, initial volume Vj, and final
volume V;, you can find the final pressure Pry using:
PV"=constant or P,V;’=PrV_ where y =c,/cy
where c, is the specific heat at constant volume and c, is the specific heat
at constant pressure.

e Note also that working with the First Law of Thermodynamics for
gases introduces the state variable, enthalpy. Enthalpy H is given by:
H=U+PV
We can understand enthalpy by considering that since a gas has “moved”
its surroundings in order to occupy its space using pressure P, it did work
equal to PV in order to make a place for itself. Therefore, enthalpy is a
 Gas and Thermodynamics 249

measure of the total energy H of a gas which includes the internal

energy
U plus the energy required to exist at a certain volume V and pressure
P.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

e The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that heat does not

spontaneously flow from a cooler region to a warmer region. For heat
to flow from a cooler region to a warmer region, work must be done
from the outside. If you leave a hot cup of coffee in a cool room, it will
not spontaneously get hotter, but will instead slowly cool to the
temperature of the room (as the heat from the coffee enters the room).
Similarly, if you leave a glass full of ice in a warm room, it will not
spontaneously get colder but will warm to the temperature of the room
(as the ice absorbs heat from the room).

e The same principle that specifies that heat spontaneously flows from
hot to cold but not from cold to hot, also stipulates that ordered systems
naturally move toward disorder while disordered systems do not
spontaneously move toward order. The Second Law therefore also
involves the definition of the state variable entropy, which is a measure
of the disorder of a system. The Second Law of Thermodynamics also
specifies that the total entropy of the Universe (a system and its
surroundings) does not decrease, rather, all natural changes increase
entropy. The natural tendency of an isolated system and the Universe as
a whole is to move spontaneously toward a state of disorder.

If you place salt and pepper in separate sides of a divided container and
carefully remove the divider, you have an ordered system. If you then
shake the container, the salt and pepper will mix into a disordered state.
No amount of shaking will separate and reorder the salt and pepper. You
may be wondering about living organisms that grow and become more
ordered. Living organisms release heat (and waste products) to their
environments as they grow, creating net disorder. Thinking in terms of
time, the Second Law suggests that over time the Universe moves
toward increasing disorder. It has been suggested that the Second Law
dictates the direction of time. Thinking about entropy on a molecular
level, during a mechanical process some amount of mechanical energy is
converted into heat. When this occurs internal energy increases as the
random motions of the molecules that make up the system increase. In
any mechanical process that produces heat (such as through friction),
some of the energy will be irretrievably “lost” (as low-grade thermal
energy). The randomness of the motions of the molecules is a measure of
the entropy. By the Second Law energy flows from higher to lower:
concentration, pressure, voltage, or temperature until equilibrium.
250 Master Math: Essential Physics

e While entropy S is related to energy, it is a different aspect of energy

since it explains spontaneous changes such as heat transfer from a hot
region to a cold one or the expansion of a gas into an empty space. In
such processes, entropy increases, AS. If a system absorbs heat energy Q
at a constant temperature T, the entropy increase AS can be written:
AS = AQ/T, where entropy is defined as the heat transfer AQ into a
system divided by temperature. More specifically, for a system going
from one state A to another state B as heat is input, the entropy increase
is Sg — Sa = AQ/T. For a thermodynamic process that occurs over a range
of temperatures as heat is applied or removed from the system, the
differential form (from calculus) is used, dS = dQ/T, and integration is
required to evaluate (sum) the entropy at various temperatures.

Heat Engines and Heat Pumps

e The fact that heat will always flow from regions of high temperature to
regions of lower temperature is foundational to the operation of heat
engines. Heat engines are machines which transform heat energy into
mechanical energy or work. Examples of heat engines include steam
engines, diesel and gasoline-powered motors, and turbines in power
plants. A heat engine uses the flow of heat Q from a region of high
temperature T}, to a region of lower temperature T..iq to do work. Often
heat produces an expansion of a gas which is used to do work. Heat
engines are comprised of three basic elements: a high temperature heat
source at temperature T),1, a low temperature heat sink at temperature
Tooia, and a device that converts heat into work. Heat engines are often
operated to run in a cycle with flow directed between the heat source and
heat sink repeatedly as work is extracted during each cycle.
Work

Heat Source, Thot Heat Sink, Tooig

e A property of the heat engine is that its maximum efficiency is

determined by the operating temperatures, Tyo, and T.o1g. The maximum
efficiency is available only by ideal, reversible engines (that can operate
in either direction) in which no energy is converted into random motion
and no heat is lost through friction or to the environment. In a reversible
process entropy remains constant. In reality machines cannot work at
100% efficiency as they all generate some heat, and some of that heat
will be lost to the environment. Note that a reversible process is an ideal
process in which the system and surroundings (the Universe) can be
restored to their original state after a change in state. In a reversible
process the combined entropy of the system and the environment is
 Gas and Thermodynamics 251
constant. In an irreversible process the system and surroundings cannot
be restored after a change in state and the entropy increases.

Nineteenth Century scientist N. L.S. Carnot analyzed an idealized

engine, called the Carnot engine, with a four-phase cycle consisting of
two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes. In each cycle the
temperature and pressure of an ideal gas change as it expands and
contracts. The basic Carnot cycle for a heat engine moves from a high-
temperature isothermal expansion, to an adiabatic expansion cooling
down, to a low-temperature isothermal compression, to an adiabatic
compression warming up. Energy is removed from the high-temperature
reservoir as heat, with some transformed to useful mechanical work, and
the remaining heat energy going to a low-temperature reservoir (a sink).

As shown in the above diagram, heat flow in is Qno and heat flow out is
Qcoia- If all the input heat Qho: is converted to work W plus output heat
Ora then:

Qhoe = W+ Qed Or W = Qhot — Qeota

The efficiency of the heat engine is the ratio of work done W to the
input heat Qhot:
Piiciency = WI .Ore— (One Occia)/ noe = 1 = (Ocnia/ Ono)
Because of the idealized case of the Carnot cycle, efficiency becomes:

Etticiency = (Troe lecia)/ toe = Li Ci cctal Tne)

Therefore, the efficiency of the ideal heat engine can be determined

from the two operating temperatures, T), and Teoig. We can combine
efficiency in terms of Q with that of T:
= (Qeota/Qhot) alee Cl cota! Lge) or (Oca Tecia) = (Qhot/Thot)

Calculating the efficiency of the idealized, reversible Carnot engine gives

the theoretical maximum for the fraction of heat that can be used for
work in a heat engine.

e Example: If you design a personal Carnot-style power plant for your

home that provides an input heat of 200°C and an output heator2s GC:
what is its maximum efficiency?
First convert to Kelvin: Tro: = 473.15 K and Teo = 298.15 K. Then:
Efficiency = 1 — (Teota/Thot) = 1 — (298.15 K/473.15 K) = 0.37
Your maximum efficiency is 37%.

e If this Carnot cycle is run backward, it is a heat pump, which requires

pumps
work and must be driven by some type of external motor. Heat
252 Master Math: Essential Physics

are heat engines that work in reverse by forcing heat to flow from a
cool region to a hotter one. Examples of heat pumps include refriger-
ators and air conditioners. Since heat does not flow spontaneously from
a cool region toward a hotter region, work is required. Heat pumps
consist of two operating temperatures and a device which transfers heat
from a cold reservoir to a warmer reservoir. They operate as the reverse
of the figure above for heat engines.

In a heat pump, the basic Carnot cycle moves from an adiabatic

expansion cooling down, to a low-temperature isothermal expansion, to
an adiabatic compression warming up, to a high temperature isothermal
compression. In this direction, the cycle either removes heat from the
low-temperature reservoir or adds heat to the high-temperature reservoir.
Most heat pumps use a coolant fluid that experiences a phase change and
undergoes both pressurization and expansion.

Third Law of Thermodynamics

e There are several statements of the Third Law of Thermodynamics.

One is that you cannot cool a substance to absolute zero (0 Kelvin)
using any process that uses a finite number of steps. Even though each
step in a cooling process can move toward absolute zero, you cannot
reach absolute zero unless you have an infinite number of steps, which is
not practical. Therefore, it is not practically possible to cool all the way
to absolute zero Kelvin.

Another statement of the Third Law of Thermodynamics says: If you

could cool to absolute zero Kelvin, ideally a pure substance would form
a perfectly ordered and uniform crystal structure, all molecular motion
would stop, and entropy would be zero. In reality, substances are not
made up entirely of identical molecules that are identically aligned with
perfectly uniform motion. Therefore, even if absolute zero Kelvin was
reached, entropy is unlikely to be zero. This allows us to state that
entropy cannot be negative. Therefore, by the Third Law of Thermo-
dynamics, theoretically, if you had an ideal pure substance with a
perfectly ordered, perfectly uniform crystal structure and you somehow
cooled it to absolute zero Kelvin and all molecular motion slowed to a
stop, entropy could be zero but never negative.

Finally and similarly, the Third Law is sometimes written: the entropy
of a perfectly pure substance approaches zero as the temperature
approaches zero Kelvin. This would occur since at absolute zero
(0 Kelvin) there is no thermal energy or heat and the atoms in a pure
crystalline substance would perfectly align and have no motion.
 Gas and Thermodynamics 253

9.6. Vaporization, Vapor Pressure, and Phase Change

a
¢ A common constituent of air is water vapor. Water vapor enters air
from the surfaces of oceans, lakes, and rivers by way of evaporation as
individual water molecules escape due to their own kinetic energy.
Evaporation is the result of the molecular motion of liquid molecules.
During evaporation, or vaporization, the relatively strong attractive
intermolecular forces at the surface of a liquid are broken and a molecule
escapes into a gaseous state. Only the molecules with very high energies
can escape from a liquid, so that any vaporized molecule takes with it
energy which is greater than the average energy of the remaining liquid
molecules. Therefore, the vaporization process causes a lowering of the
overall energy of the liquid molecules, leaving the liquid slightly cooler.

At the same time molecules are leaving the surface, water vapor
molecules in the air hit the liquid surface and are absorbed. The process
by which they enter the liquid is called condensation. Above the surface
of liquid water, water vapor molecules move about and interact with air
molecules. If the rate that molecules are being vaporized equals the rate
they are being absorbed into the liquid, the liquid and vapor will be in
equilibrium. At equilibrium the air just above the liquid will contain a
constant number of water vapor molecules per volume and will be
saturated with vapor.

Imagine a sealed container with liquid in the bottom and vapor at the top.
The vapor in the confined volume above the liquid has a certain pressure
defined as the number of molecules per unit volume (n/V) at a specified
temperature T. The pressure obeys the Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT (and is
independent of the type of gas). Whether there is just water vapor present
or vapor plus air and/or other gases, the water molecules in the vapor
move independently, leaving and returning to the liquid surface.

If you have a larger sealed container with several cups containing

different liquids sitting inside so they are all exposed to the same
confined volume of air space, each liquid will have its own vapor
pressure, or partial pressure, to the total pressure of the contained air
space. In fact, the total pressure on the container walls 1s the sum ofthe
individual partial pressures exerted by the different gases. The partial
pressure is the pressure that each gas or vapor would exert if it were the
only gas in the container. The partial pressure of each gas obeys the Ideal
Gas Law for its molecular concentration. The vapor pressure is defined
as the pressure of a vapor just above its condensed (liquid or solid) phase
when it is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phase.
254 Master Math: Essential Physics

The vapor pressure of a liquid does not depend on the volume, or space,
above its liquid surface. A liquid will establish its equilibrium with its
vapor phase regardless of volume so that n/V is the same for a given
temperature T. Vapor pressure of a particular liquid is only dependent
on temperature T. This is because the temperature determines the energy
of the molecules and the rate at which they escape the surface at
equilibrium (thereby increasing the vapor pressure). The evaporation
rate for a particular liquid therefore depends on temperature. As water
evaporates, the partial pressure of water vapor will increase, resulting in
an increase in the condensation rate. Eventually, equilibrium is reached
as the rate of molecules leaving equals the rate they are absorbed so that
the condensation rate will equal the evaporation rate (providing the
liquid supply is not exhausted). This is when no further evaporation
occurs and the air is saturated. The partial pressure of water vapor at
saturation is called the saturation pressure, or simply the vapor
pressure.

The strengths of the intermolecular forces are different for different

liquids. Therefore vapor pressure values are different for different
liquids at the same temperature. For example, for a more volatile
substance like alcohol, molecules can escape the surface more readily, so
alcohol has a greater vapor pressure than water at a given temperature.

When a small container of water is in a large room it will usually

evaporate before equilibrium is achieved. However, if a small container
of water is covered so that there is very little air space, the water will
evaporate until a saturated vapor pressure is achieved at that temperature.
The ratio of the actual vapor pressure of water in air to the saturated
vapor pressure at the same temperature is called the relative humidity.
Relative humidity at a specified temperature is the amount of water
vapor in air expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount of water
vapor that could be in the air at that temperature. When the relative
humidity is 100%, the air holds all the water vapor it can.

When air is cooled, it will eventually become saturated with water and
the partial pressure of water will equal the vapor pressure. As cooling
continues there will be an excess amount of water vapor in the air. This
vapor will return to a liquid state by condensation, forming water
droplets in the air called fog or clouds or forming water droplets on any
cool surface called dew. The temperature at which water vapor becomes
saturated is called the dew point. If the temperature is lowered below
0 °C when saturation occurs, the excess water vapor will form frost or an
ice fog.
 Gas and Thermodynamics 255

e Example: How would you use the dew point to measure the relative
humidity if the air temperature is 25 °C and, as a piece of metal is cooled,
water droplets begin to condense on it when it reaches 15 °C?
Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual vapor pressure of water in air
to the saturated vapor pressure at the same temperature. In this case the
air that is in contact with the metal is cooled by conduction to the
temperature of the metal. Because water vapor condenses on the metal
when the temperature is 15 °C, the air must become saturated at 15 °C.
Therefore the partial pressure at 25 °C is equal to the saturated pressure
at 15 °C. Looking up the saturated pressures as 12.8 mmHg at 15 °C and
23.8 mmHg at 25 °C:
Relative humidity is 12.8/23.8 ~ 0.538 or about 54%

Phase Change

e In Section 8.3, in the subsection Phase Change and Latent Heat, we

learned that when heat is added to or removed from a substance, there
can be a temperature change, a phase change, or both (sequentially).
During the process of a phase change when the internal structure of the
substance is changing, the temperature does not change until the sub-
stance has completed its phase change even while a certain amount of
heat is being added or removed. The heat required to change the phase is
the latent heat of transformation, Q,. The latent heat of fusion is the
quantity of heat energy removed or added when | kg of a liquid solidifies
or when it changes from solid to liquid without its temperature changing.
The latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat energy required
to vaporize | kg of a liquid into a gas or vapor without its temperature
changing. Phase change temperatures include the melting point (from
solid to liquid), and the boiling point (from liquid to gas). Sublimation
and deposition occurs when the phase change is directly from solid to
gas or gas to solid.

e For each phase transition process there is an equilibrium state where

the two phases coexist, but there is not a net conversion of one phase to
the other due to saturation. Tables listing saturation vapor pressures have
been constructed, and phase diagrams showing equilibrium pressure
versus temperature are also available. Phase diagrams display where
equilibrium exists between phases, and therefore the conditions for
which transitions between the phases occur. A phase diagram, which
plots pressure (P or In P) vs. temperature (T), isa common way to —
represent the various phases of a substance and the conditions in which
each phase exists. There are curves or lines on a phase diagram which
show phase transitions and specific temperature and pressure conditions
256 Master Math: Essential Physics

where a phase change is at equilibrium (where two phases can coexist).

These diagrams show points where it is possible for two or three phases
to coexist at equilibrium as well as other regions where only one phase
can exist at equilibrium.

There is a triple point (of a certain temperature and pressure) where the
three phases of solid, liquid, and gas can exist simultaneously at
equilibrium. The triple point of water occurs for a pressure of 4.58 torr
(where: | atm = 760 torr = 1.013 x 10° Pa = 760 mm Hg) and a temper-
ature of 0.01°C. There is a critical point temperature and pressure above
which it is no longer possible to distinguish between gas and liquid
phases. The critical point shows the highest temperature at which the gas
or vapor phase of a substance can be in equilibrium with its liquid phase,
regardless of the pressure. Above the critical temperature and pressure,
the substance is called a super-critical fluid. The critical point for water
occurs at 374 °C and 218 atm. Liquid water does not exist for temper-
atures higher than critical point temperature regardless of the pressure.
Note that different phases can also exist together for temperature and
pressure combinations that are not lying on one of the solid curves in a
phase diagram, but they are not in equilibrium so that one of the phases
is gradually transitioning to the other.

9.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT or PV = NkT (T in Kelvin, R = 8.31 J/mol-K

Universal Gas Constant, k = 1.38 x 10° J/K Boltzmann Constant).
e Kinetic Theory of Gases relates molecular properties of velocity and
KE to macroscopic properties of T and P that obey the Ideal Gas Law.
e Average KE per molecule (KE) aye = (3/2)kT or per mole (KE) aye =
(3/2)RT.
e Diffusion Fick’s Law: AN/At = —DAAC/Ax or J = DAAp/Ax.
e Diffusion time: t = ((Ax)’(p; + P2)) / (2D(p2 — p1)).
e Osmosis is selective diffusion through a semi-permeable membrane.
e Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: two objects in thermodynamic equili-
brium with a third object are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
e First Law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy, which says
energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be transformed from
one form to another or moved from place to place. The First Law also
defines the internal energy change AU as (heat transfer Q in) minus
(work W done): AU = Q- W.
e Second Law of Thermodynamics: heat does not spontaneously flow
from cold to hot; and total entropy does not decrease.
 Gas and Thermodynamics 257.

° Third Law of Thermodynamics: you cannot cool a substance to zero

Kelvin using any process that uses a finite number of steps. This law
also says the entropy of a perfectly pure substance approaches zero as
the temperature approaches zero Kelvin.

Practice Problems

9.1 (a) You have a | oz pure gold bar. How many moles of gold atoms
does it contain? (b) How many atoms? Assume an atomic weight of
196.9665.
9.2 (a) Before a trip on a 10 °C morning you check your tires. You find
the left rear tire low—only 20 psi—so you pump it up to 35 psi.
Assuming no change in temperature or volume, by what percentage did
you increase the amount of air in the tire? (b) After driving across a hot
desert, you stop and check the tire’s pressure. It is now 43 psi. Assuming
no leakage and a constant volume, what is the tire’s temperature in °C?

9.3 The escape velocity for a particle launched from Earth is about
11.2 km/s. At what temperature will the root mean square speed of
oxygen molecules equal the escape velocity?

9.4 You and your friend take a long hike on an ocean beach. Your friend
runs out of fresh water, becomes thirsty, and proposes to drink seawater.
After reviewing Section 9.4, what would you advise him?

9.5 Using the First Law of Thermodynamics, explain why a physical

machine can never be more than 100% efficient?

9.6 Explain why the side of a mountain range receiving prevailing sea
breezes is typically cloudy and rainy while the other side is clear and dry.

Answers to Chapter 9 Problems

9.1 (a) 1 oz ~ 28.35 grams. (28.35 g)/(196.9665 g/mole) 5 nee moles.

(b) (0.1439 mole)(6.022 = 10° atoms/mole) ~ 8.666 = 10™ atoms.
9.2 (a) Using PV = nRT, if V and T are constant, then An = AP. .
n,/n; = P,/P; = (35 psi)/(20 psi) = 1.75. Therefore, the amount of air
increased 75%. (b) Using Amontons’ Law, Ty = (T;)(P¢)/Pi =
(283 K)(43 psi)/(35 psi) = 348 K or = 75 °C.

9.3 Vem = [(3KT/m]”; T = (Vims) (m)/3k = “

(11,200 m/s)(1.66 x 10° kg/amu)(32 amu) / 3(1.38 x 10°™ J/K) =
16.102 Ke
water
9.4 The concentration of salts and other minerals is higher in sea
r will actually result in a net
than in his body fluids. Drinking seawate
258 Master Math: Essential Physics

loss of water from his body. Water will leave his cells to equalize water
pressure in his salty fluids, which will dehydrate his cells. He will urinate
more to remove salt, overtax his kidneys, and become even more thirsty.
Your advice is not to drink seawater.

9.5 Considering the machine as an isolated system, within that system

energy can be transformed from one form to another but cannot be
created or destroyed. Therefore, the work output cannot be greater than
the work input. Since all physical machines incur frictional losses where
energy is converted into low-grade internal thermal energy, and friction
cannot be zero or negative, the useful work output will always be less
than 100% of the input.

9.6 The saturated marine air is forced upward by the mountains. It loses
pressure and also cools. It exceeds its saturation point, forming clouds
and then rain. As the same air, after losing moisture in the form of rain,
descends the lee side, it regains pressure and temperature, becoming
much less saturated. The clouds disappear and rain is scarce.
 ie Marea atrbeat fieeer i Yesdstaodba theo i.sncosebigds woh
Chapter 10
ELECTRIC FIELDS AND CURRENTS

10.1. Electric Field and Electric Potential

10.2. Capacitance
10.3. Electric Current
10.4. Electric Resistance
10.5. Electric Power
10.6. Circuits
10.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“Nothing is too wonderful to be true, if it be consistent with the laws of nature...”

Attributed to Michael Faraday

In Section 4.2 Electrostatic Force we introduced electrostatics, which

describes the effects of static or resting charges. In this chapter we first
will expand on electrostatics and electric potential, and then will
introduce charges in motion, or electric current, as well as capacitance,
resistance, electric power, and circuits.

10.1. Electric Field and Electric Potential

Electric Fields

e In Section 4.2 we learned that every charged particle or object exerts a

force on every other charged particle or object, and that electric charge
cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or redistributed
(Conservation of Charge). We learned that atoms are made up of
protons, neutrons, and electrons, and that the charge on an electron is
—1.602 x 10°’? Coulombs, which is equal and opposite to the positive
charge of a proton, +1.602 x 10°’? Coulombs. A Coulomb is the amount
of charge that flows past a fixed point in one second in a current of one
Ampere. The force that attracts an electron to the protons in a nucleus
and holds it in “orbit” is the electrostatic force. Coulomb found that the
electrostatic force between two charged objects varies as the inverse
square of the distance between them. The electric force Fr acting ona
260 Master Math: Essential Physics

point charge q as a result of the presence of a second point charge Q is

described by the Electrostatic Force Law or Coulomb’s Law:

Fe = Kerr
where Fr is the force of electrostatic attraction or repulsion in Newtons;
q and Q are the charges in Coulombs C; r is their separation (in meters);
and K is Coulomb’s Constant, K ~ 8.98755 x 10° N-m*/C’ or about
9.0 x 10’ N-m’/C’. The distance between the charges (or charged objects)
is considered to be the center-to-center distance. If the signs of q and Q
are different (+ and —), the force is attractive and the direction of the
force on each charge is toward the other. If the signs of q and Q are the
same (+ and + or — and —), the force is repulsive and the direction of the
force on each charge is away from the other.

Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatic Force can also be written as:

Fe = qQ/4neor? with K = 1/4me or & = 1/4nK

where € ~ 8.8542 x 10°!” C’/N-m’ and is called the permittivity of free
space, or the electric constant. This equation describes the force between
charges q and Q when the distance r can be modeled as a vacuum.

If the distance r contains a substance, Coulomb’s Law is written

Fy = qQ/4ner’, where ¢ is the absolute permittivity of the substance.
Permittivity measures the effect of the substance on the electric field or
the effect of the field on the substance, and whether the substance
polarizes and reduces the electric field.

e Electric (or electrostatic) fields are mathematical representations of

the effects of isolated charges on each other. Electric fields exist around
charged particles or objects. An electric field can be shown to exist at
any point in space when a test charge that is placed at that point
experiences an electrical force. (A test charge q is a small charge used in
measurements that has negligible effects on its environment.) The
existence of electric fields is observable by the fact that charged objects
can influence each other without making physical contact. The presence
of an electric charge can be shown to produce a force on other nearby
charged particles. (Note that electrostatics refers to static charges and
fields around static charges whereas electrodynamics or electromagnetics
refers to electric fields brought about by changing magnetic fields.)

e Using Coulomb’s Law we can calculate the force exerted by charge Q

on charge q. For example, if two charges, q and Q, are at a certain
distance and at rest, and charge Q is moved closer to charge q, the force
 Electric Fields and Currents 261

exerted by Q on q will increase. These charges exert a force on one

another by disturbing their surrounding space, such that each electrically
charged object generates an electric field which attracts or repels other
nearby charged objects. The electric field E generated by a set of charges
can be measured by placing a point charge q at a given location. This test
charge q will experience an electric force Fr. The electric field at the
location of the test charge is defined as the force F per charge q, so that
electric field equals electric force per charge:

where units for E are in force per charge, or Newtons per Coulomb
(N/C), or equivalently in volts/meter. If a charge q is placed in an
electric field E, the force F; the charge experiences will be:

That means if you know the electric field E at a specific point, the force
charge q experiences when it is placed at that point is Fr.

e The strength of the electric field can be described by an equation,

which we find by rearranging Coulomb’s Law, Fr = KqQ/r’, as:
F/q=KO/r
So that if test charge q is placed at distance r from charge Q (which we
can think of as a source charge), the magnitude of the electric field, or
electric field strength, can therefore be written:
E=Fi/g=KOr

Electric fields are vector fields, and therefore each point in an electric
field has both magnitude and direction. The direction of the field is the
direction of the force it exerts on a positive test charge, which is the
direction the test charge will move at a given location.

e Electric field lines are used to sketch electric fields that exist around
charged particles and run through a point in the same direction as the
field at that point. The field lines are drawn so that, at a given point, the
tangent of a line is in the direction of the electric field at that point. Each
field line begins at a positive point charge and ends at a negative
point charge (since positive charges repel a positive test charge and
negative charges attract the positive test charge). These field lines are
referred to as either field lines or lines of force. Because electric field
strength E equals the electric force Fr divided by the magnitude of a test
charge q, E = Fy/q, the field lines describe both the electric force and the
electric field.
262 Master Math: Essential Physics

The electric field runs radially outward from a positive charge and
radially inward toward a negative point charge. The field is largest where
the field lines are closest together, so that the density of lines is propor-
tional to the magnitude of the field. These fields reflect the force that acts
between charged particles causing them to either attract or repel one
another. A field diagram, therefore, reveals the direction of the electric
force Fx and electric field E at any point and information about their
magnitude. Note that the actual number of lines drawn to depict the field
is arbitrary, the density and direction of the lines are what is used to
visually represent the field.
a

<<

\
eee
Ka

Superposition Principle

e The Superposition Principle states that the total electric force F,. on
a particular charge q due to other charges is the vector sum of all the
individual forces.
Fret = F; +F,+ F;+ stan

where each of the individual charges contributes a force as if it were the

only charge and other charges were not present. Similarly, the total
electric field E,¢ at a point is the vector sum of the individual
contributing fields at that point:

Enet = E; + E, + E3 + Ron

e Example: If two charges are along the x-axis with a charge of +1Q, at
the origin and a charge of —2Q, at x = 1.00 m, where along the x-axis is
the electric field zero?
f ek
| 4 —. |

a4 nas NEA all

—] 0 = =

Since the field is the vector sum of the fields from the individual charges,
we can add the fields from the two given charges and see where they add
to zero. Because the field between a positive and negative charge begins
at a positive and ends at a negative charge, the space between the charges
cannot be zero. In this example the field points from x = 0 to the right
toward x = 1. On the right side of the —2Q charge the field from the +1Q
 Electric Fields and Currents 263

charge points to the right, but the field from the —2Q charge points left.
Since the —2Q charge dominates the +1Q charge and the —2Q charge will
always be closer to any point to the right of it, the fields cannot add to
zero right of -2Q. On the left side of the +Q charge, we can imagine a
point on the x-axis where the fields could sum to zero. We can set up an
equation using:
Ent =E, +E, and E=KQ/r
where E; = K1Q/r’ and E, = -K2Q/r’.
If the point where they sum to zero is a distance x to the left of +1Q:
0 = K1Q/x’ — K2Q/(x + 1)
Divide the equation by K and Q:
O=1/x-2/(x+1)P or 1? =2Kx +19
Ome (ely or 2x’=x +2x+1 -or x°=2x.-1=0
Using the quadratic formula, x = (—b + [b* — 4ac]”) / 2a:
x = (-(-2) + [(-2)° — 4(1)(-1)]) / 21) = (2 + [4+ 4]”)/2 = 2.41
x = (-(-2) — [(-2)° — 4(1)(-1)]) / 21) = @ - [4 + 4]*/2 = -0.414
We defined x as the distance to the left of +1Q, so 2.41 m is the root and
where the charges sum to zero. The root —0.414 is in the opposite
direction, or between the charges, and is where the fields from +1Q and
—2Q have the same magnitude but point in the same direction and cannot
sum to zero. Thus, the point with zero field is 2.41 to the left of zero.

Electric Potential

e In Section 5.6 Electrostatic Potential Energy we learned that the

electrostatic potential energy of charge q that is distance r from charge Q
is given by:
PEs = KqQ/r

If we divide potential energy by q, we obtain potential energy per unit

charge, also called the electric potential V:
V = PE-/q = KQit
where V has units of Joules per Coulomb (J/C). The electric potential V
is the potential at a point that is distance r from charge Q, or V = KQIr.
Electric potential is a measure of the potential energy per unit charge,
PE;/q. In Section 5.7 Introduction to the Electron Volt we learned that
work is required to move positive charge q from a negatively charged
plate to a positively charged plate, and that the potential difference
to
between two points is a measure of the work per unit charge required
move a charge from one location to the other:
264 Master Math: Essential Physics

Potential difference: AV = W/q

In measured units: 1 V= 1 J/C
where V is a scalar quantity. If the electric potential difference between
two locations is 1 V, then | C of charge will gain 1 J of potential energy
when moved between those two locations. The work required to move a
charge from one location to another is a measure of the potential energy
difference APE; between the two locations. The work per unit charge
required to move this charge is also the change in potential, or AV,
between the locations. Therefore:
AV = Wiq = APE¢/q
The quantity AV (often written V) is used to describe the potential
difference or the voltage between the points. Units of electric potential
and potential difference are energy per unit charge, or J/C, which is equal
to a volt. The volt V is defined as: 1 Volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb, which
means electric potential V can be measured in volts V, where the first V
refers to the electric potential and the second V is the unit of measure.

e Because a volt is the unit of measure for the potential difference, you
will find that a potential difference is often called the voltage. This can
be a bit confusing. You may also find the terms potential, electric poten-
tial, potential difference, and voltage used interchangeably. Just to
clarify, electric potential reflects the effect of an electric field at a
specified point within the electric field and is the amount of potential
energy per unit of charge at that specified location.
Electric Potential = PE¢/q

When a charge is moved against an electric field from an initial point to a

final point, work must be done on the charge by an external force. The
work done on the charge will increase its potential energy (PE), such
that the change in PE will be equal to the amount of work. As potential
energy changes, there is a difference in electric potential between the
initial and final locations of the charge. This difference in electric poten-
tial is called the electric potential difference AV. In other words, the
electric potential difference AV is the difference in electric potential V
between the initial and final locations of the charge when work is done to
the charge (to move it) which changes its potential energy. The electric
potential difference is:
AV = Véinai — Vinitiaa = Work/Charge = APE/Charge

Electric potential difference is often referred to as the voltage. When the

word potential is used instead of potential difference, it is assumed that
 Electric Fields and Currents 265

the given potential is measured with respect to a zero point, such as the
potential of the ground (therefore, V— V) = V—0= V). Note that
electrical appliances operate by extracting work from electrons
accelerated by potential differences, so we often think of appliances as
requiring a certain voltage.

We have learned that when a charged particle is moved against the force
exerted by an electric field, work is done, and the particle’s electric
potential energy is changed by an amount equal to the work. Note that
the werk required to move like charges (+ and + or — and —) together or
unlike charges (+ and —) apart increases the electric potential energy.
Conversely, moving like charges apart or unlike charges together
decreases potential energy.

e Electric potential also obeys the principle of Superposition:

Vuet = V1 +V,+V3+ arte

e Equation Summary:

Force Fg = qE = KqQ/r’, units in Newtons N.

Electric field strength E = F;/q = KQ/r’, units in N/C or V/m.
Electric potential V = KQ/r, units J/C or volts V.
Potential difference AV = W/q = APE¢/q, units in volt V.
Charge Q is measured in Coulombs C, and K = 9 x 10°N-m7/C’,

e Example: In Section 4.2 we used Coulomb’s Law, Fr = Kq.Q,/t°, to

calculate the electrostatic force Fg of —8.2 x 10° N between a proton Q,
and an electron q, in a hydrogen atom, given their charges (q- and Q,)
are plus and minus 1.6 x 10’ C and the average distance between the
proton and electron is 5.3 10'' m. Now calculate the electric field and
the potential at the electron.
The electric field strength felt at the electron is:
E = Fp/q = KQ,/r?=(9 x 10° N-m7/C?)(1.6 x 10° C)/(5.3 x 10°" m)”
= 5.1 x 10'' V/m
The potential at the electron is:
V =KQ,/r = (9 x 10°N-m’/C7)(1.6 x 10° C)M5.3 * 10; mye ey
We see that electric field strength E depends on I/r’, while potential V
the
depends on 1/r. In a hydrogen atom r is very small (5.3 = 10°'' m), so
inverse squaring of r reflects the large field strength compare d to the
small potential.
266 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Example: If two charges Q, and Q, are separated by | m along an x-

axis, what is the electric field Ey, and electric potential Viotai at point x
halfway between if the values of Q; and Q, are each +2 x LOrsee?
The point x halfway between two identical charges will feel equal but
oppositely pointing forces. <--> © <->
Because Enet is a vector quantity, the net force Fg, where E = F¢/q,
between Q, and Q; is zero. The vector quantity:
Enet = E; + Ey = 0
The total potential Viotai is a scalar and adds algebraically. The potentials
for charges Q; and Q, are:
V, = KQ,/r, = (9 x 10° N-m7/C’)(+2 x 10° C)/(0.5 m) = 36,000 V
V> = KQ)/r = (9 x 10° N-em’/C’)(+2 x 10°°C)/(0.5 m) = 36,000 V
Therefore: Viota) = Vi + V2 = 72,000 V or 72 kV.

This example illustrates that the electric field can be zero with a nonzero
potential. It is also true that the potential can be zero while the electric
field is nonzero.

e Example: Your friend asks how fast he could accelerate an electron

from rest in a particle accelerator using a potential difference of 2,500 V.
You suggest the total energy is constant, so PE = KE. The potential
energy lost is:
PE =qv =(-1.6 *107 2,500. V)=-4.0.. 10.2)
Next, since the kinetic energy increases by the amount that PE decreased:
KE=(1/)2)my 340% 100° 5
You look up the mass of an electron and find it to be about 9.1 x 10°! kg
and solve for v:
Vv = (2(4.0* 10°) (91 = 10 ke)|? = 3.0'« 10" mis

Electric Potential and Electric Fields

e We have learned that work is done as a charged particle is moved

against an electric field which changes its potential energy. Suppose you
have a pair of parallel plates separated by a distance d, and a voltage V is
applied across d. The electric field between the parallel plates is uniform
and is:
E = Fe/q = KO/d’
where q is what a test charge in the field would experience and Q is the
source charge of the field. If you move the test charge q from the nega-
tive plate to the positive plate, the work required is:
W = Fed
 Electric Fields and Currents 267

Since Fx, = qE:

W = Fed = gEd or rearrange to E = W/qd
The work done per unit charge, W/q, is the voltage (or potential
difference):
AV = W/q = Ed
Combine E = W/qd with AV = W/q to find the electric field strength in
a uniform electric field between a pair of parallel plates:
E=AV/d orjust E=V/d (uniform field)
where V is the voltage difference between the plates. This equation for
the electric field strength is valid for uniform fields. The units are V/m,
which are equivalent to N/C. While uniform electric fields are not
common, they can exist. For example, two parallel plates having
opposite charges +Q and —Q have uniformly spaced field lines that are
perpendicular to the surfaces (except near the edges where they bow out).
A uniform field forms between these plates, as discussed below.
F++++++4+44

e Example: A uniform field can exist in a conducting wire where the

field lines run parallel. What is the strength of a uniform electric field
resulting from a 25 cm long wire attached to opposite terminals of a
12-V battery? Note that the field direction is along the wire from the
positive to negative terminal.
We can use: E = V/d = (12)/(0.25 m) = 48 V/m.

10.2. Capacitance

e Capacitors have several uses, including storing electrical (potential)

energy. A capacitor is made up of a pair of conducting surfaces, called
plates, separated by a gap. A capacitor can accumulate and store electric
charge. We have learned that the electric field strength E in the region
between a pair of parallel plates depends on the voltage V across the
plates and the distance d that separates them:
E=Vid or V=Ed

A capacitor can be charged using a battery that has a potential difference

across its terminals by connecting the positive and negative terminals of
a battery to each capacitor plate using two wires.
268 Master Math: Essential Physics

+Q
t++++++++

As each wire becomes an extension of its terminal, the positive and

negative charges populate on each respective plate until a voltage is
established across the capacitor plates (forming a potential difference)
that is equal to the voltage across the battery terminals. The capacitor
quickly reaches an equilibrium status in which the amount of positive
charge on one plate equals the amount of negative charge on the other.

The resulting potential difference between the two plates is proportional

to the magnitude of the equal but opposite charge Q on the plates. The
resulting charge Q on the capacitor plates is also directly proportional to
the applied voltage V, so that a higher voltage results in more charge at
equilibrium. The proportionality constant between the applied voltage
and resulting charge is the capacitance C of the capacitor:

Q=CV or C=Q/V

where Q is the charge on the capacitor, V is the potential difference

between the plates, and C is the proportionality constant called
capacitance. As we see, the capacitance is equal to the charge on the
plates divided by the voltage between the plates. Capacitance is
measured in units of Coulomb per volt (C/V), where 1 C/V = | farad F,
(in honor of Michael Faraday, 1791-1867). Capacitors often operate in
the range of picofarads (1 pF = 10°’ F) to microfarads (1 uF = 10° F).

e The capacitance of a pair of parallel plates depends on the area A of

the conducting plates (C « A), where larger plate areas allow more
charge to accumulate for a given voltage V. The capacitance also varies
inversely with the distance d between the plates (C o 1/d) since
increasing d results in less field strength for a particular voltage and
decreasing d results in more field strength. (Remember, field strength
E = V/d.) As we will discuss later, the capacitance also depends on the
region between the plates and whether it is a vacuum or contains a
dielectric material. Capacitance between two plates having area A
separated by distance d is:
C = AKd4nK)
where K ~ 8.98755 x 10’ N-m’/C’ or about 9 x 10” N-m’/C? is the
Coulomb’s Law constant. Capacitance is also described using the
permittivity of free space ¢, as:
 Electric Fields and Currents 269

C=e6,A/d
where & = 1/4nK = 8.842 x 10°’? C?/N-m?= 8.8542 x 107? Fim.

e As opposing charges build up on parallel plate conductors, an electric

field is established in the region between them. The work that was
required to produce the charge separation becomes electric potential
energy which is stored in the electrical field between the plates. For a
parallel-plate capacitor, since Q = CV and C = ¢,A/d, the potential
between the plates is:
V =Q/C = Qd/Ag,
In this equation, Q is the charge on the capacitor, d is the plate
separation, A is the area of each plate, and ¢, is the permittivity of free
space, which measures the effect of the substance (vacuum) on the
electric field. The capacitance is therefore:
C=Q/V =«,Ald
Energy Storage in a Capacitor

e We know that work is required to move a charge from one plate to

another against the direction of the field, so moving a charge q through
a potential difference AV requires an amount of work W = gAV or
W =qV. If we move one electron e some distance d between uncharged
plates, it requires very little work. If we move many electrons sequen-
tially between plates, the final electron moved through the potential
difference AV is eAV. As electrons are transferred, the voltage between
the plates steadily builds up so that the average potential difference
through which all of the charge is moved is one-half the final voltage, or
(1/2)V. That means the work required to move the entire charge Q is:
W = (1/2)QV. Since Q = CV, the work becomes:

W = (1/2)QV = (1/2)CV? = Q7/2C

The work that is done by moving charge Q from one plate to the other is
stored electrical potential energy (residing between the plates in the
electric field). This energy can be retrieved by connecting the two plates
so that charge can flow freely between them. The flowing charges form
current, which can do work. The stored potential energy is equal to the
work that was done to place the charge on the capacitor:
W = PE=(1/2)CV
Since C = &,A/d (where & = 1/4nK = 8.8542 x 10°? C?/N-m’*=
8.8542 x 10!” F/m, the permittivity of free space) and V = Ed, we have
the energy stored in a capacitor:
270 Master Math: Essential Physics

PE = (1/2)CV? = (1/2)(€,A/d)(Ed)* = (1/2)€,AdE”

Since Ad is the volume of the region between the plates, the energy
stored in the capacitor electric field per unit volume can be written:

PE/Ad = (1/2)€oE”
where we see that the energy stored is proportional to the square of the
electric field strength.

e Example: Your friend wants to test all this capacitor stuff and comes to
you with his jury-rigged apparatus comprising two 0.5-m by 0.5-m
smooth metal plates separated by a uniform |-mm air gap. He wants to
know how much energy he can store if he applies a voltage of 2,000 V
across his plates. You also suggest calculating the electric field strength.
You begin with the capacitance of his plates:
C =¢,A/d = (8.85 x 107? F/m)(0.5 m x 0.5m)/(10° m) * 2.2 x 10° F
Then you calculate the energy his apparatus can store:
PE =(1/2)CV? =(1/2)2.2 * 10° FX 200027) =4 4x10 T
The electric field strength 1s:
E = V/d = (2,000 V)/(10° m) = 2.0 x 10° V/m
Note that when the electric field across an air (dielectric) gap reaches a
critical value in the range of 2 to 5MV/m, which is near the value in this
example, it can break down and spark.

e In practice, capacitors can be constructed with some flexibility. While

some are made up of rigid parallel plates separated by an air gap, most
are designed using metallic foils separated by an insulating dielectric
sheet making them compact, inexpensive, and easily integrated into
electronic devices and circuits. Note that in circuit diagrams, a capacitor
is usually represented by two equal parallel lines.

Dielectrics

e A dielectric is the insulating substance or material allowed or placed

into the region between the plates of a capacitor. Capacitance can be
increased by filling the space between the plates with a dielectric
material. A dielectric is a non-conductive substance or material which
acts as an electrical insulator and is resistant to the flow of an electric
current. Dielectric materials can be solids, liquids, or gases, or even a
vacuum. The functioning of a capacitor and how well it can store electric
energy, or charge, depends on the dielectric separating its plates. Solid
materials such as plastic, glass, ceramic, Teflon, and porcelain are often
 Electric Fields and Currents D7

used as dielectric materials, but air and other gases are also commonly
used.

Dielectrics are used to enhance or increase the capacitance. The

dielectric constant k is the ratio of the capacitance when a dielectric
material is present, Cg, to the capacitance when a vacuum is between the
plates, Co. So k = Cy/Co. To solve problems involving a dielectric we can
combine C = ¢,A/d, or d = €,A/C with k = Cq/Co, giving useful equations:

d = s A/C, = &A/(Ca/k) = & AK/Cg or Cy=,Ak/d

We see that the capacitance is increased with higher k. The dielectric

constant for a vacuum is 1.0 and it is near | for air, but it is larger for
liquids and solids, such as 2.1 for Teflon and from 4 to 10 for glass.

Capacitors in Parallel and Series

Ve=
== Cr ==N eS (Es zie —— i.C,

Capacitors in Parallel Capacitors in Series

e Capacitors can be connected within electric circuits in different

geometries. One common arrangement is to connect capacitors in
parallel. In this arrangement the voltage V is the same across the
capacitors. The charges, for example, on three capacitors are:
One Ci {Os CoVe Qa C3V
The total amount of charge Q accumulated on the three capacitors is:
O=0; + O37 0,=CiV+GV + GV =(C) + O25 G)V
The total capacitance for parallel capacitors is therefore the sum of the
individual capacitances:
Creat]Cpr Gt Gar e..

e Another common arrangement is to connect capacitors in series. In

this arrangement the voltage applied is not the same for each capacitor so
for three capacitors the charges are:
Or =O. 02> C2V2 Q3=G3V3

Since a source voltage V, such as a battery, equals the sum of the

individual voltages:
V= Vv; ala V> ag V3

The individual charges are also equal:

Q=Q;=Q=Q
272 Master Math: Essential Physics

A combination of capacitors in series has the same effect as a single

capacitor C carrying a charge Q across which a voltage V is applied:
Q=CrVvV or V=Q/Cr

So for three capacitors in series:

V= Q/Cr a Vi a V> a V3 = Q/C, au; Q/C, ar Q/C3 = Qd/C; ate 1/C, a 1/C3)

Dividing V by Q gives the total capacitance for capacitors in series,

which is the reciprocal of the net capacitance and is the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances:
1/Crotal = Cy AP 1/C, ar 1/C3 seer

e In practice, capacitors are useful for regulating current or voltage.

When a capacitor experiences an emf € source, charge accumulates until
the potential across the capacitor equals the emf. After the capacitor is
fully charged, current flow ceases.

10.3. Electric Current

e You are undoubtedly familiar with the terms direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC). A DC circuit operates from a steady voltage
source such as a battery, and current flows in one direction. An AC
circuit operates as current flow periodically reverses direction. While AC
is commonly used in homes and buildings, DC is supplied by batteries.
Studying DC provides a foundation for understanding electric circuits
and machinery.

e Current is the movement of electric charge from one location to

another. As electric current flows in a wire, positively charged atomic
nuclei are fixed while some fraction of the electrons are relatively free to
move within the conductor. In any substance or material (solid, liquid, or
gas) that is able to conduct a current, some of the electrons are able to
move freely within the material. In the absence of an applied electric
field, these free electrons (referred to as conduction electrons)
randomly move about with no net flow in any direction, resulting in zero
electric current.

If the ends of a conductive material (such as a wire) are attached to the

terminals of a battery, an electric field will be established within the
wire. Within this wire the net motion of the electrons will be opposite to
the electric field lines while the current, by convention, will flow in the
same direction as the field lines.
 Electric Fields and Currents 273

Current hs ——> Thick Wire

_———S
Electric Field
INetilleotrom eit jpg a

The direction that (negatively charged) electrons driff in an electric field

1S Opposite to the direction of the field lines (since field lines begin at a
positive point charge and end at a negative point charge, and electrons
naturally move away from negative charge toward positive charge).
Therefore, note that just as electric field lines are defined as having a
direction of the force on a positive (test) charge, current flow is defined
as having the direction that positive charges would move even though it
is negatively charged electrons that actually move. This convention is
valid since a negative electron current flow in one direction creates the
same effects as a positive current in the opposite direction. The terms
“current” or “current flow” are generally meant to describe current which
flows in the same direction as the electric field lines. When the flow of
electrons is specifically described, the terms “electron flow” or “electron
current” may be used.

Electromotive Force Drives Current Flow

e Current flow is generated in a conductor when an established potential

difference is present. A source of potential difference can be a device
which is able to create and maintain a voltage, thereby allowing the flow
of charge in the direction that would ultimately neutralize the potential
difference. Such devices transform nonelectric energy into electric
energy and include batteries which convert chemical potential energy to
electric energy, generators which convert mechanical energy to electric
energy, and other devices which convert mechanical, thermal, chemical,
or other energy into electric energy. The potential difference created by a
battery, generator, or other device is known as the electromotive force
(emf or €). The source of an emf can be any device that is able to cause
the flow of current by converting nonelectric energy into electric energy,
such as the chemical reaction within a battery or the mechanical motion
of a rotor in a generator that produces an emf.

An emf € is measured in units of volts (V), which are the same units
used for potential difference. The emf, for example, of a small battery
may be 9 V. (Note that, as conveyed by its units of measure not being .
units of force, electromotive force is not an actual force. Because of this
the acronym emf is often used.)
274 Master Math: Essential Physics

The Definition of Current

e Current can flow ifa source of emf is present in a conductive material.

If there is also a path through which charge can flow between points of
different voltage, the path can be referred to as a circuit. A simple
circuit can be formed when the potential difference between the termi-
nals of a battery cause a current to flow through a conductive wire
connecting the two battery terminals.

if !
Battery{ ff | Simple Circuit
Electric current is represented by the letter I. In equation form, the
magnitude of an electric current I is equal to the net charge Q flowing
past a specified point (or surface) per second:

Electric Current is therefore quantitatively written as the rate electric

charge flows past a given point or surface. Since electric current is the
net flow of electric charge past some point or surface along a conductive
material, it can be measured in charge Q per time, or Coulombs (C) per
second. Coulombs per second is defined as an Ampere (A) so that
1 A=1 Cys. If 1 C of charge passes a certain point in | s, a current of
1 Ampere (A) is flowing. Electric current is therefore measured in
Amperes, and the unit of current is the Ampere (A):
LAS Cis

Note that because the number of electron charges in one Coulomb is

about 6.24 x 10'°, a current of one Ampere reflects the flow of
6.24 x 10'* electrons per second. The electric current capacity that
household circuits generally carry is 15 to 20 A.

e Example: Suppose you have a copper wire with a cross-sectional area

of 1 mm’, where each 1 mm length of the wire has about 8.5 x 10!’ atoms.
You find the number n of atoms per unit volume using Na, p, and mass:
n= (6.02 x 10” atoms/mole)(8.94 x 10° kg/m*)/(63.5 x 10° kg/mol)
= 8.475 x 10°%/m? x 1/(10° mm?*/1m*) ~ 8.5 x 10!’ atoms/mm’.
In copper metal each atom supplies one free electron. If the net (drift)
velocity of the electrons is 1 mm/s so that the free electrons in a 1-mm
length segment pass a point in the wire in | s, what is the current?
The current is:
I= Q/t =(8.5 x 10" electrons)(1.6 x 19°” C/electron)/1s~13.6A
 Electric Fields and Currents 275

Conductors possess a large numbers of free electrons, so relatively small

drift velocities can produce substantial currents. Note, however, that
while you may have a net drift velocity on the order of mm/s, the random
velocities of individual electrons are on the order of 10° m/s.

10.4. Electric Resistance

————————————

¢ When electric current flows through a material, there is usually some

amount of energy that is lost as conduction (free) electrons collide with
atoms of the material. The conduction electrons flowing through a
conductor are impeded somewhat by forces exerted by the atoms in the
conducting material. Collisions between conduction electrons and atoms
in the material result in a resistance of current flow. As electrons move
through a conductor and collisions with atoms occur, energy is trans-
ferred to the atoms, which increases the conductor’s internal energy (as
the atoms vibrate more vigorously). This increase in internal energy
raises the temperature of the conductive material causing a heating
effect. The energy converted into heat when a current is flowing cannot
be converted back into electric energy (without supplying even more
energy) and is dissipated. The resistance to current flow in a conductive
material, caused by collisions between conduction electrons and atoms in
the material, therefore raises the internal energy of the material resulting
in the conversion of electrical energy to thermal energy.

Most conductors resist the flow of current to some extent and can
therefore also be called resistors. When current flows through a resistor,
electrical energy is converted to heat. The degree to which a conductor
(or resistor) resists current flow depends on its atomic and molecular
properties. A material that acts as a good conductor does not strongly
resist the flow of electric current. Silver and copper are good conductors.

Ohm’s Law

e We have learned that if we connect a wire to a battery, a current which

is proportional to the potential difference, or voltage, will flow. The
current that flows through a conductive material is directly proportional
to the voltage across the material. The relationship between voltage
and current is called Ohm’s Law:
Vi
= tReet or. ol WV /R

where the proportionality constant R between voltage and current is

called the electrical resistance of the material. Ohm’s Law states that
276 Master Math: Essential Physics

the current flowing through a given material is directly proportional to

the voltage across the material. For a certain voltage, a greater resis-
tance corresponds to a smaller current. Ohm’s Law, named in honor of
George Simon Ohm (1787-1854), approximates the behavior of various
conductive materials. Ohm’s Law is useful for analyzing electric circuits
made up of metallic materials. If the potential difference in a material,
circuit, or section of a circuit is maintained by a source of emf €, then
V =€, and the current I is also:
] =.€/R

The electrical resistance of a material is measured in ohms (Q) where:

LQ=1V/A
Therefore, a 1-V voltage causing a I-A current to flow through a
material has a resistance of | Q.

e Example: If a 12-V voltage causes a 2-A current to flow through a

material, what current will a 24-V voltage cause in the same material?

Because V = IR or R = V/I, this material’s resistance 1s:

R=V/l=12V/2A=6Q
For a 24-V Voltage:
I=V/R=24V/6Q=4A
Therefore, a current of 4 A will flow.

Resistivity

e If you design a circuit, you may need to know the resistance of each
component, including the wire and components which are not actual
resistors. This will allow you to estimate the heat dissipated and the
operating temperature of the circuit and to predict the potential difference
across the circuit components, since they will be affected by the
resistance of other circuit components.

Connecting a section of a conductive material to the terminals of a

battery allows a current to flow as the conduction electrons in the
material move in response to the potential difference supplied by the
battery’s emf. The movement of conduction electrons depends on their
collision rate with atoms in the material—with higher collision rates
corresponding to slower electron motion and higher electrical resistance.
Resistance can be found using the potential difference or voltage and
measuring the current using an ammeter (an instrument which measures
electric current in Amperes), and then calculating resistance using Ohm’s
Law, V = IR.
 Electric Fields and Currents DY

e The resistance of a material, and therefore the flow of electrons,

depend on several factors. One factor is the atomic and molecular
properties of the material. If we look up the resistance of various
materials we see that a section of either silver or copper wire, for
example, will have lower resistance values than an identical section of
tungsten wire.

Electrical resistance also depends on the size and shape of the material.
The number of collisions between conduction electrons and atoms in a
material are directly proportional to the length of a material (such as a
wire) the electrons are traveling along, since the travel distance is greater
and there is a greater opportunity for collisions. Therefore, the resistance
R is proportional to the L, or R « L. Alternatively, if the cross-sectional
area A of the material (such as a wire) is increased, it would allow more
area (for travel paths) for conduction electrons as they cross a specified
point along the length of the wire per unit of time. This suggests that
resistance R is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area A, or
R « 1/A. Combining the effects of length L and cross-sectional area:
RoeL/A

Therefore, the electrical resistance of a material is proportional to the

ratio of its length to its area. This suggests that current running along a
longer, thinner conductor will experience a greater resistance than
current running along a shorter, wider length of the same material. The
dependence of electrical resistance on length and cross-sectional area
explains why appliances such as space heaters and window-unit air
conditioners have short, thick power cords. These appliances draw a lot
of current, and a shorter, wider cord adds less electrical resistance while
reducing resistance to power flow. We can write the proportionality for
resistance in equation form using a proportionality constant p:

R=piHA
where p (Greek letter rho) represents the resistivity property of the
particular material, L is the length of the resistor, and A is the cross-
sectional area. The units of p are ohm-meters (Q-m), and it is an intrinsic
property of the material. Examples of resistivity values p include
1.59 x 10° Q-m for silver, 1.72 x 107° Q-m for copper, 2.44 x 10° Qam
for gold, 3.5 x 10° Qm for carbon, 3.0 10'° Q:m for wood, and
1.0 x 10'° Qm for rubber. Silver, copper, and gold are good conductors,
carbon is a poor conductor, and wood and rubber could be considered to
be insulators. Insulators are used to prevent the full flow of current and
keep it as small or negligible as possible.
278 Master Math: Essential Physics

e In addition to resistivity, the conductivity of a material is used to

describe or evaluate the material for its electrical uses. The conductivity,
o, is equal to the reciprocal of its resistivity p:
o=I1/p

e The electrical resistance of a material not only depends on its atomic

and molecular properties and on the ratio of its length to its area, but also
on temperature. Increasing a material’s temperature causes an increase
in the movement of atoms and molecules within the material, which
increases the collision rates between conduction electrons and atoms of
the material. This results in a correlation between temperature and
electric resistance so that resistance increases with temperature. For most
materials resistivity varies with temperature in a similar manner as
thermal expansion of solids varies with temperature:
Ap/p = aAT

with Ap/p as the fractional change in resistivity and a is the proportion-

ality constant called the temperature coefficient of resistance. If we use
the standard temperature as 0 °C where resistivity is po, and at temper-
ature T °C, the resistivity is p;, we have:
(Pr—Po/Po= A(T —To) or (pr/po)—1=aAT or pr/pp = 1+ aAT
or
Op Po(1 ae aAT)

where fp Is the resistivity at a reference temperature such as 20°C and a

is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Approximate values of a
for sample metals are: 0.0038 per deg C for aluminum, 0.0043 per deg C
for copper, 0.0039 per deg C for platinum, 0.0045 per deg C for tungsten,
and 0.0061 per deg C for silver. The correlation of resistivity p with
temperature does not hold for most materials at extremely low tempera-
tures approaching zero Kelvin, where resistivity does not continue to
decrease to zero, and most materials still show some resistance.
Superconductor materials, however, can achieve zero resistivity at very
low temperatures and therefore conduct electricity without resistance.
Semiconductors are a class of materials with moderate resistivities and
electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator.
These materials can be treated chemically to modify electric current.
Semiconductors also typically have negative temperature coefficients of
resistivity so the resistance decreases with increasing temperature.

Because resistance R is directly proportional to resistivity p, where

R=p L/A, resistance varies with temperature just as does resistivity. So:
Ap/p = aAT can also be written AR/R = aAT
 Electric Fields and Currents 279

Therefore, using algebra as we did for py = Po(1 + aAT) above, we can

write resistance as:

Rr =a Ro(i ar aAT)

e Example: Estimate the change in resistance of a 1 mm diameter,

0.5 m length of silver wire if it is heated from 20 °C to 320 °C? Assume
p = 1.59 x 10° Qm (at 20°C) and a is 0.0061 per deg C for silver.
The initial resistance is:
R = pL/A = pL/nr’ = (1.59 x 108 Q-m)(0.5 m)/(2)(0.5 x 10° my ~ 0.01
After heating to 320 °C:
Ry = Ro(1 + aAT) = (0.01 Q)[1 + (0.0061°C’)(300 °C)] = 0.03 Q
There is an increase in resistance of about 0.02 Q.

10.5. Electric Power

e We learned in Section 5.11 that power is the rate at which work is done
or energy is expended or transformed. It is the amount of work per unit
time, so for work W done in time t, the average power P expended is:

Power P = work/time = W/t

where the unit of power is work (or energy) per time or Joules per
second, J/s, which is defined as a Watt W:
Wat TW ys

We can combine the definitions of the volt (1 J/C) and the Ampere
(1 C/s) to write an equation for electric power. Since a Watt W is a
Joule per second:
1 Watt = 1 J/s =(1 J/C)(1 C/s) =(1 V)(1 A)
This represents a current of 1 A driven by a 1-V potential difference, or
voltage. If this 1-A current is flowing along a segment of wire, | Watt of
power is expended in the wire and is equal to 1-V voltage times 1 A of
current, So:
1 Watt = 1 J/s=(1 V)(1 A)

which represents the rate that electrical energy is expended in the wire.
More generally, for a current I flowing along a segment of wire, the
power P expended in the wire is the voltage V times the current I:
280 Master Math: Essential Physics

We can substitute Ohm’s Law, V = IR to write power as:

P=VI=PR or P=V7R
which represents power in terms of the resistance R and the current I.
The equation:
P=IR
is referred to as Joule’s Law, and shows that heat produced per time, or
energy dissipated per time, which is the power, is the square of the
current times the resistance. This equation is useful in circuit analysis.
Remember the units for electrical resistance are Ohms (2), where the
relationship R = P/T’ in units is:
1 Q=1 Watt / A’
Since power P is work per time, or P = W/t, work W is the energy
(work) used in a section of an electric circuit and equals the power, or
rate of energy use, times total time:
W=Pt=FRt= V UR

As we see, work can also be expressed in terms of resistance, current,

and voltage by substituting P = ’R or P= VR.

e Example: What is the energy use (in Joules and kilowatt-hours) of a

circuit with a resistance of 3 Q if a 3-A current flows for 30 min?
Energy (work) used is power times total time:
W = Pt = Rt = (3 A)*(3 Q)(30 min)(60 s/min) = 48,600 J
The kilowatt-hour, kWh, is the unit normally used by power companies -

and is 1,000 Watts times the time in hours. In our circuit:

W = (3 A)'(3 Q)(0.5 h) = 13.5 Watt-hours, Wh, or 0.0135 kWh

e Example: Your parrot, Gerard, tells you he’s too cold. You calculate
the resistance when running your electric space heater on high to be
about 9 . If you run it continuously for 24 hours and your power
company bills you at a rate of 12 cents per kWh, what will you spend to
keep the bird happy? (Assume your household voltage is 120 V.)
The energy used in one day is
W = Pt=FRt= VR = (120 V)°(24 h)/(9 Q) = 38,400 Wh or 38.4 kWh
The cost is:
cost = (38.4 kWh)($0.12/kWh) ~ $4.61 per day
Note, you can equivalently use: I = V/R = (120 V)/(9 Q) = 13.33 A
So: W = Pt =IFRt = (13.33 A)\(9 Q)(24 h) = 38.4 kWh.
 Electric Fields and Currents 281

10.6. Circuits
A

e Electric circuits provide specific amounts of electric energy at

designated times. In electric circuits, electrical energy is converted to
other forms, such as heat in a resistance heater, light in an incandescent
bulb or light-emitting diode (LED), or mechanical energy in an electric
motor. Electric circuits operate under rules and require elements such as
capacitors, resistors, or emf sources. As we have seen in this chapter,
certain symbols are used to represent circuit elements. Following are
sample element symbols used in circuit drawings:

tobe
Junction Ground
AE db at ye
emfsource Capacitor Resistor Rheostat
(either symbol) (either symbol) (either arrow)

Junctions are points between wires where electrical contact is made and
current can flow, ground is where a circuit is grounded and the potential
is defined as zero, and a rheostat is a variable resistor. In a circuit
drawing, elements are located in the sequence they are encountered when
current is flowing. The position and spacing in a drawing is not to scale.

Kirchhoff’s Rules

e The laws of conservation, including conservation of energy and conser-

vation of charge, apply to electricity and to circuits. Gustav Kirchhoff, a
German scientist working in the mid-nineteenth century, developed rules
for the flow of current in circuits based on conservation laws which are
useful for analyzing circuits. Kirchhoff’s First Rule is based on the
conservation of charge and is the:

Junction Rule: The algebraic sum of the currents entering any junction
point in a circuit is zero. This means the current or charge entering any
point in a circuit equals the current or charge exiting that point, sO that
charge cannot accumulate at any point. The Junction Rule is written:
YI=0 atacircuit point

where © represents the sum and I is the current.

40 Kirchhoff’s
First and Second Rules:

3ATF 6A 20 6AL3A YI =0 at a junction point

9A 9A >YV =0 ina closed loop
12Nie=
battery
282 Master Math: Essential Physics

Kirchhoff’s Second Rule, based on the conservation of potential energy,

refers to the total change in potential and is:

Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of the changes in potential around any
closed loop is zero. This means that for any closed loop of a circuit, the
sum of the rises in potential (from a battery or emf € source) equals the
sum of the drops in potential (from a resistor, etc.). This is written:
>V=0 or YE-SIR=0 inaclosed circuit loop
where >'V represents the sum of the potential differences or voltages
(including both potential gains and drops), )°€ represents the sum of the
potential gains from emf sources, and IR is the sum of the potential
drops due to current I flow through resistances. The potential within a
circuit is changed by emf sources, such as a battery, and by circuit
elements that have some amount of resistance, thereby causing a voltage
change of AV = IR. The current adjusts so that the total change in
potential is zero.

When analyzing a circuit, the source of emf determines the direction of

the flow of current and therefore the direction of all changes in potential.
Resistors decrease the potential in the direction of current flow, or
equivalently, increase the potential in the direction opposite current flow.

e Example: In a simple circuit, such as the one above, if you only know
the emf and resistances, show how to determine the currents.
There are three loops in the circuit, the top loop, the bottom loop, and the
large loop.
1. The bottom loop has the 12-V battery and the 2-Q resistor. The poten-
tial gain across the battery (+12 V) must be the same as the potential
drop across the segment containing the 2-Q resistor, or —12 V. We can
calculate current in the bottom loop as: I = V/R = —12V/2Q =—6A.
2. The large loop has the 12-V battery and the 4-Q resistor. The potential
gain across the battery (+12 V) must be the same as the potential drop
across the segment containing the 4-Q resistor, or -12 V. We can
calculate current in the large loop as: I= V/R = —12V/4Q =-3A.
3. The top loop has the 4-Q resistor in the direction of current flow and
the 2-Q resistor opposite current flow. The fall in potential in the
segment containing the 4-Q resistor must equal the gain in potential in
the segment containing the 2-Q resistor. We see that this occurs since
as the current flows in a loop, the potential drops as we move in the
same direction as current flow (segment with 4-Q resistor) and rises
as we move opposite current flow (segment with 2-Q resistor). The
total change in potential around this top loop is therefore zero.
 Electric Fields and Currents 283

When more complex circuits are analyzed, algebraic equations are

written and simultaneously solved for the different loops. In complex
circuits there can be multiple resistors in the loops, and it is more
difficult to determine current. In some cases combinations of resistors
can be represented as one collective resistor.

Series and Parallel Resistor Circuits

e Circuits can have resistors in series (series circuit) or in parallel

(parallel circuit). In a circuit diagram a resistor is designated by a
sawtooth pattern. The figure shows parallel and series circuits with three
resistors connected to a battery, which supplies the emf.

Resistors in Parallel Resistors in Series

Note that when you are analyzing small simple electric circuits, it is
often acceptable to ignore any resistance in the wires that connect
various parts of the circuit since they have relatively small resistances.

e For resistors in series (as depicted for three resistors in series), the
current | flowing through each resistor is the same.
l=],=L=hL
The voltage across all of the resistors together is V and the voltage in
each resistor is:
V,=IR; V2=IR2. V3=IRs
where the total potential drop V is the sum of the individual potential
drops, or voltages, at each resistor (V = V, + V2 + V3). The total potential
drop must equal the value of the emf source, which, in this circuit, is the
voltage V across the battery:
+ IRs = (Ri + Rot Rs)
V=V.i+ Vo Vs = IR: + IRs
The total voltage V for the circuit equals the total resistance Ry times the
current I flowing through the circuit:
V=IR,
The total resistance for a series circuit is therefore the sum of the
individual resistances and is greater than any of the individual
resistances:
284 Master Math: Essential Physics

e For resistors in parallel (as depicted for three resistors in parallel), the
potential drop, or voltage V, across each of the parallel resistors is the
same.
V= Vi wa V> a V3

The total current I flowing through the circuit divides between the
resistors (in the figure it divides between the three resistors). The current
I for each resistor is:
I, = V/Ry lL = V/R> I, = V/R3

The total current I is:

I=1,+1+13 = V/R,; + V/R, + V/R3 = VUI/Ry + 1/R2 + 1/R3) = VCI/Ro)
where total current I is voltage V divided by total resistance Rr, or
I = V/Ry. Rearranging:
I/V = (1/R, + 1/R2 + 1/R3) = (1/Rz)
Or the total resistance for a parallel circuit is:
1/Ryr = 1/R, as 1/R+ 1/R3+ p08

which is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. The

equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit is less than any of the individual
resistances.

e We can compare resistors and capacitors in series and parallel in a

circuit and see their opposing forms:
For resistors in series: Rr =R,; + R2.+R3+...
For resistors in parallel: 1/R; = 1/R; + 1/R) + 1/R3 +...
For capacitors in series: 1/Crota = 1/C, + 1/C2 + 1/C3 +...
For capacitors in parallel: Cyotaj = C,; + C2+C3+...

e Example: Suppose you have two circuits that are each connected to a
12 V source. If one circuit has two resistors of 3 Q and 4 Q in series and
the other circuit has two resistors of 3 Q and 4 Q in parallel, which
circuit has a greater current flow?

For the resistors in series: Ry = R; + R29 =3+4=7Q0

T= V/Rz
= (12 V)/(79)=1.7A
For the resistors in parallel: 1/R; = 1/R; + 1/R>
I/Ry = 1/3 + 1/4 = (1/3)(4/4) + (1/4)(3/3) = (4 + 3)/(12) = (7)/(12 Q)
Rr= 12Q/771.70
T= V/R7 = (12 V)/A.7Q)27A
 Electric Fields and Currents 285

Note in the parallel circuit you can also calculate the current through
each resistor and then take the sum:
Ba-12Vi3QS4A and io=12V/4 03 A
Totall=4A+3A=7A
The current in the parallel circuit is greater.

Multiple Sources of emf

e What if you have more than one source of emf such as several different
batteries? The emf sources may be in series or parallel.

For emf sources in series, the net potential difference, or voltage, across
the series is equal to the sum of the potential differences of each of the
emf sources. If you have four 12-V batteries in series the total emf € is:
Ne RIN ADV +t 2 VV = 48.

For emf sources in parallel, if each of the emf sources has the same
potential difference value, the potential difference (or voltage) across the
combined parallel sources of emf has the same value as any of the
individual emf sources.

Batteries have some amount of internal resistance, which decreases the

potential difference V between its terminals. This potential difference
can be described by:
V=€E-Ir
where r is the internal resistance and is usually a very small value,
resulting in the battery’s potential difference being close to its emf €.
When currents are large or the battery ages, however, Ir may be
noticeable. Connecting batteries in parallel allows current to be divided
among them, thereby reducing Ir for each battery. This allows a parallel
group of batteries to maintain a potential difference nearly equal to the
emf of the batteries, especially when currents are large.

More Simple Circuits

e If you have a circuit with both series and parallel resistors, you
determine total resistance by first calculating each of the sections of the
circuit that have parallel resistors to obtain the resistances for the parallel
sets. Then, combine the sets of parallel resistors with other series
resistors as a series calculation. In the figure below you first calculate the
parallel resistors Rj, R2, and Rs and also Rs, Rg, and R; and then find the
total resistance by adding the parallel resistance values to resistor R4
which is in series with the parallel sets. Let’s do an example for clarity.
286 Master Math: Essential Physics

Original Circuit Reduced Circuit

“ee
e ae In the circuit shown, if Ry = Ro = R3 =2 Q, Rg =5 Q,
=R,=R,=3 Q, and voltage V = 12 V, what is current I?
First find resistance in parallel (1/Ry = 1/R, + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ...):
1/Ry4 = 1/R, + I/R2 + 1/R3 = 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/2 = 3/2, so Ry3 = 2/3 QO
1/Rs.7 = 1/Rs + 1/Re + 1/R7 = 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = 3/3, so R5.7=1Q
Add resistance in series (Rt = Rj + R2 + R3 +...):
Rr=Ry3+
Rat Rs.7 = 2/3 +5 + 1 = 2/3+ 15/3 + 3/3 = 20/3 = 6.7 Q
For current, use V = IR7, so:
I= V/Rr = (12 V)/(20/3) = 1.8 A
Therefore, the current is I= 1.8 A.

e What if you had a simple circuit with two resistors (or two sets of
parallel resistors) and two batteries? The total current in a simple circuit
does not depend on the location of the batteries or resistors. The batteries
will either add to or subtract from each other depending on how the
battery terminals are connected with the circuit. Imagine the above
drawn circuit but with two batteries, a 12 V anda 6 V. If the batteries are
connected to oppose, the net voltage in the circuit will subtract. In this
case, 12 -6=6 V. If the batteries are connected to enhance, the net
voltage in the circuit will add. In this case, 12 + 6 = 18 V. These two
cases are depicted in the following summary diagram.

Ry3 Ry SS R13 Ry Beat R17

+1 Ky
Vv i>

Voltage Subteeia Vnet = “Sia ‘TRY Viet 18V

e Example: In the circuit in the last example, but with two batteries—a
12 V and a 6 V—determine the current if the batteries are connected to
oppose or enhance voltage.
The total resistance is the same as the last example, Ry = 20/3 Q.
When the batteries oppose voltage is 12 — 6 = 6 V. The current is:
I= V/Rr = (6 V)/(20/3) = 0.9A
When the batteries add voltage is 12 + 6 = 18 V. The current is:
I= V/Ry = (18 V)/(20/3) =2.7A
 Electric Fields and Currents 287

e There are circuits that do not lend themselves to the simple reducti
ons
we have just discussed. For such circuits Kirchhoff’s Rules (introduced
in this section) may be helpful.

Measuring Circuits

e How can you actually measure what is occurring in a circuit?

Following is a brief introduction to some basic circuit measuring
instruments, or meters. Current can be measured using an ammeter;
potential difference (voltage) between two points can be measured using
a voltmeter; resistance can be measured using an ohmmeter or a
Wheatstone bridge; and emf can be measured using a potentiometer.
A multimeter combines a number of measuring functions into a single
instrument.

e An ammeter measures the electric current flowing between two

points in a circuit. It can measure either direct or alternating electric
current in Amperes. An ammeter is connected in series so the current
flowing in the circuit flows through the ammeter. Since a meter should
not significantly change the operation of the circuit, it is designed to have
very low resistance. The central part of a classic ammeter is a current-
carrying coil of wire called a galvanometer, whose deflection (in a
magnetic field) is proportional to the flowing current. When attached to a
pointer on a scale, it displays current in Amperes. In order to read a large
range of currents, resistors are placed in parallel with the galvanometer to
reduce the current flowing through the galvanometer. Galvanometers are
able to directly read very small currents. To read larger currents a
parallel resistor (shunt resistor) diverts a known fraction of the current,
which runs parallel to the galvanometer (which has some internal
resistance), and the galvanometer reads the current running through it.
Digital ammeters have no moving parts and use a circuit to convert
continuous analog current to an equivalent digital current value.

e A voltmeter measures the potential difference, or voltage, between

two points in an electric circuit. Classic voltmeters have been referred to
as galvanometers since they measure current. The current can be
translated from Amperes to volts using Ohm’s Law. A galvanometer can
be converted into a voltmeter by adding a resistor in series with the
galvanometer. (Remember, a galvanometer contains a coil of wire in a
magnetic field which experiences a torque when current passes through
the coiled wire. The coil is attached to a pointer and a spring which
deflects the pointer proportionally to the current in the coiled wire.)
288 Master Math: Essential Physics

Unlike an ammeter, which is inserted into the circuit of interest in series

so that all the current flows through it, a voltmeter is connected in
parallel with the circuit. By connecting two points in a circuit through a
voltmeter in parallel, a small amount of circuit current can be routed
through the voltmeter. Resistance is inserted in series with the meter to
keep the current flow through it small. Different resistors can be selected
using a switch to allow measurement of a range of voltages. The current
through the meter is equal to Imeter = V/Rmeter, Where V is the potential
difference between the two points.

e An ohmmeter measures resistance by applying a known emf to a

circuit (or circuit element) containing the unknown resistance. The
unknown resistance is connected in series with an ammeter, which
measures the current flowing through the resistor. Since the voltage is
known, resistance can be calculated using R = V/I.

A more accurate measurement of resistance can be done using a

Wheatstone bridge circuit. A Wheatstone bridge is a circuit that
determines the unknown resistance by balancing it against known
resistances. Once the balance is achieved, no current is drawn and the
primary circuit being measured is not altered. A typical Wheatstone
bridge circuit consists of a constant supply voltage (such as a battery);
an ammeter, galvanometer, or potentiometer; and four resistors in a
diamond shape so that current from a battery is divided and flows
through the resistors before recombining into a single wire or conductor.
The values of three of the resistors are known, with one of the three
being adjustable (called a rheostat). The fourth resistor‘has the unknown
resistance value, which is determined by manipulating the current flow
through the bridge circuit. The diverging currents, which are measured
using an ammeter, must become balanced with the help of the rheostat.
The unknown resistance R, is found using Ry = (Rx)(Rx2)/(Ri3), where
Riu, Riz, and Ry3 represent the three known resistance values.

e A potentiometer has several functions, including the measurement of

emf or potential difference by comparing with a known voltage, or as a
mechanical variable resistor which can be used to control variables such
as volume or brightness in electrical equipment.

When measuring potential differences, a known emf can be supplied to a

circuit having an unknown emf until the two are balanced, revealing the
value of the unknown emf. The unknown emf drives the current through
a loop having one segment as a slide wire, which acts as a variable
resistor. As the contact moves along the slide wire, the potential! supplied
to the circuit by a battery is changed until the loop current (and therefore
 Electric Fields and Currents 289

the loop potential difference) measures zero (using a galvanometer) and

the potential drop along the slide wire equals the unknown potential
difference. This results in the known emf supplied by the battery being
balanced against the unknown emf.

Like a resistor, a potentiometer has three terminals, two of which are

connected to a resistance wire and the third to a sliding contact. As a
variable resistor, one terminal is connected to a power source, another is
connected to ground, and the third terminal can move across a resistive
material. The resistive material can vary from low resistance at one end
to high resistance at the other end. The third terminal connects the power
source and ground, providing a means to adjust the position of the third
terminal along the resistive strip, thereby manipulating resistance. By
controlling resistance, a potentiometer can control current flow through a
circuit. A potentiometer can also be designed to control the potential
difference, or voltage, across a circuit.

e In practice, electronic measurement is commonly done with

multimeters, which combine several measurement functions in one
instrument. A typical multimeter will be able to measure current,
resistance, and voltage, and perhaps other variables such as capacitance
or inductance. Multimeters can be divided into two categories—analog
which use analog circuits and digital which use digital circuits. Analog
multimeters can be varied to employ the functionality of an ammeter,
voltmeter, and ohmmeter, and have a scale with a pointer. Digital
multimeters are solid state and employ greater functionality along with
LCD screens displaying digits or bars. Some multimeters may be able to
measure current and voltage in the two different modes, alternating
current AC and direct current DC.

10.7. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Electrostatic Force Law or Coulomb’s Law: Fr = KqQ/r’.

e Electric field equals electric force Fg per charge q: E = Fp/q.
e Charge q in electric field E will experience force Fr: Fe = qE.
e Electric field feit by charge q at distance r from Q: E = Fe/q = KQ/r’.
e Electric field lines, or lines of force, sketch direction and strength of
electric fields. Field line begins at a positive charge and ends at a
negative charge. Line density is proportional to field magnitude.
e Electric potential V is: V = PEg/q = KQ/r.
e Potential difference or voltage between points: AV = W/q = APE¢/q.
e Electric field strength in a uniform field: E = AV/d or E = V/d.
290 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Capacitors store electric charge Q. Capacitor charge is: Q = CV.

e Capacitance is: C = Q/V = A/(d4nK) = €,A/d, where A is plate area,
d is distance between, K is Coulomb’s constant, and €, is permittivity.
e Work to move entire charge Q is: W = (1/2)QV = (HCV O DE
e Energy stored in a capacitor: PE = (W2ICV = (1/2)e,AdE’.
e Capacitance for parallel capacitors: Crotai = Cy; + C2. + C3 +...
e Capacitance for series capacitors: 1/Crota = 1/C; + 1/C2 + 1/C3 +...
e DC circuits: steady voltage source (battery). Current in one direction.
e AC circuit: current flow periodically reverses. Used in homes, etc.
e Current flows when a potential difference or emf source is present.
e Current I is charge Q flow past a point per time: I = Q/t.
e Ohm’s Law: V = IR or I= V/R, current is proportional to voltage.
e Resistance R: R = pL/A, where p is resistivity, L length, A area.
e Power: P = VI=I’R or P= V’/R, where P = FR is Joule’s Law.
e Kirchhoff’s First Rule: Junction Rule: }'J = 0 at a circuit junction.
e Kirchhoff’s Second Rule: Loop Rule: )}V = 0 in a closed circuit loop.
e Total resistance for a series circuit: Rp = Ry + Ro +R3+...
e Total resistance for a parallel circuit: 1/Ry = 1/R, + 1/R2 + 1/R3+...

Practice Problems

10.1 In the example in Section 10.1 about the two charges Q, and Q>
separated by | m, if Q) had been —2 x 10° C (rather than both being
+2 x 10° C) what would be the electric field and potential at the
midpoint between Q, and Q,?

10.2 (a) In the example in Section 10.2, your friend’s jury-rigged

capacitor plates attached to a 2,000-V source stored PE = 4.4 x 10° J. If
you linked 5 identical capacitors in parallel and applied the same 2,000 V,
how much total energy would the capacitors store? (b) If instead you
linked them in series, how much total energy would they store?

10.3 Compare the speed of the electron flow in two wires, one with a
diameter of 1 mm and the other with a diameter of 1 cm, both carrying
the same current.

10.4 A copper wire with a resistance of | Q is drawn through an extruder

so that its new length is 3.48 times longer. What is its new resistance?

10.5 You just left on a 2-week driving trip and remember leaving on a
100-W light in the garage. Your electric rate is 10¢/kWh. You are 10 mi
from home, your car gets 20 mpg, and gas is $4/gal. Assuming your time
is worth nothing and ignoring other factors, should you return home to
turn out the light?
 Electric Fields and Currents 291

10.6 You take the pair of parallel resistors and the pair of series resistors
in the example in Section 10.6, subsection Series and Parallel Resistor
Circuits, and put the two pairs into a single loop circuit one after the
other in series. Using the same 12-V battery, what will be the new total
resistance and the new current?

Answers to Chapter 10 Problems

10.1 V; would remain 36,000 V, but V> would be —36,000 V. Therefore

Vota = (36,000 V) + (36,000 V) = 0 V. Since Enet = E; + Ey, find E;
and EF):
E, = KQ,/r = (9 x 10° N-m?)/C?)(4+2 x 10°° C)/(0.5)? = 72,000 V/m
E, = KQo/t” = (9 x 10’ Nem’*)/C?)\(-2 x 10° C)/(0.5° = -72,000 Vim
Because the negative charge vector E; is on the opposite side of the
midpoint, its field lines point in the same direction as those of E,; and
they are additive: —-— © >< Therefore Ene = 144,000 V/m.

10.2 (a) When in parallel, they all experience the same 2,000 V, so each
capacitor will store 4.4 x 10° J, and together will store 5 times as much,
or 2.2 x 10°” J. (b) When in series, the sum of the voltages across all 5
capacitors must be 2,000 V, so the total stored energy is 4.4 10° J, the
same quantity that the one capacitor stored in the original example.

10.3 The cross sectional area of the 1-mm wire is 1/100 that of the 1-cm
wire, so the rate of electron flow is 100 times faster. This is similar to
comparing the speed of an equal volume of water flowing through pipes
of differing diameters.

10.4 A wire is shaped like a cylinder where volume = base * height.

Since the volume of the copper is fixed, the base becomes 1/3.48 ~ 0.287
times as large. Since R « L/A, AR = AL/AA = 3.48/0.287 = 12.1 Q.

10.5 Will the savings on your electric bill exceed the $4 of gas to return
10 mi home and again drive 10 mi outside of town? 14 days = 336 hrs.
The light will use 0.1 kWh each hour, or 33.6 kWh. The cost of leaving
the light on is 33.6 kWh = $0.10/kWh = $3.36. You keep driving.

10.6 Since the 2 pairs of resistors are in series, Rrotat = Rseries + Rearaltel
=174+7=879. [= V/Rrow = 12 V/8.7Q2 1.4 A.
292 Master Math: Essential Physics
 ee
Chapter 11
ELECTROMAGNETISM

11.1. Magnetism
11.2. Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges
11.3. Charged Particles Moving in Circular Motion in Magnetic
Fields
11.4. Electric Currents Generate Magnetic Fields
11.5. Changing Fields Induce Current and Magnetic Flux
11.6. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“Nature is our kindest friend and best critic in experimental science

if we only allow her intimations to fall unbiassed on our minds.”
Attributed to Michael Faraday

11.1. Magnetism

Magnets

e In Asia Minor, in a region of modern Turkey, more than 2,000 years

ago people realized that a natural stone called lodestone attracted other
lodestones as well as small pieces of iron. These naturally magnetized
stones were found in a region called Magnesia, and therefore became
known as magnets. Lodestone is made up of the mineral magnetite. It
was found that when lodestone was either suspended freely or floated in
quiet water on wood, it oriented itself along the Earth’s north-south
direction, forming a magnetic compass. Understanding magnets helps us
to comprehend magnetic fields and magnetic poles.

Magnets have a north-pointing north N-pole and a south-pointing south

S-pole. The N-pole of a compass magnet points toward the Earth’s S
magnetic pole near the Earth’s geographic North Pole. (The S-pole of
the Earth is near the geographic North Pole.) A magnet that is freely-
suspended will orient itself along magnetic field lines of Earth from
S-pole to N-pole. A compass identifies the direction of the Earth’s
magnetic field at any point.
294 Master Math: Essential Physics

The like magnetic poles of a magnet (N-N and S-S) repel each other,
while the unlike magnetic poles (N-S and S-N) attract each other. The
two poles, N and S, of a magnet always exist together. If a magnet is cut
in half, the two resulting shorter magnets will each be magnets with N-
and S-poles which point in the same direction as the original magnet. If
the magnets are repeatedly cut in two, each smaller section will be a
smaller replica of the original magnet.

Magnetic Fields

e A magnet produces a magnetic field, which is the region where a force

is exerted on another magnet (or on a current-carrying conductor). The
direction of magnetic field lines are, by convention, the direction in
which the N-pole of a compass magnet points. The magnetic field lines
generated by a typical bar magnet run through its center pointing from
the S-pole to the N-pole, and the same field lines run around the outside
of the magnet point from its N-pole toward its S-pole. The Earth produces
a magnetic field which is similar to that of a bar magnet. (Remember, the
S-pole of the Earth is near the geographic North Pole.)

Magnetic fields possess both magnitude and direction, and therefore can
be represented as a vector. The magnetic field is represented using the
letter B, which can be thought of as describing magnetic lines offorce.
Magnetic field vector B points in the direction of the magnetic lines of
force and has a magnitude or strength which corresponds to the density
of the lines. Magnetic field lines are continuous, having no defined
beginning or end.

Electromagnetism

e Electricity and magnetism are interrelated. Moving charges produce

magnetic fields, and moving magnets can induce electric currents. The
interrelated electric and magnetic effects are known as electromagnetism.
When an electric charge moves, it creates a magnetic field. Even a single
moving charge creates a field. In fact, a charge’s rotational motion, or
spin, can create a magnetic field. In 1820 Danish physicist Hans Christian
Oersted discovered that a current-carrying wire influenced the orientation
 Electromagnetism 295

of a compass magnet. This occurred because current running through

a
wire produced a magnetic field which influenced the nearby compas
s
magnet.

¢ Current flowing along a straight wire produces a magnetic field

whose lines form circles around the center of the wire. The direction of
the field lines can be detected using a compass magnet. The magnetic
field direction is perpendicular to the direction of the flow of electric
current. The direction of the magnetic field lines surrounding a current-
carrying straight wire can be revealed using the right-hand rule. If you
imagine tightly clutching a straight wire in your right hand with your
right thumb pointing up along the wire shaft in the direction of current
flow, your curled fingers encircling the wire will be in the direction of the
magnetic field B.

Current flow IT Current flow | > Current flow | >

Straight Wire Loop Wire Solenoid

e Ifa loop of wire carrying a current forms a circular loop, moving

charges in the wire generate a magnetic field similar to a very short bar
magnet aligned perpendicular to the loop. The direction of the magnetic
field lines surrounding a current-carrying loop of wire can also be
revealed using the right-hand rule. If you bend your fingers in the
direction of current flow along the loop, with your thumb pointing
through the loop’s center, your thumb (in this case) will point in the
direction of the magnetic field B. The magnetic field lines that run
through the loop’s center are parallel to each other, whereas the lines
outside the current loop curve and join forming closed loops themselves.
Even an electron moving around its atomic nucleus forms a tiny loop of
electric current and produces a small magnetic field.

e Solenoids are composed of a number of loops next to each other in the

shape of a tube. They create a uniform magnetic field that points through
the center of the solenoid. Solenoids can be constructed by coiling a
single current-carrying wire. The magnetic field lines along the length of
a solenoid are parallel and obey the same right-hand rule as a single
loop of wire. The region of the generated magnetic field running along
the inside of a long solenoid is uniform. If an iron rod is inserted in a
solenoid or a current-carrying wire is wrapped around an iron rod, the
296 Master Math: Essential Physics

iron becomes magnetized. The resulting magnetic field is the sum of the
fields generated by the wire and the iron and can be strong. This combi-
nation of a current-carrying wire wrapped around a ferromagnetic core is
referred to as an electromagnet. (Ferromagnetic materials are strongly
attracted to magnetic fields and can retain their magnetic properties after
the field is removed.)

11.2. Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges

Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge

e A charge in motion relative to a magnetic field experiences a force due

to the magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic force Fy on a mov-
ing positive test charge is perpendicular to the velocity v of the moving
charge and also perpendicular to the field B. The magnitude of magnetic
force Fy has been shown to be directly proportional to the charge q and
its velocity v, as well as to the magnetic field strength B. In fact:

Fu = qvB for v perpendicular to B

where Fy, v, and B are magnitudes of vectors Fy, v, and B. Units of

magnetic field strength are Tesla T or Gauss G, where:
1G=10"°T or 1T=10°G
Magnetic field strengths are also measured in Webers (Wb) per square
meter Wb/m’, where | T = 1 Wb/m? = N/Amp:m = N-s/Coulomb-m.

When we studied the electric force vector Fg, we learned that force
vector Fr has the same direction as the electric field vector E. In the case
of magnetic forces and fields, it has been shown in experiments that the
direction of a magnetic force vector Fy is perpendicular to both the
velocity vector v of a moving charge q and the magnetic field vector B.

Fw magnetic force vector

Charge qt velocity vector V.yo--Pon. "

Externally applied magnetic field vector B

The perpendicular vectors can be modeled using a right-hand rule. For a

positive test charge in an externally created magnetic field B, if you point
the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the velocity v of the test
charge and then curl your fingers toward the direction of field B (curved
arrow in diagram), your thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic
force vector Fy.
 Electromagnetism 297

The maximum force exerted on a moving charge q or charged particle

by a magnetic field occurs when the velocity vector v of the particle is
perpendicular to the field vector B: Fy = qvB, for v perpendicular to B.
There will be many cases when a charge (or charges) is not moving in a
direction perpendicular to a magnetic field and v and B are not perpen-
dicular (such as current flow through a wire within a magnetic field). The
more general equation for the magnetic force vector Fy is:

Fu = qvB sin 0

where Fy, v, and B are magnitudes of vectors Fm, v, and B, and 0 is the
angle between vectors v and B (see previous figure). When @ = 90°, v
and B are perpendicular, sin 8 = 1, and Fy = qvB, which is maximum
force. When 0 = 0°, v and B are parallel, sin 8 = 0, and Fy = 0. When 0 is
not zero, v and B fall on a plane which is always perpendicular to mag-
netic force vector Fy. The magnetic force vector Fy therefore depends
only on the component of velocity vector v that is perpendicular to B:
@
Vperpendicular =vsin8

In fact, multiplying vectors v and B is called a vector product, or cross

product, written A X B = |A||B| sin ® (see Section 2.6). For the magnetic
force vector Fy:
Fy = qv X B= q|yv||B|
sin 8
When written as the size or magnitudes of the vectors we have:
Fy = qvB sin 8

The magnetic field B can therefore be written for force Fy on a positive

test charge q moving at velocity v with the angle 0 between the velocity
and the field as:
B = Fm/qvsin0

Magnetic Force on Current-Carrying Wire

[> =X
uniform magnetic field B |

wire

e Consider a current-carrying wire placed into a uniform magnetic field

B. Flowing current in a wire experiences a force Fu due toa magnetic
field. If a straight section of the wire having length L is set ina direction
along
so that it makes an angle 0 with field B, then each electron moving
the wire will experience a magnetic force equivale nt to:
Fy = qvB sin 8
298 Master Math: Essential Physics

If we imagine there are n number of electrons e in the length L of wire

experiencing the magnetic field, we have nL total electrons (nLe) acted
on by the field in that section of wire. The force on that wire section is:
Fy =nLevB sin® where nLe=q
The charge q that passes a particular point in the wire per time t is the
current I, or:
I = q/t = nLe/t

The distance charge will travel is L = vt or v = L/t, so current I becomes:

l= q/t = neL/t =nev.

Substituting nev = I, we can write magnetic force in terms of current

in a wire as:
Fy = ILB sin 9

where 0 is the angle between the direction of the current I and the
direction of field B, and L is the length of the section of wire. By
rearranging, the magnetic field in a wire is:
B=Fy/ILsinG

The force is maximum when the field lines are perpendicular to the
current-carrying wire (8 = 90° and Fy = ILB), and the force is zero when
they are parallel (0 = 0° and Fy = 0). We can also write the magnetic
force as the vector product for current I at a particular point in terms of
length L at that point within field B:
Fu = IL X B =1|L||B|
sin@

e Example: Earth has a magnetic north and south pole and connecting
magnetic field lines that form its magnetosphere. Since a magnetic field
can be produced by circulating electrical charges, the Earth’s magneto-
sphere is formed, according to the magnetic dynamo theory, by the
swirling motions of liquefied conducting material inside the planet which
create the magnetic field. Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
also have magnetospheres, while Mars and Venus have only traces of
magnetic field lines. If you are at a location on Earth where the magnetic
field measures 0.5 Gauss, or 5 x 10> Tesla, and you have a straight 0.5-km
wire stretched perpendicular to the field with a 12-A current flowing
through it, what force does Earth’s magnetic field exert on the wire?
The magnetic force on the wire can be found using: Fy = ILB sin 9. Since
sin 90° = |
Fy = ILB = (12 A)(500 m)(5 x [Or T)=0.3N
 Electromagnetism 299

Force on a Coil Producing Torque

¢ Imagine you have a current-carrying coiled wire, and you place it into a
uniform magnetic field B. The field exerts a force on the components of
current perpendicular to the field. Remember from Section 2.6 Torque, if
a force is applied to an object at a point other than its central axis of
rotation, that force may create a torque. Torque is the product of an
applied force F times the length of a lever arm r, which is the shortest
radial perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a line drawn
along the direction of force. Thus, torque T= rF sin 0, where r is the
radial distance from the axis of rotation to the point at which the force is
applied, and 0 is the angle between F and the radial line r which is the
acute angle between the lines of vector r and force vector F.

In this case, the force on your electric coil generates a torque, which is
the force F = ILB times the moment arm. To develop an equation for
torque, imagine a wire loop or coil is square shaped rather than round,
with a moment arm of (1/2)d, where d is the length of a side.

—s
Since there are two sides of a loop, torque can be written:
T = ILB(2)(1/2)d sin 8 = ILBd sin @

Because dL is the area of the loop, for a loop of area A and angle 0, the
torque for one loop of wire is:
T = IAB sin @

Since coils are made of multiple wires or loops, a wire coil having N
loops has torque 7 on a flat coil having N loops, where each carries
current I. In a uniform external magnetic field torque 7 1s:
T = NIABsin 0

where A is the area of the coil, and 6 is the angle between the field lines
and a perpendicular to the plane of coil. The maximum torque occurs
when 0 = 90° where sin 90° = | and:
T = NIAB

To visualize the direction of rotation of the coil, you can use the
following right-hand rule: With your right thumb perpendicular to the
plane of the coil, so that your fingers run in the direction of the current
flow, the torque acts to rotate the thumb into alignment with the external
field (at which direction the torque will be zero).
300 Master Math: Essential Physics

Electromagnetic Forces

© When both an electric field E and a magnetic field B are present, a

moving charged particle q will experience forces Fg and Fy from each of
the fields:
Fe=qE and Fu=qvXB
where X represents the cross product. The vector sum of the electric and
magnetic forces provides a model of the total of the two types of forces
on a hypothetical test charge q:
FL = Fe+ Fu =qE+qvXB

where Fy is the electromagnetic force, also called the Lorentz force,

after Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853-1928).

The magnetic force is not a fundamental force of nature like the

gravitational or electric force, but rather it is a manifestation of the
electric force. Magnetic fields are created by the motion of electric
charge. These charges may be free charges flowing in a wire or
circulating or spinning charges that are bound in an atom.

11.3. Charged Particles Moving in Circular Motion in

Magnetic Fields

e When a freely moving charged particle moves through a uniform

magnetic field B, the force exerted by the field continually changes the
particle’s direction of motion. The force Fy and acceleration remain
perpendicular to the field and to the direction of motion, and the speed of
the charged particle remains constant. The change in the particle’s
direction results in circular or spiral motion. If the charged particle is
initially moving perpendicular to the direction of B, the resulting motion
will be a circle in a plane perpendicular to the field. If the charged
particle has a velocity component parallel to B, it will continue to move
along the field’s magnetic field lines, but will develop circular motion in
the perpendicular plane which creates a spiral path.

A magnetic field, therefore, changes the direction of motion of a moving

charge. Because the force of the magnetic field on the moving charge is
perpendicular to the charge’s motion, there is a centripetal force which
causes the moving charge to move in a circular motion. Suppose you
have a charged particle of mass m moving with velocity v in uniform
magnetic field B, and the velocity v is perpendicular to field B. The
 Electromagnetism 301
magnitude of the force Fy exerted on the charged particle q by the
magnetic field B is:
Fu =qvB for v perpendicular to B
The direction of the magnetic force vector Fy is always perpendicular to
the instantaneous direction of the charged particle’s motion v. In other
words, the force Fy exerted on the particle by the magnetic field is
always perpendicular to the charged particle’s velocity. The magnetic
force causes a constant centripetal acceleration that stays perpendicular
to v and keeps the charged particle moving in a circular orbit. The
centripetal acceleration is:
a, = Fy/m = qvB/m

To find the radius r of the charged particle’s circular motion and its
frequency f, we first write the centripetal acceleration in terms of
velocity and the radius of the orbit:
a=vit
Combining the two equations for a,:
qvB/m = v7/r
and solving for r gives the radius r of the charged particle’s circular
motion:

This shows that the radius of a charged particle’s circular motion in a

uniform magnetic field is directly proportional to its momentum, mv, and
inversely proportional to the field strength B.

To develop an equation for the frequency f of the charged particle,

remember in Section 6.3 we learned that frequency is related to period t,
as f = 1/t. We also learned in Section 1.11 that the time required for one
revolution or period t is t = 27/q, and that the speed of an object moving
in a circular path of radius r is v = ro, so @ = v/r. The period can
therefore be written t = 2mr/v. We can rearrange the radius equation,
r = mv/qB, as r/v = m/qB and combine these as:
t = 2ar/v = 2nm/qB
Since frequency is f= 1/t, the frequency of the charged particle’s
circular orbit is:
f= 1/t = qB/2am

The angular frequency © can be found by combining t = 27/a, or

@ = 2n/t, with f = 1/t = qB/2nm, or t = 2nam/qB:
@ = 2n/t = qB2a/2nm = qB/m
302 Master Math: Essential Physics

Or:

These equations for radius and frequency model the cyclotron radius and
cyclotron frequency of particles moving in circular paths in particle
accelerators called cyclotrons. Cyclotrons accelerate charged particles to
high velocities. In cyclotrons particles are accelerated using electric
fields while they are confined by bending their path using a magnetic
field. An applied electric field accelerates charged particles between
D-shaped regions of a magnetic field. A magnetic force is used to bend
moving charges into a semicircular path between the accelerations that
are applied by the electric field.

e Example: What is the radius of motion for an electron and a proton

each traveling 2 x 10° m/s ina 1-Tesla and in a 2-Tesla magnetic field?
The radius of a charged particle’s circular motion is: r= mv/qB. We look
upq==+16~ 10 C,m,=9.1 x10" keandm,=1.67 < 10 kp.
Tieton = (Ol 10 key? < 10 misVitlOxie CKl 1) 214 10 m
proton = (1.67 X 107” kg)(2 x 10° m/s)/(1.6 x 10°"? C)(1 T) = 2.09 x 107 m
re ON 10k O10 m/s Ae Oe Tyas Be 10 m
Fproton = (1.67 X 10°77 kg)\(2 x 10° m/s)/(1.6.* 10° C)2 T) = 1.04 x 10° m
Note: Greater magnetic field strength corresponds with tighter radius.

e Notice that since there is no component of force Fy exerted in the

direction of a particle’s motion v, there is no work done on a particle by
a magnetic field. That means the work done by a magnetic field on a
moving charge is zero. Remember, work is W = Fs cos 0 and 0 is always
90° for charges in magnetic fields. Since cos 90° = 0, W = 0. Because a
magnetic field does no work on a moving charge, even though the
direction of motion is continually changing as a result of the magnetic
force, the speed of the particle v is constant and the charge’s kinetic
energy remains constant.

11.4. Electric Currents Generate Magnetic Fields

e Magnetic fields are created by moving free electric charges as well as

by current flowing in a wire, which is made up of moving charges. The
strength of the magnetic field B near the wire can be measured. We can
develop a relationship between current I and magnetic field B by first
considering a straight current-carrying wire. The magnetic field B around
the wire is cylindrical with field lines forming circles centered on the
 Electromagnetism 303
wire. It has been observed in experiments that the magnetic
field
decreases linearly with distance r away from the center of a wire,
and
that the field strength B at a distance r from the wire is proportional
to
the current I and inversely proportional to r:
B « I/r
The proportionality constant between B and I/r for a straight wire has
been shown to be in the form 19/27, where Mo = 42 x 10°’ T-m/A is
called the permeability of free space. The magnetic field for a long
straight current-carrying wire can therefore be expressed as:

B = uol/2ar

This equation has been shown to describe the magnetic field in a long
straight wire.

eB
Ss segment Al

Straight Wire Conductor-Arbitrary Shape Solenoid

e A more general equation describing the magnetic field B in a current-

carrying conductor of any shape was developed by French scientist
A.M. Ampere. Ampere’s equation describes the field that is not a perfect
cylinder but some arbitrary shape surrounding a current-carrying
conductor. Ampere summed the products B,Al around the field (since
they vary with the shape of the conductor and therefore the field), where
Al represents a segment along B, and B, is the component of B that is
parallel to each Al segment. Ampere found the relationship between
current I and the sum of the product B,Al for the segments is:

| 2 BAL = pol |
This equation is called Ampere’s Law and is difficult to evaluate for
arbitrary shapes without using calculus. Ampere’s Law states that for any
closed loop path of the field, the sum of the length sections times the
magnetic field in the direction of the length section ()B)Al) equals the
permeability [1p times the electric current I enclosed in the loop.

As we saw with the straight wire producing field lines, which formed
circles centered on the wire, there are special cases where the magnetic
field can be described by a simple equation. We can develop the equation
for the long straight wire from Ampere’s Law. In this case B is the same
for any r, so we draw a circle of radius r around the wire. The sum in
Ampere’s Law, )B)Al = pol, can be rewritten: B\>Al = pol. The sum of
304 Master Math: Essential Physics

all the segments around a circle is the circumference of a circle, or 27r.

So we can write Ampere’s Law for the long straight wire as:
B(2nr) = ol. Rearranging, we again get the equation for the magnetic
field for a long straight wire:
B = pol/2nr

Above, we said the proportionality constant between B and I/r for the
straight wire has been shown to be in the form [1o/27, but we can see that
the more general proportionality constant 1S Wo = 4% 10°’ T-m/A, the
permeability offree space.

e A solenoid is another configuration in which Ampere’s Law,

>B,Al = pol, simplifies to an equation for magnetic field B. Remember a
solenoid is a current-carrying coil. The magnetic field created inside the
coil runs parallel to the axis of the coil and is uniform, except near the
ends where the field lines diverge. The value of B inside a solenoid is
strong and constant, so )}B)Al becomes BL. The value of B at the ends
and outside is negligible by comparison, so an approximation to >’B,Al in
Ampere’s Law becomes simply BL. Along the length L of a solenoid
there are N loops through which the current I flows. This means for N
loops of wire within length L, the total current flowing along the length
of the solenoid is NI. That means for a solenoid the proportionality for
current and magnetic field is: BL « NI. Using the proportionality
constant to, we have for a solenoid:
BL=Npol or B=(N/L)pol
which approximates the magnetic field for the solenoid. We can instead
use n as the number of current loops per unit length of a solenoid, so
n=(N/L), giving:
B= (N/L) pol = Nol

Because B does not depend on the location within the solenoid, solenoids
can create uniform magnetic fields.

e Example: Your friend informs you that you live in an area where the
Earth’s magnetic field is about 5 x 10° Tesla. He wants to know how
much current he needs to deliver to his 10-cm solenoid to produce the
Earth’s magnetic field strength providing it has 1,000 wire loops.
You use the magnetic field for solenoids equation B = (N/L)ol = nol,
with: n = 1,000/0.1 m = 10,000/m and [Up = 4x x 10°’ T-m/A. Solve for I:
I = B/npo = (5 x 10° T)/(10,000/m)(4n x 10°77 T-m/A) = 4 x 107° A
“Not much current...” he muses.
 Electromagnetism 305

The Ampere

e The Ampere can be defined in terms of the force between two long
straight parallel current-carrying wires. We have used the Ampere as a
unit of measure of current, but there is a definition of the Ampere we can
understand in the context of current and magnetic fields. Imagine two
parallel wires of length L, which are separated by distance R. If wire 1
carries current I, and wire 2 carries current I, the magnetic field from
each wire exerts a force on the other. The magnetic field at wire 2 due to
the current I, is:
B, = Lol, /2mR

The force wire | exerts on wire 2 is:

F= I,LB, a I,Lpol,;/2nR

(Remember Fy, = ILB is the magnetic force when the field lines are
perpendicular to the current-carrying wire.) To write the force F per
length L, divide by L:
F/L = pol, I,/2nR
When two currents are in the same direction, it can be shown that the
force is attractive, and when the currents are in opposite directions, the
force is repulsive. (The right-hand rule illustrates the directions of the
magnetic field and force vectors.) If each wire has a current flow of 1 A,
and they are separated by | m, then the force per unit length is:
F/L = pol Lp/22R = (4 x 10°’ T-m/A)(1 A)(1 A)/(22)(1 m) = 2 x 10°’ N/m
where | T = | N/A-m. This is the definition of the Ampere, which says,
for two long parallel wires spaced one meter apart that exert attractive
forces on each other, the Ampere is the current flowing in the wires, which
produces a force on a unit length of either wire of exactly 2 x 10°’ N/m. In
other words, one Ampere is the current needed in each of two parallel
wires separated by | m to create a force of 2 x 10°’ N/m.

Magnetic Fields and Relative Motion

eo i equals +® =

e Imagine a charged particle q and a meter that measures magnetic fields,

where the charge and meter are near each other at rest in a coordinate
system (which is an inertial reference frame). While there is an electric
field from the charged particle, the magnetic-field-reading meter will
measure B = 0 since the magnetic field is zero. Now imagine charge q 1s
in motion while the meter is still stationary. Since moving charges
produce magnetic fields, the magnetic-field-reading meter will detect a
field and B will not be zero. It is the relative motion between the charge
q
and the meter that the meter detects. Now suppose the charged particle
306 Master Math: Essential Physics

remains stationary and the meter moves relative to the charged particle.
(This is equivalent to the scenario in which the charged particle moves
while the meter is stationary.) When the charge is stationary and the
meter moves, the meter will measure the presence of a magnetic field.
A magnetic field is produced by a changing or moving electric field
which, in this case, is a result of the relative motion between the charge q
and the magnetic-field-measuring meter.

11.5. Changing Fields Induce Current and Magnetic Flux

e We have learned that a static magnetic field exerts a force on a moving

charge or a current-carrying wire. If you have a wire that is not connected
to a battery or other source of current, it has no current and no magnetic
field. If you move that current-free wire through a magnetic field, the
motion of the wire in the magnetic field will induce a current to flow in
the wire. Moving the wire produces a magnetic force Fy on the charges
in the wire, and they will move along the wire as long as the wire 1s
moving in the field. Therefore, moving a wire in a field causes free
charges to flow so that a current is induced in the wire. This is referred
to as electromagnetic induction, and was discovered in 1831 by English
physicist, Michael Faraday (1791-1867).

Changing Magnetic Fields Induce Current

e Before we learn a few useful relationships pertaining to inducing

currents in conductors, we should be aware that current and magnetic
fields don’t just appear or disappear, but grow or shrink over small
time intervals. Suppose you have a wire loop linked to a battery via a
switch such that closing the switch allows current flow and opening the
switch stops current flow. When the switch is moved from open to
closed, current begins to flow and builds up to its final steady value over
some time interval—it does not reach its final steady value instantly.
After the switch is changed from open to closed, the magnetic field that
is induced by current flow in the wire also increases (and spreads out)
with time as it builds up from zero to its final value (when current is
flowing at its final steady value).

e Now suppose you have two wire loops near each other—wire |
connected to a battery via a switch and wire 2 connected to an ammeter.
If you close the switch on wire | so that current begins to flow and the
magnetic field begins to grow, that growing magnetic field (with its
moving field lines) acts as a moving magivetic field and can induce a
current in nearby wire 2 (which you can read on wire 2’s ammeter) as the
 Electromagnetism 307

field grows and crosses wire 2. Once the current reaches its final steady
value, the magnetic field no longer grows (and moves), and the induced
current in wire 2 decreases to zero. Note that if the switch is then set to
“open” so that current in wire 1 decreases to zero, its magnetic field will
also decrease to zero. As the field decreases (and shrinks), another
current will be induced in wire 2, but in the opposite direction as the
current from the expanding field.

A changing magnetic field produces a voltage in a wire or coil, causing a

current to flow. This voltage is known as the induced emf.

Inducing emf
wire

Current I induced by Fy
as wire moves at velocity
Vv perpendicular to B.

e As a conductor (such as a wire) moves in a magnetic field, the force

that is exerted on the free electrons in the conductor creates an induced
emf (or voltage). The value of the emf can be found by considering a
straight section of wire having length L that is moving at velocity v
within magnetic field B (with the wire oriented perpendicular to both v
and B). We learned earlier in this chapter that the magnitude of force Fy
a charge in a wire experiences 1s:
Fy = qvB sin 0
where q is the charge, v is velocity of the wire, B is field strength, and 0
is angle between v and B. The direction of Fy is parallel to the wire (by
the right-hand rule) and the charge flows along the wire. An emf, or
voltage, is generated, and the force is sufficient to move charges. As
charges move, work is done, which is given by:
W = FyL = qvBLsin®@

where L is the distance the charge moves along the conductor. The work
per charge done causes a potential difference or voltage, which is the
induced emf €:
€ = W/q = BvL sin9
orjust:
€ = BvLsin®@

When velocity v is perpendicular to the direction of B, sin 9 = | and

induced emf € is maximum:
€=BvL forvlB
308 Master Math: Essential Physics

Note that since voltage is V = IR and the emf € equals the potential
difference, or voltage V, the current I induced in the wire is:
I= V/R = €/R = BvL/R
where R is the resistance.

e A magnetic field does not need to be stationary for a current to be

induced in a moving wire. Either the field or the wire or both need to
move. It is the relative motion of a wire and a magnetic field that is
needed for current flow. In fact a current will flow in the same direction
within a wire whether a magnetic field moves, for example, to the right
across a stationary wire or the wire moves to the left through a stationary
magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux and Faraday’s Law

e As we have seen, relative motion of a conductor (such as a wire) and a

magnetic field results in an induced emf, which causes a current to flow.
Is there a way to quantify the amount of magnetic field in a particular
region? Yes, the magnetic flux Oy. The magnetic flux can be thought of
as a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing through a
certain surface perpendicularly. The greater the number of field lines
passing through a particular surface, the greater is the magnetic flux

He
through that surface.
B

Imagine a uniform magnetic field B (or a small and essentially uniform

region of a field). If you have a flat surface with area A that is perpen-
dicular (1) to field B, the magnetic flux ®,, that passes through this
surface is defined as the product of the perpendicular field strength B ,
and the surface area A:
Oy=B,A

If the surface is not perpendicular to field B, the magnetic flux corresponds

to the perpendicular component of B, or B cos 0, where 0 is the angle
between the direction of magnetic field B and the perpendicular to the
area A. The magnetic flux Dy becomes:

My = B,A=BAcos8

Note that A can be the area inside a circuit loop, and B, would be the
component of the magnetic field that is perpendicular to the plane of that
circuit loop with area A. In this case B, is equal to B cos 9, where @ is
the angle between the direction of B and the perpendicular to the plane
 Electromagnetism 309

of the circuit loop. Therefore, if a loop of wire encircling area A is ina

magnetic field B, the magnetic flux is: Oy = B,A = BA cos0.

Magnetic flux can be imagined as the intensity of a magnetic field over a

certain area A within a current loop. The density of the magnetic field
lines within the area represents the intensity of the field, so that the
magnetic flux is proportional to the number of lines enclosed by the
current loop. Flux conveys the amount of a magnetic field going through
a certain area. If the magnetic field is increased, the flux will be
increased by that same amount.

e Magnetic flux is measured in units of T-m’ in the MKS (meters-

kilogram-seconds) system, which reflects the magnetic field intensity in
Tesla times area (m’). It is also measured in the Weber (Wb), named
for German physicist W.E. Weber (1804-1891), where 1 Wb = 1 T-m’.

e As we have just seen, induced emf € is € = BvLsin0 = B,vL, and the

magnetic flux Dy is Dy = B,A = BA cos8. Let’s consider the effect of
a change in area on induced emf. If a conductor (such as wire) moves a
distance x in time t through a magnetic field B, then v = x/t. The emf €
becomes:
€ = BvL = B(x/t)L

The distance the wire moves times its length is xL, which is the area A
traced out by the wire as it moves during time interval At. Therefore, the
change in enclosed area AA during time At is the change in xL during At,
and emf € can be written:
© = BAA/At

Since the magnetic flux ,, that passes through area A is the perpen-
dicular field strength B, times the area A, or Dy = B,A, then the product
BA in equation € = BAA/At corresponds to the magnetic flux. Therefore,
we can write for emf €:
€ = BAA/At = A®y)/At

This shows that the induced emf € equals the change in magnetic flux
per second, or rate of change of magnetic flux. Faraday observed that
the emf generated in a circuit equals the rate of change of the magnetic
flux through that circuit. In equation form this is referred to as
Faraday’s Law:
€= A®Dy)/At

where Ay, is the change in the magnetic flux over time interval At. This
n
equation is often written with a negative sign to show that the directio
change
of the induced emf €, which creates a current, opposes the flux
310 Master Math: Essential Physics

(which is in accord with Lenz’s Law). This equation which describes emf
€ as the change in flux per time is called Faraday’s Law:
= —AQ®D,/At

Faraday’s Law shows that a change in magnetic flux creates an induced

emf.

Faraday’s Law often is used to describe a circuit that is a coil in a varying

magnetic field. You can increase the magnitude of the induced emf if a
circuit is designed as a coil having many wire loops rather than a single
loop. For a coil having N loops and a changing magnetic flux through the
coil, Faraday’s Law becomes:
€= —NA®,yj/At

where the induced emf € in the coil is measured in volts.

If flux changes A®y,, an emf € will be induced. An emf can be induced in

a loop if the magnetic field changes AB, if the area changes AA, or if
there is a change in the angle between the field and the loop:
€ = —NA®,/At = —A(BA cos 8)/At

e Units for measuring emf € are in volts providing A®,)/At is in Wb/s.

e Faraday observed that a current can be induced in a conductor (such as

a wire) that is placed into a changing or varying magnetic field even if
there is no physical displacement of the conductor or magnetic field. We
discussed this phenomenon above in our example of the two nearby
wires, wire | and wire 2, as the actively increasing or decreasing
magnetic field in wire | induced a current in wire 2.

e Example: Your friend walks in with a 10-cm by 20-cm circuit he just

wired which has two loops. Given that the resistance in the circuit is 3 Q,
he wants to know what the induced current flow will be if he allows the
magnetic field strength to steadily decrease from 6,000 G to 1,000 G
during a 2-s interval.

R !
First you remind him that his current will only flow during the time that
the magnetic field is changing. Then you jot down Faraday’s Law:
€ = —NA®,y/At = —A(BAcos86)/At
where in this case AD, is the changing field times area AAB, so:
 Electromagnetism Sid

€ = NAAB/At
where N A= Js AB = 0 61 ]0/-T= 05 5 (since 1G = 1Oeah)
and A is 10 cm by 20 cm or 0.1 m x 0.2 m= 0.02 m”. Therefore:
€ = NAAB/At = (2)(0.02 m?)(0.5 T)/(2s) = 0.01 V
Because V = IR and the voltage across the resistor is also 0.01 V, the
current is:
PVR (O0VYV)/ GQ) =33<10F A or 33 milliamps

Note that the magnetic field strength is decreasing so current flow is in

the opposite direction it would be if field strength was increasing.

e According to Faraday’s Law the effect of changing the magnetic flux in

a circuit can be synonymous with placing a battery into the circuit. Since
€ = BAA/At = A®,,/At, the current flow due to the flux Oy = BA
through the circuit would be as if a battery with a voltage V = ADy/At
was inserted into the circuit.

Lenz’s Law

e For a wire moving relative to a magnetic field, by the principle of

Conservation of Energy, the direction of the induced current is oriented
so that the force on that current opposes the wire’s movement. Therefore
work is required to move the wire through the magnetic field. Stated
another way, an induced emf has the direction which opposes the change
in magnetic flux that produced it. If there is a flux increasing within a
coil, the current produced by the induced emf creates a flux which
attempts to cancel the increasing flux. Conversely, if there is a flux
decreasing within a coil, the current creates a flux which attempts to
rebuild the decreasing flux. This principle was discovered by German
physicist Heinrich Lenz (1804-1865) and is known as Lenz’s Law.
Lenz’s Law tells us that an induced emf produces a current having an
action which opposes the change that induced it. This means that an
induced emf acts in a way that the resulting current produces an
induced magnetic field that opposes the change in flux. If this did not
occur, an induced current would enhance the flux change that produced
it, which would create an endlessly building process. The concept of
Lenz’s Law more generally states that if an electromagnetic change
produces an effect, then that effect will induce a reaction which tends to
oppose the original change.
hil? Master Math: Essential Physics

11.6. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Magnets have two poles, N and S, which exist together.

e Magnetic fields B possess both magnitude and direction, and are
therefore vectors.
e Moving charges produce magnetic fields, and moving magnets induce
electric current.
e Interrelated electric and magnetic effects are called electromagnetism.
e The magnetic field direction is perpendicular to the direction of electric
current flow.
e The right-hand rule shows the direction of the magnetic field lines for a
current-carrying straight wire, a loop of wire, or a solenoid.
e A moving charge experiences a force due to a magnetic field.
e The magnitude of magnetic force is: Fy = qvB sin 8 or Fy = qvB if
v | B or Fy = ILB sin 9, where L is wire length, 0 is between I and B.
e Torque on an N-loop flat coil in a uniform magnetic field is:
T=NIABsin8.
e A charged particle moving in uniform magnetic field B has its direction
continually changed by force Fy exerted by the field causing circular
or spiral motion. Radius r, frequency f, and angular frequency w of the
particle’s circular motion are: r= mv/qB; f= 1/t = qB/2am; » = qB/m.
e Magnetic fields are created by moving charges or flowing current.
e Ampere’s Law for current enclosed in a loop of a magnetic field is:
YB,Al = pol, with B parallel to section Al and pp = 4 x 10°’ T-m/A.
e Magnetic field for a straight current-carrying wire: B = uol/2 nr.
e Magnetic field for a solenoid: B = (N/L)pol = ntl, n is number N of
current loops per length L.
e Moving a current-free wire in a magnetic field induces current flow.
e Current and magnetic fields grow or shrink over small time intervals.
e A conductor moving in a magnetic field has force exerted on its free
electrons inducing an emf or voltage: € = BvL sin® = B,vL.
e Magnetic flux Dy is: Dy = B,A = BA cos9.
e Faraday’s Law: induced emf equals the change in magnetic flux per
second, or rate of change of magnetic flux ADy: € = —AD,y)/At.
e A change in flux ADy induces emf €, which occurs in a loop if the
magnetic field changes AB, the area changes AA, or the angle between
B and the loop changes: € = -NA®,/At = —A(BA cos 8)/At.
e Lenz’s Law: an induced emf produces a current having a magnetic field
that opposes the change in flux that induced it.
 Electromagnetism sig

Practice Problems
11.1 Which end of a compass needle points north? Why?

11.2 In the example in Section 11.2, subsection Magnetic Force on

Current-Carrying Wire, if your wire lies along the equator and the
current runs from East to West, what will be the direction of the
magnetic force?

11.3 What strength magnetic field is required to keep a proton moving

around a cyclotron with a radius of 0.75 m at a speed of 2.3 x 10’ m/s?

11.4 (a) Why is the magnetic field uniform within a solenoid? (b) Why is
the magnetic field within a solenoid not a function of its diameter?

11.5 (a) What is the magnetic flux across a cross section of a solenoid
having a length of 10 cm, a diameter of 4 cm, 1,000 loops of wire, and a
current of 50 Amps? (b) What current would be induced in a stationary
10 cm wire pointing down the center of the solenoid?

Answers to Chapter 11 Problems

11.1 The N-pole of the magnetic compass needle points north. Since
opposite poles attract, the Earth’s “north” magnetic pole is in fact the
S-pole of the Earth’s magnetic field, but is called north by convention.

11.2 Using the right hand rule, pointing your fingers west and rotating
them to the south (the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field lines)
indicates the magnetic force would be in the direction of your thumb, or
upward, away from the center of the Earth.

11.3 r= mv/qgB or B = mv/qr

= (1.67 x10’ kg)(2.3 x 10’ m/s)
/(1.6 x 10°” C)(0.75 m) = 0.32 T.
11.4 (a) The strength of a magnetic field is inversely proportional to the
distance from the wires (not the square of the distance). Beginning at the
center of the cylindrical solenoid, moving away from wires on one side
results in moving an equal distance toward wires on the other side, so the
net change in B is zero. (b) Comparing two solenoids carrying equal
current which are identical except the second has twice the diameter of
the first, a point inside the second will be twice as far from the wires, but
those wires are twice as long and conduct twice as many electrons per
loop, so the net difference on B is zero.

11.5 (a) First, B = (N/L)pol = (1,000/0.1 m)(4a x 10°’)(50 A) = 0.628 T.

Qu = B.A = (0.628 T)(x(0.02 m)) = 7.9 * 10°* Wb.
(b) Since the wire is stationary with respect to the magnetic field, no
magnetic force is being created and no current is induced.
314 Master Math: Essential Physics
 SR ee ee oe
Chapter 12
ALTERNATING CURRENT

12.1. Alternating Current

12.2. Capacitance in an AC Circuit
12.3. Inductance in an AC Circuit
12.4. RCL Circuits
12.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“The seeds of great discoveries are constantly floating around us,

but they only take root in minds well prepared to receive them.”
Attributed to Joseph Henry, first director of The Smithsonian Institution

12.1. Alternating Current

e In a simple generator a loop-shaped conductor (which can be a wire

circuit loop or a wire-wrapped iron core) called an armature is rotated in
a magnetic field, thereby inducing a current. A generator uses the
principle of inductance and a changing magnetic flux to create electric
current. A generator is most efficient when the circuit loop is perpen-
dicular to the magnetic field and to its direction of motion. The total
induced current can be further increased by increasing the number of
wires in the armature, thereby adding to the total length of wire moving
within the magnetic field.

Work is supplied to the system in order to rotate the armature. In

electricity generation plants, work is often supplied by steam-powered
turbines where the steam is generated using coal, oil, gas, nuclear
reactions, etc. The current flow in the armature loop reverses direction
with each half revolution. This switching of current flow produces an
alternating current. The alternating current produced by an armature
steadily rotating in a constant magnetic field graphs as a sinusoid.

Direct current can be obtained from an armature using a switching device

called a commutator (having fixed contacts which act as sliding
switches such that as the armature rotates, the coil comes into contact
with them alternately and the direction of the current does not change). A
316 Master Math: Essential Physics

modern alternative is a diode, which acts as a rectifier, filtering out

current in one direction allowing only the flow in the other direction.

Alternating Current

e In direct current (DC) circuits, current flows in one direction as a con-

stant voltage is supplied (e.g., by a battery). In alternating current (AC)
circuits, the voltage oscillates in a sine wave pattern which varies with
time. In AC circuits both current and voltage reverse direction at regular
intervals. Alternating currents are generated by alternating voltages:

V(t) = Vinax $1n wt

where Vinax iS the maximum or peak voltage measured in volts, @ is

angular frequency in radians per second, t is time in seconds. The
angular frequency @ is related to the frequency f by = 27f, where f
is measured in Hertz and is the number of cycles per second.

The equations describing AC circuits reflect the rotation of a simple

armature loop or coil having area A between two magnets in a simple
generator. Using Faraday’s Law, € = A®,/At, with flux, Dy = B,A, the
component of the magnetic field B, perpendicular to the plane of the coil
varies in a sinusoid pattern with time At, giving the graph of emf
(voltage) versus time (or wt) as a sine wave. (See Section 6.3 for a
discussion on periodic sinusoid functions.) Equations for emf €, or
equivalently voltage V, in AC circuits:

© = Snax SIN. Ol = Cay, SIN 2TUT = €.,,, SIM 27it

V = Vinax SIN Ot = Vmax SIN 27t/t = Vinax Sin 270ft

where t = 27/@ or ® = 2a/t = 2nf and f= 1/t. The time required for one
revolution or period is: t = 27/w. Angular frequency, or angular velocity,
@® is measured in radians per second and describes the number of radians
an angle ¢ in circular motion completes per second, where each complete
cycle corresponds to a change in @ of 360° or 27 radians, so that w = 27
radians. Frequency f is the number of complete oscillations or cycles per
second, and is measured in Hertz Hz. Household current in the U.S. has a
frequency of 60 Hz (t = 1/60s).

e The flow of current in an AC circuit through a resistor obeys V = IR.

A resistor does not react to a changing voltage (unlike capacitors and
inductors which we will discuss). Therefore, the relationship V = IR
applies for resistors in an AC circuit, even though the voltage is
changing. The current through a resistor in an AC circuit is:
 Alternating Current B17

T= V/R = (Vinax/R) sin ot = Imax Sin ot = Tnax Sin 27t/t = Imax Sin 2rcft

Root Mean Square Voltage and Current

e We have seen that voltage, or emf, in an AC circuit is described by

€ = Enax Sin wt, where Enax is the maximum emf during a cycle of the
oscillation. The voltage or current that is measured using a voltmeter,
ammeter, or multimeter is generally not the maximum values (Emax, V
max»
or Imax), but rather the rms (root mean square) value. Voltages and
currents for AC circuits are generally expressed as rms values.

Remember in Section 9.3 we used root mean square velocity to describe

the molecular velocity v by taking the square root of the mean square
velocity (V) aye. The rms value is a statistical measure of a varying quan-
tity x such that, Xm; = Near eie To calculate rms, square the quantities,
take the average of the squares, then take the square root. For a quantity
such as voltage, which varies sinusoidally with time, there are several
ways to derive the rms value. Here, we find V,; by beginning with
V = Vmax Sin ot and squaring and averaging, [(sin’t)ay]. Then since
sin wt has the same shape as cos wt, just shifted along t by 1/4 period, we
substitute into the trigonometric identity sin’wt + cos’wt = 1, and average
it to show 2(sin’@t)aye = 1 or (Sin’@t)ave = 1/2. Therefore, Vims =
V max (Sin? @t) Ave)” = Vol. or the root mean square voltage is:

Wee ee) (2) 2 Ve 0707)

Therefore, the root mean square voltage V,,,; is the maximum voltage
Vmax divided by the square root of two, and the root mean square
current I,,,, is the maximum current Ina. divided by the square root of
two:
We lee 210. 707)

Vims Would be what a voltmeter measuring AC would read across the

terminals of a simple generator. While the maximum voltage in a
household circuit in North America is about 170 volts, we refer to a
typical household voltage of 120 volts, which is Vines Lhe following
graph is of a sine wave over one 360° cycle with the dashed line showing
the root mean square, rms, value near 0.2078

rms near 0,707

Horizontal axis is time.
318 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Example: Your friend examines his standard household wall plug from
which he can measure a 120 V voltage at 60 Hz AC using his new
multimeter. He notes that the smaller of the two rectangles is what is
called the “hot” wire. He asks you what the voltage equation is that best
describes his circuit and how he could find the maximum voltage.
First you find the maximum voltage using Vims = Vimax / [2]”, where the
measured voltage is the rms voltage Vins = 120 V, so that:
Vee Vel SC 20 Viet 0
The equation describing voltage is:
V = Vmax Sin 27ft = 170V sin27(60 Hz)t = (170 V) sin 120xt

Root Mean Square for Power

e Power is dissipated by a resistor as heat. While we remember that

power is voltage times current, P = VI, since the current and voltage in
an AC circuit vary with time, we need to use the root mean square values
of the sinusoidal voltage and current for power:

P= Vers ons = (Vater! |2) nual 21) 12 ree Lene

Using the Vins and I,m; values, power in an AC circuit can be written as:

P = Vers Tims = Tims R= Wrms /R

Graph of Current and Voltage in AC Circuit with Resistor

e Graphs of current and voltage in an AC circuit commonly form sine

wave patterns. We know that when the voltage across a resistor in an
AC circuit is V = Vinax Sin 27ft, then the current through that resistor is
T= V/R = (Vimax/R) sin 27ft = (Vinax/R) sin @t = Imax Sin wt. In a graph of
an AC circuit which has only resistors, the current and voltage will
be in phase with each other. This means that the maximum or peak
voltage is reached at the same time the maximum or peak current is
reached. An AC circuit is designated by a circle around what looks like
a backward horizontal “S”: w

AC R Voltage is solid curve.

Circuit 0 Current is dashed curve.
with Soot Horizontal axis is time.
Resistor V

If an AC circuit has capacitors and induciors, the phase relationships

between current and voltage will differ.
 Alternating Current 319

12.2. Capacitance in an AC Circuit

a ee
e In Section 10.2 Capacitance, we learned that a capacitor is a pair of
conducting surfaces or plates separated by a gap that can accumulate and
store electric charge. Imagine a circuit with only a capacitor and an AC
power source (such as a wall outlet). A capacitor in an AC circuit exhibits
a resistance-like effect called capacitive reactance Xc, which is
measured in units of Ohms Q (just as resistance is measured for a
resistor). Capacitive reactance acts as a resistance or counter emf that is
induced as current begins to flow into a capacitor. It reflects the degree to
which a capacitor behaves like a resistor as the frequency in an AC
circuit changes. Capacitive reactance depends on the frequency f of the
AC voltage and has been experimentally measured as:

Xc = l/wC = 1/(2nfC)

where Xc is capacitive reactance of the capacitor, C is capacitance,

f= 1/t is frequency, and @ = 2n/t = 2nf is angular frequency. We see that
capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to capacitance, Xc « I/C.

e Because capacitive reactance behaves as a resistance, we can calculate

voltage across a capacitor and correlate the voltage V across a capacitor
with the current I flowing through it using an equation similar to the
resistance equation V = IR. We learned that for resistors in an A/C circuit
Vims = InmsR, so for a capacitor we substitute the capacitive reactance Xc
of the capacitor for resistance R, giving voltage across a capacitor:

Wace a [ens Xc

where rms values of voltage V,m; and current In; are generally used.

e If you know the applied voltage, you can calculate the current
through a capacitor. Since we just learned that Vims = |am Ga and
Xc = 1/2nfC, we combine these as Inns = Vims/Xc = Vine itt, OL just:

LV ee2 iC

e Example: For a !.5 x 10° F capacitor in an AC circuit with a 9 V rms

voltage source, what would be the current when the frequency is 500 Hz,
and is 1,000 Hz?

For 500 Hz: Inms = 27£CVims = 27(500)(1.5 x 10°°)(9) = 0.0424 A.

For 1,000 Hz: Ims = 2afCVims = 270(1,000)(1.5 10°°)(9) = 0.0848 A.
We see the linear dependence of current flow on frequency for a given
capacitor in an AC circuit.
320 Master Math: Essential Physics

e The sinusoidal graphs of voltage and current across a resistor

(Vims = IimsR) in an AC circuit are in phase. While graphs of current and
voltage for an AC circuit with a capacitor have the same sinusoidal
shape, they are offset along the horizontal time axis and are out of phase.
(The amplitudes of the voltage and current are usually different.) In a
capacitive circuit, the current reaches its maximum, or peak, one-quarter
cycle (which is 7/2, or 90°) before the voltage reaches its maximum
peak. Therefore, in a capacitive circuit current leads the voltage by 90°,
and they are out of phase by 90° or 7/2. Voltage and current for a
capacitor can be expressed with the following equations:

V = Vinax Sin (@t)

I = Imax Sin (@t + 70/2)

where @ = 27f. In trigonometry, we learn that sin (@t + 77/2) = cos (@t),
which means we can also write current for a capacitor as:
I = Imax COS (t)

This form of the current equation reflects that a sine wave and a cosine
wave are 90° out of phase with each other, and voltage and current in a
capacitor are out of phase by 90°. We can also express current in terms
of capacitive reactance Xc and peak voltage Vinax:
I = (Vinax/Xc) Cos (ot)

Let’s look at the graph:

charge/discharge/charge/discharge
AC C Woe =~~ Voltage: solid curve.
Circuit Current: dashed.
with = Horizontal axis: time.
Capacitor V Digi
360°

In capacitive AC circuits (like that depicted), the charge on a capacitor

varies directly with the voltage. When the voltage reaches its positive
peak, the capacitor reaches its maximum charge and current flow is
briefly zero. Then the voltage declines from its peak, the capacitor
discharges, and current reverses direction. As voltage passes through
zero becoming negative, current is large and negative, and charge again
builds up on the capacitor with an opposite polarity. When voltage
reaches its negative peak, the capacitor again reaches its maximum
charge but with opposite polarity. Voltage across the capacitor is
V = QIC, where Q 1s charge in a capacitor, C is capacitance, and the
current is I = AQ/At.
 Alternating Current 321

¢ Unlike resistors, which lose energy as heat, a capacitor in an AC

circuit
repeatedly absorbs and discharges power and uses no net energy.

12.3. Inductance in an AC Circuit

me
e e a s gle 8 gh
e We have learned that electromagnetic induction involves the generation
of emf and current by a changing magnetic field. Faraday noted that a
changing magnetic field in a circuit induced a current in a nearby circuit.
American Joseph Henry made a similar discovery at about the same
time. The creation of emf, or voltage, in a circuit or in a nearby circuit by
a changing magnetic field is called inductance. There is also a property
within electric circuits that opposes changes in electric current, which is
also called inductance.

Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance

e Remember that current flow in a conductor (such as a wire or coil)

generates a magnetic field around that conductor. As the current flow in
the conductor increases, decreases, or changes direction, the generated
magnetic field will grow, shrink, or change direction. A change in the
generated magnetic field in turn induces a new emf, or voltage, within
the conductor. The induction of this new emf, or voltage, within the
conductor is called self-induction. The direction of this new self-
induced emf is in the opposite direction of the current flow that
produced it. This is consistent with Lenz’s Law, where an induced emf
(voltage) in any circuit occurs in a direction opposite to the current that
produced it. This opposing emf is sometimes referred to as back emf.

Self-induction in a circuit has the effect of opposing any change in

current flow in that circuit. For example, when current begins to flow
in a coiled wire and a magnetic field begins to build, the field buildup
around one loop, or turn, of the wire affects adjacent turns of the coil. As
a magnetic field builds around one loop of the coil, adjacent turns of the
coil are subject to that changing field, and an emf is developed in the
adjacent loops. According to Lenz’s Law, the emf is in the direction that
opposes the original flow of current in the circuit. This opposing, or
back, emf causes the current in the coil to increase slowly to its
maximum value, I = V/R.

Let’s think of this in terms of voltage. In a circuit, when voltage is

applied current begins to flow, which generates a magnetic field. As the
field expands, a counter, or back, voltage is generated in the circuit. This
322 Master Math: Essential Physics

back voltage causes a current flow in the opposite direction of the

original current flow. This self-inductance opposes the buildup of current
until the magnetic field becomes steady and the induced back voltage
stops. If the current in the circuit is turned off, the induced magnetic field
begins to decline. This declining magnet field generates another voltage
in the direction that temporarily prolongs the original flow of current.
The field induced by turning off the circuit eventually declines to zero,
and the voltage it induced stops along with current flow. Self-induction
from turning off the circuit also opposes changes in current flow. The
result of self-induction is to oppose the buildup and delay the decline of
current flow. Self-inductance in a coil acts to resist sudden changes in
the current or flux through it.

e Mutual inductance was revealed in an experiment conducted by

Faraday in which he placed two coils on a conducting iron ring. He
showed that a changing magnetic field in one coil induced an emf, or
voltage, in the second coil. It is called mutual inductance when a
changing magnetic field in one circuit induces voltage in a nearby
circuit. As expected by Lenz’s Law, the direction of the induced emf, or
voltage, is in the opposite direction of the current flow that generated it.

Inductors

e Inductors are components that are designed to provide inductance in a

circuit. Inductors are made up of a coil of conducting material such as
wire. While a small self-inductance can occur in a circuit even when the
conducting material is straight, inductance is much greater when
conductors are coiled since the magnetic field of each turn of a coil more
directly impacts nearby turns. Inductance is enhanced by placing a
material such as iron within the core of the coil. An iron core increases
the strength of an inductor’s magnetic field. Core materials with a higher
permeability (which is a measure of the material’s ability to magnetize)
increase the magnetic field and therefore the inductance. Inductance of a
coil is affected by: the number of turns in the coil (the more turns, the
more magnetic field interactions, the more inductance); the cross-
sectional area of the core; spacing between turns (a magnetic field gets
weaker further away); and core permeability.

e Like capacitors, inductors react to alternating voltage. Current and

voltage are out of phase in the opposite sequence as they are for
capacitors. In the graph of voltage V and current I for an AC circuit
with an inductor L, the current lags the voltage by a 90° or 1/2 phase
difference, so current reaches its peak one-quarter cycle (90°) after the
voltage peaks.
 Alternating Current 323

AC [y Voltage: solid curve.

Circuit Current: dashed.
with an Horizontal
axis: time.
Inductor V
360°

As voltage from the power source increases from zero, the voltage on the
inductor matches it with voltage from the changing flux through the coil
(or changing current which changes the magnetic field in the coil). When
the current is at its plus or minus peak maximum values and temporarily
levels off, the induced voltage, which acts against changes in the flux in
the inductor, falls or rises through its zero point. This is reflected in
current and voltage being out of phase as we see in the graph. Since the
applied voltage in the A/C circuit is:

| V = Vinax Sin (ot) |

as the current lags the voltage by a 90° (or 7/2) phase difference, the
current through the inductor circuit is described by:

I = Imax Sin (@t — 17/2)

Using trigonometry, current is equivalently written:

I = —Imax COS (Wt)

e Like a capacitor, an inductor alternately absorbs and discharges power,

so it uses no net energy in an A/C circuit.

e Since inductors oppose any changes in current, they are useful for
various applications, including as surge protectors, to stabilize direct
current, or to control or restrict alternating current above certain
frequencies. Inductor coils are also used in conjunction with capacitors
in the tuning circuits of radios.

Inductors in Series and Parallel

e Ina series circuit, all of the current passes through each of the
components in the circuit. If the inductors are shielded from each other,
or spaced to prevent mutual inductance, the total inductance of the
is the
circuit is cumulative. The total inductance Ly of a series circuit
sum of all the inductors in the circuit:
De De Ls Teg cie
324 Master Math: Essential Physics

e In a parallel circuit, components are arranged such that the current path
is divided. Placing inductors in parallel decreases the total inductance Lr
of the circuit. If the inductors are shielded from each other or spaced
enough to prevent mutual inductance, the total inductance Ly of a
parallel circuit is:
WL Vy 1/Le 1/Las. .

Induced emf and Determining Inductance

e We have learned using Faraday’s Law that total induced emf, or

voltage, in a closely wound coil is proportional to the change in flux or
current flow through the coil:
€ = —NA®,//At

where € is the induced emf in volts, N is the number of turns in the coil,
A@ is the change in magnetic flux in Webers (1 Wb = 1 T-m’), and At is
time in seconds. To describe inductance in equation form, remember that
it is the property of a wire coil that determines its effectiveness in
producing a back emf and therefore opposing changes in magnetic flux.
It has been shown that if a back emf of 1 V is induced in a coil when the
current through that coil is changing at a rate of AI/At equal to 1 Ampere
per second, the coil will have an inductance of L which is 1 Henry (H).
In other words, | H of inductance exists if 1 V of emf is induced when
the current is changing at the rate of 1 A/s. The inductance can be
written:
L=€/(AI/At)

where L (in honor of Heinrich Lenz) is self-inductance measured in

Henries H (named after Joseph Henry), € is induced emf measured in
volts V, Al is the change in current in Amperes A, and At is the amount
of time in seconds for the change in current. Rearranging, we get an
equation for sel/f-inductance similar to Faraday’s Law:

€=—-LAI/At or V=-—LAI/At

where induced emf is also written V, the negative sign is included to

represent Lenz’s Law, and AI/At is the rate of current change. We can
see that the induced flux through the N loops of coil, NADy in
€ = -NA®,,/At, is proportional to the current I flow through the coil. The
inductance L is the constant of proportionality and: EAt = NADy = LAT.
This again gives: € = —LAI/At.
 Alternating Current 325

Inductive Reactance

¢ We have learned that self-induction in a coil has the effect of opposing

any change in the flow of current by creating a “back” voltage which
opposes the original flow of current. This scenario plays out as voltage is
applied to a coil, current begins to flow, which causes a magnetic field to
begin expanding, which induces a back voltage that is opposed to the
original flow of current in the coil. The opposition to current flow is
called inductive reactance and is measured in Ohms Q (like resistance).

Inductive reactance in a circuit depends on the alternating current and its

frequency and the amount of inductance. A circuit’s inductive reactance
X_z, also called effective resistance, can be shown to be:

Xr, = OL = 2nfL

where X; is measured in ohms, @ is angular frequency w = 2n/t = 2nf,

f= 1/t is the frequency of the applied alternating current in Hertz, and L
is the inductance of the coil (inductor) measured in Henries. Inductance
of the coil depends on its geometry and whether its core is ferromagnetic.

Similar to capacitors and capacitive reactance, in an AC circuit the

voltage across an inductor depends on inductive reactance X, and is:

Vins = ees

where the root mean square values for voltage Vims and current I,m; are
used. The inductive reactance of an inductor reflects the degree to which
the inductor will resist the voltage across it. Unlike capacitive reactance
which is inversely proportional to the capacitance, Xc « I/C, the
inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance, X, « L.

e Example: Your friend has been occupying himself building small

circuits and running them off his household 120-V voltage, 60-Hz AC
electricity (which makes you nervous). He strung three 2 H inductors in
series and wants you to calculate what the current should be. If he strings
the inductors in parallel what would the current be?

For series: X, = 2nfL = (2)(m)(60/s)(2H + 2H + 2H) * 2,262 Q,

(where L7 = L; + Lz + Ls).
Then current is: Inms = Vrms/Xi = (120 V)/(2,262 Q) = 0.053 A.
For parallel Lr: 1/Lr = 1/Li + Wie tiie= Le 22 =3/2.

So Ly = 2/3. Next: X_ = 2nfL = (2)(1)(60/s)(2/3 Ey 251 Sh

Then current is: Inms = Vims/Xi = (120 V)/(251 Q) = 0.48 A.
326 Master Math: Essential Physics

Transformers—an Application of Inductance

e Transformers are used to increase or decrease AC voltage. Trans-

formers are often made up of two coils of wire that are wound onto
different segments of the same core. The coils, which are referred to as
the primary input coil and secondary output coil, are electrically
insulated from each other. As an AC voltage is applied across the
primary coil, a changing magnetic field is generated in the core which
induces a voltage in the secondary coil. Transformers are therefore able
to increase or decrease AC voltage by causing an induced voltage in the
secondary coil using mutual inductance. Using Faraday’s Law the
primary voltage V, and the induced secondary voltage V, are:

V,=N,A@/At and V,=N,A®/At

where N, and N, are the number of loops in the primary and secondary
coils. If the coils are the same except the number of loops, these
equations combine to what is called the transformer equation because it
correlates input and output voltage:

V./Vp=Ns/Np
If the secondary output coil has more loops than the primary input coil,
the induced (output) voltage in the secondary coil will be greater than the
input voltage of the primary input coil. In this step-up transformer,
voltage has been stepped-up. If the primary input coil has more loops
than the secondary output coil, the induced (output) voltage in the
secondary coil will be less than the input voltage of the primary input
coil. In this step-down transformer, voltage has been stepped-down. If
the primary input voltage and current are V,I, and the secondary output
voltage and current are V,I,, we can write:

Vela els
A step-up transformer increases voltage while decreasing in current, and
a step-down transformer reduces voltage while increasing current. This is
a useful property for electric power transmission over long distances,
since a power plant can immediately step-up voltage while lowering
current to send electricity which reduces losses due to resistance. Then
step-down transformers can be used to lower the voltage and increase
current to specified levels near where it is used.
 Alternating Current 327

12.4. RCL Circuits

hee
AC circuit with an inductor,
a capacitor, and a resistor.
Vas

e An RCL circuit is a circuit that includes a resistor, a capacitor, and an

inductor. A circuit with only two of the three (a resistor, capacitor, or
inductor) is called an RC circuit, an RL circuit, or an LC circuit. When
all three elements are in one RCL circuit, the overall resistance to the
flow of current is called the impedance Z. If a voltage V is applied to an
RCL series circuit, then a form of Ohm’s Law (V = IR) relates V to the
current I:
Vi 7 on teVee

where Z is impedance measured in Ohms. The impedance Z in an RCL

circuit consists of R, Xc, X,, and is found by combining the resistance R,
the capacitive reactance Xc, and the inductive reactance X,. Because of
the phase relationships we cannot simply sum the resistances, but in an
RCL circuit the resistance and reactances must be added as vectors.
Remember, in a circuit with only a resistor, the voltage and current are in
phase with each other. In a circuit with only a capacitor, current leads
voltage by a 90° phase. In a circuit with only an inductor, voltage leads
current by a 90° phase.

To develop the relationship for impedance and find the phase between
the voltage and current, we can use an x-y coordinate system and first
draw resistance R along the +x-axis. Next, we draw inductive reactance
X_ along the +y-axis 90° to R. Finally, we draw capacitive reactance X¢c
along the —y-axis 90° to R and 180° from the inductive reactance. The
vector sum is impedance Z.

- -
-- voltage phase

current phase

Remember from Section 1.7, the Pythagorean Theorem states that the
sum of the squares of the lengths of the sides of a right triangle equals
the square of the length of its hypotenuse. Using this relation, in an RCL
e
circuit with resistance, capacitance, and inductance in series, impedanc
Vhs
328 Master Math: Essential Physics

| Z=[R2+ Oy — Xo"
From trigonometry (SohCahToa, Section 2.3) we know the angle 9 is:
tand= (X_— Xc)/R or cos 6= R/Z or = arctan(X; — Xc)/R = arcos R/Z

where the angle ¢ (see above figure) between the impedance Z and the
resistance R in the vector diagram represents the phase relationship, or
shift, between current and voltage. When phase is depicted as a vector in
a plane, zero phase is usually shown as the positive x-axis and associated
with the resistor (since the voltage and current of the resistor are in
phase). The magnitude is represented as the length of the vector, and its
angle ¢ depicts its phase relative to that of current through the resistor.
The phase angle ¢ associated with the impedance Z of the circuit is the
difference in phase between the voltage and the current. When 6 is
positive, voltage leads current by that angle, and when 9 is negative,
voltage lags current. Similar relations for voltage are:

V=[Ve h(¥u- Vo) and), tan 6= (Vi -3Vcy Ve

e Example: What rms current would you expect in an RCL circuit with a
rms voltage of 12 V, a5 Q resistance, an 8 Q capacitive reactance, and a
10 Q inductive reactance?

Begin with Z = [Ro + Oa = Xo) o> P10 8) ("54

Since Vee le. n= Vee 2 IV AO 2 A

e If you follow electrical energy in an AC circuit, power is dissipated in

resistors as heat, a capacitor alternately stores charge and then returns it
losing no energy, and an inductor alternately stores energy in the
magnetic field and returns it to the circuit so none is lost.

12.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Alternating current (AC) circuits: the voltage V (emf €) oscillates as

E = V = Vinax SIN Ot = Vinax SiN 27t/t = Vinax Sin 27ft, where f = 1/t is
Frequency, and @ is angular frequency ® = 2n/t = 2rf.
e The current through a resistor in an AC circuit is:
I= V/R = (Vimax/R) sin ot = Imax Sin Ot = Imax Sin 27t/t = Imax Sin 27ft.
e Voltages and currents for AC circuits are measured as rms values:
root mean square voltage: Vrms = Vmax / [2] ~ Vmax (0.707);
root mean square current: Irms = Imax / {2]*~ Imax (0.707).
e Power in an AC circuit P= V.,,L..=1, R= Ve
 Alternating Current 329

¢ Current and voltage are in phase in an AC circuit with only resistor

s.
¢ Capacitors in AC circuits have a resistance-like effect called Capaciti
ve
reactance Xc: Xc = 1/@C = 1/(2nfC), where C is capacitance.
¢ Voltage across a capacitor: Vins = Inns Xc.
e Current through a capacitor: Inns = Nee Te.
e In a capacitive AC circuit current leads voltage by 90° or 7/2:
VS Ves. (ot) and 1 = 1...sin (at + 7/2) = Inax COS (Wt).
e Self-induction of voltage, or current, in a conductor causes opposing
current flow and acts to resist sudden changes in the current or flux.
¢ Mutual inductance occurs when a changing magnetic field from one
circuit induces voltage in a nearby circuit.
e In AC circuits with only inductors, current lags voltage by 90° or x/2:
V = Vinax Sin (ot) and I = Ina, Sin (@t — 1/2) or I = —Imax COS (ot).
e Self-inductance L = €/(AI/At) or € = V = —LAI/At represent induced
emf €, or voltage V.
e Inductive reactance X, is: X, = wL = 2nfL, where L is inductance.
e Voltage across an inductor in AC circuit: Vins = InmsXt.-
e Resistance to current flow in RCL circuits (having resistor R, capacitor
C, and inductor L) is impedance Z = [R* + (X, — Xc)’]”, and voltage
applied to RCL series circuit is V = IZ. Phase shift between current and
voltage: = arctan(X; — X-)/R = arcos R/Z.

Practice Problems

12.1 (a) Your new electric car is being charged from a 240-V outlet. You
measure the current at 32 A. What is the electric power being transferred
to the car’s batteries? (b) What is the instantaneous maximum power?

12.2 (a) Your household electricity is 120 V and 60 Hz. You connect to
it a simple circuit having one capacitor and measure a current of | A.
What is the capacitance of the capacitor? (b) If you replace the capacitor
with another much smaller one with only one thousandth the capacitance
of the first capacitor, what current would you observe?

12.3 (a) Electric motors typically contain coiled wires and create
inductance. When you unplug a vacuum cleaner while it is still turned
on, you will observe a spark between the plug and socket. What causes
the spark? (b) AC power with a current of 30 A and 1,200 V enters a
transformer having 1,000 loops on the input side and 100 on the output
side. What current and voltage would you measure on the output side?

12.4 (a) You have an AC circuit with a resistance of 10 Q, a capacitive

reactance of 15 Q, and an inductive reactance of 3 Q. You apply a
voltage of 12 V to the circuit. Will voltage lead or lag current and by
330 Master Math: Essential Physics

what phase angle? (b) If you double the voltage, what change will you
observe in the phase angle?

Answers to Chapter 12 Problems

12.1 (a) P= Veclen = (240 VVG2A) — 168 KWa(D) Ve = Vee) and

Dinix = Trnsl215 80 Prix = Wanaclanix = CW nral2) \Uies].2] ) = 2Violas =
15.36 kW.

12.2 (a) Ins = Vims2afC so C = Tnns/Vims2af = (1 A)/(120 V)(22)(60 Hz) ~

Demon (b) Since Inns 2% C, you would measure 1/1,000 the current,
or 107A.

12.3 (a) The motor’s induction resists the cessation of current caused by
pulling the plug, and the current continues to flow for a short interval
with sufficient voltage to jump the gap between the plug and the socket.
(b) This is a step-down transformer, where N,/N, = V,/V, = 1/10 =
V,/1,200V, so output voltage is 1/10 the input voltage, or V, = 120 V.
Since V,I, = VsI,, output current is 10 times greater, or I, = V,I,/V;=
(1200)(30)/(120) = 300 A.

12.4 (a) tan 6 = (X, — X-)/R = GB — 15)/10 = -1.2, so b = —50° and,

because @ is negative, voltage lags current. (b) The phase change does
not depend on the voltage level.
 RAE elAN Ronit Oe, Sst ile HM et091254,
Chapter 13
WAVES, SOUND, AND LIGHT

13.1. Traveling Waves

13.2. Standing Waves
13.3. Sound Waves
13.4. Light Waves: Interference and Diffraction
13.5. Electromagnetic Radiation
13.6. Reflection and Refraction
13.7. Lenses and Mirrors
13.8. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“When one door closes another door opens, but we so often look so long and so
regretfully upon the closed door, that we do not see the ones which open for us.”
“God has strewn our paths with wonders,
and we should certainly not go through Life with our eyes shut.”
Both attributed to Alexander Graham Bell

13.1. Traveling Waves

e Waves can be divided into two categories: mechanical waves and

electromagnetic waves. Mechanical waves include waves in water or
air, sound waves, and waves on strings. Mechanical waves involve
oscillatory motions of matter or particles, and require matter in order to
propagate. Electromagnetic (EM) waves include visible light, radio
waves, microwaves, X-rays, and infrared radiation. Electromagnetic
waves involve oscillations of electromagnetic fields and do not require
matter to propagate. EM waves can travel through matter or through
empty space. Waves not traveling through empty space move through
some type of medium. The medium could be air, water, or a string. The
speed that a wave travels depends on the characteristics of the medium it
is moving through, such as the medium’s density or temperature.

A wave is often described as a disturbance traveling from one location to

another location through a medium. The medium is any substance or
material that carries the wave, such as air, water, a string, etc. A medium
is usually composed of particles (such as air molecules) which vibrate
332 Master Math: Essential Physics

and can collide or interact with each other, thereby transmitting the dis-
turbance or wave. As a disturbance moves through a medium, energy is
transported from one particle to another as it flows from the wave source.

e Elementary wave forms are typically described using sine and cosine
functions in the form y = A sin bx or y = A cos bx, which graph in the
characteristic crest-and-trough sinusoidal wave shape. If the variable A
is changed the amplitude is affected, and if b is changed the /ength of the
repeating pattern is affected.

crest crest

Vertical arrow Wavelength is one cycle

shows amplitude (distance crest-to-crest)
trough trough

The energy in a wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude, so a

higher amplitude wave has higher energy than an otherwise identical
lower amplitude wave: E « A’. The frequency f refers to the rate at
which something occurs or the number of vibrational cycles per time
such as cycles per second (Hertz, Hz). So for a wave, frequency is waves
per second or vibrations per second. While frequency measures cycles
per second, period measures seconds per cycle.

period t = 1/frequency f and _ frequency f= 1/period t

The period t of a wave is the time between the passing of wave crests
(or troughs) measured at a certain point. During one period the wave
crests (or troughs) travel one wavelength A. We can measure wave speed
using wavelength and period. The speed of a wave is the distance traveled
by a certain point on the wave (such as a crest) per time.
speed = distance/time

For example, if a wave crest travels 10 meters in 5 seconds, the wave

speed is 10m/5s=2 m/s. In terms of wavelength and period, wave
speed v is also the wavelength/period:
v=Alt

Since frequency f = 1/period t, wave speed v is also wavelength times

frequency:
v=Af

which is referred to as the wave equation. Therefore, wave speed is:

VAT AL
 Waves, Sound, and Light 833

Wave Pulses—Applying a Single Up-and-Down Motion to a String

Traveling Wave Pulse

(OS
Vv

ey Oe —
Vv Vv

t = 0
=

e A helpful model of mechanical wave motion can be demonstrated by

applying a single up-and-down motion to a string. If an upward force
quickly followed by a downward force is applied to one end of a string,
the up-then-down motion will propagate along the length of the string as
the up-down force is transmitted to each adjacent section of the string.
The speed of the propagating wave pulse along a string can be described
by observing the position of the wave pulse at various instants of time
(just as we would observe the position of a moving particle in space). For
a wave pulse traveling a distance Ax in time interval At, the propagation
speed can be written:
v = Ax/At

The speed of a propagating wave pulse along a string can be further

described by considering which features of the string affect the velocity.
If you imagine creating a pulse along a string by applying an up-then-
down force, you may expect that the speed of the wave pulse would be
affected by the string’s density p, cross-sectional area A, and tension T
with which the string is supported. The speed of a wave pulse along a
string can be described using these variables as:
Vit pA
If you substitute the units for these variables in this equation, they reduce
to the units of velocity v. Using MKS units we can write these as:
T =N=kg-m/s’, p = kg/m’, and A = m’, with v = m/s. Combining these
into the equation gives:
v = [T/pA]* = [(kg-m/s’)/((kg/m*)(m’))]”
= [(m/s*)/(1/m)]” = [m’/s*]* = m/s_ where m/s are units ofvelocity

Traveling Waves—Continuing the Up-Down Motion

/~ => \\[\ => BO een

e While there are various types of traveling waves, such as ocean waves,
let’s continue looking at the string model. What happens when we
continue to apply an up-then-down motion to the string in a way that one
end of the string is subject to a regular oscillating up-down motion? This
creates a series of identical pulses along the string which can be
334 Master Math: Essential Physics

described as a sinusoidal traveling wave. If we move the string’s end up

and down in a simple harmonic oscillating motion, the displacement can
be described by a sinusoidal function.

The pulse of each up-down motion travels down the string as a wave.
The velocity of each traveling wave is the same as if it was a single pulse
and is given by: v = Ax/At. The shape of the series of pulses forms a sine
wave pattern. The distance between any two successive peaks of the sine
wave pattern formed by the string is the wavelength A. Since the motion
of the string follows the up-down oscillatory motion driving it, the
period t of the wave motion is the same as each oscillatory motion over
one complete cycle. This means that during each time interval or period t
the wave moves forward by an amount equal to one wavelength A. For a
time interval At = t and a distance Ax = A, the wave velocity v = Ax/At is:

Transverse Waves vs. Longitudinal Waves

@ The motions of waves can occur as either transverse waves or

longitudinal waves. In the motion of transverse waves, particles in the
medium (such as in strings or waves on water) oscillate perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation. Note that electromagnetic waves are
also considered transverse waves, though they can transmit through a
vacuum. In longitudinal waves, particles move back.and forth along, or
parallel to, the direction of wave propagation. Longitudinal waves can be
compression waves traveling along a spring or sound waves traveling
through air. The elastic properties of the medium (such as a string or air)
affect how waves propagate since the wave motion depends on the
natural restoring forces of the medium. For example, strings provide a
natural restoring force for transverse wave propagation, gases and liquids
provide a natural restoring force for longitudinal waves, and solids
provide a natural restoring force for both transverse and longitudinal
waves. :

e As one end of a string is oscillated up and down, the string forms

transverse waves which propagate, or travel, along its length. Note that
while waves travel along the string, the string is displaced up and down,
always returning to its original position. If we instead consider a spring,
waves propagate as longitudinal waves, which involve alternately
compressing and expanding sections of the spring, thereby creating a
variation in the spring’s density. This change in the density of coils along
the spring’s length can be described by a sinusoidal function.
 Waves, Sound, and Light 335

Propagation of sound waves also involves alternating compression

and
rarefactions as well as a change in density, or pressure, which can be
described by sinusoidal functions. It turns out that longitudinal waves
vary with distance and time the same way that transverse waves vary,
and can therefore be described by the same sinusoidal equations.

13.2. Standing Waves

—_——_—_—_————————————————

Reflected Waves and Superposition

e Suppose you have a string connected at one end to a fixed support.

When a wave is propagated along the string it will reflect back once it
reaches the fixed end. This reflected wave pulse will have the same size
and shape as the initial pulse (except for some loss of altitude due to
energy transfer or friction), but the sign of the displacement will be
reversed from the force the solid support exerts on the wave as it impacts
the structure. In other words, after a wave is reflected it will be inverted
even though its speed, frequency, and wavelength will be the same. It
will also have a slightly lower amplitude due to a loss (transfer) of
energy.

e Reflected waves that continue to reflect create multiple wave forms

propagating along the same string. When, for example, two wave pulses
travel along the same string, each propagates independently of the other.
As the wave pulses displace the string at a certain location, their
combined effect will be the sum of the two displacements. The two
waves therefore are subject to the principle of superposition in which
two or more waves crossing the same location superimpose onto one
another, adding or subtracting. The waves do not permanently change
one another’s direction, speed, frequency, or wavelength, though a slight
loss in amplitude, or energy, will occur.

When two wave pulses pass one another, the amplitude displacement is
the sum of the two individual displacements. \f these two displacements
have opposite signs, but the same shape and size, the wave pulses cancel
at the point or moment they pass (but will continue as they were before
passing). If the two pulses have the same sign, they will add at the
moment they pass. If two waves pass each other in opposite directions,
then once past they retain their size, shape, and speed (except for
frictional losses). Having multiple traveling wave pulses creates
interference, which is constructive when the pulses add and
destructive when they cancel.
336 Master Math: Essential Physics

Nodes and Waves on Strings With Both Ends Fixed

e When a wave on a string connected to a support is reflected off that

support, the fixed end of the string is motionless. Any point along a
string that remains motionless while the rest of the string is moving is
called a node. A fixed end is always at a node. The wave motion of the
string in the figure below has three nodes. Antinodes are locations where
the wave motion is at a maximum (the figure below shows two antinodes).
More generally, in any standing wave pattern, whether on a string or a
sound wave in a musical wind instrument, there are points (nodes) along
the wave that appear to be standing still and points of maximum
displacement (antinodes). The node-antinode pattern alternates.

e What if both ends of a string are fixed to a support? Waves can travel
in both directions as they reflect off the end points. Imagine a string fixed
between two supports and its wavelength A of wave motion is the length L
of the string (solid curve in figure below), so that 1 = L. When the string
is in motion, its wave will be reflected until it forms a mirror image
(dashed curve in figure). If you could watch the wave leaving the left-
hand support at time t = 0, it would move along the solid-curve position
until it reflected off the right-hand support and formed its mirror image
shown as the dashed curve position. As time continues your wave would
repeatedly reflect off the two supports and alternate between the solid
and dashed curves forming a standing wave. If there were no frictional
losses, this would continue indefinitely.

L=A=nd/2 =(2)A/2
f, = 2f;, second harmonic
node antinode node antinode node

The above figure shows one complete wavelength and therefore has
dX. = L. Ifa standing wave displays one-half of a wavelength so L = X/2,
or A = 2L, this is the longest wavelength having the lowest frequency that
can set up between the two supports. Shown below are additional
wavelengths having nodes at both ends forming standing waves:

L=)/2,4=2L C= (3/2)4; = (273)L L=2,, A= (1/2)L

L=nA/2 = (1)A/2 =A/2 L = nA/2 = (3)A/2 = (3/2)A L=nd/2 = (4)/2 = 22
f;, first harmonic f; = 3f|, third harmonic f, = 4f,, fourth harmonic
 Waves, Sound, and Light 337

The formula relating length L with wavelength i for a standing wave

as
shown in the figures is:

e Standing wave patterns are produced at certain vibrational

frequencies which are characteristic to the medium, such as a string
between supports or the air in the cavity of a wind musical instrument.
Each characteristic frequency corresponds to a distinct standing wave
pattern which is called a harmonic. The lowest frequency that a standing
wave can exist in is called the fundamental frequency f, which for a
string corresponds to wavelength A = 2L, the first harmonic. The next
lowest frequency for a standing wave has frequency f) = 2f,, which
corresponds to a wavelength L = i and the second harmonic. The
standing wave frequencies are f, 2f,, 3f,, 4f,, ..., such that the frequency
of a standing wave is an integer multiple of the f, fundamental frequency,
f, = nf. Note that the harmonic number corresponds to the number of
antinodes such that the first harmonic has one antinode, the second
harmonic has two antinodes, and the nth harmonic has n antinodes. For a
standing wave pattern having a node at each end, there are n halves of
wavelengths between the nodes, which correspond with the above
equation for the nth harmonic: L = nA/2.

e In addition to harmonics, sound wave frequencies greater than f) are

distinguished as corresponding overtones. For example, frequency fp is
the second harmonic and first overtone, frequency f; is the third
harmonic and second overtone; frequency f, is the fourth harmonic and
third overtone; and so on. Note that successive overtones count in order
even if certain harmonics are absent such that if the second harmonic of
the fundamental was missing, the first overtone would match up with the
third (or next) harmonic.

e More generally, standing waves form when the nodes of a wave

motion fall at the two ends of a medium where reflection can occur. A
standing wave pattern is an effect of interference that occurs when waves
having the same frequency pass through a medium in opposite directions.
Standing waves form a vibrational pattern which can be produced when
source waves reflect and there is interference between the source waves
and reflected waves. As mentioned above, standing wave patterns only
occur at certain vibrational frequencies which are characteristic to the
medium or “container” of the waves (such as wind and stringed musical
instruments). These characteristic frequencies are called harmonic
frequencies, or harmonics. For frequencies other than the characteristic
or harmonic frequencies, the interference of source and reflected waves
create irregular patterns rather than standing wave patterns. Standing
338 Master Math: Essential Physics

waves can be set up for any type of wave motion if proper reflection
points or surfaces are present. Waves that can produce standing waves
include sound waves, radio waves, and light and other forms of
electromagnetic waves.

e Example: What is the fundamental frequency of a string stretched | m

between supports if the wave speed is 2 m/s?
We can use v = A/t = Af, or f= W/A. For the fundamental frequency f;:
f; = v/2L = (2 m/s)/(2)(1 m) = 1 Hz

13.3. Sound Waves

e Sound waves in air are longitudinal pressure or compression waves

emitted from a vibrating source in which molecules collide with their
neighbors as the sound wave travels away from its source. In these
longitudinal waves, the medium oscillates in a direction parallel to the
sound wave propagation (unlike transverse waves which oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation). While sound waves
can travel through gases, liquids, and solids, they cannot travel through a
vacuum. The human ear can detect sound wave frequencies in the range
from about 15 to 20 Hz to about 20,000 Hz. Certain species of animals
and insects, including bats and dolphins, can detect high frequency
sounds up to 100,000 Hz.

The Speed of Sound Waves

e You can actually estimate the speed of a propagating sound wave

through air if you stand at a known distance from a large flat wall, then
generate a sharp sound just as you begin a stop watch by measuring the
time it takes for you to first hear the echo of the sound. If done accurately,
you will calculate about 1100 ft/s, or about 330 m/s, for the speed of
sound in air on a cold day at a temperature of 0 °C and about 344 m/s at
20 °C. Using A = v/f, the wavelengths at 0 °C for the lower frequency
(long wavelength) and higher frequency (short wavelength) audible
sounds in air are about: A = v/f = (330 m/s)/(15 Hz) = 22 m and
dX = v/f = (330 m/s)/(20,000 Hz) = 0.0165 m or 1.65 cm.

e Example: Your friend wants to know how he could calculate the

frequency of a 10-cm sound wave in 0 °C air. What would you say?
You suggest using f= v/A with a more precise value for v of 331.4 m/s.
f= v/X = (331.4 m/s)/(0.10 m) = 3,314 Hz
 Waves, Sound, and Light 339

e The speed that sound travels through a medium depends on the

medium’s characteristics, particularly its elastic properties. Sound
through a gas or liquid, where shear stress is absent, has a wave speed
that depends on the bulk modulus B and the density p and is written:
ve B/p or v=[B/p]*. Ina gas at constant temperature, the bulk
modulus B and pressure are equal, so wave speed can be written:
v= P/p, or v = [P/p]*. Sound waves traveling through a gas expand and
compress adiabatically (constant heat) not isothermally (constant temper-
ature) as heat moves from compressed to rarefied regions. We can model
this using the relationship between pressure and volume for an adiabatic
process: PV" = constant, where y = c,/c, = 1.40, which is the ratio of
specific heats in air. In an adiabatic process the bulk modulus is B = yP,
with P as average pressure in the gas, so the speed of sound in a gas can
be written:
ee yP/p or v=[yP/p]*
Using the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, the speed of sound in a gas is:
v = [yP/p]*= [yRT/M]*
where M is the molecular mass of the gas in kg/mol.

e Example: Now your friend wants to know how to calculate the speed
of sound in both 0°C and 20°C air. What would you tell him?
You suggest: v = [yRT/M]* where R = 8.31 J/mol-K and y = ¢,/cy = 1.40,
the ratio of specific heats in air. Since air is predominantly a mixture of
about 80/20 of N2/O2, you say:
M = (0.8)(28 amu) + (0.2)(32 amu) = 28.8 amu = 28.8 g/mol = 0.0288 kg/mol
v = [(1.40)(8.31 J/mol-K)(273 K) / (0.0288 kg/mol)]” ~ 332 m/s
v = [(1.40)(8.31 J/mol-K)(293 K) / (0.0288 kg/mol)]* ~ 344 m/s

Note that for temperatures other than 0 °C, you can calculate the speed of
sound in air by multiplying the speed of sound at 0 °C by [T/273K]", or:
v = (331.4 m/s) x [T in Kelvin/273K]*

e The speed of sound through a solid material, such as a long bar or rod,
can be modeled using Young’s modulus Y (discussed in Section 6.2);
v =[Y/p]*
ng
e Note that the measure of the speed of sound is often used when reporti
is
the speeds of aircraft and rockets. The ratio of the speed that an object
traveling to the speed of sound in the same medium is the Mach number,
named in honor of Ernst Mach (1838-1916).
340 Master Math: Essential Physics

Seeing Sound Waves

e While some waves are quite visible, other vibrations, such as on a

violin string or the sound of our voices in air, cannot be perceived with
our eyes. By connecting a microphone to an oscilloscope, however, we
can translate sound waves into alternating electrical voltage (via the
microphone) and display the waves on the oscilloscope screen (as a
function of time). When a sound entering the microphone has a pure
frequency, the displayed signal is sinusoidal and corresponds to that
frequency. When a sound consists of two or more different frequencies,
such as a fundamental frequency and its harmonics, the displayed signal
shows the superposition of the signals that can be smooth and repeating.
When random noise is picked up by the microphone, the display may
show jagged lines having no clear repeating patterns.

Beats

e Suppose two pure, steady sound waves having similar frequencies,

such as f; = 2,000 Hz and f; = 2,006 Hz, are emitted from two sources.
While you will hear the average of the two frequencies (2,000 + 2,006)/2
= 2,003 Hz, you will also hear a modulation, or beat, with the sound
intensity at a rate equal to |f, — f;| = 6 Hz. In other words the beat you
hear is at a frequency equal to the absolute value of the difference in
frequency of the two sinusoidal waves:
thet if = f,|

e Example: Your friend comes to you with two tuning forks—one

emitting a pure 500 Hz frequency and one a pure 497 Hz. When sounded
simultaneously, how many beats will you hear in a 10 s period?
The beat frequency will be |f; — f2| = 500 — 497 = 3 Hz. Since Hertz is per
second, you should hear 30 beats in 10 s.

e Beats (or beating) are caused by the alternating constructive and

destructive interference of the waves, which produce alternating soft and
loud sound. The following depicts two waves of different frequencies, f;
and f>, with time, showing beats. The third and longest curves show the
outline of the amplitude variation of the resulting combined waveform of
f, and f, as they add and subtract.

Cancel Pith A A eer Keer Cancel

 Waves, Sound, and Light 341

Music and Sound

e Musical instruments are made up of vibrating systems which create

sound. Usually an instrument has two or more vibrating systems working
together to create its characteristic sound at a high enough volume to be
heard by our ears. Sounds made by musical instruments are composed of
a fundamental frequency and a mixture of harmonics. The makeup of the
harmonics or overtones creates the so-called timbre of the sound. The
word pitch is usually used to describe the sound frequency. In fact, when
we hear music we quickly notice its frequency, or pitch, and its loudness,
which is our perception of its volume or intensity.

e The intensity of a sound wave is the energy per second (or power) that
it transfers to an area of a surface. Sound intensity can be measured in
Watts per square meter, Watt/m*. Because the range of sound intensities
that we can barely detect to that which we can barely tolerate is so great
(about 10'* times), a logarithmic scale was developed to measure sound
intensity, or loudness. This scale is made up of the unit Bel (B) in honor
of Alexander Graham Bell (1 847—1922). This logarithmic scale reflects
that for a sound having an intensity level that is | B greater than another
sound, the ratio of the two intensities is 10. Similarly, for a difference of
2 B, the intensity ratio is 10°, and a difference of3 B reflects an intensity
ratio of 10°, and so on. Because a Bel is a large unit, sound intensity is
often described in the familiar decibel (dB) unit, where | B = 10dB anda
difference of 2 B = 20dB reflects an intensity ratio of 10°, and 3B =30dB
reflects an intensity ratio of 10°. Decibels are used to give us a relative
measure of sound intensity, which can be expressed as the difference in
the sound intensity level measured in dB for the sounds with intensities
I, and I, as:
The difference in the sound intensity level in dB = 10 log(I2/I))

e Example: If one sound is twice as intense as the sound before it, what
is the difference in the sound intensity level? If asound is increased by a
factor of 10,000, what is the change in decibels?

For sound twice as intense, the difference in sound intensity level 1S:
10 log(Iy/I,) = 10 log(2/1) ~ 3 dB
For sound increased by a factor of 10,000, the difference in sound
intensity level is:
10 log(b/I,) = 10 log(10,000/1) = 40 dB
in
e Audible sound can be thought of as a pressure wave having ranges
20,000 Hz and intensit y from about
frequency from about 20 Hz to
10-2 W/m? (0 dB) to 10 W/m (130 dB).
342 Master Math: Essential Physics

Harmonics, Resonance, and Waves in Cylindrical Instruments

e Music is often produced by instruments that employ resonance to

create characteristic sounds. The strings of musical instruments produce
standing waves at characteristic frequencies as they vibrate. The longest
wave that sets up on a string has two nodes at its attached ends and one
antinode at its center having the fundamental, or resonance. The
fundamental wavelength is A, = 2L, where L is the string length.
Additional wavelengths of an instrument string with a node at each
end are:
A.=2L/n or L=nA/2 withn=2,3,...

where you can think of n as corresponding to the number of antinodes.

The standing waves that can exist are the harmonic series for the string.

e Like transverse standing waves on vibrating strings, longitudinal

sound waves in cylinders produce characteristic frequencies. Cylinders
can be open at both ends with an antinode at each end or closed at one
end with a node at the closed end and an antinode at the open end.
Standing waves in cylinders reflect off the closed end as they do on
strings fixed to supports.

e Imagine you have a cylinder closed at one end only that is filled with
air, and you can control its inside length by sliding a piston at the closed
end. A standing sound wave can first occur when the length L is equal to
1/4 of the wavelength of the sound wave, L = 4/4. As you increase the
length inside, standing sound waves can occur at lengths, L = 4/4,
L = 3/4, L = 5A/4, and so on, as depicted:

closed open closed Open closed

L=N4, N=4L, f, L=3)/4, A = 4L/3, f; = 3f; L=5A/4, X =4L/5, f; = Sf,

lst harmonic 3rd harmonic, Ist overtone 5th harmonic, 2nd overtone

The intensity of the sound generated in the cylinder is enhanced when the
characteristic frequency of the generated sound is the same as the
frequency of the wave in the cylinder so a standing wave is produced.
This “resonance” will occur when L = A/4 as well as the additional
lengths in the series of one-end-closed cylinders. A cylinder closed at
one end will resonate at the series of wavelengths i:
B= ALi iy titlewe
with corresponding series of frequencies:
f=v/A=nv/4L n=1,3,5,...
 Waves, Sound, and Light 343

so for a fundamental frequency (n = 1) of f;, the sequence of standin

g-
wave frequencies is f,, 3f|, 5f), ... This suggests a cylinder of
air with
one end closed supports standing waves with odd harmonics of the
fundamental. The above figure also labels the harmonics and overtones.

¢ For a cylinder open at both ends standing waves will have antinodes
at each end.

- Pa
- ¢ ‘
ee oa x
= 7 x

L=2/2, A=2L, f; L=A, A=L, f, =2f, L=3A/2, X=2L/3, t= 36,

lst harmonic 2nd harmonic, Ist overtone 3rd harmonic, 2nd overtone

A cylinder open at both ends will resonate at the series of wavelengths:

Rtn n= 12,3) 2
with corresponding series of frequencies:
f=vw/AX=nv/2L n=1,2,3,...
so that for a fundamental frequency (n = 1) of f), the sequence of
standing-wave frequencies is f;, 2f), 3f), ..., suggesting a cylinder of air
with both ends open supports standing waves with all integer harmonics
of the fundamental.

e Example: [n an instrument using cylindrical pipes such as organ pipes,

the fundamental is the lowest note which corresponds to the smallest part
of the wave that fits inside the pipe. As we can see in the drawings
above, fitting in more of the wave produces harmonics and additional
notes. For a 1.0-m pipe closed at one end what is the wavelength of the
lowest frequency that can cause resonance? What is the lowest frequency
to resonate in the pipe if the air temperature is 20°C? What is the
frequency of the first and second overtones causing sound at 20°C?
What is the lowest frequency to resonate and third overtone if the pipe is
open at both ends?
The lowest or fundamental frequency for a pipe closed at one end
requires L = 2/4, so for a 1-m pipe:
L=bn=AV4° or A=4im
The lowest frequency to resonate in 20°C air uses a speed of sound of
344 m/s, so using v = fA, the fundamental frequency is:
f, = v/A = (344 m/s)/(4 m) = 86 Hz
The first overtone is the next lowest frequency and third harmonic:
f; = 3f; = 3(86 Hz) = 258 Hz
The second overtone is the fifth harmonic:
f, = 5f, = 5(86 Hz) = 430 Hz
344 Master Math: Essential Physics

If the pipe is open at both ends the fundamental frequency requires

L =2/2, so for a |-m pipe:
L=Ilm=A/2 or A=2m
Using a speed of sound in 20°C air of 344 m/s, the fundamental frequency
is:
f, = v/X = (344 m/s)/(2 m) = 172 Hz
and the third overtone or fourth harmonic 1s:
f, = 4f, = 4(172) = 688 Hz

The Doppler Shift

e Waves are often emitted by a source that is moving within and with
respect to the medium that is carrying the waves. An example of this is a
loud train zooming along its track and emitting noise through the air
medium. Imagine standing near a train track and listening to a train
approach, pass by, and zoom away. You can hear the frequency of the
sound change from higher as it approaches to lower as it passes and
moves away. This effect on the frequency of the sound waves is called
the Doppler effect or Doppler shift, in honor of Austrian physicist,
Christian Johann Doppler (1803-1853). In essence, a Doppler effect or
shift is a change of perceived frequency due to movement of a wave
source relative to an observer.

The Doppler shift occurs as the sound waves approaching you with
velocity vs become “bunched up” so that you perceive.a higher frequency
than you would if the train’s engine was running but not moving. You
can also imagine “bunching” waves by considering a small object
vibrating at a set frequency while floating on a smooth water surface.
Then imagine a string is attached to the vibrating object, and you very
gently pull it across the smooth surface of the water. The waves caused
by the vibration would bunch up in the direction the object is moving and
spread out behind it.

e Note that the speed v that waves are traveling depends only on the
properties of the medium, such as air or water. Wave speed does not
depend on the motion of the source that is emitting the sound, such as the
train speed. In other words, sound waves in air will travel at the speed of
sound in air at a given temperature (344 m/s at 20 °C) regardless of the
speed of a moving object emitting the sound. Nevertheless, the perceived
frequency and wavelength of the waves are affected by the motion of the
wave-emitting source (such as a train), which produces the Doppler shift.
We can see in the figure below that the wave crests are closer together in
the direction an object is moving.
 Waves, Sound, and Light 345

e If you, the observer (or listener), are moving toward a stationary object
that is emitting sound waves (or other waves), the wave crests will seem
to be closer together as you move toward the source. Then, as you pass
the source and move away, the wave crests seem further apart (from your
perspective) and the sound will shift to a lower frequency to your ears. A
Doppler shift can be perceived when a source of waves moves toward or
away from an observer or when the observer moves toward or away from
a stationary source.

The figure shows a stationary train emitting sound and a moving train
emitting sound. The sound wave crests in front of the moving train are
closer together than those of the stationary train.

stationary moving

e Suppose a train travels from point A to point B while emitting sound

waves. From the perspective of the train, the frequency of its sound is f..
During time period t = 0 to t = t, the train will emit f,t number of waves
(where f,t is cycles per second times seconds or equivalently the number
of waves). The train’s velocity is v,, and from point A to point B the train
travels a distance of d = v,t. The sound waves emitted at t = 0 (at point
A) will have the most time to travel. These waves move with velocity v
and will travel a distance d = vt during the time interval between t = 0
and t = t (as the train moves from point A to point B). As the train
reaches point B and the final waves have been emitted, the train will
have traveled a distance v.t. Therefore the waves emitted from the train
occupy the distance vt — vst. The wavelength A; of the waves from your
perspective as listener is:
A, = (distance)/(number of waves) = (vt — vst)/(fit) = (v — Vs)/fs
The frequency f, from your perspective as listener is:
f, = v/Az = v/((v — Vs)/fs) = fs(v/(v — Vs))
or

| f, = f, v/(v — vs) as source S moves toward listener L |

This equation highlights the frequency as the train, or wave emitting

source S, travels toward the listener L. When the source 1s moving away
from you, —v, becomes +v,, and the frequency f, you hear is lowered:

f, = fsv/(v + v;) as source S moves away from listener L

346 Master Math: Essential Physics

e What if you, the listener, are moving, and the sound-emitting source
(e.g., train) is stationary? An equation for frequency f, from your
perspective as listener can also be derived for this scenario. An equation
describing the frequency when you, the listener, are moving toward
(or away from) the sound wave emitting source is:
f, = f,(v + v_)/v when L moves toward S, f, higher
or
f, = f,(v —v._)/v when L moves away from S, f, lower

e The Doppler shift can also occur with waves other than sound,
including all mechanical and electromagnetic waves such as water waves
and light waves. A familiar use of the Doppler shift is Doppler radar. The
Doppler shift of electromagnetic waves is also used to gain information
and measure the speed with which different celestial objects in space are
moving relative to Earth.

e Example: Imagine yourself standing on a street corner when a

motorcycle zooms by and the passenger is blowing a 1,000 Hz note on
some sort of horn. What frequency do you hear as the motorcycle
approaches and after it passes if it is moving at about 45 mph (about
20 m/s) and the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s?
As the source S moves toward you:
f, = f,v/(v — vs) = (1,000 Hz)(344 m/s) / (344 m/s — 20 m/s) = 1062 Hz
As the source S moves away from you:
f.= f,v/(v + vs) = (1,000 Hz)(344 m/s) / (344 m/s + 20 m/s) = 945 Hz

Shock Waves

e In the previous subsection we discussed a train emitting noise while the

train was moving at a speed slower than the speed of its emitted sound
waves. What if a train or other source of sound waves is moving at the
same speed as the sound waves it emits or at an even greater speed?

When the source of the waves moves at a speed equal to the speed of
emitted waves, the waves cannot get in front of the moving source, but
stack up in a flat planar shape as shown in the figure below. When the
source of the waves moves at a speed greater than the speed of emitted
waves, a Shock wave forms as the source speeds ahead and “drags” the
emitted waves behind it in the shape of a cone as shown in the figure.
The edge of the cone forms a large-amplitude supersonic wave front
referred to as a shock wave. An observer, or listener, hears a sonic boom
when the shock wave reaches him or her. The speed of a shock wave is
 Waves, Sound, and Light 347
usually faster than the speed of sound in that medium and then
decreases
as 1ts amplitude decreases until its speed is that of the speed of
sound.

Vwave source —_ Vwaves Vwave source ae Vwaves

If we consider the right-hand figure where the wave source velocity

exceeds the velocity of emitted waves, the angle @ is between the conical
wave front and the velocity vector of the source. During the time interval
when the object emitting waves moves the length of the hypotenuse of
the dashed right triangle (d = Vopjectt), the initial wave propagates the
length of the short leg (opposite to 6) of the triangle (d = Vwavest). You can
determine angle 0 from the trigonometric relationship sin @ =
opposite/hypotenuse:
sin 9 = Vwavest /(Vobjectt) = Vwaves / Vopject

Remember, the ratio of the speed of an object to the speed of sound

waves in the same medium is the Mach number, M = Vobject/Vwaves-
Therefore, 1/sin 8= Vobject/Vwaves 1s the Mach number of a moving object.
For objects traveling faster than the speed of sound (called supersonic),
the air along the wave front is compressed. This high-pressure air forms
the shock wave. There are actually two shock waves produced by
supersonic objects—one at the front of the object and one at the back.
First, the air pressure rises along the front shock wave, then drops, and
then rises along the back shock wave.

13.4. Light Waves: Interference and Diffraction

Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

e Light has characteristics of both a particle and a wave. English

physicist Thomas Young (1773-1829) demonstrated the wave properties
of light in his double-slit experiment. This experiment showed that light
is subject to constructive and destructive interference, which is a
characteristic of waves. In the double-stit experiment, coherent (in phase,
single wavelength) light is aimed at a screen which has two parallel
narrow slits, A and B. The slits in the screen are separated by distance D.
A second screen is placed a distance L beyond the first screen. The light
passes through the two slits in the first screen and hits the second screen.
348 Master Math: Essential Physics

The experiment shows an alternating pattern of bright and dark lines

(like stripes) on the second screen, which correspond to constructive and
destructive interference such that the light intensity varies from inter-
ference. In the actual experimental setup that is depicted below, the
distance D between slits must be much less than distance L between
screens. Point P corresponds to any point on the second screen where the
light from the two slits strikes. The pattern on the right of the drawing
portrays what you could see if you were looking at the front of screen 2.

A line drawn from P to Q, which is the midpoint between slits A and B,

intersects line QC at an angle 8. Note that when distance L is much
greater than D, the angle AEB can be drawn as a right angle forming
right triangles AEB and AEP. Also, AE will be approximately perpen-
dicular to PQ, so that angle BAE will be approximately equal to 0.
Another way to see this is that since L >> D, the angles that lines AP,
BP, and QP make with the horizontal are about equal to 0. Using
trigonometry, the light from the lower slit B travels a distance of
/=Dsin® further than the light from upper slit A in order to reach point
P on the second screen. The amount D sin®@ can be thought of as the
amount out of phase the two light beams are when they reach point P.
Therefore, the path length difference / is:
/~Dsin®@

When the path length difference / is an integer number of wavelengths

(NA):
P= NA ON SONI oe.
a bright line due to constructive interference will show at point P on the
second screen. If we substitute for the difference in path lengths /, a
relationship for where the bright lines in the interference pattern are
seen on the second screen should be:

The bright lines are called the maxima and show where the two light
waves are constructively interfering and are in phase allowing maximum
light to strike the second screen. When N = 0, the length of the paths that
 Waves, Sound, and Light 349

light travels from each slit to the second screen is the same. In this case,
8 = 0 and / = 0, and the brightest line, called the central maximum, is
created in the center of the interference pattern (at C in the figure).

When wavelength is equal to an odd number of half wavelengths, dark

lines in the interference pattern are seen. We can write this as:

(Naat/2)).=D sim oN =.0, 1.2...

Here the two light waves are out of phase by one-half wavelength
creating destructive interference, causing a dark line on screen 2 at that
point P. The dark lines are called the minima of the interference pattern.

e When screen spacing distance L is much greater than D, and assuming

the length between Q and P in the above drawing is roughly equal to L,
we can calculate the spacing between the light interference lines on the
second screen. For the spacing between adjacent bright lines on the
screen, consider the right triangle PQC. Since sine equals
opposite/hypotenuse and PQ = L:
sin 8 ~ PC/PQ = PC/L
If we let length PC = x:
sin 8 = x/L

For bright lines, NA ~ Dsin@, N = 0, 1, 2, ..., becomes NA ~ Dx/L or:

x = NAL/D

Since there is an integer increase in N between bright lines, we can write

the spacing between adjacent bright lines (or dark lines) as:

x/N = Ax = AL/D

e Example: Your friend is studying the interference pattern of the

refracted light in the drawing above and wants to create his own double-
slit setup. He uses blue light with wavelength 470 nanometer (nm), sets
his two screens 1.5 m apart, and carefully creates his parallel slits
0.2 mm apart. What is the spacing between the center bright line and the
next maximum line? (Note: one nm is 10°’ m.)
“This is easy,” you say. “The spacing depends on the light’s wavelength
2 and the screen separation divided by the slit distance”:
Ax = AL/D = (4.7 x 1077 m)(1.5 m)/(0.2 x 10 m) ~ 0.0035 m = 3.5 mm
Therefore, the line spacing is approximately 3.5 mm apart.
350 Master Math: Essential Physics

Single-Slit and Multi-Slit Diffraction

e What if there is only one slit instead of two slits in the double-slit
experiment setup in the diagram above? This would be called single-slit
diffraction, and we will see a diffraction pattern of lines from
constructive and destructive interference as we did with double-slit. It
will have a stronger, broader central maximum flanked by weaker
secondary maxima above and below. Note that diffraction bends light
around objects. This bending creates interference patterns such as the
constructive and destructive interference lines in Young’s double-slit
experiment or a similar pattern which is created by a single slit.

If you designed a single-slit experiment, your equipment would look

like the double-slit experiment except the first screen would have only
one slit. The distance D between slits in the double-slit is now the size of
the one slit and called d. Angle 8 would be the angle that a line drawn
from the center of the slit to point P would make with the horizontal.

Again, P shows the paths that light through the slit can take to the second
screen. Light traveling through the slit will differ slightly in direction,
depending on where it passes within the slit. This creates a superposition
of the light waves that strike screen 2, causing fuzziness in the maxima
flanking the large central maximum. The central maximum at N = 0 is
the primary bright prominent maxima. The flanking maxima in each slit
of the double-slit experiment, due to diffraction occurring in each slit,
were overwhelmed by the maxima and minima of the double-slit
interference effects. The light from the ends of the slit will have the
largest difference in phase.

e We can develop an equation for the spacing of the interference pattern.

Because L >> d in the experimental setup, the light rays that pass through
the single slit and hit any point P are virtually parallel. Therefore, line
QP is roughly parallel to line AP. If we let angle 8 correlate with the first
interference minimum above the central maximum on screen 2, then the
difference in length of the light path / between light beams QP and AP is
one-half the wavelength of the light, or: /= (1/2)A. Since sin 0 =
opposite/hypotenuse: / ~ (1/2)dsin 9. If point P is at the first minimum,
 Waves, Sound, and Light 351

the distance between P and the central maximum C (which we

will call
x) is: xX= Ltan0. Remember tan @ = Opposite/adjacent, so tan0 = x/L.
Since L >> d, 6 is very small, and when 8 is small sin @ ~ tan 0. We
can
then substitute / = (1/2), 7 = (1/2)d sin @, and tan 0 ~ x/L to obtain an
equation for distance between interference minima:

The width of the central maximum is roughly 2 times the width of the
secondary maxima flanking it.

e What if there are many parallel slits instead of the two slits in the
double-slit experiment setup in the diagram above? A multi-slit system
with a large number of slits spaced distance D apart is called a
diffraction grating. This system creates an interference pattern which
also has maxima at NA ~ D sin @ for an integer number of wavelengths
N=0, 1, 2, ..., where D is the distance between slits called the grating
spacing. The minima are also at (N + 1/2)A ~ Dsin®@. The pattern has
better resolution with less fading than the double slit. Diffraction gratings
can be used to examine the spectrum of wavelengths of light composed
of more than one wavelength. The positions of interference maxima and
minima distinguish the different wavelengths.

e Note that interference and diffraction effects through slits are not
restricted to light waves, but occur with other types of waves, such as
sound. Interference and diffraction depend on wavelength, and the effects
are increased when slit size and spacing are near the wavelength size.

13.5. Electromagnetic Radiation

e Electromagnetic (EM) radiation (also referred to as electromagnetic

waves or electromagnetic energy) is produced in various ways including
nuclear reactions within the Sun, decay of radioactive substances,
changes in the energy levels of electrons, thermal motion of atoms and
molecules, and acceleration of electrical charges. We know moving
charges (currents) produce magnetic fields and changing magnetic fields
produce currents. Just as a traveling wave on a string is produced by
applying oscillations to one end, an electromagnetic field can be generated
by a changing or oscillating current in a wire antenna. When charges
move back and forth, oscillating electric and magnetic fields are
produced. For insight into electromagnetic waves, remember that an
oscillating electric field E produces an oscillating magnetic field B, and
an oscillating magnetic field produces an oscillating electric field. When
EM waves are produced, such as radio waves from an antenna,
B52 Master Math: Essential Physics

oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to one another are

produced and travel away from the antenna. The E and B fields are not
only perpendicular to each other, but also to the direction the wave
travels (they are transverse waves). Similar to the sinusoidal displace-
ment that can be propagated along a string, a sinusoidal variation of the
E and B field vectors can be propagated through a medium or through
empty space.

Electromagnetic waves include the visible light we see and the infrared
we sense as heat, as well as gamma, X-ray, ultraviolet, infrared, micro-
wave, and radio waves. Electromagnetic waves (EM waves) are
transverse traveling waves composed of oscillating electric field E and
magnetic field B. They can travel through certain mediums (to the extent
they are not absorbed or reflected) or through the vacuum of outer space.

EM Wave Traveling at c
= speed of light

We can see that the electric field E is in one plane and the magnetic field
B is in a plane perpendicular to E. Electromagnetic waves are plane
waves with E perpendicular to B, or E | B, at every point and for all
values as it travels. EM waves are transverse waves, such that vectors E
and B are always perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave. When EM waves travel through the vacuum of space they move at
the “speed of light,” or c = 3.00 x 10° m/s. This is the fastest speed
anything has been confirmed to travel. While EM waves carry no mass,
as they travel they carry energy and momentum (which exerts a pressure
referred to as the radiation pressure).

e EM waves exist in a broad range, or spectrum, of frequencies referred

to as the electromagnetic spectrum. The EM spectrum is often identified
beginning near 10° Hz frequency at about a wavelength of 10° m to near
10° Hz frequency at about a wavelength of 10 '’ m. The electromagnetic
spectrum can be roughly depicted as follows:

Wavelength (m)
10° [07 10° 1 10° T0102 10710 10 10 10. 10 OO 10

microwaves infrared visj ultra- |X-rays gamma

ible} violet rays
= : —_ TET :
10! 19 102 1083 104 105 10'6 10!7 10'8 16" 102

Frequency (Hz)
 Waves, Sound, and Light 353

Visible light is between infrared and ultraviolet and ranges from about
400 nm for violet to about 700 nm for red, or4x 10’mto7x 107m.
The frequency range for visible light is about 7.5 x 10'* Hz for violet to
about 4.3 x 10'* Hz for red. The sequence of colors is red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, and violet. Traditionally this was memorized using
the name “ROY G BIV”, with the “I” as “indigo”. More recently
“ROY G BV” is usually used without “indigo” distinguished.

e In EM radiation, the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength

and the greater the energy. While all EM waves travel at the same speed
in a vacuum, higher frequency (higher energy) waves oscillate faster.
The energy E per photon is E = hf, where h ~ 6.626 x 10-4 Jes =
4.135 x 10°? eV-s is Planck’s constant and fis frequency. The
frequency f is f= v/A, so when in a vacuum, f= c/A, where v is speed,
c = 3.0 x 10° m/s is the speed in a vacuum, and A is the wavelength.
Using these equations and the fact that the speed of EM waves is
constant in the vacuum of space, you can calculate a wave’s frequency
if you know its wavelength, and you can calculate its wavelength if you
know its frequency. Wavelength and frequency distinguish one kind of
EM wave from another.

e Example: Estimate the frequency of a blue light wave with a

wavelength of about 4.7 x 10°’ m. Identify an EM wave with frequency
10'* Hz and find its wavelength. Assume the medium is outer space.
f=c/d = (3.0 x 10° m/s)/(4.7 x 10°m) = 6.4 x 10 Hz
i = c/f= (3.0 x 10° m/s)/(10'? Hz) = 3.0 x 107m which is infrared

e Example: You and your friend are dialing a shortwave radio when he
asks, “Which has the shortest wavelength—tradio waves, blue light,
gamma rays, or X-rays?” He adds, “And what is that frequency?”

“OK,” you say, “high-frequency gamma is shortest, with wavelengths

near 10’ m. Let’s think, the speed oflight c is 3 x 10° m/s and c = fa, so
frequency f = c/ = (3 x 10° m/s)/(10-'?m) = 3 x 10° Hz.” Impressed,
he says, “Wow, you can do that all in your head? Cool.”

e Different types of electromagnetic radiation vary according to the

amount of energy contained in their photons, with radio waves having
low energy photons (and long wavelengths), microwaves having slightly
more energy, infrared having still more, with increasing energy 1n
rays
visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and on up to the high energy gamma
1s
(which have extremely short wavelengths). The EM spectrum
354 Master Math: Essential Physics

described in terms of energy (in electron volts), wavelength (in meters),

and frequency (in cycles/second, or Hertz).

While different types of EM waves, energy, or radiation, seem different

and they are produced and detected in very different ways, they are all
electromagnetic radiation or energy and are fundamentally the same. EM
radiation can be described as a stream of photons (massless particles
containing energy) or as interfering, diffracting waves (as we saw in our
discussion of double, single, and multi-slits). They can all be described
by frequency, wavelength, or energy. For EM radiation, wave frequency
can be described as the number of wave crests passing a given point per
second, where the wavelength is the distance between wave crests. The
energy carried is proportional to frequency where f = c/A and energy E
per photon is E = hf= he/A with h ~ 6.62610 “Jes = 4.13510 eVss,
which is Planck’s constant.

13.6. Reflection and Refraction

e Optics is in essence a sub-topic of electricity and magnetism since it

studies the behavior of light, and light is an electromagnetic wave. Optics
studies visible light and how it bounces, bends, and produces visual
images. Optical instruments are designed to use the particle and wave
natures of light. For example, instruments that diffract light into a spec-
trum for analysis are observing light’s wave properties, and instruments
such as detectors in digital cameras use the particle nature of photons.

Reflection

e All objects we can see reflect light. Objects generally absorb some of
the light that strikes them and reflect certain frequencies, causing them to
appear to be a particular color. When light strikes an object with a rough
or irregular surface, the reflected light is dispersed in many directions.
Conversely, objects with smooth, flat surfaces, such as mirrors, reflect all
or most of the incoming, or incident, light. In fact, light has been observed
to reflect off a flat, polished surface such that the angle of incidence
Dincidence 28 equal to the angle of reflection ®yepection. This is referred to as
the Law of Reflection:

Note that the angle of incidence @incidence and the angle of reflection
Q,eftection (AS Well as angles of refraction) are measured from the
perpendicular, or normal, to the reflecting surface. Also, the light ray (or
 Waves, Sound, and Light 355
beam) that strikes a reflective surface is the incident light, and the
light
ray (or beam) bouncing off the surface is the reflected light.

Orcidant = Oreflected
incident ray reflected ray
Air
completely reflecting surface
(The dashed line is perpendicular, or normal, to surface.)

e Interestingly, an observer perceives that the image of an object

reflected in a flat mirror is located behind a mirror and originates from a
path that would be the continuation of the line of the reflected ray. Each
ray reflected from a point on an object obeys Oincidence = Oreftections AN
observer also perceives that the image of an object is located the same
distance behind the mirror’s surface as the object is actually located in
front of the mirror.

Refraction

e Refraction is observed if you place a straight object, such as a stick or

your pencil, into water at a slight angle and see it appear to be broken or
bent at the water’s surface. Light that is not reflected from a surface,
such as glass or water, may be refracted as some of the incident light
rays travel through the surface into the glass or water. The refracted
rays are at an angle to the normal that is different than the reflected
rays. This means as light passes from one transparent medium into
another, some rays will be reflected (such that Oincidence = 9reftection), and
some rays will be refracted at a different angle to the normal such that
Onan is not equal to Orroction:

Ojncident = Ocetlected
incident ray reflected ray
Air

refracted ray
Cosfactad

(The dashed line is perpendicular, or normal, to surface.)

e Note that the direction of a light ray along a specified path doesn’t
matter. Whether the light is passing from air into glass or water, or
passing from that glass or water into air, the refraction at the interface
will be the same. (In the above figure, imagine the arrows for the
incident and refracted beams in both directions. The path would not
change.) Also note that a ray striking perpendicular to an interface
continues perpendicular and does not refract.
356 Master Math: Essential Physics

e When a beam of light passes from a /ess optically dense substance such
as air into a more optically dense substance such as water, it will be
refracted toward a line drawn perpendicular to the interface. When the
ray is traveling from a less dense to a more dense medium, the angle of
incidence Bincidence Will be greater than the angle of refraction Orefraction- (In
the above figure, observe angle incidence 18 greater than refraction:)

e A light beam passing from a more optically dense substance to a less

optically dense substance will be refracted away from a line drawn
perpendicular to the interface. When the ray is traveling from a more
dense to a less dense medium, the angle of incidence Oincidence Wil be /ess
than the angle of refraction ®,efraction. (In the above figure, imagine the
beam traveling in the opposite direction shown by the arrows so that it
points from water to air. In this case the depicted Qincidence angle and the
Orefraction angle are switched. The angle on the less dense air side of the
interface is larger.)

e The degree to which a ray is refracted depends on the medium since

light travels at different speeds in different media. Light traveling in the
vacuum of space travels the fastest (at the “speed of light” c), but when
passing through a substance such as air, glass, or water, light travels
more slowly. Different substances have an index of refraction n given
by the following ratio:

Since v is always less than or equal to c, then n> 1. Examples ofn

include: najr ~ 1.0, Nwater ~ 1.3, and Ngjass ~ 1.6. Index of refraction
typically increases with material density. Note that in a medium, but not
in a vacuum, the speed of light varies slightly for differing wavelengths,
and EM waves with shorter wavelengths move slower than those with
longer wavelengths. This also means that EM waves with shorter wave-
lengths will refract or “bend” more than those with longer wavelengths.
For example, blue light refracts at a greater angle than red light. You are
probably familiar with the way a glass prism or water droplets disperse
sunlight into a rainbow of colors.

e How do we determine the path of a light ray across an interface? The

Law of Refraction, or Snell’s Law, discovered by Dutch scientist
Willebrord Snel van Royen (or Willebrord Snellius) in the early 1600s 5

relates the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction for a light ray
passing from one optical medium to another. We can easily derive this
relationship by considering a beam of light, which is a transverse wave.
In the figure below we imagine an expanded version of a ray of light
 Waves, Sound, and Light 357
(with width or ray AA’) as it traverses into the interface betwee
n air and
water and bends (as the left side of the wave strikes and begins
to slow
first).
A light ray leaving air and entering water
Bair

Nwater = c/ Vwater

Line AA' and line BB' represent wave fronts as the light is crossing the
interface. The light crosses from air with an index of refraction
Dar — C/ Vaz into water With nya, = C/Vwar. The speed in air and water is:
Vair = C/Mair ANd Vwater = C/Nwater
The wave front travels from A to B and from A' to B' during time
interval t. Since distance equals rate times time, AB and A'B' are:
A'B'=v,it = ct/nge and AB = Vintet = Ct/Dveter
Using trigonometry for right triangles:
A'B'/AB'=sin@,; and sin O\ater = AB/AB'
Rearranging: AB' = A'B'/sin®@,;,. and AB'= AB/sin 0 water
Combining AB' = A'B'/sin 0,i, = AB/sin Owater With A'B' = ct/n,;, and
AB = Ct/Nywater and substituting for A'B' and AB gives:
(ct/nair)/(Sin 9air) = (Ct/Nwater)/(SiN
Owater)
Cancelling ct and rearranging gives: Ngir $1N Oair = Nwater SIN Owater
Or, more generally, for a light ray traveling from medium 1 with index of
refraction n, across an interface into medium 2 with index of refraction
n>, Snell’s Law is:
n, sin 8; =n, sin 05

where 0, is the angle of incidence, and 0) is the angle of refraction. From

Snell’s Law and the relationships n; = c/v, and n) = c/v2, we can show:
(sin ®,)/(sin @2) = n/n; = vj/Vv2

e Example: Your friend sees you standing in waist deep water and
begins to laugh, stating how stubby your legs have become. What is he
observing? Then he reaches for a water-logged ball that has sunk into the
water and his grasp is too high. What happened?
You tell him your “stubby” legs are caused by refraction of light as it
passes through the air-water interface. You then laugh at his missed
attempt to grasp the ball, explaining that the depth he perceives is less
than the actual depth because light rays originating at the ball are
358 Master Math: Essential Physics

refracted away from the perpendicular as they cross out of the water’s
surface.

e Example: You and your friend decide to go out to his swimming pool
on a calm dark summer night with two small waterproof laser pointers. If
you point one beam into the shallow end of the pool at a 45° angle, what
is the refracted angle? Then, you point (with your finger) to the location
where your beam enters the water and your friend marks the spot against
the pool bottom where the laser light hit. He gently holds his laser
pointer on the pool’s bottom where your beam hits and aims his laser to
where you are pointing (with your finger) at the water’s surface. What
will the angle of refraction be as your friend’s laser beam points up out
of the water into the air?
In this section we identified naj, ~ 1.0 and Nwater ~ 1.3. Now we can find
the refracted angle into the water. Using Snell’s Law:
Nair SIN Qair = Nwater SIN Owater
SIN. Owater = Dae $1 O45, AN Sater
Owater = sin '(1.0)(sin45°/1.3) = 33°
Then you find refracted angle up into the air. Using Snell’s Law:
Sint Gai, = Date SIO water) Dane
O.ir = sin (1.3)(sin33°/1.0) = 45°
Your friend says, “I didn’t need to get wet to tell you the angle of the
beam above the water’s surface (45° in this case) is the same whether the
light points into or out of the water. Also, the angle below the water’s
surface is the same (33° in this case) regardless of direction.”

e Example: Your friend wants to know how to find the angle of refraction
if there are three media (air, glass, and water) with two interfaces such as
a flat plate of glass floating on a tank of water.
Air

[eee
TyeeSI
You write Snell’s Law for the two refractions and set them equal:
n,sin®;=n2sin®, and n)sin§.=n;sin@; so n,sin0, =n;sin@3
“Wow,” he says. “Refracted angle 6; doesn’t care about the intermediate
flat plate of glass.” “Only if it has parallel surfaces,” you reply.

e Note that if media | and 3 are the same so that a flat plate with nj is
immersed in one media (n; = ns), a light ray passing through the flat plate
will be displaced, but its angle on either side of the plate is the same.
 Waves, Sound, and Light 359

Total Internal Reflection

e When a light ray originating in air strikes a glass surface, part will
reflect and part will pass into the glass. When a light ray originating
inside the glass strikes the glass/air interface, there may or may not be a
ray leaving the glass and passing into the air. If the angle of incidence is
greater than a critical angle 0,, total internal reflection occurs, and no
light ray transmits across the more-dense-to-less-dense (glass-to-air)
interface into the air. Light striking the surface of a medium with a lower
index of refraction at any angle greater than 0, is totally reflected. Total
internal reflection uses include cutting a diamond to enhance sparkle and
sending light waves (information) through fiber optics.
Partial '
internal '
reflection. cine one

Total ni ———__. —— LL
internal See ee ore
reflection.

How do we find this critical angle? If you imagine a simple sine wave
plotted vs. time on an x-y coordinate system, you will remember that
over time (along the x-axis) the value of sin 8 moves up and down from
—1 to +1 along on the y-axis. Because sin 9 cannot exceed plus or minus
1, if we use Snell’s Law, there are certain values Of Ngtass, Nair, ANA Ooiass 1N
which Snell’s Law has no solution for 0,;, and there is no refracted ray.
The critical angle 8, for two media is the smallest angle of incidence for
which total internal reflection occurs. Using Snell’s Law:
Nglass sin Oeuss = Dair sin One or sin One = (Ngtass sin Ooiase) | Die

and the fact sin @ < 1, refraction into a less optically dense medium
occurs only if: (Mgtass SIN Ogiass) /Mair < 1. If we set (Mgjass SIN Ogiass) /Nair = 1,
the critical angle going from more dense glass to less dense air 1s:
0. = Ogiass = sin '(Mair/Molass)

Therefore, the critical angle 9, for two media is the smallest angle of
incidence for which total internal reflection occurs. It is the arcsine of
the ratio of the indexes of refraction (Np essDense/MMoreDense)» OF:
- |
0. = sin (NL essDense/MMoreDense)

This equation for total internal reflection is supported by observation.

e Example: You and your friend, each holding your breath, gently slip
laser
into the pool and lie quietly on the bottom pointing your waterproof
m angle of incidenc e that will
pointers at the surface. What is the maximu
360 Master Math: Essential Physics

allow some light from the beam to escape the water, or equivalently, the
critical angle for total internal reflection to occur?
Using nair ~ 1.0 and Nyater ~ 1.3:
Oca sin (iy cenchtel
Daimonerce mew sitle deO/lnSe 50 Be

Dispersion

e The index of refraction is somewhat dependent on the wavelength of the

incident light. When white light, consisting of a mixture of wavelengths,
refracts, the different waves vary slightly and disperse. This dispersion
of light creates rainbows as sunlight refracts off water droplets and the
longer wavelength light (red) refracts at a smaller angle than the shorter
wavelength light (violet), which refracts at a greater angle. Dispersion
also occurs when light of many wavelengths passes through a glass
prism. This effect occurs since the speed of light in glass depends on the
wavelength of light, as it decreases slightly with decreasing wavelength.

Polarization

e Light waves are transverse and therefore oscillate in a plane that is

perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling. Light and other
forms of electromagnetic radiation consist of propagating oscillations in
an electromagnetic field. When you consider a beam of unpolarized light,
its oscillations (which are perpendicular to propagation) can be pointing
in all directions within that perpendicular plane. When that beam of light
is passed through a polarizing filter and becomes polarized light, its
oscillations will be in one direction within the plane perpendicular to the
light’s propagation. Light can be polarized by reflection or by passing it
through filters or crystals that transmit oscillations in certain directions.

—k—_Q—-
unpolarized light polarizing polarized
oscillates in plane filter light

13.7. Lenses and Mirrors

e Light reflects off mirrors and refracts through lenses. When light
interacts with curved mirrors and lenses, it can be focused to a point
(convex lenses and concave mirrors) or diverged from a point (concave
lenses and convex mirrors). While focusing light on curved surfaces is
more complicated than on flat surfaces, a tiny section of a curved surface
is virtually flat so the same principles can apply.
 Waves, Sound, and Light 361
Mirrors and lenses have many characteristics in common with a few
differences. Some properties of lenses and mirrors are depicted in the
figures of lenses and mirrors below. A perpendicular line drawn through
the center, or vertex V, of a mirror or lens is called the principal axis.
Light rays parallel to a principal axis will be reflected, or refracted for
lenses, through the focal point F. In the opposite direction, a light ray
passing through a focal point F will be reflected parallel to the principal
axis. If you imagine a spherical mirror as a slice off a sphere, the center
of that slice is the center of curvature C, and the radius of the sphere is
the radius of curvature R. The distance between the vertex and the
focal point is the focal length f, which is f = R/2, or one-half the radius
of curvature R, for spherical mirrors. Let’s explore these principles
further, beginning with lenses.

Lenses

e Lenses are often circular pieces of glass, having the center region
either thicker (convex lens) or thinner (concave lens) than the circular
edge. Convex lenses cause light rays passing through them to converge
and concave lenses cause light rays to diverge. A light ray will follow
the same path when passing through a lens or system of lenses regardless
of which direction the light is traveling. For example, if parallel rays
strike a convex lens (on its left side) and converge to the focal point F on
the right side, then a light source placed at F (on the right) will have its
rays radiate out and pass through the lens, exiting as parallel rays along
the same path on the left side.

Convex Lenses

e Convex lenses have a thicker center and focus light to a focal point F.
Convex lenses are converging lenses with: a principal axis which is
perpendicular to the center, or vertex V; a focal point F which lies on
the opposite side of the lens from an object of interest on the principal
axis; and a focal length f which is the distance between the vertex V and
the focal point F. F' is the focal point opposite to focal point F and also
distance f from vertex V. A light ray passing through vertex V of a thin
lens (so the ray displacement is negligible) continues without refracting.

e In the figure below of a huge convex lens, if your friend stands outside
the focal point at a distance d greater than the focal length f, or d> fla
real inverted image is created on the opposite side of the lens at distance
d' (which is positive). His image will appear upside down with height
a
(negative) h'. The image formed by the converging of the rays is called
The
real image since it can be projected onto a screen or (camera) film.
362 Master Math: Essential Physics

image can be located by tracing three rays from the top of your friend
through the lens. One ray starts parallel to the principal axis, one through
the vertex, and one that emerges parallel. They converge to a point
determining the location of the top of his image. Note that any two of the
rays can determine the position of the image. Note that primes refer to
image specifications.

principal
axis

»
Convex lens with d > f: +d', +f, inverted real image far side.

e Your friend moves closer to the huge convex lens and stands between
the lens and its focal point. Distance d is now less than the focal length f,
or d<f. This time an upright virtual image is created behind him on the
same side of the lens at distance (negative) d'. (Figure below.) The
upright virtual image has positive height h'. Tracing the three rays from
your friend results in the rays diverging and not passing through the
virtual image. Instead, the virtual image is seen by an observer (on the
right) as it appears to be behind the lens, on the same side as your friend.
The image is also larger than your friend and shows that a convex lens
acts as a magnifying glass when your friend (or an object) is closer to
the lens than the focal point. This virtual image cannot be projected onto
a screen since the light rays diverge and do not pass through the image.

ee eee es Principal _
axis

~
d' mN
Convex lens with d< f: —d', +f, upright virtual image same side.

Concave Lenses

e Concave lenses have a thinner center and divert light away from the
focal point F. Rays parallel to the axis diverge outward, seeming to
originate from the focal point. Concave lenses are diverging lenses
having a principal axis drawn perpendicular through the center, or
 Waves, Sound, and Light 363

vertex V. The focal point F lies on the same side of the lens as an object
of interest and the incident light, making the focal length f negative.
(Remember, f is distance between the vertex V and the focal point F.) A
light ray passing through V of a thin lens (so the ray displacement is
negligible) continues without refracting. When wave fronts in air are
perpendicular to the axis of a concave lens, the incident rays diverge.

e In the figure below of a large concave lens, if your friend stands a

distance d (outside the focal point) greater than the focal length f, or
d > f, an upright virtual image is created on the same side of the lens at
distance (negative) d'. Also note the figure on the right when he steps
inside of F. The upright virtual images in either case have positive height
h', and the actual (friend) height h is greater than the image height h'.
Rays drawn from the top of your friend diverge.

df df
Concave lens: negative d', negative f, upright virtual image on same side.

Applying Equations to Lenses

e The lenses described above can be studied using two important

equations, which we develop in a few pages after discussing mirrors.
These equations provide information about focal length f (which is the
distance between the vertex V and the focal point F), distances d and d’,
heights h and h', magnification M, and whether an image is real, virtual,
upright, or inverted. These two equations for lenses are:

focal length equation: 1/d + I/d'= 1/f

magnification equation: M =h'/h=—d'/d

Remember, the primes indicate the image. Lens properties can be

summarized as:
Convex lens for d > f: +d', +f, inverted real image far side.
Convex lens for d < f: —d', +f, upright virtual image same side.
Concave lens: —d', —f, upright virtual image same side.
364 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Example: (a) If you place a narrow vase at a distance d of 15 cm and

on the left of a convex lens having a focal length f of 5 cm, how far is the
image from the lens, d'? (b) Now move the vase so that d is 2 cm and
determine d'. (c) What is the magnification for parts a and b?
(a) Using 1/d + 1/d' = 1/f with d = 15 cm and f= 5 cm, find d":
1/d' = 1/f— 1/d = (1/5) — (1/15) = (3/15) — (1/15) = 2/15
The image distance d' is 15/2 or 7.5 cm from the lens. Note that f and d'
are positive and d > f. (Can you guess the lens image information?)
(b) With d = 2 cm and f=5 cm, find d':
1/d' = 1/f-— 1/d = (1/5) — (1/2) = (2/10) — (5/10) = —3/10
So the image distance d' is —10/3 or about —3.33 cm from the lens. Note
that f is positive, d < f, and d' is negative, so the image is virtual upright
and on the same side as the object to a convex lens.
(c) For part (a), we have d = 15 cm and d' is 15/2 cm, so magnification is:
M =h'/h = —d'/d= -(15/2)/15 = =1/2
The image is half as large as the object.
For part (b), we have d = 2 cm and d' is —10/3 cm, so magnification 1s:
M = h'/h = —d'/d= (10/3)/2 = 1.67
The image is about 1.7 times larger than the object.

e Example: If you have a diverging lens with a negative focal length f of

—20 cm and an object distance d of 10 cm, where is the image? What is
the magnification?
Since I/d + 1/d' = 1/f:
V/d' = 1/f— 1/d = -1/20 — 1/10 = -(1/20) — (2/20) = -3/20
Therefore, d' = —20/3 ~ —6.67 cm. This concave lens has a negative sign
for d' alerting us that the image is on the same side as the object and is a
virtual image. Diverging lenses create virtual images on the same side of
the lens as the object. Now, the magnification is:
M = h'/h = —d'/d = (20/3)/10 = 2/3
So the image size is 2/3 the size of the object.

Mirrors

e Similar to lenses, mirrors can be used to focus an image. For example,

when light rays that are parallel to the principal axis strike a spherical
concave mirror, they will reflect to the focal point F in front of the
mirror. Note that when the surface of the mirror is spherical, focusing of
incident parallel rays is most accurate for rays with small angles of
incidence. Alternatively, mirrors with parabola-shaped surfaces focus all
parallel rays accurately.
 Waves, Sound, and Light 365

Concave Mirrors

e Locating an image formed by a mirror is similar to locating an image

formed by a lens. A concave mirror acts somewhat like the concave
side of a shiny soup spoon, which allows you to see an inverted
reflection of your face when held at a distance. In fact, concave mirrors
form inverted real images when an object is located outside the focal
point F (when d > f), and upright virtual images when the object is
inside the focal point F (when d < f). You can test this by looking into a
spherical magnifying mirror and moving it closer and further.

e If your friend, having height h, stands at a distance d outside of the

focal point F (where d > f) in front of a large concave mirror, there will
be an inverted real image of him with height h' at a distance d' in front
of the mirror. (See figure below.) The real inverted image is created by
light rays and can therefore be projected onto a screen located at d'. Two
rays can be traced from the top of his head to locate the image: one ray
parallel to the principal axis that reflects off the mirror and crosses
through F, and the other ray that passes through F and reflects off the
mirror meeting the first ray at the inverted top of his image.

image

Concave mirror for d > f: +d", +f, inverted real image same side.

e Suppose your friend then steps inside the focal point F so that his
distance in front of the mirror d is less than the focal length, d < f. (See
figure below.) Rays drawn from the top of his head to the mirror will not
reflect to a point in front of the mirror (so no real image 1s formed), but
the reflected diverging rays can be extrapolated through the mirror toa
point behind the mirror, where they create a large upright virtual image.
The upright virtual image has height h' and is a distance d' from the .
vertex V of the mirror. This is similar to what we see when we look into
a flat mirror and our image appears behind the mirror, but no light is
actually focused on that image. Concave mirrors are often used as
magnifying mirrors. Note that the center of curvature C is equidistant
366 Master Math: Essential Physics

from every point on the mirror, and all lines from C strike the mirror
perpendicularly.

meets perpendicular Le

F
C is center of curvature d

Concave mirror for d < f: —d', +f, upright virtual image far side.

Convex Mirrors

e Now suppose your friend finds a huge convex mirror. He comments

that it is like the back of a giant shiny soup spoon. A convex mirror
creates a smaller upright virtual image regardless of how far he (or an
object) stands in front of the vertex. Rays drawn from the top of your
friend’s head reflect off the mirror and diverge (see figure below).
Nevertheless, those rays can be extrapolated behind the mirror meeting at
the top of the image, with the extrapolated parallel ray passing through
focal point F behind the mirror. The upright virtual image is between the
back of the mirror and the focal point. Convex mirrors are often used as
rear-view mirrors for automobiles because their de-magnification creates
a broader view.

h —

we Or a ee i coll, Gas Sw
ne, Puncieal
c axis

Convex mirror: —d', —f, upright virtual image far side.

Applying Equations to Mirrors

e Mirrors can be described by the same two equations (developed below)

that we used for lenses. These equations allow us to gain information
about a focal length f (which is the distance between the vertex V and the
focal point F), distances d and d', heights h and h', magnification M, and
whether an image is real or virtual, and upright or inverted. Again, these
two equations for mirrors are:
 Waves, Sound, and Light 367

focal length equation: 1/d + 1/d' = 1/f

magnification equation: M =h'/h = —d'/d

Concave mirror for d > f: +d', +f, inverted real image same side.
Concave mirror for d< f: —d', +f, upright virtual image far side.
Convex mirror: —d', —f, upright virtual image far side.

¢ Example: If your friend’s image is inverted and on the opposite side of

a lens or a mirror to where he is standing, what type of lens or mirror is
it: convex or concave lens or convex or concave mirror?
While both concave mirrors and convex lenses can create inverted
images, the images created by concave mirrors are on the same side of
the mirror as the person or object. A convex lens, however, can create an
inverted image on the opposite side.

e Example: Your friend stands inside the focal length (d< f) ofa
concave mirror with a focal length f of 4 m, and he is 2 m from the vertex
of a mirror. Where is his image and what is its magnification?
First you use I/d + 1/d' = 1/f to calculate d':
1/d' = 1/f- 1/d = 1/4 — 1/2 = (1/4) —- (2/4) = -1/4
Therefore, d' is —-4 m, and his image is upright virtual and on the far side.
The magnification is found using: M = h'/h = —d'/d = (4m)/(2m) = 2
Your friend’s image is 2 times larger.

Developing Equations for Lenses and Mirrors

e As we saw in the examples for lenses and mirrors, using the equations
allows us to quickly calculate focal length f, distances d and d', and
heights h and h'. We can use the results to determine whether an image is
real or virtual and upright or inverted.

e Let’s first look at the equation referred to as the lens equation, mirror
equation, or focal length equation. This equation relates focal length f
to the object distance d and image distance d' in lenses and mirrors:
Vid iid" = i/t

Signs of f, d, and d', h, and h' alert us to the properties of lenses and
mirrors in that:
Convex lens for d > f: +d', +f, inverted real image far side.
Convex lens for d < f: —d', +f, upright virtual image same side.
Concave lens: —d', —f, upright virtual image same side.
368 Master Math: Essential Physics

Concave mirror for d > f: +d', +f, inverted real image same side.
Concave mirror for d < f: —d', +f, upright virtual image far side.
Convex mirror: —d', —f, upright virtual image far side.

d d'

e Using a ray diagram above we can derive the lens equation. In the
diagram, there are two pairs of similar triangles, having the equal
corresponding angles in each triangle of a pair. From the triangles, we
can write equalities relating ratios of the sides. For the triangles on the
object side of the lens: —h'/h = f/(d — f), where h' is negative since h' <0
because the image is below the lens axis. For the triangles on the image
side of the lens: —h'/h = (d' — f)/f. Equating —h'/h gives: f/(d — f) =
(d' — f)/f. Cross multiplying and cancelling f° gives: dd' — fd' — fd = 0.
Dividing each term by dd'f and rearranging gives the lens or focal
length equation:
Waar Tider

e The equation referred to as the magnification M equation describes an

image’s magnification and applies to mirrors and lenses:
Ma hyh=—d'/d

Magnification indicates image size with respect to object size, such that
when the absolute value |M| > | the image is larger than the object; when
|M| < 1 the image is smaller; and when M = 1, which occurs with a flat
mirror, the image is the same size as the object. Image height h' is
positive when the image is upright and h' is negative when the image is
inverted. An image will appear larger the closer it is to a mirror. An
image appears upright with virtual images when M is positive, and the
image appears inverted with real images when M is negative.

e We can develop the magnification equation by first considering that

magnification is the ratio of the image height (formed by the lens or
mirror) to the object height:
M =h'/h
The image size depends on where an object is located with respect to the
focal point of the lens. Using the triangles in the figure below:
 Waves, Sound, and Light
369

we see that h/d = —h'/d', where h' is negative since the image is below
the lens axis. Therefore combining with M = h'/h, the magnification
equation is:
| M = h'/h = -d'/d |

13.8. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Mechanical waves involve oscillatory motions of matter.

e Electromagnetic waves involve oscillations of electromagnetic fields
and do not require matter.
e A wave is carried by a substance or material called a medium.
e Wave speed is: v = A/t = Af.
e In transverse waves particles oscillate perpendicular to propagation.
e In longitudinal waves particles oscillate parallel to propagation.
e Reflected waves are inverted with the same v, f, and A, but less
amplitude.
e Superposition: when waves cross and briefly add or subtract amplitude.
e Standing waves form from repeated reflections off endpoint nodes and
occur at characteristic frequencies.
e A node point of a wave remains motionless.
e Antinodes are locations of maximum wave (amplitude) motion.
e Length L and wavelength A for a standing wave: L = nd/2,n= 1,2, ...
e Sound: longitudinal pressure waves oscillating parallel to propagation;
emitted from vibrating source; speed depends on medium’s properties.
e Beats, or beating, is caused by alternating constructive and destructive
interference of waves, producing alternating soft and loud sound.
e Cylinders closed at one end resonate at wavelengths: A = 4L/n for
n= 1, 3,5, ..., with corresponding frequencies: f = v/A = nv/4L for
n= 1, 3,5, ..., and standing-wave frequencies f}, 3f), 5fi, ...
e Cylinders open at both ends resonate at wavelengths: A = 2L/n for
n= 1, 2,3, ..., with corresponding frequencies: f = v/A = nv/2L for
n= 1, 2,3, ..., and standing-wave frequencies Led higeS bases es
370 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Doppler effect or shift: a change of perceived frequency due to

movement of a wave source relative to an observer.
e Doppler frequency f, of source S from listener’s L perspective:
f = f, v/(v — v,) as S moves closer; f, = fsv/(v + vs) as S moves away.
f, = f,(v + v,)/v as L moves closer; f, = f,(v — vL)/v as L moves away.
e Shock wave: forms as a wave source speeds ahead of its wave speed
and drags the emitted waves behind it in the shape of a cone.
e Mach number is M = Vobject/Vwavess OF ratio of object speed to speed of
sound in the medium, where Vwaves = Speed of sound in medium.
e Light has characteristics of both a particle and a wave.
e Young’s double-slit experiment showed light’s wave nature through
constructive and destructive interference. Line spacing is: Ax ~ AL/D.
e Electromagnetic radiation or waves are transverse waves of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields that move through a medium or a vacuum.
e Law of Reflection: incident angle = reflecting angle, incidence = Oreftection-
e Light incident on a surface can reflect off or refract across the interface.
e Index of refraction n is: n = c/v, or
(speed of light in a vacuum c) / (speed of light in the medium v).
e Snell’s Law n;sin®; = n)sin@, for rays from medium | to medium 2 has
indexes of refraction n,; and no, incident and refracted angles 0, and 4).
e Total internal reflection occurs at angle 0. =sin |(Mresspense/MMoreDense):
e Convex lenses cause convergence; concave lenses cause divergence.
e Two equations for lenses and mirrors: focal length equation, 1/d + 1/d'
= 1/f, and magnification equation, M = h'/h = —d'/d, where
Convex lens for d>f: +d', +f, inverted real image far side.
Convex lens for d < f: —d', +f, upright virtual image same side.
Concave lens: —d', —f, upright virtual image same side.
Concave mirror for d > f: +d", +f, inverted real image same side.
Concave mirror for d < f: —d', +f, upright virtual image far side.
Convex mirror: —d', —f, upright virtual image far side.

Practice Problems

13.1 (a) Two beams of light travel through space. Beam A has twice the
frequency of Beam B. Compare their wavelengths. (b) Two steel strings
vibrate. String A has twice the tension and twice the diameter of String B.
Compare the velocities of their wave pulses.

13.2 A guitar string resonates at both 360 Hz and 450 Hz without any
intermediate frequencies. Can you compute its fundamental frequency?

13.3 (a) As you drive down a highway at 100 km/hr on a 20°C day, a
train approaches and passes you going in the opposite direction with its
horn stuck on. When you first hear the horn, it is a Middle C (261.63 Hz),
 Waves, Sound, and Light S17

and when you last hear it the pitch has dropped to an F (174.61 Hz).
What was the train’s speed? (b) What is the actual frequency of the horn?

13.4 (a) You see a black-and-white photo of a double-slit experiment

where the distance between the slits is 5 mm, the distance between the
screens is 2 m, and the spacing of the maxima is about 2 mm. What is the
wavelength of the light? (b) What color is it?

13.5 (a) A laser emits a beam of light with a wavelength of 550 nm and
an energy intensity of 11 mW. What is each photon’s energy? (b) How
many photons are emitted each second? (1 mW = 0.001 J/s)

13.6 (a) Diamonds have an index of refraction of 2.42. If light strikes a

diamond at 0; = 45°, what will be its angle of refraction 0g? (b) What is
the speed of light vp in the diamond? (c) After the light enters the
diamond, what is the critical angle 8c for it to be internally reflected?

13.7 (a) Sherlock Holmes inspects a hair taken from a crime scene with
his magnifying glass. He holds the lens 4 cm from the hair. It appears 5
times its actual thickness. What is the focal length of his magnifying
glass? (b) Your friend is 2 m tall and stands 2.25 m from a concave
mirror with a focal length of 0.75 m. How far from the mirror should you
set a screen to project his focused image? (c) How tall will his image be?

Answers to Chapter 13 Problems

13.1 (a) Both beams travel at the speed oflight, so A, fa = Apfp. Since fy
is twice fp, A, must be one half Ag. (b) Since it has twice the diameter,
String A has 4 times the cross sectional area. vg = [Tp/pAp]” and
va = [2Tp/p(4Ap)]” = [2/4]* [Tp/pAs]” = 0.707vz.
13.2 f, = nf, and f, = 360 Hz and f,.; = 450 Hz, so fa+1 — fn = 90 Hz.
Since 90 Hz = (n+1)f; — nf; = f|, so the fundamental frequency is 90 Hz.

13.3 (a) The train’s speed relative to you is x. For the approaching train
f, = 261.63 Hz = fs(v)/(v — x) = 344 f3/(344 — x), so fs =
(261.63/344)(344 — x). For the retreating train f, = 174.61 =
344fs/(344 + x), so fs = (174.61/344)(344 + x). Since fs = fs then
0.76(344 — x) = 0.51(344 + x), 1.5(344 — x) = 344 +x, x= 68.8 m/s.
Since you are going 100 km/hr = 27.8 m/s, the train was traveling at
68.8 — 27.8 = 41 m/s, or about 148 km/hr. (b) Again f, = fs(v)/(v — x), so
261.63 = f5(344)/(344 — 68.8), and fs ~ 209.3 Hz, just above a G Sharp.

13.4 (a) Ax = AL/D, so A = AxD/L = (0.002 m)(0.005 m)/2 = 5 x 10° m=

to
5,000 nm. (b) This wavelength is in the infrared range—not visible
t).
the human eye (but it can be photographed with the right equipmen
372 Master Math: Essential Physics

13.5 (a) Each photon’s energy E = hce/A =

(6:626 1072 I's)(G:0>10" mis)/ (55 107 am 6 x10 9:
(b) The number of photons emitted per second = N
= (0.011 J/s)/(3.6 x 10°’ J/photon) ~ 3.1 x 10'° photons.
13.6 (a) Using Snell’s Law, n;sin 8; = n2sin Op or Or = sin '(n)(sin 8;)/(n2)
= sin” (1)(0.707)(2.42) = 17°. (b) no'= ¢/Vp or Vp = c/n2 =
(3,0°x 10° m/s)/2.42. 1,24 « 10° m/s, (ce) Oa— sine (adaaa) a
sin '(1/2.42) ~ 24°. The sparkle and depth of a well-cut diamond is
enhanced by all the internal reflection.

13.7 (a) M =-d'/d so d' = —Md = -(5)(4) = —20 cm. 1/f= 1/d + 1/d'=
(1/4) + (1/20) = 4/20, so f=5 cm. (b) 1/f= 1/d + 1/d', so
1/d' = 1/f— 1/d = (1/0.75) — (1/2.25) = 0.889, so d' = 1.125, so you would
place the screen 1.125 m from the mirror. (¢c) M = —d'/d = —1.125/0.75 =
—1.5, so he will appear (—1.5)(2 m) or —3 m tall (inverted) on the screen.
 Chapter 14
INTRODUCTION TO THE “FUN STUFF”

14.1. Special Relativity

14.2. General Relativity
14.3. The Atom and an Introduction to Quantum
14.4. Dark Energy and Dark Matter
14.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

“When a blind beetle crawls over the surface of a curved branch,

it doesn’t notice that the track it has covered is indeed curved.
I was lucky enough to notice what the beetle didn’t notice.
Attributed to Albert Einstein

“Anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory has not understood it.”’
Attributed to Niels Bohr

e “Modern” physics includes the discoveries of the Twentieth century

which went beyond Newtonian explanations of our clearly visible reality
into a strange yet very real though unseen reality. Modern physics
examines the very small, the very fast, and the very great, using new
theories and tools such as relativity and quantum physics.

14.1. Special Relativity

e Published in 1905, Einstein’s first theory of Relativity, Special

Relativity, deviated from the Newtonian construct of space and time as
absolute frames of reference. Special Relativity theory asserts that the
speed of light is constant regardless of the velocity of an observer, that
time slows down for objects traveling near the speed of light, and that
objects traveling near the speed of light become shorter and heavier.
Special Relativity is restricted to observers in uniform relative motion in
the absence of a gravitational field. From the perspective of an inertial
frame of reference, all motion can be described as being relative. For
example, if your friend stands next to a train moving 20 mi/hr forward,
then relative to you inside the train he is moving in the opposite direction
is any
(backward) at 20 mi/hr. Remember, an inertial reference frame
374 Master Math: Essential Physics

setting in which Newton’s First Law—that every object persist in its

state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to
change—is valid.

e Let’s go back to the 1800s when scientists believed light traveled

through an invisible medium in outer space called the “ether”. This
made sense because waves usually travel through some kind of medium,
such as air or water. In 1879, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley
measured the speed of the revolving Earth relative to the ether of space.
Michelson and Morley reasoned that if the Earth is moving through
some type of ether (similar to a ship through water), one would expect a
slight difference in the speed of light depending on whether it is striking
the revolving Earth head-on or it is striking the Earth perpendicularly
from the side of its orbit. They expected they should easily distinguish
differences due to maxima and minima in the interference pattern
depending on orientation. Their experiment, however, showed no
differences at all, suggesting the speed of light was the same in either
(or all) direction.

e In 1905 Einstein proposed the two fundamental postulates of special

relativity which enlarged the Newtonian view of reality and shed light on
the Michelson-Morley results.

One postulate was that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial
reference frames, so that all observers moving at constant speed should
observe the same physical laws.

Einstein’s postulate suggests that the laws of physics are the same in two
different inertial reference frames even when the two reference frames
are uniformly moving relative to one another at a constant velocity. The
laws of physics apply whether you are in a uniformly moving car or train
or whether you are standing on the ground. If you are standing inside a
train moving at a smooth, constant velocity, from your perspective you
are static and your friend standing outside the train appears to be moving
backward. From the perspective of your friend standing outside the train,
he is static and you (inside the train) are moving forward. Einstein’s
postulate implies that either perspective is correct and all inertial
reference frames are valid.

A second postulate was that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant

at 3.0 x 10° m/s in every reference frame, regardless of the motion of
the observer or the source of the light. In other words, the speed of
light is the same for all observers, regardless of their motion relative to
a source of the light.
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” B75

This postulate suggests that whether you are standing or traveling toward
a light source, you will measure the light speed to be c = 3.0 x 10° m/s
relative to yourself. This runs counterintuitive to the behavior of objects
moving with respect to one another and how we would combine their
velocities using basic vector addition. The consequences of this postulate
lead to the unusual outcomes of special relativity, including time dilation
and length contraction.

¢ These two postulates led to new perspectives including the conversion

of mass and energy between one another, the relationship E = mc’,
conservation of energy and mass being considered together rather than
separately, and motion near the speed of light producing strange time and
length effects. For example, imagine if you, while standing on Earth’s
surface, could view your friend holding a clock on a rocket ship that is
traveling near the speed of light. The clock on the ship would appear to
run Slower than a clock you are holding in your hand. If you and your
friend are also each holding yardsticks, his yardstick on the ship would
appear shorter to you than your yardstick. From your friend’s perspective
in the rocket ship, you (standing on Earth’s surface) are the one who is
moving, and to him your clock is running slower and your yardstick
looks shorter. This suggests that space and time are not constant, but
depend on a frame of reference. Let’s look more closely at time dilation
and length contraction.

Time Dilation

® Time dilation, a consequence of Special Relativity, suggests that time

slows at high speeds. First consider the first postulate of Special Relativity
which suggests that absolute speed does not exist—only relative speed.
We can see this by considering your perspective from inside a train of
your friend who is outside the train. To you, he is moving backward,
which is as valid as your friend’s perspective that you and the train are
moving forward. You in the train and your friend outside the train are
each in inertial reference frames, and all the laws of physics apply within
your respective frames. Either of you could bounce a ball on the floor,
and the fact that your train is moving would not matter—both balls
would bounce vertically.

Now let’s look at time dilation. The effect of time dilation is that when
you are inside the train traveling very fast at one-half the speed of light
relative to your friend (who is standing outside), it appears to your friend
that time is moving slower for you on your train than it is for him.
However, from your perspective in your train, it seems that time is
you
moving at its normal speed. From your perspective in the train,
376 Master Math: Essential Physics

observe your friend moving at one-half the speed of light relative to you,
so it appears to you that time is moving more slowly for your friend.
Time must therefore be relative, and both of you experience time from
your respective positions. Scientists have observed time dilation by
showing that an atomic clock travelling in a high-speed jet ticks more
slowly than its stationary counterpart.

Therefore, according to Special Relativity, the time measured by an

outside observer for events occurring on a speeding train or even a rocket
occur more slowly than events measured by the person inside the train or
rocket. Time is dilating or seeming to expand on the train or rocket from
the perspective of the outside observer. A classic depiction of this is a
rocket traveling across the sky with an observer on Earth.

Suppose you are in the rocket and your friend is viewing you from the
Earth’s surface. Now suppose you have a clock in your rocket which
measures time by sending a light beam from one side of the rocket to the
other, back and forth between two parallel mirrors attached to opposite
sides of the rocket interior. Suppose the mirrors are distance D apart.
From inside the rocket you measure time intervals by how long it takes
the light beam to reflect back and forth across the rocket. From your
friend’s vantage point on Earth, the reflecting light looks different since
he also sees the rocket move across the sky as the light beam reflects.
Rather than the beam traveling across the distance D, it also is being
moved sideways. The time you see for a round-trip of the light beam
from inside the rocket 1s to. The time your friend sees from Earth for the
same round trip is t as the beam follows the dashed arrows.

ee Net
aigmeee Oy,
To write time dilation in equation form, we compare the time measured
on the clock in the rocket above from your perspective on the rocket to
and from your friend’s perspective on Earth t. Your clock measures time
interval tp, while to him it would take time t.

t=) ToGo

where v is rocket speed and c is speed of light. This shows that the clock
appears to tick more slowly to an observer perceiving the clock moving
than it does to the observer in the rest frame next to the clock.
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” Si//7

e Example: Suppose you are in the rocket traveling at one-half the speed
of light (v = 0.5c) relative to your friend on Earth. If you measure 10° s
on your clock for the light beam to travel from one mirror to the other
(distance D = 3 m apart) in your rocket ship as shown in the drawing
above, what will your friend measure for that same time interval?

t = to/[1 —(v7/c’)]* = 10s / [1 — ((0.5c)?/c?)]* = 1.15 x 108s

From your friend’s perspective it takes longer for the event to occur, so
from his perspective time seems to be running slower for you on the
rocket. If instead your friend had the light-beam clock with him on Earth
and you were rocketing by, he would measure 10° s for the light beam to
travel between mirrors that were set the same distance D apart, and to
you it would seem to have taken 1.15 x 10°*s for the light beam to travel
between the mirrors.

e Note that t and ty differ by a factor of 1 / [1 —(v’/c’)]*. This factor

reduces to the number one for more “normal” travel speeds not near the
speed of light c. Therefore, time dilation effects are only noticeable at
very high, near-light-speed velocities (which means a normal train would
not produce a noticeable time dilation effect). Also note that as v
approaches the speed of light c, time appears to slow to a standstill.

Relativistic Length Contraction

e Length contraction, another consequence of Special Relativity,

suggests that an observer would not only perceive time moving more
slowly on a train traveling speed v relative to him at, say, half the speed
of light, but he would also perceive the train’s length shortening, or
contracting. If the train’s length at rest is Lo, it will appear to contract in
the direction it is moving to a length L when it is observed from a
reference frame that is moving at speed v relative to the train. The length
of the train when it is moving at a speed v relative to the observer is:
L=fil wie|”

This shows that the length of an object appears to be shorter to an

observer perceiving the moving object than to a person who is within the
rest frame of the object. Note that this apparent contraction applies to
the length parallel to the direction of motion only.

Train has length Lp at rest.

Speeding train has observed apparent length L.

Observer on railway platform of length L.

378 Master Math: Essential Physics

e Example: Suppose a train’s length at rest Lo is 50 m. If it could travel

0.4 times the speed of light c, or v = 0.4c, what would be its apparent
length to an outside observer?
L=Ioll-wie)l = G0mi 0-4)| 4am

Time Dilation and Simultaneous Events

e Special Relativity’s time dilation can cause two simultaneous events

to appear not to be simultaneous to different observers. In other words, if
time can increase or decrease depending on the reference frame, then two
happenings that appear simultaneous to one observer may not appear
simultaneous to another observer.

Consider a locomotive that is somewhat longer than a railway platform

(as in the above figure). Suppose your friend is standing at the center of
the railway platform as you pass by at a high speed riding in the
locomotive. Due to the high speed of the locomotive relative to your
friend, he observes its length contracted. From your perspective riding in
the locomotive, the length of the platform is contracted. Also, suppose a
light on the front of your locomotive flashes on as it passes the right side
the platform, and a light on the back of your locomotive flashes on as it
passes the left side of the platform. Due to apparent length contraction of
the locomotive which “shrinks” it to the length of the platform from your
friend’s perspective, your friend observes the two flashes of light
simultaneously from his vantage point at the center of the platform. He
then concludes that the two flashes occur at the same time. From your
perspective, the right side of the platform passing the front of the
locomotive and the left side of the platform passing the back of the loco-
motive are two events that do not occur simultaneously because the
locomotive is actually longer than the platform. This scenario shows how
two events that seem simultaneous for one observer may not be
simultaneous for another observer.

Relativistic Velocity Addition

e Simple vector addition of velocity in the easily perceptible Newtonian

world shows us that if your friend sees you standing on a train that is
moving 16 m/s and you throw a rock forward at 6 m/s in the direction the
train is moving, he will observe the rock moving at 22 m/s. Suppose you
turn into Superman approaching your friend from your super secret space
base riding on your near-light-speed rocket ship. If your ship is moving
at speed u and you throw a space rock at speed vo in the direction of
motion, he will observe the space rock moving at speed v given by:
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 379

V =(u+ vo) / (1 + uvo/c’)

This is called relativistic velocity addition and shows that speeds of
objects traveling near the speed of light do not undergo normal vector
addition. Note that this equation can also be applied to velocities in
opposite directions by changing signs of velocity values.

e Example: If you, Superhero, rocket toward Earth at half the speed of

light (u = 0.5c) and throw a space rock toward your evil enemy on Earth
at 0.6 times the speed of light relative to you (Vo = 0.6c), what is the
speed v of the space rock relative to Earth (before impact)?
Vv =(u+ vo) / (1 + uvo/c’) = (0.5¢ + 0.6c) / (1 + (0.5c)(0.6c)/c?)
=(1.1c)/d +0.3)=(1.1e)/ (1.3) = 0.85¢
Even though the sum of the two velocities (0.5c + 0.6c = 1.1c) exceeds c,
the actual velocity relative to the Earth is less than c or about 0.85c.

Relativistic Mass Effects

e Another interesting relativistic effect is that as something moves at

extremely high relativistic speeds it becomes heavier with increasing
speed. This so-called relativistic mass effect means that an object
traveling at high speed relative to you will have a mass greater than its
resting mass. Specifically, for an object with a resting mass of mo
moving at speed v near the speed of light c, its observed mass when
moving at speed v relative to you is m:
Mm my/ [1 —(v ie)|*

This equation suggests that as the speed of an object approaches the

speed of light c = 3.0 x 10° m/s, its mass approaches infinity. It would
therefore require infinite energy to accelerate a massive object to light
speed. This, in practice, prevents a massive object from being able to
travel at the speed of light relative to us. Obtaining high speeds for
objects with non-zero resting masses requires large amounts of energy.
Relativistic mass effects have been interpreted to suggest nothing can
travel faster than the speed of light. However, these effects do not neces-
sarily preclude objects that always move faster than c. Such theoretical
particles are referred to as tachyons. Note, for light itself, the equation’s
denominator is zero, so by convention, the resting mass of light is zero.

Relativistic Energy Effects

e Very high speeds also affect energy. Approaching the speed of light,
The
the mass of an object increases, so its kinetic energy also increases.
380 Master Math: Essential Physics

kinetic energy at near light speeds has relativistic energy effects which
are expressed:
KE= me (1)(lw
ce)) 1)
This equation suggests that as speed v approaches the speed of light c,
kinetic energy approaches infinity, and it would therefore require infinite
energy to accelerate large objects to light speed. For this reason traveling
faster than the speed of light seems impractical. Note that for slower,
more “normal” v values, determining KE using the above equation
converges with values obtained using the more familiar (1/2)mv’.

e If you graph kinetic energy vs. velocity at normal speeds, the curve
begins at the origin and rises as a parabola. Alternatively, if you graph
kinetic energy vs. velocity at relativistic speeds, the curve begins at the
origin and starts to rise as a parabola. Then as the curve approaches the
speed of light c it rises more steeply approaching but never reaching c,
with increasing KE occurring due to greater mass more than from speed.
Normal speeds __ Relativistic speeds
'
KE KE '
'
'

Cc

Mass-Energy Equivalence

e Einstein’s discovery of the relativity of space and time revealed a

mass-energy equivalence, that matter and energy are not just inter-
related but have an equivalence. Using principles of relativity, Einstein
therefore developed the equation showing that mass and energy can be
converted from one to another. Mass can be converted to energy E as:

where mp is the resting mass and c is the speed oflight.

Relativistic Momentum

e At very high speeds the equation for momentum p, where p = mv is:

p=myv/ [fey

The effect occurs near the speed of light c when the denominator becomes
very small. At lower speeds the denominator is essentially equal to one
and we have the Newtonian relationship with mass m and velocity v:
p=mv
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 381

The Twin Paradox

¢ Suppose with clock in hand you rocket off Earth, traveling very fast to
your space base and then return to Earth. Suppose also that your twin
remains on Earth. According to relativity, your clock runs slow
compared to your twin’s clock, so when you return to Earth you will be
younger than your twin. This is because not only does your physical
clock run more slowly, but your internal (aging) clock also presumably
runs more slowly. Your experience in your rocket ship seems normal to
you, and it does not seem to you that time runs more slowly. In fact, from
your vantage point, except for the effects of your rocket accelerating and
decelerating, you are stationary and it seems that your twin moves relative
to you at a high speed. From your perspective your twin’s clock runs
slower, and therefore he should be younger when you rejoin each other
on Earth.

How can you and your twin both wind up younger? This is referred to as
the twin paradox. It can be resolved by the fact that as you travel to your
space base and back, you experience high g-forces during your launch,
turn around at your base, and the deceleration and landing back on Earth.
You do not remain in one inertial reference frame during your trip. It is
therefore not valid to analyze the twin paradox from your reference frame.

While the Earth is in a circular orbit around the Sun and rotating on its
axis, these accelerations are small enough that Earth may be treated as an
inertial reference frame for your twin. This means your twin remains in
one inertial reference frame. Because you do not remain in one inertial
reference frame during your trip, there is not a symmetrical situation
between you and your twin. In order to create the twin paradox, we must
assume that you have been in a single inertial frame throughout your trip
out to the base and back home. Since this assumption is not true, there is
no real paradox. Therefore, your clock is the one that runs more slowly
and you age less than your twin.

14.2. General Relativity

General Relativity Principles

e While Special Relativity applies to situations in which objects are

ns
moving at uniform velocities, General Relativity expands to situatio
up to
involving accelerated motion and gravity. During the years leading
published,
1916 when his landmark paper on General Relativity (GR) was
382 Master Math: Essential Physics

Einstein published several related papers and fine-tuned and developed

his theory. General Relativity is an expansion of Special Relativity that
provides a new theory of gravity and a description of spacetime which
treats its geometry as a 4-dimensional continuum. We usually think of
time and space being separate, but in GR we can treat time as a 4th
dimension, giving us spacetime. Einstein theorized that gravity is not a
force but rather a manifestation of curved space and time, or spacetime.

Space and time had been assumed to be absolutes before the 20th century,
but in GR they are viewed as dynamic. In GR theory, matter causes
spacetime to curve, and that curving affects the behavior of matter. The
laws of Euclidean geometry are not valid in GR. In Newtonian physics,
when a particle has no forces acting on it, it will continue in a straight
line, but in curved spacetime it will move along curved paths.

The Newtonian theory of gravity describes gravity as a force such that

two bodies are believed to exert a pulling force on each other. Newton’s
perspective on gravity describes not only the fall of apples to Earth but
also the orbital motions of planets and moons. GR describes such effects
differently. For example, a sun causes the spacetime surrounding it to
curve, which in turn affects the motion of nearby planets, creating their
orbits. In GR, gravity is described in terms of the dynamic characteristics
of space and time such that it is curved by the effects of matter which in
turn can affect the behavior of that matter.

e A classic depiction of space curved by mass uses a 2-dimensional (2D)

slice of space and shows a bowling ball resting on a stretched rubber
sheet.

This drawing is referred to as an embedding diagram and shows how a

2D slice through 3D space can be curved. The idea of embedding is that
it describes a region of curved space by modeling it as a curved surface.
We can see that the bowling ball deforms the surface of the sheet. If you
add a golf ball to the sheet, it will roll toward the bowling ball. Einstein
viewed the “attraction” of a small object to a larger one as the smaller
object moving through space that has been warped by the larger object
rather than the objects being drawn together by an attractive force.

e In curved space strange things happen. For example, suppose you and
your friend begin walking north from two different points on the equator,
and your paths begin parallel to each other. As you continue toward the
North Pole, with each of you walking straight, you will at some point no
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 383

longer be walking parallel to each other. Eventually you will meet each
other at the North Pole. The “geodesics” you were walking along did not
remain parallel to each other. (A geodesic is the shortest path between
two points. On a sphere it is a path along a great circle.) On a sphere
parallel lines curve inward toward each other, having positive curvature.
Alternatively, on a saddle-shaped object parallel lines curve outward,
having negative curvature. In curved space paths that remain parallel are
not the shortest-distance paths between two points. Note that in a tiny
region of curved space we can often use assumptions that apply to flat
space. On a microscale, parallel lines remain parallel.

e While in Newtonian physics space and time are viewed as separate, in

GR, time is considered a fourth dimension. Since it is difficult to
visualize a 4-dimensional Universe with 3 space dimensions plus a time
dimension, we can at least imagine 2 space dimensions as a surface plus
one time dimension. For example, consider an x-y-z coordinate system
where x and y are 2-dimensional space drawn horizontally and z is time
drawn vertically. We can depict a single particle at rest as a vertical line,
and a particle traveling at a constant velocity is a diagonal line.

time Z Particle at rest

+— Particle at constant velocity

bf

e In the Newtonian world mass appears as either inertial mass in F = ma

when we consider motion or gravitational mass in F = mg. In his
Principle of Equivalence, Einstein hypothesized that these two kinds of
mass are equivalent. That means in Newton’s equation ma = mg, the first
m is inertial mass and the second m is gravitational mass, and they are
equivalent. When a given mass is examined in two different states—one
where the mass is acted on by gravity or another where the mass is in a
state of inertia such that it resists forces and accelerations—Einstein’s
Principle of Equivalence says the mass is the same. An example of this is
a spinning top which has the same mass whether it is falling off a table
and acted on by gravity or whether it is spinning on the table in a state of
inertia.

Because of the Principle of Equivalence, an experiment conducted in a

uniformly accelerating reference frame with acceleration “a” would play
out in an indistinguishable manner from the same experiment conducted
in a non-accelerating reference frame within a gravitational field where
the acceleration of gravity g = —a.
384 Master Math: Essential Physics

What we see is that a uniform gravitational field, such as near the Earth,
is equivalent to a uniform acceleration. This suggests that if you were
standing on Earth’s surface feeling the effects of gravity or standing in an
elevator in outer space that is smoothly accelerating upward at the rate of
gravity (9.81 m/s’), you would feel the same downward pull of “gravity”.

e Imagine you are in an elevator that is at rest relative to the Earth’s

gravitational field. The gravitational force on your body (your weight)
pushes you down onto the floor of the elevator as the elevator floor
pushes up on you with the same force. You feel this reaction force as
your weight. Uh oh, if the elevator’s cables break, you will become
weightless. Since inertial and gravitational mass are equivalent, all
objects fall freely with the same acceleration. The elevator and its
contents are accelerating toward Earth’s center at the same rate. This
means that the elevator floor is no longer supplying a force on you, and
you are at rest relative to the elevator. If you let go of the coffee cup you
are holding, it will appear to float since it is also in free fall and is accel-
erating toward Earth’s center at the same rate as you and the elevator.

This scenario suggests that within a frame of reference that is in free

fall, gravity has no effect. Apparently, Einstein reasoned, if gravity can
be made irrelevant, then it may not be an actual force but rather related to
motion in spacetime. Furthermore, he thought any experiment performed
within the gravity-less elevator should have the same results as experi-
ments done in any region void of gravity’s effects.

Field Equations

¢ GR theory is expressed in a series of Field Equations, which are

complex and suggest strange phenomena such as black holes and
gravitational waves. Einstein’s Field Equations describe the gravi-
tational field around a mass and, as such, how a mass curves spacetime
and how curved spacetime affects movement, stretching, or shrinking of
a mass. The equations describing GR required many years to understand
and to begin to solve.

At first the equations were only applied to simple systems. Karl

Schwarzschild applied Einstein’s GR theory to a symmetrically
spherical star and the curving of spacetime. He soon thereafter described
the spacetime curvature inside a star. Schwarzschild’s work led to
Schwarzschild geometry and a description of a singularity with infinite
spacetime curvature inside—what was later described as a black hole.
(See discussion of black holes later in this section.)
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 385

General Relativity Predictions

e Newtonian physics and General Relativity yield similar predictions

when you are modeling situations with speeds much slower than the
speed of light and when gravitational fields are weak. When speeds are
very high or gravitational fields are great, the predictions diverge and GR
is more accurate. The following sections highlight some of the
predictions of General Relativity.

Gravitational Time Dilation and Length Change

e We learned that a prediction of Special Relativity is that time is

variable and traveling clocks appear to run slow relative to a stationary
observer. This effect is most dramatic at speeds approaching the speed of
light. General Relativity predicts that gravity also appears to slow or
dilate the flow of time. While gravitational time dilation is generally
negligible since gravity is usually weak, when spacetime is curved by a
massive object, time dilation becomes significant. For example, an
observer far away from a black hole would perceive time passing
extremely slowly for an object being drawn into the hole.

e Similar to length contraction of objects at high speeds in Special

Relativity, GR also predicts a gravitational length change. In General
Relativity, gravity (which is the curvature of spacetime by matter)
appears to stretch or shrink distances or lengths of an object depending
on its orientation in the gravitational field.

General Relativity Theory Survives 1919 Eclipse

e GR’s prediction of the bending of light near large masses was observed
as starlight deflected around the Sun during a 1919 solar eclipse. The
measurements made supported Einstein’s GR predictions. During the
eclipse, the Sun was silhouetted against the Hyades star cluster which
had known star positions. With Sir Arthur Eddington on an island off the
west coast of Africa and a group of British scientists in Brazil, they
measured a number of stars in the Hyades cluster, proving that the star’s
light bent precisely according to Einstein’s predictions as it grazed the
Sun. The starlight’s position seemed to shift. This apparent displacement
of light was due to the light following the warped or curved space near a
massive object (the Sun). The light did not deviate from its path, but
followed the curvature of spacetime. The eclipse results were the first big
test of Einstein’s theory, and brought him fame and his theory respect.
386 Master Math: Essential Physics

This effect of light curving around large masses is called gravitational

lensing. Stars or objects in a region of space behind a massive object
have an apparent shift in their locations. When there is a cluster it can
appear magnified. Lensing by the Sun and other similar masses is
referred to as weak gravitational lensing, as they cause a shifting or a
magnification of objects behind the lensing mass. If the lensing object is
massive enough, it can create multiple images of objects behind it. This
creation of multiple images is called strong gravitational lensing.

Mercury’s Orbit

e A second test of Einstein’s theory was an explanation of the slight

alteration in Mercury’s orbit around the Sun. Astronomers had been
aware of a defect in Mercury’s orbit. While Newton’s Laws generally
describe the orbits of the planets, a small discrepancy existed between
theory and observation in the orbit of Mercury. Mercury is the planet
closest to the Sun and experiences the strongest gravitational field from
the Sun. It is therefore in a region where spacetime is warped the most by
the Sun’s mass. Mercury precesses such that the long axis of its ellipse
revolves around the Sun slightly faster than predicted by Newton’s
theory. In other words, Mercury’s elliptical path shifts slightly with each
orbit so that its closest point to the Sun, or perihelion, shifts forward with
each lap. While Newton’s theory predicted an advance half as large as
what was observed, Einstein’s theory predicted what was observed.

Gravitational Redshift

e A Gravitational Redshift occurs when the frequency of a photon

appears to shift to lower energy as it climbs out of a gravitational field,
or “well”. This is explained as occurring as a photon expends energy to
rise out of a gravitational well. Since the speed of light is maintained
during the climb, energy is lost through a frequency change rather than
velocity. As a photon’s energy decreases, its frequency decreases. This
corresponds to an observed increase in, or lengthening of, the photon’s
wavelength or a shift toward the red end of the electromagnetic spectrum
(remember A = c/f). This means the wavelength of light or any other
form of electromagnetic radiation that is observed to pass against a
gravitational field will be shifted toward redder regions of the spectrum.
Also, note that when a photon is observed to “fall” into a gravitational
field or well, it will gain energy, and its observed wavelength will be
shortened or shifted toward the blue end of the spectrum, called
Gravitational Blueshift.
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 387

The Gravitational Redshift of photons is also described in terms of the

gravitational slowing of time. Since gravity changes the flow of time,
as
predicted by GR, a Gravitational Redshift occurs as the oscillations of
light waves slow or become redder when pulled by gravity.

In 1960 a Gravitational Redshift was observed when a beam of high

energy gamma rays was very slightly redshifted as it climbed out of
Earth’s gravity up an elevator shaft at Harvard University. The observed
redshift was very close to the value calculated by GR theory. In the
1960s scientists at Princeton University measured a redshift of sunlight
which also matched GR theory. Since then numerous Gravitational
Redshifts have been measured for light from high-mass heavenly bodies
and compared with GR theory’s predicted values.

Black Holes

e Extremely massive or dense objects generate strong gravity. GR

predicts unimaginably compact objects with gravity so strong that
nothing, including light, can escape. These objects are called black
holes. Einstein’s GR predicted both singularities and black holes.

Let’s see how a black hole could occur. First, if we consider the
“gravitational field” around a mass such as the Sun, by GR we are
considering the curvature of spacetime caused in its vicinity. In the
vicinity of a massive object such as the Sun, light (and anything else) is
warped or bent toward it. If we next consider something smaller but
more dense and massive, such as a neutron star, gravity is very strong in
its vicinity, and the curvature of space and time is greater. For an object
even smaller and denser, spacetime is warped even more, and light
shined outward from such an object cannot escape its gravity. Such an
object is appropriately called a black hole. There is a spherical region
around a black hole that demarcates where light can no longer escape
called an event horizon.

When any object gets squeezed into a sphere that is equal to or smaller
than a certain radius called the Schwarzschild radius, it will become a
black hole. The characteristic Schwarzschild radius for a given object
depends on the object’s mass m and can be expressed as: fsch = 2Gm/c’,
where G is Newton’s gravitational constant. The event horizon of a
given black hole is a sphere the size of the Schwarzschild radius. Once
.
an object becomes dense enough to form a black hole, it continues
collapsing and becoming denser until it eventually forms an infinite point
of density and curvature called singularity. If you could observe a black
star,
hole forming, you would see the original object, such as dying
388 Master Math: Essential Physics

collapse to the size of its Schwarzschild radius and disappear. The object
would continue collapsing, but no light would escape, and you could not
see it anymore.

e Example: Your friend asks you to what size our sun would need to
collapse in order to form a black hole. (Assume G = 6.67 x 10°' m*/kg:s”,
Mun = 1.99 x 10°’ kg, and c = 3.00 x 10° m/s.)
You say the Sun would need to be squeezed into a sphere the size of the
Schwarzschild radius or smaller:
fgch = 2Gm/c? = 2(6.67 x 10°|' m?/kg+s?)(1.99 x 10°°
kg) / (3.00 10° m/s)’
~ 2,949.6 m or about 3 kilometers

Gravitational Waves

e As predicted by General Relativity theory, gravitational waves are

disturbances or ripples in the fabric of spacetime created by the motion
of matter. Vigorous movements of large masses create a spacetime
disturbance, or ripple, which will propagate outward as gravitational
waves. Gravitational waves pass through space or matter and weaken
with distance traveled from a source. As gravitational waves travel
through something, it minutely stretches and shrinks.

Gravitational waves require not only a massive object. but also some sort
of vigorous movement. Candidates for production of gravitational waves
include events such as the supernova collapse of stellar cores into
neutron stars or black holes, the collisions and combining of neutron
stars or black holes, the close unsteady orbiting of two neutron stars or
black holes around each other, and the remnants of gravitational
radiation created during the birth of the Universe.

An Expanding Universe

e Finally, on the largest scale, the General Relativity equations predict a

Universe that is not static and therefore either expanding or contracting.
This prediction, in essence, results from the effect of gravity. Einstein
was apparently troubled by the thought of a non-static Universe and
ineffectively attempted to make modifications to his theory to allow
static solutions. In 1929 Edwin Hubble observed that all distant galaxies
appeared to be moving away, which was in accordance with Einstein’s
General Relativity prediction of an expanding Universe.
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 389

e Once again, Relativity theory was proven correct, which has happene
d
consistently since Einstein developed it. Relativity has changed our view
of the Universe including: gravity being defined as a manifestation of
curved space and time, time and space no longer considered fixed, the
bending of light and slowing of time near large masses, the accurate
calculation of Mercury’s precession, and the prediction of black holes.

14.3. The Atom and an Introduction to Quantum

a
e a n 8
e An atom is the fundamental building block of elements. It consists of a
central nucleus having neutrons and protons surrounded by one or more
negatively charged electrons. Scientists throughout history have been
preoccupied with the search for the building blocks of matter and the
physical world around them. Many believed there was some sort of
inseparable fundamental entity of matter. The root of the ancient Greek
word which translates “atom” means “not divisible.”

Plum Pudding Atom

e In 1897 J. J. Thomson discovered electrons and the fact that they are a
fundamental particle of matter, have a negative electric charge, and
possess a very small mass. It became clear that atoms were not the
smallest existing particles. Also, for matter to be electrically neutral, both
negative and positive charges had to be present. In 1904 Thomson
proposed the plum pudding model of the atom, which used the concept
of plums scattered in a plum pudding to illustrate how small negatively
charged electrons are scattered about a positively charged medium. The
negatively charged electrons balanced what he imagined to be a
positively charged medium, giving an atom a neutral charge. He also
suggested that the geometry of the atom was spherical.

Rutherford Model

e As a result of experiments conducted from 1909 to 1911, Ernest

Rutherford showed that atoms have defined nuclei rather than a
“pudding” distribution. Rutherford showed that an atom’s positive
charge was concentrated in a tiny spot smaller than the atom itself and
that most of the atom’s mass was also concentrated in its positively
charged center called a nucleus. He found that most of the volume of an
atom was empty space.

Rutherford made these discoveries in his gold foil experiment in which

(Alpha
charged alpha particles were directed at a thin sheet of gold foil.
390 Master Math: Essential Physics

particles are large positively charged particles consisting of two protons

and two neutrons.) It turned out a majority of the alpha particles passed
through the foil without hitting anything, suggesting that most of an
atom’s volume was empty. Some alpha particles were deflected,
however, revealing the localized, small, positively charged (nuclear)
masses within the atoms. In keeping with the idea that atoms have a
stable structure, and since the positive charge appeared to be localized, it
was theorized that the electrons must be symmetrically distributed to
create counterbalanced forces with each other.

Prior to the experiment, it had been expected that the smaller, negatively
charged electrons would cause a slight deflection in the path of the larger
positively charged alpha particles so that the distribution of electrons in
the atoms could be analyzed. Rutherford had assumed at the time of his
experiments that atomic structure fit the plum pudding model. To his
surprise, a small number of alpha particles were bounced back toward
their source, while most alpha particles were not significantly deflected,
revealing the empty space. Rutherford’s model therefore showed that an
atom’s mass is primarily concentrated in-a nucleus (composed of protons
and neutrons), with the remaining mass composed of electrons which
orbit the nucleus and take up most of the volume. The electrons are held
in orbit around the nucleus by the electromagnetic force.

This new model began to be compared to planets orbiting the Sun. The
problem was that according to classical electromagnetic theory, a charge
moving or being accelerated in a circular path would lose or release
energy as electromagnetic radiation, so in Rutherford’s model there was
nothing to prevent the Coulomb attraction from causing the electrons to
lose energy and spiral into the nucleus. Also without explanation in the
Rutherford model was the observation that light seemed to travel in
certain discrete frequencies.

Bohr Model

e In the late 19th century it was known that the spectrum of each pure
element was unique, and the values of the line spectra for many elements
were identified. To develop his theory Niels Bohr (1885-1962) brought
together Rutherford’s work on the discovery of the atomic nucleus as
well as the available information on the existence of line spectra from
chemical elements, particularly work by Johann Jacob Balmer for the
hydrogen spectrum. Bohr also had Planck’s and Einstein’s work on the
early development of Quantum Theory, including the idea of energy
traveling in distinct quanta.
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 391

In 1913 Bohr devised a workable model of the atom, which is still a

convenient model of the hydrogen atom. He addressed the question of
why electrons do not spiral into their nuclei using a model having
specific orbits in which the electrons do not lose energy or fall into the
nucleus. The Bohr model showed electrons circling the nucleus at
specific levels or orbitals. Electrons exist at definite energy states or
levels and can move from one energy state to another. Energy is released
or absorbed as electrons change states in the form of electromagnetic
radiation.

Bohr’s model was based on the hydrogen atom with one proton and one
electron and was somewhat consistent with a planetary model. Bohr’s
model required that the electron only orbit at certain “allowed” radii. It
also stipulated that when an electron is in an allowed orbit it is not
radiating (and losing) energy. The allowed orbits are given by:

mvr =nh/2n where the integer n can be 1, 2, 3, ...

and where mvr = angular momentum L, m = electron mass, v = electron

velocity (speed), r = radius of its orbit around the nucleus, and
h ~ 6.626 x 10°" Jes © 4.135 x 101° eV's is Planck’s constant.

Bohr proposed that when an electron absorbs energy from incident

electromagnetic radiation, it makes a “quantum jump” up into a higher
energy allowed state, which is an allowed orbital radius with a higher n
value. An electron in a higher energy state can also spontaneously
quantum jump down (or fall) into a lower energy state with a smaller n
value, while emitting its lost energy as a single photon of electro-
magnetic energy. The lowest orbital radius is called the electron’s
ground state. A state with energy greater than that of the ground state is
referred to as an excited state.

Since the electron jumps down to specific orbits, it can only emit specific
frequencies consistent with that orbital change. This means each kind of
atom can only emit photons of certain frequencies. For example, if the
Sun is largely composed of hydrogen, then most of the light we measure
from the Sun is at the allowed frequencies for energy jumps in hydrogen
atoms. When an electron jumps down an orbit level, a photon is emitted
with an energy equal to the energy lost by the atom due to the transition.
The energy of the emitted photon is related to its frequency f by: E = hf.
The energy change for the transition is:

AE = hf = E; — Ex
392 Master Math: Essential Physics

where §; is the energy of the atom with the electron in its initial higher
orbit, Ey is the energy of the atom with the electron in its final lower
orbit, and h ~ 6.626 x 104 Jes = 4.135 x 10°” eV's is Planck’s constant.

Similar to a planetary orbit, the centripetal force on an electron is

directly proportional to its mass times its velocity-squared and inversely
proportional to the radius of its orbit: F, = mv’/r. The centripetal force is
also related to the electrostatic force, Fy = Kqiqo/t = K(Ze)(-e)/r’,
where Z describes the number of protons in the nucleus, Ze is the electric
charge of the nucleus, and —e is the electric charge of the electron. The
centripetal force for an electron in a hydrogen atom is being supplied
by the electrostatic force between it and the proton and can be written:
F, = Fe = m,v’/r = K(Ze)(-e)/r"
where K is Coulomb’s Constant ~ 9.0 x 10’ N-m’/C’, v is the electron
velocity, and r is the electron radius. In the force equation above,
mv it= K(Ze)(—e)/r’, we can cancel the r’s and write: m.v’ = —KZe’/r.

The total energy of this system is the sum of kinetic and potential, so we
can write:
E = KE + PE =(1/2)m,v’ + (-KZe’/r)
Substituting m,v’ = —KZe’/r gives the total energy of the electron:
E = (1/2)KZe’/r — KZe?/r
= Ke )i2t
which relates energy to the radius r of the orbit. Note, the negative sign
reflects the electron is trapped in an energy well about the nucleus and
would require energy to be freed from orbit.

To determine r, Bohr found that an electron is allowed only to be ina

discrete state or orbit, so the angular momentum L = mvr of the electron
is an integer n multiple of h/27. Now we can write: L = m,V,r, = n(h/27),
forn=1,2,3,... where h is Planck’s constant. The subscripts on v, and
r, show that they correspond to a certain value of n where n is referred to
as the principal quantum number. The angular momentum is restricted,
or quantized, to certain values so that the energy is restricted to certain
values and radii ry. If we substitute the quantization of angular
momentum, MeVptn = N(h/27) solved for v, = nh/27mm_r,, into the equation
for centripetal force, iy = KZe’/r, (leaving off the negative sign since
we are describing the attractive electrostatic force), we can solve that
combined equation for the electron radius r, as:
th = n°h?/4n°m.KZe*
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 393

Therefore, T, exists at certain (integer) values of n, and r is proport

ional
to n°, with each higher radius value of the electron further from
the
nucleus. For a hydrogen atom in its ground state with n= | and Z=1:
He OS38ee10 & m, or 0.53 Angstroms.

When we know the radius of an electron we can find its energy. Using
the above energy equation, E = —K(Ze’)/2r, and substituting for r:

E= —~2n’K?Z’e'm, /hen?
The energy for a hydrogen atom in its ground state with n= | and
Z = 1, works out to:
| E, = E,/n* = -13.6 eV |
This corresponds to the energy to free the electron from orbit. Since an
electron jumps to a higher energy level by multiples of n, for a hydrogen
atom with any n value, its energy becomes:

| E, = —(1/n’)13.6 eV |
The energy in the n = 2 state is: Ey = -(1/27)13.6 eV = -3.40 eV

When an electron jumps to a lower energy state, a hydrogen atom emits a

photon. That means an electron at the n = 2 state that jumps to the ground
state at n = 1 will emit a photon with energy:
Reine ey (ey) (13 6 eV) 10 2ey

Since energy also equals frequency times Planck’s constant, or E = hf,

the frequency f of the emitted photon from n= 2 ton= 1 is:
f = E/h = 10.2 eV/ (4.135 x 10% eV's) = 2.47 x 10° Hz

Since frequency f equals the speed of light c divided by wavelength A, or

f =c/X, the wavelength A of that emitted photon from n = 2 to n= | is:
d= c/f=(3 x 10° m/s) / (2.47 x 10'° Hz) =1.21 x 107m

Therefore, a photon with an energy of 10.2 eV has a wavelength of about

1.21 x 10°’ m, which is in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. This
means that for an electron to jump up from n= | to n = 2 in the
Hydrogen atom, it must absorb an ultraviolet photon having a
wavelength of 1.21 = 10-’m. Also, when an electron jumps down from
n=2ton=1, it emits a 1.21 x 10°’ m photon of ultraviolet light.

Note that the absorption of a photon is the reverse of emission. A photon

having energy equal to the difference in energy between two states of an
atom can be absorbed by that atom, which will cause the atom to be ina
higher energy state. A photon having energy that is not equal to the
394 Master Math: Essential Physics

difference in the energy between two states of an atom will not be

absorbed. This selective absorption of light energy is reflected in
spectroscopy data.

e In summary, the Bohr atom is described as having a central nucleus

made up of neutrons and protons surrounded by “orbiting” electrons. The
protons carry a positive charge and have a mass of about 1 atomic mass
unit or about 1.67 x 10°’ kg. Neutrons are electrically neutral and about
the same mass. Electrons carry a negative charge and have mass of only
0.00055 amu or about 9.1 x 10°! kg. The number of protons (designated
Z and called atomic number) in an atomic nucleus determines the
element of the atom. The number of neutrons is sometimes designated N
and called the neutron number. The total number of neutrons N and
protons Z in the atom is often referred to as the mass number A, where
Z+N=A. Elements are atoms delineated by their number of protons.
Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table of Elements according to
increasing Z. A given element usually has a particular number of
neutrons, but it can vary. An element with a non-standard number of
neutrons is called an isotope of the element. There may be one or more
isotopes of a given element.

Quantum Mechanics

e The Bohr model was only able to describe very simple atoms,
particularly hydrogen. A new model was needed. Work of physicists
such as Louis de Broglie, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Erwin
Schrédinger, and Werner Heisenberg contributed to what became
Quantum Mechanics or Quantum Physics. Quantum Mechanics
provided a new description of the structure and behavior of matter and
electromagnetic radiation (including light) and a new mathematical
model of the atom and subatomic particles. Quantum Mechanics revealed
that energy is emitted (or absorbed) from matter in packets called quanta
and theorized that light and other electromagnetic radiation is composed
of photons, or quanta. The energy of a photon is also discrete and
indivisible. It was found that photons have properties of both particles
and waves. In fact, electromagnetic radiation as well as matter both have
properties of particles and waves.

Going back to the 18th century, light was viewed as consisting of

particles. Beginning about 1800 evidence for a wave nature of light
began to accumulate. A wave theory was supported by Young’s double-
slit experiment and also single-slit diffraction experiments (discussed in
the previous chapter). By the end of the 19th century, the wave theory of
light dominated. Some inconsistencies were evident with a pure wave
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 395

nature of light, however, since all objects radiate electromagnetic energy

as heat. In fact, an object or body emits radiation at all wavelengths.
Scientists were unable to accurately calculate the energy distribution or
spectrum for the radiation from a radiating object, referred to as a
blackbody, using wave theory. A blackbody is defined as an ideal body
or surface that absorbs and re-emits all incident light or electromagnetic
radiation. Blackbody radiation refers to the spectrum of light emitted by
any heated object, such as a toaster element or the filament of an
incandescent light bulb.

In 1900 Max Planck calculated a blackbody spectrum that matched

experimental results. He assumed that electromagnetic radiation is
emitted and absorbed in discrete packets called quanta and that the
energy E of a packet is directly proportional to the frequency f of the
radiation, E = hf. Planck determined the constant of proportionality
h=6.626* 10 “J-s = 4.135% 10 “evs (now called Planck’s Constant)
by comparing his theoretical results with the experimental data.

e In 1905 Einstein further challenged the concept that light always

behaves as a continuous wave and expanded on Planck’s work to explain
the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect occurs when an
electron in an atom absorbs sufficient energy in the form of electro-
magnetic radiation (light, X-rays, UV, etc.) to be ejected from its orbit.
This can occur, for example, when light strikes a sheet of metal and the
surface atoms absorb the energy from the electromagnetic radiation in
sufficient amounts to eject electrons from their orbits. These electrons
are called photoelectrons. (The photoelectric effect was observed as
early as 1887 by Heinrich Hertz, but Einstein’s later work was the basis
for his 1921 Nobel Prize.)

Einstein described the inconsistencies of light behavior by suggesting

that in certain situations light behaves as particles, or light quanta
(photons), and each photon carries a discrete amount of energy. A beam
of light is therefore made up of many photons which together are
observed as a continuous wave. The energy in a beam of light is the sum
of the individual energies of the photons.

In the photoelectric effect the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons

depends on the frequency f of the incident electromagnetic radiation, but
not its intensity (as a wave-theory of light would predict). There is also a
threshold frequency fp for a given metal or material below which no
electrons are emitted. This means low frequency light may be insufficient
to free an electron from a given material. This would not be predicted
is also
from a pure wave nature for light. Emission of an electron
396 Master Math: Essential Physics

observed almost instantly with the presence of incident light since a

sufficient amount of light (to eject the electron) arrives all at once as a
photon. Einstein suggested these observations revealed that light is
composed of particles or photons which have energy defined by
Planck’s relationship E = hf, where Planck’s formula determines the
amount of energy in a given quantum. Einstein further suggested that an
atom in a metal must absorb either a discrete quanta, meaning a whole
photon, or else absorb nothing.

When a photon is absorbed by an atom on a metallic surface, some of the

energy of the absorbed photon frees an atomic electron, and the remaining
energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the emitted electron. The
absorbed energy required to free an electron from its atomic orbit is
called the work function of the metal or other material. Different
materials have a work function given by:
= hfy
where h is Planck’s constant and fp is the threshold frequency. The
remaining energy that is converted into the kinetic energy of the emitted
electron is: KE = (1/2)m.v’, where m, is the electron’s mass and v is its
velocity. The energy of this process can be written:

E=hf=6+KE=$6+ (1/2)m,v’

When the frequency f of incident electromagnetic radiation is less than

the threshold frequency fp, where hf) = o, no electrons are emitted. This
means the energy of the incident light must have a higher energy than the
work function of the material for the light to free electrons. When an
electron is freed its kinetic energy can be expressed as: KE = hf — 9.

e As we saw in the photoelectric effect, the particle nature of electro-

magnetic waves was revealed since light was absorbed as discrete
photons. In 1923 Louis de Broglie brought together the evidence that
electromagnetic radiation has characteristics of both a particle and a
wave by stating that matter also has both particle and wave properties.
In other words, he suggested that matter particles can have wave
properties. This is referred to as wave-particle duality. Analogous to
photons, de Broglie proposed that matter particles such as electrons can
behave as waves, and their wavelength is correlated with the linear
momentum p of the particle by:
d = h/p = h/mv

This is referred to as the de Broglie wavelength. Because Planck’s

constant, h ~ 6.626 x 10° Jes = 4.135 x 10° eVss, is very small, a
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 397

de Broglie wavelength is relevant or noticeable for small masses of

atomic or subatomic sizes.

For example, remember angular momentum L of the electron from the

Bohr model above is L = mvr = nh/2r, where the integer n can be 1, 2, 3,
..., m= electron mass, v = electron velocity (speed), and r = radius of its
orbit around the nucleus. Rearranging mvr = nh/2x, gives mv = nh/2rr.
From the de Broglie’s formula above, A = h/mvy, so mv = h/2. Combining
mv = nh/2rr with mv = h/A, gives: h/A = nh/2nr, or:

ni =2nr where A is the de Broglie wavelength of an electron

This says that the de Broglie wavelength of an electron is an integer

multiple of 2mr, which is the length of one orbit by the electron. This
means that an electron must orbit the nucleus of the atom at the radius
that will allow the completion of integer n wavelengths. The de Broglie
wavelength, therefore, accounts for the observation that electrons orbit a
nucleus at specific radii. We can think of a planetary model of the atom,
but with electrons as waves. What orbital radii are allowed? Remember,
for waves in a defined space, standing waves can set up to “fit” that
space. These standing waves are the allowed waves. In a circular space
or orbit, the standing waves that can exist could look somewhat like the
following (shown as dotted):
oo
\ « \
t

(i
\ 4 x y)
Sao —s Z

The circumference is positive integer n times the wavelength i. The

values of n shown are 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively, and represent the
electron in its n energy state completing n cycles in its orbit around the
nucleus. Interestingly, these standing wave states correspond to the
“allowed” electron orbits in the Bohr model. The integer n is called the
principal quantum number. It labels the overall orbital of the atom
describing the size of the orbital, or state, of the electron for the
hydrogen atom and indirectly describes the energy of an orbital.

e In 1926-1927 a new mathematical framework for describing the

atomic world that incorporated de Broglie’s work was developed by
physicists including German physicist Werner Heisenberg and the
Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger.

Werner Heisenberg is credited with determining that the position and

momentum of a particle cannot be precisely measured at the same time.
This is called the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle and is stated: The
398 Master Math: Essential Physics

more precisely the position is determined, the less precisely the momentum
is known in this instant, and vice versa. While simultaneously measuring
both position and momentum of large objects does not generally require
micrometer accuracy, measuring the position and momentum of an
electron-size object does require accuracy on a tiny scale. For example, if
you measure an electron’s position, the energy from your measuring tool
(electromagnetic radiation) will affect the tiny electron’s movement, and
you cannot accurately detect its motion. If you know the precise position
of a particle, you cannot know its speed, and if you know its speed, you
cannot know its exact position. The more precisely you measure position
or momentum, the less precisely the other is known. Heisenberg’s
Uncertainty Principle can be written:
AxAp = h/4n

where the particle’s position uncertainty is Ax, its momentum uncertainty

is Ap, (remember p = mv), and h is Planck’s constant. The Uncertainty
Principle is also written:
AxAp = h/2 where h-baris h=h/27

The Uncertainty Principle affects our understanding of our ability to

accurately observe the very small, since observation influences the
observed. This makes obtaining experimental data a challenge.

e In 1926 Erwin Schrodinger published papers providing the

foundations of Quantum Wave Mechanics. His work involved a partial
differential equation—a foundational equation of Quantum Mechanics—
called the Schrédinger equation. Integrating Louis de Broglie’s ideas
that particles of matter have a dual nature and can behave as waves,
Schrodinger described such a system in his wave equation. The solutions
to Schrédinger’s wave equation are wave functions that provide the
probability of an event.

The Schrédinger equation has two general forms, one time dependent
and one time independent. The time-dependent Schrédinger equation
describes how the wave function of a particle evolves with time and the
dynamic behavior of the particle. The three-dimensional time-dependent
Schrodinger equation can be written:

—(h’/2m)V7¥(x,y,z,t,) + U(xy,z)¥(xy,z,t,) = ih(d/dt) ¥(x,y,z,t,)

where P(x,y,z,t,) is the time-dependent wavefunction, h = h/27 is called

h-bar and is often used in applications involving angular momentum (h is
Planck’s constant), A is the del operator of partial derivatives, U(x,y,z) is
the potential energy function for the potential energy at position x, y, z,
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 399

and i represents the imaginary part. Note that ih(O/ot) = E is called

the
energy operator, so the term ih(O/0t) is sometimes written EV.

The time-independent Schrédinger equation can usually be derived

from the time-dependent equation. Information it provides includes the
allowed energies of a particle. The time-independent Schrédinger
equation for three dimensions can be written:

—(h’/2m)V¥(x,y,z) + U(x,y,z)¥(x,y,z) = EY
where (x,y,z) is the time-independent wavefunction.

Note that the square of the wave function, ‘¥”, was initially interpreted by
Schrodinger as indicating that the electron was spread out in space with
its density at point x, y, z given by the value of Y” at that point. Physicist
Max Born instead proposed that ‘* gives the probability of finding the
electron at x, y, z, which is held as the better interpretation. The
distinction is that for a small ‘¥’ value at a particular position, the first
interpretation suggests a small fraction of an electron will always be
detected there. Born’s interpretation suggests instead that either the
whole electron will be detected at a location or nothing will be detected.

Setting up, solving, and analyzing the solutions to the Schrédinger

equation is a fundamental part of Quantum Mechanics referred to as
Wave Mechanics. We have come from the idea of an electron as a point
particle moving along a set orbit around the nucleus to wave mechanics.
Wave Mechanics describes clouds, or orbitals, having probable
locations of electrons in different states, with the wave function
providing a way to calculate the probability of finding an electron or
particle at a point in space.

e Schrédinger’s wave equation was not, however, consistent with Special

Relativity, as it has a nonrelativistic expression for the kinetic energy. In
1928 physicist Paul Dirac combined Quantum Mechanics and Relativity
in a wave equation for the electron, which included an additional
quantum number with values +1/2 and —1/2 corresponding to an
additional form of angular momentum. Over the years Quantum
Mechanics progressed. In the 1940s Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
brought more elucidation with the work of Richard Feynman and
others. QED provided a new framework for processes involving the
transformations of matter into photons and photons into matter. QED
studies the interaction of light with matter. We have just scratched the
surface of Quantum Theory. The nature of light, matter, and the
subatomic world remain mysterious.
400 Master Math: Essential Physics

14.4. Dark Energy and Dark Matter

Dark Energy

e The cosmos is composed of about 4% ordinary matter which is the

detectable matter of atoms such as in stars, planets, and living creatures;
about 22% dark matter which is believed to have a gravity that holds
together galaxies and clusters of galaxies; and about 74% of the strangely
repellant dark energy which pushes everything out causing the
acceleration in the expansion of the Universe. Dark energy is believed
to be a form of energy that produces a repulsive, opposite-to-gravity type
of force, causing the Universe’s expansion rate to accelerate.

Many physicists theorize the Universe began instantaneously as a “Big

Bang,” emerging extremely hot and dense, and then for a tiny fraction of
a second expanding at faster than the speed of light, which is called
“inflation”. During the inflation expansion, density fluctuations
occurred. The gravity of highly dense regions drew in dark matter and
ordinary matter in a mixture of subatomic particles. Within the regions
of dark matter, galaxies formed.

Dark energy opposes gravity. In the early Universe, gravity dominated

dark energy. Then, long after the Big Bang when space had expanded
and matter became diluted, the gravitational attractions weakened and
dark energy began to dominate gravity. Some physicists imagine a
distant future with dark energy’s continued increasing dominance over
gravity resulting in galaxies being spread farther and farther apart.

e Dark energy was experimentally revealed in 1998 using distant

exploding stars referred to as type Ia supernovae. All type Ia supernovae
explode with about the same energy and therefore brightness, emitting
constant, intrinsic, measurable light called “standard candles.” Their
reliable brightness allows their distance from Earth to be calculated.
Astronomers can also examine how long ago supernovae exploded by
measuring how much their light has been shifted to longer, redder
wavelengths by the expansion of space. Such observations showed that
the rate of expansion of the Universe is increasing and that dark energy
is pushing objects out at accelerating speeds.

Our understanding of the cosmos has also been enhanced through

measurements of the so-called afterglow of the big bang radiation
referred to as the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Studies of the
detectable radiation from the Big Bang reveal temperature variations of
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 401

about one part in 100,000. These temperature variations from one

point
to another correlate hotter spots with denser regions of the early
Universe. CMB data provide information about the amounts of ordinary
and dark matter in the early Universe and the geometry of space,
including that the Universe is “flat”. Measurements from the CMB
suggest that about 70% of what makes up the Universe is dark energy.

Recent results from NASA’s space-based Galaxy Evolution Explorer and

the Anglo-Australian Telescope on Siding Spring Mountain in Australia
confirmed that dark energy is a smooth, uniform force that now
dominates the effects of gravity and drives the accelerated expansion of
the Universe. The new data support the idea that dark energy fits the
cosmological constant in Einstein’s equations and theory. These new
observations are based on detailed measurements of the distances
between pairs of galaxies. Another “standard” measurement was also
employed. Sound waves from the nascent Universe made imprints in the
patterns of galaxies, which caused pairs of galaxies to be separated by
about 500 million light-years. This acts as a “standard ruler” which was
used to determine the distance from the galaxy pairs to Earth. Galaxy
pairs closer to us appear farther from each other. Similar to the super-
novae “standard candles,” the newer data combining distances and
speeds with which pairs of galaxies are moving away from us also
confirmed the acceleration in the rate of expansion of the Universe.

e We know dark energy exists by its effects on the expansion of the

Universe. What dark energy actually is remains unclear. Different
theories have been propounded, such as the idea that Einstein’s
description of gravity is wrong, and gravity, rather than dark energy,
becomes repulsive at long distances, pushing everything apart. Data has
not supported this idea. Another theory is that dark energy is an intrinsic
property of space. Einstein suggested that empty space may not be void
of everything and it may be possible for more space to come into
existence. Einstein’s theory of gravity contains a cosmological constant
and predicts that “empty space” can possess its own energy. This energy
would be an inherent property of space and therefore would not be
diluted as space expands. More energy would appear as more space
comes into existence. This would allow the Universe to increase its
expansion rate. The cosmological constant is not well understood. Even
Einstein struggled with it, as he initially intended it to explain why the
fabric of what he believed was a static Universe did not collapse under
gravity. At that time Edwin Hubble had not yet discovered that the .
Universe is expanding. Once that was discovered Einstein rejected his
constant.
402 Master Math: Essential Physics

Today physicists are trying to gain insight into dark energy by examining
how its density changes as space expands. Its density should not become
diluted if dark energy is an inherent property of space. Conversely, its
density should become more dilute if dark energy is something that
exists within space. Observational data are being used to examine these
questions. Whether dark energy is mathematically equivalent to Einstein’s
cosmological constant or some as yet undiscovered dynamic field, dark
energy is a very real part of our mysterious world.

Dark Matter

e Combining theory and observation, physicists estimate the Universe is

made up of about 74% repellant dark energy (discussed above), about
4% ordinary matter which includes detectable mass made from atoms,
and about 22% dark matter. Dark matter accounts for nearly 90% of all
matter yet it does not emit, absorb, or reflect light or other electro-
magnetic radiation, making detection very difficult. Dark matter makes
itself known, however, by its gravitational effects.

The idea of dark matter was proposed decades ago when it became
obvious that the ordinary mass contained in stars, cosmic dust, and all
other forms of detectable matter could not possess enough gravity to hold
together a spinning galaxy. The amount of detectable ordinary matter
was so far from adequate it became obvious that there must be some type
of invisible matter responsible for most of the gravitational effects in the
Universe.

Dark matter is believed to have contributed to the birth of massive

galaxies in the early Universe. In fact, the current view of galaxy
formation is that they form as dark matter clusters together under its
own gravity. The cluster then draws gases, dust, stars, and smaller
galaxies into a flat wide spiral form, which we call a spiral galaxy. The
dark matter cluster remains in a spherical halo shape, surrounding the
formed galaxy. Even after a spiral galaxy forms, new stars continue to
develop throughout the flat disk as neutral hydrogen gas showers onto
the spiral arms from the dark matter halo. Elliptical galaxies can form
when two galaxies of about the same mass collide.

e We know dark matter exists due to its gravitational effects, but what is
it and what do we know about it? We know it makes up the halos that
surround galaxies and clusters of galaxies. It played a role in the
formation of the structure of the Universe. Dark matter is called “cold”
since its particles are relatively slow-moving (non-relativistic).
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 403

Dark matter is not simply dark clouds of ordinary matter or it would be

detectable by the absorption of radiation passing through it. It is believed
not to be antimatter since it does not create the characteristic gamma rays
observed from matter-antimatter annihilations. Since dark matter inter-
acts with ordinary matter gravitationally, it is believed it must possess
enough mass to cause the observed gravitational effects on galaxies and
clusters of galaxies.

It has been speculated that dark matter could be composed of difficult-to-

detect ordinary matter in the form of such objects as compact brown
dwarfs or in small, dense clumps of heavy elements. These ordinary
matter candidates are called MACHOs, or MAssive Compact Halo
Objects, and can include black holes, neutron stars, and brown dwarfs.
While neutron stars and black holes can be dark (without enough
detectable light), since they are a product of some type of supernovae,
they are not believed to be common enough to provide the halo of dark
matter around galaxies. The population of brown dwarfs also may not be
large enough to explain all of the dark matter. Astronomers have been
detecting MACHOs using gravitational lensing of light from distant
objects. (Note that brown dwarfs are very small “failed” star-like
objects that do not have sufficient mass to sustain fusion of hydrogen, as
does a star, and are not luminous enough to be detectable by telescopes.)

In the early 1980s, scientists thought dark matter might consist of nearly
massless particles called neutrinos. Then cosmologists showed that
neutrinos were not a likely candidate since neutrinos whiz along at near-
light-speed and are therefore referred to as “hot”. Scientists believed
dark matter needed to consist of some type of as-yet unobserved particle
that is larger, slow-moving and therefore “cold”. Scientists believe the
evolution of structure in the Universe indicates that dark matter cannot
be fast moving, since fast-moving particles would prevent the clumping
of matter observed in the Universe. A group of researchers used large-
scale simulations to show that only “cold” dark matter particles could
create the distribution of galaxies that are observed.

Currently, a leading candidate for dark matter is a particle that isnot

ordinary matter, but rather an exotic particle. This popular candidate
particle is believed to be composed of some type of elementary particle
referred to as WIMP, or Weakly Interacting Massive Particle. While
WIMPs are not ordinary matter, they are considered subatomic particles.
They are described as “Weakly Interacting” since they are able to pass
through ordinary matter without having effects. They are called
“Massive” because they must have some type of mass in order to affect
404 Master Math: Essential Physics

gravity. Cosmologists imagine that dark matter particles could have been
created just after the Big Bang.

Candidates for WIMPs have included neutrinos, axions, and neutralinos.

Neutrinos not only move fast, as mentioned above, but also are believed
to have insufficient mass to make them a good dark matter candidate.
Axions are particles speculated to be responsible for why neutrons do not
possess an electrical dipole moment. They have very little mass, but
should have been plentifully produced in the Big Bang. Neutralinos are
electrically neutral massive (having mass) particles which are part of a
group of particles proposed under the theory of supersymmetry.
Supersymmetry endeavors to unify all the known forces in physics.
Observations have so far not detected axions or neutralinos.

e Astronomers and particle physicists are actively working on detecting

and identifying dark matter through astrophysical observations in space
as well as in underground particle detectors. The search is complicated
because these still somewhat theoretical WIMPs can zoom through
ordinary matter without leaving a trace.

How have physicists endeavored to detect dark matter? In their search

for dark matter particles, physicists have taken several approaches. One
approach is to attempt to directly detect WIMPs. Since our galaxy lies
within a vast dark matter halo, physicists can potentially directly detect
particles using highly sensitive techniques. Theoreticians had predicted
we should see a seasonal modulation in the presence of measurable dark
matter particles (providing we could detect them) because of the relative
motion of the Earth and Sun as we move with respect to the plane of our
galaxy. As the Sun orbits the Milky Way’s center on the outskirts of one
of its spiral arms, the solar system drives through our galaxy’s halo of
dark matter particles. At the same time, the Earth is also orbiting the Sun.
During the winter, the Earth moves mostly opposite to the Sun’s motion
through the galaxy. However, during the summer, the Earth moves in
roughly the same direction as our Sun’s orbit around the Milky Way’s
center. When the Earth is moving with the Sun, their alignment increases
the Earth’s net velocity through our galactic halo of dark matter particles.
This means that during the summer, there should be a peak in dark matter
particles available for detection as we crash through them at a greater
speed. Conversely, during the winter, there should be a dip in detectable
particles as the Earth travels opposite to the Sun’s orbital motion.

Because of this seasonal modulation, scientists are attempting to directly

measure dark matter particles and see if their data fits with the annual
modulation. The main problem is that dark matter particles should only
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 405

barely interact with ordinary matter, so sensing their presence requires

extremely sensitive detectors. Scientists have set up detectors deep
underground where there are very low levels of cosmic rays and ordinary
radiation, but where dark matter can penetrate. Scientists have designed
detectors made up of certain atoms, so that when a dark matter particle
strikes an atomic nucleus, the recoiling nucleus can produce a tiny pulse
of electricity, light, and heat. This signal reveals that a dark matter
particle has struck. Some researchers have, in fact, detected the expected
seasonal fluctuation in the scintillation signals, suggesting they have
detected the type of dark matter particle they were looking for (WIMPs).
Other researchers dispute the results. There is controversy at this time
regarding the validity of data by different research groups.

Another method of measuring dark matter is through indirect detection of

gamma rays or other familiar particles which presumably result when
two dark matter particles collide. Researchers are searching by peering
into the skies toward such places as the center of our galaxy for excess
gamma rays, signaling dark matter particle collisions. Instruments used
for these endeavors are both orbiting and ground based. An additional
method of measuring dark matter is to attempt to blast dark matter
particles into existence using an accelerator. Eventually it will become
evident through a preponderance of evidence what data is valid and what
is the nature of dark matter. This is an extremely exciting, unfolding
story!

14.5. Key Concepts and Practice Problems

e Special Relativity applies to observers in uniform relative motion in the

absence of a gravitational field. According to Special Relativity: the
laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames; and the
speed of light is constant regardless of the observer’s velocity.
e At near-light speeds time dilates (slows), length contracts in the
direction of motion, events can appear not simultaneous, objects get
heavier, speed vectors don’t add normally, and KE approaches infinity.
e Mass and energy can be converted from one to another: E = me’.
e General Relativity includes accelerated motion and gravity. It provides
a description of spacetime with its geometry as a 4-dimensional .
continuum spacetime and a new theory of gravity as a manifestation of
curved space and time (spacetime) rather than a force. Matter causes
spacetime to curve, and that curving affects the behavior of matter.
ns
e General Relativity theory is expressed in a series of Field Equatio
holes;
and predicts: the shifting of Mercury’s elliptical path; black
406 Master Math: Essential Physics

singularities; the expanding Universe; and gravitational time dilation,

length changes, lensing, redshifts, and waves.
e An atom, the fundamental building block of elements, consists of a
nucleus of neutrons and protons surrounded by one or more electrons.
e Rutherford’s gold foil experiment showed atomic mass concentrated in
the nuclei of protons and neutrons with electrons orbiting, filling the
volume.
e The Bohr model based on the hydrogen atom: electrons circling the
nucleus at specific allowed orbitals. Electromagnetic energy is released
or absorbed as electrons change states: AE = hf = E; — E,.
e Energy for ground state hydrogen atom: E, = E,/n° = —13.6 eV.
e Quantum Mechanics: energy is emitted (or absorbed) from matter in
packets called quanta, and light and other EM radiation are composed
of photons, or quanta, which have properties of particles and waves.
e Photoelectric effect: electron absorbs proper EM energy to be ejected.
e Louis de Broglie stated matter has both particle and wave properties.
e Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: can’t know both position and speed.
e Schrédinger wave equation describes wave function of particles.
e The cosmos: 4% detectable ordinary matter of atoms, stars, planets,
creatures; 22% dark matter which holds galaxies together and makes
up halos around galaxies; and 74% repellant dark energy which pushes
everything out causing acceleration of Universe’s expansion.

Practice Problems

14.1 (a) The nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is about 4 light years away,
so traveling there and back at 0.8 the speed of light (2.4 x 10° m/s) would
take about 10 years. If you volunteer for such a journey, how much
“younger” would you and your clock be upon your return? Assume your
acceleration and deceleration times are negligible compared to 10 years.
(b) If your mass is 75 kg before the trip, what would your mass become
during your trip and what would it be after your return home?

14.2 (a) How small a ball would the incredible shrinking man have to
shrink into before collapsing and forming a black hole, assuming his
mass remains 80.0 kg throughout? (b) Our author speculates that time is
accelerating along with the increase in the rate of expansion of the
universe (not just that it seems faster as we age due to our perspective).
What arguments can you make for and against this theory? How might
you measure time acceleration?

14.3 (a) How can an astronomer determine the elements present in a star
by evaluating the spectrum of the light it emits? (b) Does the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle imply that a small moving particle does not in fact
 Introduction to the “Fun Stuff” 407

at an instant in time possess a specific location and velocity? (c) If Mr.

Bolt has a mass of 85 kg and is sprinting at 11 m/s, what is his
wavelength?

14.4 Do the observed effects of the accelerating expansion of the

Universe and the holding together of spiral galaxies mean that dark
energy and dark matter exist, or could there be other explanations?

Answers to Chapter 14 Problems

14.1 (a) Each tick of your clock t compared to an at rest clock’s tick to
would take 1/[1 — (v7/c*)]* = 1/[1 — (0.8/1)"]’ = 1.67. Therefore time
would pass at a rate of 1/1.67 ~ 0.6 the rate it would if you had not taken
the trip, and you would return 4 years younger. (b) During the trip your
mass m = mo/[1 —(v7/c*)]* = 75/[1 — (0.8/1)"]” = 125 kg. After
decelerating to a stop on your return, your mass returns to 75 kg.

14.2 (a) tech = 2Gm/c* = 2(6.67 x 10°! m*/kg-s”)(80)/(3 x 10° m/s)’ =

1.186 x 10°m. So he would have to form a ball of diameter 2.37 x 10°m.
By comparison, a hydrogen atom has a diameter 10 '°m and a proton
about 10 '°m. (b) Suppose time is created by the steady expansion of the
Universe. Since the rate of expansion is accelerating, and space and time
are linked as spacetime, then shouldn’t time also be speeding up? Can
the speed of light remain constant if the expansion of space is
accelerating but time is remaining constant? Might the interval of a
“second” become shorter as spacetime expands? What do you think?
How else could time be created?

14.3 (a) The amount of energy emitted as electrons change between

different energy levels is unique for each element. Therefore photon
emissions occur at specific identifiable frequencies, giving each element
an identifiable electromagnetic signature. (b) The fact there are limits on
the accuracy of simultaneously measuring both location and velocity
does not necessarily imply that a particle does not possess a specific
location and velocity, only that we cannot measure it with precision. Of
course, attempting to ascribe a particular location in either space or time
to a particle that in some ways behaves like a wave may be futile.
(c) A = h/mv = (6.626 x 10°*'Jes) /(85 kg)(11 m/s) = 7.1 x Te mea
vanishingly shori distance. (Note Joule = kg-m’/s’)

14.4 Within a cause-and-effect Universe, the effects imply natural

causes, but unless and until the existence of the hypothesized dark energy
and dark matter are observed and measured, the field remains open for
new or modified theories and explanations. Many times so-called “settled
science” has later been discovered to be incorrect in whole or in part.
408 Master Math: Essential Physics
 INDEX
A axions, 404
absolute permittivity, 260 B
absolute value, 22 back emf, 324
absolute zero Kelvin, 252 baryons, 101
AC circuits with only inductors, 329 battery, 129
acceleration, 7-17, 24, 35, 43 beats, beating, 340, 369
acceleration of gravity, has air resistance, 15 Bel, 341
acceleration of gravity, no resistance, 12-15 Bell, Alexander Graham, 341
acceleration vector, 24—25 Bernoulli, Daniel, 189
acceleration, harmonic motion, 159-160 Bernoulli’s equation, 189-193, 196
action-reaction pairs, 45 beta decay, 106, 107
adhesive forces, 185 bi-metal strip thermometer, 202
adiabatic, 248 black holes, 387
adiabatic, constant heat, 242-243 blackbody, 222, 395
air pressure, 174-175 blackbody radiation, 395
alpha particles, 389-390 Bohr atom, 394
alternating current (AC), 272, 315-330 Bohr Model, 390-391, 406
alternating current (AC) circuits, 316, 328 boiling point, 216, 255
alternating voltages, 316 Boltzmann constant, 228, 233
ammeter, 287 Born, Max, 399
Amontons’ Law, 227 boson exchange, 106
Ampere, 274, 303, 305, 324 bosons, 101—103, 107
Ampere’s Law, 303, 312 Boyle’s Law, 227
amplitude, 155, 157, 158, 160, 332 British System of units, xi—xii
aneroid barometer, 175 brown dwarfs, 403
angular frequency, 157, 161, 316 bulb thermometer, 202
angular momentum, 62—66, 70 bulk modulus, 152
angular momentum, electron, 392, 397 buoyant force in static fluids, 176-181, 196
angular velocity, 31—32, 35, 62-63, 157, 161 C
antinode, 336, 369 calories and Calories, 211
antiparticle, 101 capacitance, 267—272, 290
arc length, 32 capacitance in AC circuit, 319-321
Archimedes’ Principle, 176-181, 196 capacitance, series and parallel, 290
area and the integral, 116 capacitive AC circuit, 329
asymptotic freedom, 104 capacitive reactance, 319, 320, 329
atmosphere, 170 capacitor, 267, 319
atmospheric pressure, 170 capacitor charge, 268
atom, 389, 406 capacitor energy storage, 269-270
atom and an intro to quantum, 389-399 capacitor, energy stored, 290
atomic mass, 225 capacitors, 290
atomic mass unit (amu), 225, 226 capacitors in parallel, in series, 271-272
atomic number, 225, 394 capillary action or capillarity, 182-188, 196
atomic weight, 226 Carnot engine, 251
atoms, 94 Celsius, 199-200, 223
average acceleration, 10 center of curvature, 361, 365
average force, 148 center of gravity, 67, 70
average KE per molecule, 256 center of mass, 66-69, 70
average ofthe square, 232 Centigrade, 199-200
average speed, 3-5, 6, 9, 35 centripetal acceleration, 33, 35, 89, 158
average speed geometrically, 5 centripetal acceleration, charged particle, 301
average velocity, 10, 23 centripetal force, electron, 392
Avogadro’s Law or Hypothesis, 228 CGS unit system, xi-x11
Avogadro’s number, 226
410 Master Math: Essential Physics

changing fields induce current and magnetic Coulomb’s constant, 96, 127, 260, 392
flux, 306-311 Coulomb’s Law, 96, 107, 127, 260, 289
charge, 265 critical angle, 359
charge moving in field, 312 critical point, 256
charged particles in circular motion in cube root, xil
magnetic fields, 300-302 current, 272, 287, 290
Charles’ Law, 228 current flow(s), 273, 290
circuits, 274, 281-289 current in inductor, 323
circuits, DC and AC, 290 current induced in wire, 306, 308
circuits, RCL, 327-328 current through capacitor, 319, 320, 329
circuits, simple, 285—286 current through resistor, 328
circular motion, 31—34, 156-156, 157 current through resistor in AC circuit, 316
closed system, 131 current, electric, 274
clouds, 254 current, loop wire, 295
coefficient of linear expansion, 203, 223 current, straight wire, 295
coefficient of resistance, 278 cylinder closed at one end only, waves, 342
coefficient of restitution, 138 cylinder open at both ends, waves, 343
coefficient of surface tension, 182, 183 cylinders, closed, open, waves, 369
coefficient of thermal conductivity, 218 D
coefficient of viscosity, 194 damped oscillations, 164—166
coefficient of volume expansion, 206, 223 dark energy and dark matter, 400—405
cohesive forces, 182, 185 de Broglie wavelength, 396
collisions in two dimensions, 138 de Broglie, Louis, 396, 406
color charge, 101, 105 decibel, 341
commutator, 315 definitions: mass, moles, amu, 225—226
compass, 293 density, 172-173, 196
compression waves, 334 density of irregularly shaped object, 178-181
compressive stress, 150 density, volume, 207—208
concave lens, 361, 362-363, 370 deposit, 216
concave mirror, 365, 366, 367, 368, 370 deposition, 255
concentration gradient, 236 destructive interference, 349
condensation, 253, 254 dew, dew point, 254
condense, 216 dielectric constant, 271
conduction, 217-219, 223 dielectric, capacitor, 270
conduction electrons, 272 diffraction, 350-351
conductivity, 278 diffraction grating, 351
conductor moving magnetic field, 312 diffraction pattern, 350
conservation of angular momentum, diffusion, 235—237
64-66, 70 diffusion and osmosis, 235-239
conservation of charge, 95 diffusion coefficient, 236
conservation of energy, 131-135, 143,240,311 diffusion Fick’s Law, 256
conservation of kinetic energy, 136 diffusion time, 236, 256
conservation of linear momentum, 57, 70 diffusivity and units, 236
conservation of mechanical energy, 132 diode, 316
conservation of momentum, 136 direct current (DC), 272
conservative and non-conservative forces, dispersion, 360
123-125 displacement, 17, 23
conservative forces, 123—125, 132, 134, 143 displacement vector, 18-19
constructively interfering, 348 distance traveled, 32
continuity equation, 188, 189, 196 distance traveled, constant acceleration, 9
convection, 217, 219-220, 223 distance vs. displacement, 17, 22
converging lenses, 361 diverging lenses, 362
convex lens(es), 361—362, 363, 370 Doppler effect or shift, 344-346, 369
convex mirror, 366, 367, 368, 370 Doppler frequency, 370
cosecant (csc), x11 dot product, 114
cosine (cos), xii double-slit experiment, 347-349, 370
cosine curve, 158-159 drag, 196
cosmic microwave background, 400 dynamic equilibrium, 73, 85
cosmological constant, Einstein, 401 dynamics, 239
cotangent (cot), xii dyne (unit), xi—xii, 41
Coulomb, 94, 96, 259
 411
E
endothermic reactions, 216
eclipse, 385 energy, 162, 166
efficiency of heat engine, 251 energy and harmonic motion, 162-163
Einstein, 373-389 energy and work, 111-146, 117
elastic and inelastic collisions, 135—140 energy in wave, 332
elastic collisions, 135-136, 143 energy is a scalar, 118
elastic limit, 149
energy ofthe electron, 392
elastic modulus, 152, 205 enthalpy, 248
elasticity and harmonic motion, 147-168 entropy, 249-250, 252
elasticity and Hooke’s Law, 147-150 equation, xii
electric (or electrostatic) fields, 260
equations for lenses and mirrors, 370
electric circuit(s), 274, 281-289
equations for mirrors, 366-367
electric constant, 96
equilibrium, 73, 76, 253, 254
electric current, 272-275, 312
equilibrium and friction, 73-86
electric currents to magnetic fields, 302-306
equivalent vectors, 19
electric field, 262, 289
Erg, xii
electric field and electric potential, 259-267
escape velocity, 127
electric field lines, 261, 289
ether, 374
electric field strength, 261, 265, 267, 289
evaporation, 253
electric fields, 259, 261
evaporation rate, 254
electric fields and electric currents, 259-292
event horizon, 387
electric force, 262
exchange force, 104
electric potential, 263, 264, 265, 289
excited state, 391
electric potential and electric fields, 266-267
exothermic reactions, 216
electric potential difference, 264
F
electric potential energy, 265, 269
Fahrenheit, 199-200, 223
electric power, 279-280
farad F, Faraday, 268, 306, 321
electric resistance, 275-279
Faraday’s Law, 308-309, 310, 312, 316, 326
electrical field, 269
fermions, 100-101, 107
electrical resistance, 277
ferromagnetic, 296
electromagnet, 296
Fick’s Law, 236, 256
electromagnetic (EM) waves, 331
field equations, 384
electromagnetic energy, 351-354 First Law of Thermodynamics, 210, 223,
electromagnetic force, 101, 107
239, 240-248, 256
electromagnetic forces, 300 flavor, 106
electromagnetic or electric force, 103 flow rate, 188
electromagnetic radiation, 351—354 fluid flow, continuity equation, and
electromagnetic radiation or waves, 370
Bernoulli’s equation, 188—193
electromagnetic spectrum, 352 fluid pressure with depth, 174
electromagnetic waves, 351-354, 369
fluids, 169-198
electromagnetism, 293-314, 294-295, 312
flux, 236
electromotive force, 273
focal length, 361, 363, 367
electron radius, 392 focal length equation, 367, 368
electron volt (electronvolt), 128-130, 143
focal length equation, lens, 363
electrons, 94, 399 focal length equation, mirror, 367
electrostatic fields, 95 focal point, 361, 362, 364, 365
electrostatic force, 94-99, 124, 143, 259 fog, ice fog, 254
Electrostatic Force Law, 96, 107, 127, 260, force, xi-xii, 39-41, 39-52, 87-107, 265
289 force carriers, 101]
electrostatic phenomena, 94 force constant, 148
electrostatic potential energy, 127-128 force of a static fluid, 170
electrostatics, 95 force of friction, 79, 85
electroweak theory, 103 force of kinetic friction, 113
elements, 394 force on container wall by gas, 232
elliptical galaxies, 402 force on current-carrying wire, 299
embedding diagram, 382 force, momentum, Newton’s Laws, 39-72
emf, 324 frame of reference, 384
emf sources in series and parallel, 285 free electrons, 272
emf, or voltage, in AC circuits, 316 free fall, 12
emissivity, 221—222 frequencies, 342, 343
endothermic and exothermic, 216-217 frequency, 160-161, 316, 332
412 Master Math: Essential Physics

frequency of charged particle’s orbit, 301 Hertz, 157, 316, 325, 354
frequency, EM waves, 353 Hooke’s Law, 147—150,151,154, 162,164,166
friction, 16, 40, 78-85 Hubble, Edwin, 401
frost, 254 hydrogen atom energy, 393
fundamental forces, 102, 107 hydrogen atom, ground state, 393
fundamental frequency, 337 I
fundamental, or resonance, 342 ideal gas, 227
G Ideal Gas Law, 227, 228, 256
galaxy formation, 402 Ideal Gas Law development, 227-229
Galileo, 30 ideal, reversible engines, 250
Galileo’s thermometer, 202 image distance, 367
Galvanometer, 287 impedance, 327-328
gas, 169, 193, 225-258, 227 impulse, 55-57, 70
Gas Laws, 227-231 incident light, 355
gas to liquid, 215 incline plane, 142-143
gas, temperature, 208 inclined surface, 47
gauge pressure, 175 index of refraction, 355, 370
General Relativity, 381-389, 405 induced emf, 309, 324
General Relativity predictions, 385-389 inducing emf, 307
generator, 315 inductance, 324
geodesic, 383 inductance in AC circuit, 321-326
geometric center, 68 inductive reactance, 325, 329
gluon exchange, 104-105 inductors, 322
gluons, 101-102, 104, 107 inductors in series and parallel, 323-324
gold foil experiment, 389-390 inelastic collisions, 135, 137, 143
graph of current and voltage in AC circuit inertia, 40, 44
with resistor, 318 inertial mass, 383
gravitation, 87-94 inertial reference frame, 373
gravitational force, 101-103, 107, 124, 126 inflation, 400
gravitational length change, 385 instantaneous speed, 6—7, 24, 35
gravitational lensing, 386, 403 instantaneous velocity, 23
gravitational mass, 383 interference, 337, 370
gravitational potential energy, 121, 122, 143 interference pattern, 348, 349
gravitational potential energy, large h, 125-127 interference, constructive/destructive, 335
gravitational redshift, 386-387 internal (thermal) energy, 209-210, 223
gravitational time dilation, 385 internal energy, 240-242, 243, 245, 248
gravitational waves, 388 International System of Units, xi
graviton(s), 101-103, 107 isobaric, constant pressure, 242, 245-246
gravity, 12, 382 isochoric, constant volume, 242, 245
ground, 281 isothermal, constant temperature, 228, 242-245
ground state, 391 isotope(s), 226, 394
ground state hydrogen atom energy, 406 J
H Joule, xi
hadrons, 101 Joule, James Prescott Joule, 112
halo, 402 Joule’s Law, 280
harmonic motion, 156 Junction Rule, 281
harmonic series, 342 junctions, 281
harmonics (harmonic frequencies), first, K
second, etc., 337, 342 Kelvin, 199-201, 223
heat, 199, 209, 223 Kepler’s Laws, 87-88, 107
heat and temperature, 199-224 kilocalorie, 211
heat as energy, 209-217 kinetic energy, 117-121, 143, 209
heat capacity, 247 kinetic energy of gas molecule, 233
heat engines and heat pumps, 250-252 kinetic friction, 78—85
heat of combustion, 217 kinetic friction coefficient, 79
heat pumps and heat engines, 250—252 Kinetic Theory of Gases, 231-235, 256
heat transfer, 217-222, 223 Kirchhoff’s First Rule, 281
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, 397-398, Kirchhoff’s Rules, 281-283, 290
406 Kirchhoff’s Second Rule, 282
Henries, 325 L
Henry, 321, 324 laminar flow, 188, 196
 Index 413
latent heat of fusion, 215, 21 9NISS
mass rotating, 63
latent heat of transformation, 214-215, 223, mass vs. weight, 44, 70
255 mass-energy equivalence, 380
latent heat of vaporization, 215, 255 matter, 100, 107
latent heat to melt the ice, 219 matter particles, 101
Law of Conservation of Energy, 131 matter, ordinary, 400
Law of Reflection, 370 maxima, 348
Law of Universal Gravitation, 87-89, 107, maximum velocity, 162
126 Maxwell distribution of speeds, 234
Laws of Thermodynamics, 239-252 Maxwell velocity distribution, 234
length contraction, 375, 377-378 Maxwell, James Clerk, 234
length deformations, 150 mean speed, 234
lens equation(s), 363, 367 measuring circuits, 287
lenses and mirrors, 360-369 measuring heat, 211
Lenz’s Law, 310, 311, 312, 324 mechanical advantage, 143
leptons, 101-102, 107 mechanical waves, 331, 369
levers, 142 medium, 331
light, 370 melting point, 216, 255
light waves, interference/diffraction, 347-351 meniscus, 184
limit, 7, 23 mercury barometer, 175
linear expansion, 203, 205, 223 mercury density, 175
linear momentum, 53-59, 70 Mercury’s orbit, 386
linear restoring force, 149 mesons, 101
linear velocity, 32 meters, 287
liquid to a gas, 215 metric system, xi
liquids, 169 Michelson and Morley, 374
lodestone, 293 minima, 349
longitudinal waves, 334, 369 mirror equation, 367
Loop Rule, 282 mirrors, 364
Lorentz force, 300 MKS system, xi
loudness, 341 molar heat capacities, 247
M molar mass, 226
Mach number, 339, 347, 370 mole (mol), 226
machines, simple, 141-143 molecular mass, 226
MACHOs, MAssive Compact Halo Objects, moment ofinertia, 64, 130, 131
403 momentum, 43, 135, 231, 380
magnetic dynamo, 298 monatomic gas, 248
magnetic field for current-carrying wire, 312 motion, 3-38
magnetic field for long straight current- motion, 2-dimensional, 26-31
carrying wire, 303-304 moving charge(s), 312
magnetic field for solenoid, 312 moving charges, magnetic force, 296
magnetic field(s), 294, 297,298, 302-306, 312 moving magnets, 312
magnetic fields and relative motion, 305 moving wire in magnetic field, 312
magnetic flux, 308-309, 310, 312 multimeter(s), 287, 289
magnetic force, 296, 298, 312 multi-slit diffraction, 350-351
magnetic force on current-carrying wire, music and sound, 341
297-299 mutual inductance, 322, 326, 329
magnetic force vector, 296-297 N
magnetic forces on moving charges, 296-300 natural forces, 87-110
magnetic poles, 294 negative ofa vector, 19
magnetism, 293-296 neutralinos, 404
magnets, 293-294, 311 neutrinos, 102, 403, 404
magnification, 368-369 neutrons, 94
magnification equation, lens, 363 Newton (unit), xi, 40, 43
magnification equation, mirror, 367 Newton’s First Law, 41—42, 70
magnifying glass, 362 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, 96
mass, 44, 70 Newton’s Laws of Motion, 41, 70, 88-89
mass number, 226 Newton’s Second Law, 42-43, 70
mass number or atomic mass number, 225 Newton’s Third Law, 43-44, 70, 149
mass of an electron, 97, 266 node(s), 342, 369, 336
mass of any specified nucleus, 226
414 Master Math: Essential Physics

non-conservative force, 125, 134 Principle of Equivalence, 383

normal force, 45, 70, 80 probable speed, 234
nth root, xil projectiles, 26-31
O propagation speed, 333
object distance, 367 protons, 94
Ohm’s Law, 275, 290, 327 pulleys, 50-53, 142
ohmmeter, 287, 288 Pythagorean Theorem, 21, 327
Ohms, 276, 280, 319, 325 Q
optics, 354 quantized, 392
orbital(s), 391, 397 Quantum Chromodynamics, 104—105
oscillatory motion, 158 Quantum Electrodynamics, 105, 399
oscilloscope, 340 Quantum Mechanics, 394-399, 406
osmosis, 236, 237-239 Quantum Theory, 391
osmotic pressure, 238 Quantum Wave Mechanics, 398
overtones, first, second, 337 quarks, 101, 104, 105, 107
P R
parallel and series resistor circuits, 283 radian, 66
partial pressure, 253-254 radiated power, 221
Pascal’s Principle, 171-172, 196 radiation, 217, 220-222, 223
pendulum, 163-164 radius of charged particle’s motion, 301
period, 32, 34, 155-157, 160-161, 164, 332,334 radius of curvature, 361
Periodic Table (of Elements), 225, 394 rate emitted energy leaves, 221
permeability of free space, 303-304 rate of conduction heat transfer, 218
permittivity, 260 rate of heat flow, 218
permittivity of free space, 96, 268-269 RCL circuits, 327-328, 329
permittivity of free space, electric constant, real image, 361, 365
260 rectifier, 316
phase change, 214, 255 reflected light, 355
phase change and latent heat, 214-216 reflected rays, 355
phase diagrams, 255 reflected wave pulse, 335
phase of current and voltage, 320, 323, 329 reflected waves, 335, 369
photoelectric effect, 395, 406 reflection, 354-355
photoelectrons, 395 reflection and refraction, 354-360
photon exchange, 105 refracted rays, 355
photon frequency, 393 refraction, 355-359
photons, 101-103, 107 relative humidity, 254
pipe flow, laminar, 196 relativistic energy effects, 379
pipe, horizontal, 192 relativistic mass effects, 379
pitch, 341 relativistic momentum, 380
Planck’s constant, 353, 354, 391, 395 relativistic velocity addition, 378-379
Planck’s relationship, 396 relativity, 373-389
Plum Pudding Model of atom, 389 resistance, 275-279, 290
Polarization, 360 resistance of a material, 277
potential between the plates, 269 resistance, circuit, 290
potential difference, voltage, 129, 143, resistivity, 276-277
263-264, 265, 287, 289, 307 resistor circuits, series and parallel, 283
potential energy, 117, 121-123, 124, 125, resistors, 275
143, 148, 162, 182 resistors in series, in parallel, 283, 284
potential energy difference (charge), 264 resonance, 164—166, 342
potentiometer, 287, 288 resonate, 343
pound-force (unit), 41 restoring force, 149, 153, 154, 164
power, 140-141, 143, 279 reversible process, 250
power in an AC circuit, 318, 329 Reynolds number, 194-195, 196
power is a scalar, 140 rheostat, 281
power, circuit, 290 right triangle relations, 21
power, electric, 279-280 right-hand rule, 295, 312
pressure, 170-176, 196, 232 rolling friction, 79
pressure gauges, 175 root mean square current and voltage, 328
pressure of fluid with depth, 174 root mean square for power, 318
principal axis, 361, 362 root mean square speed, 233, 234
principal quantum number, 397 root mean square velocity, 233
 Index 415
root mean square voltage and current, 317
spring force, 124
rotational inertia, 130 square root, xii
rotational kinetic energy, 130-131, 143
standard candles, 400
Rutherford Model, 389-390 Standard Model, 100-103
Rutherford’s gold foil experiment, 406 standard ruler, 401
N) standard temperature and pressure, 229
satellites, 92-94 standard volume, 229
saturated air, 253 standing wave patterns, 337
saturation pressure, 254 standing wave(s), 335-338, 369
scalar product, 114 standing-wave frequencies, 343
scalars, 17-18 static equilibrium, 73-76, 85
Schrédinger (wave) equation, 398-399, 406 static fluids, 170-176
Schwarzschild, 384 static friction, 78—85
Schwarzschild radius, 387-388 static friction coefficient, 79, 81
secant (sec), xii Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 221-222
Second Law of Thermodynamics, 239, Stefan-Boltzmann Law, 221-222
249-252, 257 strain, 150-153, 166, 205
self-inductance, 321, 324, 329 strain vs. stress, 151
self-induction, 329 stress, 150-153, 166, 205
semiconductors, 278 strong (nuclear) force, 101-102, 104-105, 107
series and parallel resistor circuits, 283 strong nuclear and weak forces, 99-107
shear stress, 151 sublimation, 215, 216, 255
shock wave(s), 346-347, 370 supernovae, 400
SI (Systeme International) units, xi superposition, 265, 335, 369
silicon bandgap temperature sensor, 202 Superposition Principle, 262
simple harmonic motion, 153-162, 166 surface energy, 182
simple machines, 141-143 surface tension, 182, 183, 182-188, 196
simultaneous events, 378 T
sine (sin), Xii tangent (tan), xii
sine curve, 158-159 temperature, 199-203, 209, 223
sine wave pattern, 316 temperature coefficient of resistivity, 278
single-slit diffraction, 350-351 temperature scales, 199-201
singularity, 384, 387 temperature, gas, 208
sinusoidal, 155 tensile stress, 150
sinusoidal wave shape, 331 tension, 48—53
sinusoids, 164 terminal velocity, 16—17, 195-196
slug (unit), 41 Tesla, 309
Snell’s Law, 356-357, 359, 370 test charge, 260, 261, 296
solenoid(s), 295, 303-304 thermal equilibrium, 210, 217
sonic boom, 346 thermal expansion, 203-208
sound (wave) intensity, 341 thermal stress, 205
sound, 369 thermistor, 202
sound waves, 334, 340, 338-347 thermo, 239
sound waves in cylinders, 342 thermocouple, 202
spacetime, 382 thermodynamics, 239
Special Relativity, 373-381 thermometers, 201-202
Special Relativity and effects, 405 Third Law of Thermodynamics, 239, 252, 257
specific gravity, 173 timbre, 341
specific heat (capacity), 211-213, 223, time dilation, 375-377
246-247 time dilation and simultaneous events, 378
specific heat at constant pressure, 214 torque, 59-62, 68, 70, 312
specific heat at constant volume, 213 torque on current-carrying wire, 299
specific heat of gasses, 213-214 torques in equilibrium, 76-78
specific heat, constant volume/pressure, 247 Torricelli’s equation, 192
specific heats of gases, 246 torsion stress, 15]
specific latent heat, 214-215 total internal reflection, 359, 370
speed, 22—24 transformer(s), step-up and step-down, 326
speed of sound in gas, 339 transverse traveling waves, 352
speed of sound waves, 338 transverse waves, 334, 352, 369
transverse waves vs. longitudinal waves, 334
spiral galaxy, 402
spring constant, 148 traveling waves, 331-335
416 Master Math: Essential Physics

trigonometric functions, x1i, 157 velocity, simple harmonic motion, 158

trigonometric relationships, xii vertex, 361, 362
triple point, 256 virtual image, 362, 363, 365, 366
turbulent flow, 194, 196 viscosity, 193-196
twin paradox, 381 viscosity, Reynolds number, terminal
two-dimensional motion: projectiles, 26-31 velocity, 193-196
U voltage (potential difference), 264, 267, 289,
Uncertainty Principle, 397-398 307
units, Xi—Xii voltage across capacitor, 319, 320, 329
units for angular momentum, 66 voltage across inductor, 323, 325, 329
units for coefficient of thermal conductivity, voltage, or emf, in AC circuits, 316
218 voltmeter, 287
units for density, 173 volts, 310
units for kinetic energy, 118 volume expansion, 206, 207, 223
units for latent heats, 215 volume of irregularly shaped object, 179-180
units for potential energy, 122 volume strain and stress, 152
units for power, 140 volume, density, 207-208
units for Young’s modulus, 152 Ww
units of acceleration, 24 wave, 369
units of capacitance, 268 wave equation, 332, 398
units of coefficient of linear expansion, 203 wave function, 399
units of coefficient of volume expansion, 206 Wave Mechanics, 399
units of current, 274 wave pulses, 333
units of diffusion coefficient, 236 wave speed, 332, 339, 369
units of electromotive force, 273 wavelength, EM waves, 353
units of emf, 310 wavelengths, 332,334,
336, 338, 342,343,369
units of force, 40 waves in cylindrical instruments, 342
units of magnetic field strength, 296 waves on strings with both ends fixed, 336
units of magnetic flux, 309 waves, sound, light, 331-372
units of momentum, 54 weak (nuclear) force, 101-103, 105, 107
units of pressure, 170 Weber, 309
units of resistance, 276 weight, 44, 70
units of speed and velocity, 24 wet, 186
units of stress, 150 Wheatstone bridge, 288
units of surface tension, 183, 184 WIMP, or Weakly Interacting Massive
units of torque, 62 Particle, 403—404
units of viscosity, 194 work, 111-117, 126, 141, 143, 148, 162,
units of work, or energy, 112, 129 183, 190, 210, 214, 301
units to measure heat, energy, 211 work done to overcome gravity, 122-123
Universal Gas Constant, 227, 228 work function, 396
universal gravitational constant, 89-90 work in an isochoric system, 245
universe expanding, 388 work to move charge, 128, 129, 263, 264,
Vv 265, 290, 307
vapor pressure, 253-254 work, a scalar, 114
vaporization, 253 work, adiabatic system, 243
vaporization, vapor pressure, and phase work, capacitor, 269
change, 253-256 work, circuit, 280
vaporize, 216 work, isobaric system, 246
vector (cross) product, 297, 298 work, isothermal system, 244
vector(s), xii, 17-22, 35 work-energy principle, 125
vector addition, 19 Work-Energy Theorem, 119
vector components, 20—22 Y
vector cross product, 61 Young’s double-slit experiment, 347-349,
vector magnitude (or length), 19, 21 370
vector subtraction, 20 Young’s modulus, 152, 205
velocity, 24, 35 Z
velocity vector(s), 23, 24-25, 31, 158 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, 239-240,
velocity vs. speed, 22—24 256
 Index 417

“The first gulp from the glass of natural sciences will turn you into an atheist,
but at the bottom of the glass God is waiting for you.”
Attributed to Werner Heisenberg
418 Master Math: Essential Physics
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