LECTURE MANUAL IN FOOD HYGIENE

(VPH 172)

By

LOINDA R. BALDRIAS, Ph. D

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 INTRODUCTION
FOOD HYGIENE is a subject that has a considerable scope. Food should nourishing and attractive. It must
be clean and free of contaminating substances. The aim of food hygiene is the production and service of
food that is safe, clean, and sound and fit for consumption. As such, we are interested in studying
methods for the production, preparation and preservation of food that is safe to eat and of good
keeping quality.
Appropriately, it covers the following:
1. Proper handling of every variety of foodstuffs and drink;
2. Maintenance of the quality of raw food materials from the place of harvest or slaughter to
processing areas;
3. Assurance of the quality of foods from the time of processing and preparation till the moment of
consumption;
4. Proper handling of all the utensils and apparatus used in the preparation of foods and;
5. Maintenance of clean personal habits.

Underlying the principle and desire of keeping food safe for human consumption is the practice of the
science of sanitation. Thus, FOOD HYGIENE may be defined as the sanitary science which aims to
produce food which is safe for the consumer and of good keeping quality.

PART I
MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD
Food in the main, are perishable items and they present suitable nutrients for the growth of a
great variety of microorganisms. The ubiquitous existence of microorganisms is an undeniable fact. Their
existence in food can either lead o food spoilage or cause food-borne illness in man. Thus, despite their
presence, every effort must be exerted to make food safe for human consumption. We need to produce
food as free as practicable of microorganisms. The obvious first area for preventive action is to avoid
contamination. However, it is important to recognize that the initial contamination is made much worse
by an increase in the number of contaminating microorganisms.
The types of microorganisms of most concern to the food industry are molds, yeasts and
bacteria.
A. MOLDS
These are microscopic plants composed of filaments (long threads or hyphae) and masses of
hyphae which make up the body of the “plant” known as the mycelium.
The growth on food by molds is usually readily recognized by its “fuzzy” or cottony appearance.
For example, the green growths on old bread or oranges. The whiskers on meat or the green or black
growths o ceilings, represent countless numbers of small plants.
Reproduction
Like plants, molds arise from seeds which in their case are known as spores.
Factors Affecting Growth
Molds grow best at temperatures 20-30c but many grow near 0c. Molds grow better in an acidic
environment and a pH of 6 is near the optimum for most species.
Whiskers and black spot on meat are due to the growth of mold which usually occur under
somewhat dried conditions that those under which bacterial thrive. The conditions under which mold
growth occurs on meat are humid atmosphere and a temperature close to freezing. At higher
temperatures and with wet surfaces, bacterial will generally outgrow the molds.
The black spot, due to the growth of Cladosporium, can grow on or below the surface of the
meat at -9c. Hence, the holding temperature should be lower that this if frozen meat is to be kept for a
long period.
Temperature fluctuations in cold stores promote growth of spoilage organisms due to moisture
migration and “sweating”. Certain molds develop slowly at temperatures below freezing, but profuse

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growths of green mold and of whiskers are usually an indication that at some time during storage the
temperatures gad risen to freezing point or slightly higher.
B. YEAST
Like the molds, yeast are microscopic plants but yeast unlike the molds are single-celled living
organisms. They are slightly larger than bacteria.
Reproduction
The most common means of yeast production is by budding. When we speak of growth of
single-celled organisms we do not mean an increase I size but an increase in numbers.
Factors Affecting Growth
Most yeast, like the molds, grow best at room temperature, but some kinds grow at 0c. Yeasts
generally are inhibited at temperature above 37c. A plentiful water supply is required by most of the
common yeast for growth, but as with molds, some will grow in fairly dry environments.
In general, yeasts require less water than bacteria, but more than molds.
Yeasts and molds are easily killed by heat during cleaning and are seldom a problem in the food
industry. However, highly perishable food, e.g. meat, if exposed for some time to temperatures a few
degrees above freezing point, small white or pink yeast colonies may develop. Under moist conditions
the colonies show us as tiny semi-translucent spot. When these colonies dry, white colonies frequently
turn brown and may be the cause of “brown spots” on meat.
C. BACTERIA
Bacteria are very small, single-celled living organisms. They are smaller than yeast cells, varying
in size from 0.2-5microns, with an average size of 1.5 microns.
1. They can be transferred from human hands, rodents, insects, birds, dust particles, air currents
and water sprays and
2. Their presence is not obvious until huge numbers are present.
Although many people believe otherwise most forms of bacteria are harmless and many
thousands of useful activities are performed by bacteria, including, decomposition of waste(aerobic-
anaerobic ponds); fixation of atmospheric nitrogen; the production of acid flavour in the manufacture of
butter, cheese, sauerkraut, sausages(fermented), vinegar, buttermilk, etc.
Certain bacteria have the capacity to transform themselves into small highly resistant cells that
are termed spores or endospores, since they are formed within the cell. All bacteria in the genera
Bacillus and Clostridium are characterized, in part, by their ability to produce spores. Compared with
vegetative cells, spores are extremely resistant to adverse physical and chemical agents such as heat,
cold and antibacterial agents.
Growth of Bacteria
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission that is, one cell divides into two equal parts or cells, which
in turn divide to give a total of four cells, and so on. This gives a logarithmic increase in numbers. The
time between consecutive divisions is called generation time. Given favourable conditions, the
generation time for many species of bacteria is less than 20 minutes. The result is a very rapid increase
in numbers – a rapid growth rate at a very short time, for example, a single bacterium would produce,
after seven hours, a progeny of more than two million cells.
Lower temperatures slow down the rate of division of bacteria, but even at 2C, some bacteria
(e.g Pseudomonas ) can divide at least once every 10 hours. At this rate, there will be more than a
hundred-fold increase in numbers in three days and in eight to nine days, one cell would increase to one
million.
The GROWTH PATTERN of bacteria arriving on food surface can be divided into 4 phases:
1. Lag phase= period of adjustment for bacteria in their new environment, when cell damage is
repaired and the bacteria adapt to utilise the nutrients now available; there is no growth or even
a decline in numbers.
2. Log phase= (logarithmic or exponential phase) is the period of growth when bacterial cells begin
to divide by binary fission; the rate of multiplication is most rapid and is constant.

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 3. Stationary phase= period when as many cells are dying off as they are being formed thus
numbers remain constant.
a. In nearly all cases, food is spoiled by the time stationary phase is reached, the exception
being fermented foods such as salami, sauerkraut, etc.
4. Death phase= period when bacterial numbers decrease as they eventually start to slowly die off
in excess of multiplication.
The most relevant phases are the lag and log phases. Thus various methods of food preservation are
aimed in:
a.) lengthening the lag phase as much as possible; and
b.) hindering the growth of bacteria during the log phase by subjecting them to unfavourable conditions.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE NUMBERS OF BACTERIA
Numerous factors affect bacterial growth, but cannot be manipulated as easily as the following factors
1. Initial Numbers
The extent of the initial contamination influences the storage life of food. Obviously, the greater
the number of bacteria present, the lower the amount of growth can be tolerated even when food is
stored at low temperatures. For example, at a storage temperature of 5c, counts in excess of 100,000
per cm would limit the storage life of carcass meat(as determined by the appearance of sliming for
instance)to less than one week. On the other hand, the initial count has been limited to 100 per cm2,
the storage life will be more than two weeks.
2. Temperature
One of the most important factors governing growth of microorganisms is temperature span
within which microorganisms can grow extends to about -5 to 80C. the upper temperature limit of
biological growth is determined by the thermolability of the cellular proteins while the lower
temperature limit is set by the freezing point of water. However, biological is possible at temperature far
below the minimal temperature that permit growth. Thus, although freezing will result in the death of
some cells, it is not an effective method of sterilization.
Temperature has, without doubt, the greatest effect on the rate of growth of bacteria. The lag
phase is longer at low temperatures, and the growth rate is slower, i.e. lag times are increased and
growth rates are slowed by cooling. Given a particular number of bacteria, the temperature of storage
will largely dictate the time of spoilage. For example, the length of time by which one Pseudomonas cell
can multiply and cause spoilage o a moist meat surface is inversely related to the temperature under
which the meat was stored. Such that, a storage temperature of 10
C and above results to spoilage of meat in less than 2 days, while a temperature of 2C prolongs the shelf
life of the meat up to 12 days. If the meat was frozen, held at -5C or lower, bacterial growth is effectively
stopped.
Among bacteria, differences with respect to the temperature range that supports growth are
particularly marked. In terms of this property, it is possible to distinguish four major physiological
groups: the thermophiles, the mesophiles, the psychotrophs, and the psychrophiles.

Different species of bacteria vary in their response to temperature and they may be broadly classified
according to their optimum, minimum and maximum temperatures for growth. (table 1)

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Table 1: Classification of bacteria according to their growth requirements.
Group Temperature(c)

Min temp. for Optimum temp. for Max temp. for

growth growth growth
Thermophiles 37-40 45-75 60-80

Mesophiles 8-15 20-45 40-50

Psychrophiles (-5)-(+5) 10-37 20-50

Psychrotrophs (-5)-(+5) 10-37 20-50

The thermophilic bacteria include the Bacillus species causing flat sour spoilage of canned foods
and Clostridium thermosacharolyticum causing gaseous spoilage.
The mesophilic bacteria are the largest group and include most of the pathogenic bacteria
(Salmonella, Staphylococcus, Shigella, the Coliforms etc.)
The psychrotropic bacteria are commonly found in soil and water and on vegetation. The
phychrotropic species which form the major component of meat spoilage floras include Pseudomonas,
Moraxela, Acinetobacter, Microbacterium themosphactrum, certain genera of the family
Enterobactericeae, etc.
It should be remembered that although psychotrophic organisms can grow at temperature near
freezing their growth rate is relatively slow.
Psychrophilic bacteria with an optimum growth temperature of 15c or less occur only in
permanently cold environments and are therefore not usually found in spoilage floras.
For flesh-type foods (meat, fish and poultry), the important points to note are:
A. Growth of mesophiles (coliforms and the pathogenic bacteria such as Clostridium,Salmonella
and Staphylococcus are included here) is rapid at the body temperature of a freshly-dressed
carcass but does not occur below 8c.
B. Below 8c – i.e. in the temperature range applicable to chilled food- psychrophiles and
psychrotrophs (e.g. Pseudomonas) are the important groups. They will eventually cause
spoilage of the food.
C. The optimum growth rate for the psychrotropic bacteria occurs at a temperature considerably
higher than the minimum temperature.
D. Thus, if bacterial growth is to be avoided for flesh-type foods, they must be quickly cooled and
maintained at a low temperature during storage, processing, packaging and transport.
3. Moisture
Like the other living organisms ,bacteria need water before they can grow, and after
temperature availability of moisture is probably the most important requirement for microbial growth.
The water must be available and not bound by salt, sugar or ice.
A term is now widely used in the context of water relationships between food and spoilage
organisms is “water activity” Aw . This term is a measure of the available water.
The Aw of a solution is the ratio of its vapor pressure to that of pure water at the same
temperature. It is inversely proportional to the number of solute molecules present. The Awis equal to
percentage relative humidity divided by 100.
As, the Aw decreases, more and more species of bacteria are unable to grow. For example, the
use of brines in corned meat(as in other kinds of food) is universally recognized. From a purely
bacteriological point of view, it is desirable to achieve a rate if evaporation from the surfaces of
carcasses which is at least as great as the rate of water migration from underlying tissues.

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 4. pH – Measure of Acidity and Alkalinity
Microbial growth is strongly affected by the pH of the medium, but again there are wide
differences between the pH requirements of the various species of bacteria.
Most bacteria grow over the range pH 4-8, but the optimum growth is usually near pH 7. Below
pH 6, growth slows down, thus pickling of food at low pH is a common method of preservation. The pH
of food is important in the calculation of heat treatment in the canning industry. Low acid foods receive
a higher heat treatment compare to acid foods.
5. Gaseous Environment
Bacterial species vary in their requirements and/or preferences for the gaseous composition of
surrounding atmosphere. Bacteria have been classified into three, sometimes four groups, by their
response to oxygen.
1. Aerobic: those either preferring to grow or needing to grow in an atmosphere containing
oxygen.
2. Anaerobic: those requiring an atmosphere devoid of oxygen, but able to grow, at a reduced
rate, in the presence of oxygen.
3. Facultative anaerobic: those preferring an atmosphere devoid, but are able to grow, at a
reduced rate, in the presence of oxygen.
4. Microaerophilic: those preferring a reduced oxygen concentration, but not necessarily an
absence of thereof. Oxygen at the partial pressure of the normal atmosphere inhibits them.
Some bacteria, such as Pseudomonas, can grow only in the presence of oxygen, some only in the
absence of oxygen such as Clostridium.
Other organisms, such as Lactobacillus, are indifferent and grow just as well without oxygen as
with it while Salmonella and E. Coli grow faster in the presence of oxygen, but will grow without oxygen.
Many species commonly associated with the spoilage of chilled food e.g. fresh meat are aerobes
(e.g. Pseudomonas). Thus by manipulating the gaseous environment as in vacuum packaging of say,
small goods or fresh meat, one can prevent spoilage by Pseudomonas. However, Lactobacillus is not
prevented from growing and this organism becomes predominant. This spoilage is characterized by a
sour smell. (Pseudomonas causes a putrid type of smell)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations higher that of normal atmosphere (0.03%) inhibit many
different bacteria. Concentrations as low as 5% are known to inhibit some species, including
Pseudomonas. The inhibitory effect becomes greater with the concentrations up to 50%. On the other
hand, some bacteria are resistant to the presence of CO2, e.g. Lactobacillus and Microbacterium.
Ageing of meat inside the vacuum pack is done in the presence of CO2 and Lactobacillus will be
the predominant organism in the final product. If aged meat smells putrid, one can be almost sure that
Pseudomones is the organism responsible ,thus the vacuum seal was broken or the package was not
sealed properly. Recently vacuum packaging of small goods has been done by injecting CO2 in the
evacuated bag just before sealing and will give an extended storage life.

FOOD-BORNE ILLNESSES
A Public Health Hazard
“Food poisoning” is a term commonly used to identify all relatively acute illnesses associated
with food consumption of food, However, due to increasing recognition of food-borne infections caused
by non-toxin producing microbial organisms, use of the term “Food-borne illnesses” would be more
appropriate to designate all acute illnesses resulting from consumption of food.
Classification of Food-Borne Illnesses
I. Food Poisoning/Food intoxications
These arise as a consequence of ingestion of a poison of preformed toxin in food without the
necessity of ingesting viable causal organisms. The incubation period between eating the food and the
development of symptoms is usually shorter, usually within four hours or less.
A. Poisoning by Chemicals
B. Poisoning by Toxic Plants and Animals

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 C. Poisoning by Mycotic Toxins
D. Poisoning by Bacterial Toxins
II. Food-Borne infections
These occur as a result of ingestion of viable and infective microorganisms which multiply,
invade and cause damage to tissues. As living organisms are ingested, some time will elapse before their
multiplication in the body has proceeded sufficiently to provoke the usual reactions of diarrhea and
vomiting. Occurrence of symptoms naturally depends to some extent on the initial dose, but is seldom
less than 12 hours and may be much longer.
A. Bacterial infections
B. Parasitic infections
C. Viral and Rickettsial infections
III. FOOD POISONING/FOOD INTOXICATION
= essentially, illnesses due to consumption of toxins/poisons in food.
A. POISONING BY CHEMICALS
1. ANTIMONY POISONING
 Etiologic Agent: Enamelware containing antimony
 Foods involved: any foods contaminated by leaching of contained by acid food.
 Incubation period: Few minutes to hours
 Signs: Vomiting, abdominal pains, spasms, collapse, occasionally fatal.
 Prevention: Discontinue use of utensils with antimony in finish.
2. CADMIUM POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Plating metal
 Foods involved: Any food contaminated by leaching if containers and trays by acid foods
including fruit juices.
 Incubation period: 1/2hour or less
 Signs: Nausea, vomiting, cramps, often fatal.
 Prevention: Discontinue use of cadmium plated utensils as food containers.
3. COPPER POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Copper food contact surfaces.
 Foods involved: Any acid food contaminated by leaching of copper surfaces by such
foods
 Incubation period: 1 hour or less
 Signs: Vomiting, no specific symptoms
 Prevention: Prevent acid foods or liquids or carbonated liquids form contact with
exposed copper.
4. ZINC POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Galvanize ware
 Food involved: any food accidentally contaminated, leaching of galvanized containers
by acid
 Incubation period: 1hour or less
 Signs: Diarrhea, astringent taste
 Prevention: Education of persons preparing food
5. CYANIDE POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Silver polish containing cyanide
 Foods involved: Any food accidentally contaminated
 Incubation period: ½ to 6hours
 Signs: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cold perspiration, exhaustion, often fatal.
 Prevention: Discontinue use of cyanide silver polishes or exercise care in their use
6. ARSENIC POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Insecticides and rodenticides

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  Foods involved: Any food accidentally contaminated
 Incubation period: 1 hour or less
 Signs: Vomiting, diarrhea, occasionally fatal,
 Prevention: Use of colored pesticides and proper storage of same
7. FLUORIDE POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Insecticides containing sodium fluoride
 Incubation period: 1 hour or less
 Signs: Vomiting, retching, cramps, pallor, collapse often fatal.
 Prevention: Discontinue use in food establishments of pesticides containing fluorides
8. LEAD POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Pesticides
 Foods involved: any food accidentally contaminated
 Incubation period: 1 hour or less
 Signs: Abdominal pains, vomiting, may be fatal
 Prevention: Use of colored pesticides and proper storage of same
9. METHYL ALCOHOL
 Foods involved: Adulterated whisky
 Incubation period: 18-48hours
 Signs: visual disturbances, weakness, abdominal pains, nausea, vomiting, headache,
dizziness, shortness of breath.
10. NITRATES
 Foods involved: Cure products, water
 Incubation period: several days
 Signs: Cyanosis, vomiting, diarrhea in infants
11. SODUIM INCOTINATE and SODIUM SULFITE
 Foods involved: meat dyed to maintain bright color
 Signs: Generalized vasodilation with cutaneous symptoms of itching, burning, heat and
redness.
Possible sources of Chemicals in Food-borne outbreaks:
1. Utensils, e.g. use of Cadmium plated ware, cheap enamelled ware containing antimony.
2. Accidental Addition to Food, e.g. Insecticide fluoride was accidentally added to food in place of
baking powder.
3. Residues of Spray Applications, e.g. Lead and arsenic residues may be present from fruit sprays on
surfaces of fruits. Residues can be reduced to harmless amounts by through washing.
4. Mechanical Leaking of Equipment, e.g. leaking of methyl chloride on food due to faulty refrigeration
equipment.
B. POISONING BY TOXIC PLANTS AND ANIMALS
1. PARALYTIC SHELLFISH POISONING (Red Tide Poisoning) = due to consumption of ocean mussels,
clams or fish which contails poisonous biotoxins at certain seasons of the year.
 Etiologic agent: Dioflagellate toxins. Thermostable alkaloid (biotoxin) contained in dinoflagellate
plankton (e.g. Pyrodinum bahamanse) which are filtered into the body system of fishes and
shellfishes.
 Significant Aspects of the Toxin
1. Toxin cannot be destroyed by cooking, freezing, smoking, salting or drying.
2. Toxic is very water soluble, thus soup where fish or shellfish was boiled can be toxic.
3. No convenient test for identification of toxic fish or seafood.
 Incubation period: 5 to 30 minutes or longer.
 Signs and symptoms: Complex; involves digestive, cardiovascular and nervous systems. Distinct
features are reversal of hot and cold sensations, tingling and numbness of the extremities and

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 sever pruritus. Respiratory paralysis and death in severe cases, Nervous signs may persist for
months or years.
 Foods involved: tropical or subtropical fish or shellfish, predominantly from water around coral
reefs and islands.
 Prevention:
1. Prevent the marketing of shellfish/fish likely to be hazardous.
2. Monitoring waters known to present a hazard and preventing the harvesting of shellfish/fish at
times when the toxic plankton are present in the water at high concentrations.
2. SCOMBROID POISONING = occurs worldwide. Symptoms mimic allergic reactions and histamine
toxicity.
 Etiologic agent: Scombroid fish containing high levels of histamine, 50 or more mg per 100g of
flesh.
 Significant aspect: Toxin is heat resistant.
 Incubation period: Several minutes to a few hours.
 Signs and symptoms: Oral burning sensation, flushing of the face and neck, headace,
palpitation, rash ,itching and gastro-intestinal symptoms. Duration is brief; less than 1 day.
 Implicated foods: Fresh, canned, dried. Smoked, and salted fish.
 Prevention: Ensure rapid and uninterrupted refrigeration of susceptible fish after catching.
3. MUSHROOM POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Toxins(phalloidine andother alkaloids) of certain species of mushrooms
 Foods involved: Poisonous mushrooms(usually Amanita phalloides and A. muscaria)
 Incubation period: 15 minutes to 15 hours
 Signs and symptoms: Salivation, sudden severe abdominal pain; intense thirst; nausea, retching,
vomiting, profuse watery stools, excessive perspiration, a flow of tears, often fatal.
 Prevention:
1. Eat only mushrooms known to be of non-poisonous species.
2. Education of persons preparing food.
4. RHUBARB LEAF POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Oxalic acid
 Food involved: Rhubarb leaves
 Incubation period: 2-12 hours
 Signs: Diarrhea, vomiting, thirst.
 Prevention: Education of persons preparing food
5. CASTOR BEAN POISONING:
 Etiologic agent: Ricin (toxin in the castor bean)
 Foods involved: Castor bean
 Incubation Period: Few minutes to several hours
 Signs and symptoms: colic, thirst, vomiting, diarrhea, cold sweat, collapse
 Prevention: Avoid eating castor beans
6. ERGOTISM
 Etiologic agent: parasitic fungus of rye (Claviceps purpurea)
 Foods involved: Rye meal or bread
 Incubation period: Gradual, usually after meals of diseased rye in meal or bread;
 Signs and symptoms: Gangrene involving limbs, especially fingers, toes, occasionally ears and
nose, convulsive depression, weakness and drowsiness, headache, giddiness, painful cramps in
limps and itching of skin.
 Prevention: Use only rye made from rye that is free of parasitic fungus.
7. CASSAVA POISONING
 Etiologic agent: Hydrocyanous acid and cyanide gas
 Foods involved: cyanide present in the bark of cassava

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  Incubation period: ½-6 hours
 Signs and symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cold perspiration, exhaustion, often fatal.
 Prevention:
1. Proper peeling of cassava before cooking.
2. During cooking, remove lid to release fumes of hydrogen cyanide.
C. POISONING BY MYCOTIC TOXINS
MYCOTOXICOSIS (e.g., Alimentary Toxic Aleukia; Aflatoxic Hepatitis, Balkan Endemic Nephropathy)
= recognized as one of the serious diseases affecting both human and animal health
 Etiologic agent: Mycotoxins, e.g. aflatoxins, ochratoxin, produced by certain species of molds.
 Foods Involved: Staple cereals, especially maize and rice, bread. High protein oilseeds such as
peanuts; cottonseed; dried coconut (copra); mill, meat, eggs from animals eating contaminated
fodder feeds.
Important Aspects of the Organisms and its Toxins:
1. High moisture content (above 15%) and high temperature(11-37c) are conducive to toxin
production.
2. Mycotoxins are not destroyed by the normal process or cooking.
 Signs and symptoms: jaundice, swollen abdomen, loss of appetite, death and liver cancer.
 Prevention:
1. Cultivation of those varieties of crops resistant to mould growth and mycotoxin formation
2. Encourage appropriate cultural practices before harvest time, such as:
 Selecting the proper sowing season
 Taking care with irrigation
 Destroying sources of fungal infection; use of fungicides
 Harvesting produce in such a way as to avoid damaging seeds.
3. Ensure proper drying of crops after harvest
4. Store produce in moisture proof conditions
5. Spray 2%acetic acid or propionic acid on moist grains to discourage mould growth
6. Insect control should be employed to prevent mould damage to crops
7. Before storage, remove chaff, immature damaged or shrivelled grains and extraneous seeds.
8. Treatment of foods and feeds ammonia to detoxify them
9. Refining of groundnut oil or using special filters during oil extraction process to remove
aflatoxin
10. Expose contaminated oil to sunlight
11. Surveillance to monitor level or aflatoxin in foods
D. POISONING BY BACTERIAL TOXINS
1. BOTULISM= a neuroparalytic disease in man and other animals which results from the ingestion of a
heat labile toxin produced in the food during the growth of the bacteria, Clostridium botulinum. It is a
world-wide incidence and can result from eating many types of food generally those of a type that
have undergone some treatment intended for the preservation of the product.
Although incidence is low and usually involves only a few cases in an outbreak large outbreaks
involving several hundreds of cases have occurred, and are a warning of what might conceivably happen
in a toxic foodstuff were distributed massively and quickly throughout a a country.
 Etiologic agent: Toxins A, B, E or F or Clostridium botulinum. Toxins C and D cause botulism in
animals. Type G recently found but has not yet caused any human cases.
 Special feature of the organism:
A. Saphrophytic, anaerobic, sporeforming, mesophilic, gram-positive motile rod.
B. Although organism is a strict anaerobe, growth and toxin production can occur in the presence of
oxygen if oxidation-reduction potential is low enough as in:
 Surface of food sealed in plastic wraps
 Food masses such as meat, fish, and sausages.

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 When contaminating oxygen consuming microorganisms are present in this can lower the oxidation-
reduction potential or produce anaerobic conditions at the surface of foods.
C. Vegetative cells of C. botulinum have low heat resistance (killed by heating for a few seconds at 60c or
higher). However, spores are considerably more heat resistant.
D. Spores of C. botulinum are relatively sensitive to chlorine.
E. Toxins are heat labile; most stable at acid pH and are very radiation resistant.
 Incubation period: 2hours to 6 days, usually 12-36 hours.
 Signs and symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, constipation, double vision, thirst, difficulty in swallowing,
temperature often subnormal, respiratory paralysis, abdominal distension.
Fatal in 3-6days. In non-fatal cases, complete recovery takes several months.
 Source of organism: Soil, mud, water and intestinal tract of animals.
 Foods involved:
1. Foods given an inadequate preliminary treatment
2. Foods allowed to stand at temperatures (4-50c) which permit growth and toxin production and
then eaten without cooking.
 Conditions Favouring Clostridial Growth and Toxin Production:
1. Removal of natural microbial competitors by preservation process.
2. Removal of air by heating.
3. Destruction of cellular tissue during processing with the consequent release of cellular fluids,
including toxins.
4. Canned and preserved foods are kept for long periods.
 Control measures to prevent botulism:
1. Adequate heat treatment of low acid foods
2. Control contamination of cooling waters
3. Refrigerate foods receiving a lower heat treatment
4. Observation of the standards of hygiene
5. Adequate refrigeration of meat during procuring and curing stages. (3c or less)
6. Use of sterile spices and good quality or sterile curing ingredients.
7. Use of additives with low spore count and are free of putrefactive anaerobes.
8. Use of right concentrations of inhibitors e.g. 6% NaCl, nitrates, etc.
9. Rigid control of smoking procedures. (82c for 30minutes at coldest part)
Prevention of Outbreaks:
1. Use of approved heat processes for canned foods.
2. Rejection of all gassy (swollen) or otherwise spoiled foods.
3. Refusal to even taste doubtful food.
4. Avoid foods that have been cooked, held and hot well heated.
5. Boiling of suspected food and stirring constantly for 15 minutes.
6. Avoid raw or pre-cooked foods that have been frozen, thawed for some time at room temperature.
2. STAPHYLOCOCCAL POISONING= most common true food poisoning of enterotoxin by Staphylococcus
aureus. The enterotoxin causes gastroenteritis which is ordinarily not fatal, although death can occur in
patients already in a weak or a sickly condition when the poisoning occurs.
Etiologic agent: Enterotoxin A, B, C, D, E or F Staphylococcus aureus (pigmented and non-
pigmented varieties)
Special features of the organism:
1. The organism when it grows in food produces no pronounced odor or taste,
2. The human body is one of the major natural reservoirs of this organism.
3. S. aureus is a hardy organism.
4. Temperature range for growth: 6-48c.
5. It is a poor competitor.
6. Toxin is heat stable; can withstand boiling for 20-60 minutes even autoclaving
 Incubation period: 1-6 hours, usually 2-3 hours

11
  Signs and symptoms: sudden onset of nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, prostration,
diarrhea, headache, muscular cramps, sweating, chills, weak pulse, shock, shallow respiration,
subnormal temperature rather than fever. Short duration, lasting for 1-2days.
 Source: reservoir and epidemiology: Nose and throat discharges; hands and skin; infected cuts,
wounds, burns, boils, pimples, acne, feces. Anterior nares of man are the primary reservoir;
Mastitic udder of milking animal; Arthritic and bruised tissue of poultry. Foods are usually
contaminated after cooking.
 Food involved: Cooked ham, meat products, poultry and dressings; sausages and gravies; cream
filled pastry, potato, ham, poultry and fish salads; milk, cheese; hollandaise sauce, bread pudding,
high protein left over foods.
Control measures
A. Reduce the incidence of contamination through following measures:
1. Personal hygiene of food handlers
2. Persons with wound infections or have bad habits should not handle food
3. Contact of food with the hands must be avoided where possible and, clean utensils used
instead.
4. avoid cross contamination of cooked by any raw food
5. Use raw materials of high quality
6. Education of workers of the importance of good hygiene
B. Prevent growth and toxin production
1. Keep food at temperatures above or below the temperature range which Staphylococcus can
multiply.
A. cool food rapidly to bring temperature to less than 6c
B. if food must be served hot keep it hot.
3. BACILLUS CEREUS GASTROENTERITIS = a mild form of food borne infection in many respects to that
caused by Clostridium perfringens
Etiologic agent: Exo-enterotoxin of Bacillus Cereus
Special features
A. A very common saprophyte which produces heat resistant spores; can survive 135c for 4
hours.
B. Heat can shock spores into germinating
C. A few spores in food product become significant only if they are able to grow and reach
numbers in the millions per gram range before the food is consumed.
D. Toxin is released by the cell in the intestinal tract; no invasion of the host.
 Incubation period: 8-16hours
 Signs and symptoms: Nausea, abdominal cramps, watery diarrhea, some vomiting.
Short duration, 1 day or less.
 Source, reservoir and Epidemiology: soil and dust
 Food involved: Rice, cereals, cornflour and similar products. Custards, puddings, sauces
and meatloaf.
Control measures
1. Cook food well
2. Prepare food a short time after serving
3. Chill foods rapidly in small quantities
4. If food must be kept in a warm state, maintain temperature above 60c
5. Practice personal hygiene. Process and prepare food in sanitary manner.
6. Re-heat left over foods to over 70c.
4.CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS FOODBORNE ILLNESS= CI. perfringens, previously referred to as Cl.
welchii, causes gas gangrene enteritis with necrosis and mild diarrhea in man, dysentery in lambs and
enterotoxemia of sheep and calves.

12
  Etiologic Agent: Enterotoxin(protein)released during sporulation in the gut by Cl. Perfringens
(welchii) type. A Large numbers of vegetative cells must be ingested.
Special aspects of the organism
1. Temperature range for growth:15-50C.
2. Spores differ in their heat resistance. Many of them requiring 1 to 2 hours at 100'C for their
destruction, whereas others are killed within a few minutes.
3. Organism does not grow below pH 5.0 or above pH 9.0.
4. Organisms inhibited by 5% NaCl (aw)= 97.
5. Organism appears to be rather sensitive to frozen storage.
6. Considerable growth of Cl. perfringens is needed, i.e. 106 per gram of food, before poisoning
will occur. This level of contamination may be achieved within two to three hours at about
43-47˚C.
7. Vegetative cells sporulate in the gut of the victim and release a toxin as they disintegrate.
8. Heat shock encourages spores to germinate.
 Incubation Period: 8-18 hours, median 12 hours.
 Signs and Symptoms: Acute abdominal pain, diarrhea. Occasional dehydration and prostration. Nausea,
vomiting, fever and chills are rare. Short duration of 1 day or less
 Source, Reservoir and Epidemiology: Feces of infected persons and animals. Soil, dust, sewage. Both raw
and cooked foods are frequently contaminated with C. perfringens.
 Foods Involved: Cooked meat and poultry that has stayed at room temperature for several hours or
cooled slowly. Gravy, stew and meat pies.
 Control Measures
1. Cook food at temperatures sufficient to kill most heat resistant spores: >100˚C for 1-2 hours.
2. Cool flesh food promptly.
3. If food is to be served hot, keep it hot (greater than 60˚C). If food is to be served cold, keep it cold.
4. Place meat portions on shallow metal trays to hasten cooling.
5. Separate meat from broth immediately after cooking.
6. Large portions of cooked meat must be cut into smaller pieces.
7. Avoid re-contamination of cooked products by keeping it covered and by hygienic handling.
8. If foods must be rewarmed, do this just before serving.
II. FOOD-BORNE INFECTIONS = illnesses caused by infection produced as a result of invasion, growth
and damage to the tissues of the host by pathogenic organisms.

A. BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
1. SALMONELLOSES = considered to be among the most common cause of food-borne infections.
a. Etiologic Agent: Salmonella choleraesuis and S. enteritidis serotypes Typhimurium,
Heidelberg, Derby, Java, Infantis, Enteritidis, Montevideo, etc.
b. Incubation Period: 5-72 hours, commonly 12-36 hours
c. Signs and Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal pain, chills, fever, vomiting, dehydration,
prostration, anorexia, headache, malaise. Duration of several days. Enteritis or focal
infection may also occur.
Important Aspect of the Disease
1. Salmonellosis behaves as a crowd disease.
2. Stress is a very important factor involved in the spread of the disease.
3. Virulence of the organism is related to its being an intracellular parasite.
4. Virulence appears to increase with time.
5. Carriers are involved in the spread of disease.
Source, Reservoir and Epidemiology: Feces of infected domestic or wild animals and man.
Infants, aged and malnourished persons and those with concomitant diseases are more
susceptible.
Food Involved: Protein food from animal sources; meat, milk, poultry and eggs and their
products. Other incriminated foods include coconut, yeast, cottonseed protein, smoked fish, dry
milk, chocolate candy.
Control of Salmonella (Requires understanding of Epidemiology)
A. Control in Animal Populations
1. Animals should be fed prepared rotations that are Salmonella-free.
2. Use good farm hygiene.
3. Have Salmonella-free flocks of poultry and minimum disease piggeries.

13
 4. Avoid stressing of animals in transit to slaughter.
5. Ruminants should not be fed in transit to slaughter after starvation periods.
6. Holding pens should be cleaned regularly.

B. Control During Processing

1. Slaughtering of animals should be done in such a way as to avoid contamination from
intestinal contents or surface contamination. Reduce cross contamination to a minimum.
2. Carcasses and product such as milk and meat should be cooled as soon as possible to a
temperature below that where growth or rapid growth will occur.
3. All ingredients to be used in processed foods should be subjected to quality control
inspections for visual and microbiological status.
4. Processing operation should be conducted in such a way that raw materials of different
level of risk on contamination are segregated
5. Raw products and finished products should be separated in product flow lines in such a
way that cross contamination cannot occur either by equipment or personnel.
6. Plant construction and layout should be planned in such a way to encourage good
manufacturing practices.
7. Insects and rodent control programmes should be planned and carried out.
8. Processing conditions should be investigated and rigid schedules established to ensure
that bactericidal treatments are achieved. Quality assurance on such processing is a pre-
requisite.
9. Post processing storage and distribution should be controlled to prevent
recontamination.
10. Cleaning and sanitation programmes fo all areas of processing and storage must be
planned and implemented. Microbial testing of contact surfaces in recommended to
enable evaluation of cleaning and sanitation programmes. Regular daily inspection of all
areas of processing establishment is needed to ensure adequate housekeeping and
sanitation.
11. Education of employees in the need to practice good personal hygiene habits is essential,
and training supervision and control is recommended to all food processing operations.
Clean clothing daily and hair protection covers are required in all operations.

C. Control in Preparation of Foods

1. Strict personal hygiene in food preparation area.
2. Cook foods thoroughly.
3. Pasteurize egg products and milk.
4. Avoid cross contamination from raw to cooked foods.
5. Chill foods rapidly in small quantities.
6. Protect food from animal, human, bird, insect and rodent excreta.
7. Wash hands after toilet visits and after touching raw meat.

2. TYPHOID FEVER = a classic example of enteric fever

a. Etiological Agent: Salmonella typhi
b. Incubation Period: 7-28 days mean 14 days. In food outbreaks may be in shortest
incubation range.
c. Source, Reservoir and Epidemiology: Feces and urine of infected humans. Carriers are
important in transmission; some are long term carriers. Water is also involved in
transmission .
d. Food involved: High protein foods, raw salads, milk shellfish. Foods that have been
handled and then eaten without further heat treatment
Control Measure
1. Practice good personal hygiene.
2. Supervised carriers. Restrict them from handling food.
3. Chill foods rapidly in small quantities
4. Cook foods thoroughly. Pasteurize milk.
5. Prepare and process food in sanitary manner
6. Protect water and treat it

14
 7. Dispose of sewage in sanitary manner.
8. Control flies.
Signs and Symptoms: Septicemia and lymphoid tissue involvement. Malaise, headache,
high continued fever, cough, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, slow pulse rate, tender
and distended abdomen, enlarged spleen, nose bleed, red spots on chest and trunk,
perspiration, chills, delirium, dulled sensorium, diarrhea, bleeding from bowel. Relapses occur.
Slow convalescence of 1 to 8 weeks.
3. PARATHYROID FEVER = a milder disease compared to typhoid fever.
 Etiological Agent: Salmonella enteritidis serotypes Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B, Paratyphi C,
Sendai
 Incubation Period: 1-5 days
 Signs and Symptoms: Blood stream infection. Headache, continued fever, profuse
perspiration, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, enlarged spleen, diarrhea, sometimes rose
spots. Milder and shorter duration (1-3 weeks) than typhoid.
 Food Involved: Milk, shellfish, raw salads, eggs.
 Control Measures
1. Chill foods rapidly in small quantities
2. Practice personal hygiene
3. Cook foods thoroughly.
4. Pasteurize eggs and milk
5. Protect and treat water
6. Dispose of sewage in sanitary manner
4. BACILLARY DYSENTERY (SHIGELLOSIS)
 Etiological Agent: Members of the genus (Shigella)
 Foods Involved: Most prepared foods, milk, or other dairy products, contaminated with
excreta.
 Other modes of transmission: direct or indirect contact with case or carriers, or contaminated
water.
 Incubation Period: Usually 2-3 days, extreme 12 hours to 7 days.
 Signs and Symptoms: Diarrhea, bloody stools, fever in severe cases.
B. PARASITIC INFECTIONS
1. AMEBIC DYSENTERY (AMEBIASIS)
 Etiological Agent : Endamoeba histolytica
 Source: Water contaminated with sewage, moist food contaminated with human feces.
 Incubation Period: Several days to several weeks.
 Symptoms: Diarrhea or varying severity. Fatal in severe cases
 Prevention
1. Protect and treat water supplies
2. Ensure cleanliness in food preparation
3. Proper disposal of human excreta
2. TRICHINOSIS
 Etiological Agent: Trichinella spiralis
 Foods Involved: Raw or incompletely cooked pork containing encysted larvae.
 Incubation Period: Usually 9 days, but may vary from 2 to 28 days. In heavy infection 24 hours.
 Symptoms Nausea: vomiting, diarrhea, muscular pains, fever, labored breathing, swelling of
eyelids, profuse sweating, Loss of appetite; muscular soreness and muscle swelling. Occasionally
fatal.
 Prevention
1. Thorough cooking of all parts of pork, and pork products.
2. Quick freezing or storage at -15 ° C or lower for 20 days
3. Proper processing of sausage and similar products
4. Inspection of meat for Trichinae
5. Rodent control
6. Cook garbage fed to hogs.
3. TAENIASIS
1. Porked Tapeworm
 Etiological Agent: Taenia solium
 Source: Raw or insufficiently cooked pork containing live larva, measly pork.

15
  Incubation Period: Several weeks
 Symptoms: Varies from mild chronic digestive disorder to severe malaise with encephalitis. May
be fatal.
2. Beef Tapeworm
 Etiological Agent: Taenia saginata
 Source: Raw or insufficiently cooked beef containing encysted larvae
 Incubation Period: Several weeks
 Symptoms: Abdominal pain, hungry feeling, vague discomfort.
 Prevention:
1. Proper meat inspection to detect carcasses with larvae.
2. Cook meat properly.
4. DIPHYLLOBOTHRIASIS
 Etiological Agent: Diphyllobothrium latum (fish tapeworm)
 Source: Raw or insufficiently cooked fish containing larvae
 Incubation Period: 3-6 weeks
 Signs: Usually none in mild infections. In heavy infections signs of severe anemia are observed as
the parasite competes with its host for Vitamin B12 causing pernicious anemia.
 Prevention:
1. Cook fish thoroughly.
2. Avoid eating raw smoked fish.

C. VIRAL INFECHONS
I. VIRAL HEPATITIS = a major public health problem, affecting close to 700 million people worldwide.
Cases have been increasingly high in Third World countries in Africa, the Far East and South America.
However, it is also a serious health problem in advanced nations such as in Europe and North America.
There is also 3 marked increase of cases in Southeast Asia with Hepatitis B and C as leading causes of liver
cirrhosis and liver cancer in Asia. It is caused by at least 5 different viruses, all of which produce a similar
illness resulting from acute inflammation of the liver.
Hepatitis B considered to be more contagious than AIDS, being capable of living for days outside the
human body and is less susceptible to ordinary methods of disinfection. More people die as a result of
Hepatitis B in two week than in AIDS in a year.
Etiologic Agent
 Hepatitis A (infectious hepatitis or epidemic jaundice )
 Hepatitis B (serum hepatitis)
 Hepatitis C (Non A, Non B Hepatitis)
 Hepatitis D (delta hepatitis)
 Hepatitis E (Epidemic non-A Hepatitis}
Signs and Symptoms: Fever, chills, headache, fatigue, generalized weakness, aches and pains in the early
days, Later: Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, right upper abdominal pain of tenderness followed closely
by dark urine, light colored feces, and jaundice of the skin and sclera. Many infections may be so mild that
they are usually mistaken for stress or general fatigue. In others, liver failure may occur and the patient
may lapse into a coma.
Source, Reservoir and Epidemiology:
 Hepatitis A: Water and food with fecal contamination spread by feco-oral route, common
particularly in warm-climate countries.
 Hepatitis E (Epidemic non-A Hepatitis): Usually transmitted by water contaminated with
sewage.
 Hepatitis B, C and D: Essentially a blood-borne (through contaminated needles and
exposure to contaminated blood products, e.g. after blood transfusion and
administration of blood-clotting factors) and sexually transmitted infection, thus carriers
and the sources of infection.
 Hepatitis D: Infection always occurs in association with Hepatitis B (the carrier state} A
person can only contract hepatitis D if he is currently infected with hepatitis B.
 Non-A, non B Hepatitis: Blood-borne infection, occurs commonly
Food Involved: HEPATITIS A: raw or inadequately cooked shellfish cultivated in
sewage contaminated, tidal or coastal waters; raw vegetables grown in soil fertilized by
untreated human feces and excreta.
Prevention: Hepatitis A and E

16
 1. Strict personal hygiene
2. Avoid eating raw or inadequately cooked shellfish and raw vegetables
3. Avoid drinking untreated water or raw milk.
4. Sanitary disposal of excreta and human wastes.
(Hepatitis B vaccination can protect against hepatitis B and D, but not against Hepatitis A, C, or E.)
2. VIRAL ENTERITIS
Etiological Agent: Coxsakie and echoviruses belonging to the genus Enterovirus; Norwalk virus.
Incubation Period: 12-48 hours
Signs and Symptoms: fever, headache, abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhea.
Possible sources: raw oysters/ shellfish, water and ice salads, frosting
Source, Reservoir and Epidemiology: Primarily inhabitants of the alimentary canal of man and animals.
Infection can be by person-to-person contact
These enteroviruses are resistant to acid and may survive conditions as low as PH 3.0. They can
also survive freezing temperatures for extended periods.
Control measures
1. Adequate treatment and disposal of sewage.
2. Restriction of infected food handlers from working with food until they no longer shed the virus.
3. POLIOMYELITIS =
Etiological Agent: Polioviruses I, II, III
Incubation Period: 5-35 days
Signs and Symptoms: fever, vomiting, headache and muscular pains & ultimately leading to
paralysis.
Food Involved: milk
Prevention : Vaccination
DISCUSSION
Good food is one of the greatest pleasures in life. Significant events in our lives are frequently
celebrated with festive meals which reflect basic cultural values or religious convictions, or even national
pride.
But most pleasures also have pitfalls. The joys of eating can be overshadowed by contaminated
food which may cause foodborne diseases that lead to nausea and abdominal pain, often hollowed by
vomiting and diarrhea. This causes embarrassment and inconvenience or severe discomfort which can be
disruptive. For the vulnerable groups-the pre-school child, the elderly or the ill - the outcome may be fatal.
While the risk of an individual catching a food-borne illness is statistically small, the total number of people
affected and the harm caused makes food-borne diseases a serious public health consideration. However,
it is not worth worrying that every meal might cause disease.
First of all, it is important to realize that chemicals are rarely implicated in food-associated illness,
contrary to the beliefs of the majority of consumers, particularly in industrialized countries. There is no
evidence of harm to humans when food additives and agrochemicals are used according to legal
requirements. The illegal use of chemicals in food masks poor quality and spoilage, and constitutes a
deliberate adulteration, it is also potentially harmful to health. However, food control authorities and the
responsible food industry assure us that the illegal use of chemicals is the exception rather than the rule.
Secondly, most food-borne illness results from swallowing large quantities of bacteria in food or
of the toxins they produce. There are exceptions, where small doses of bacteria can cause infection; this
depends on the organism concerned, the virulence of the strain, protective factors afforded by the food
itself and the susceptibility of the individual.

MAJOR CAUSES OF FOOD-BORNE OUTBREAKS

1. INADEQUATE REFRIGERATION. This is recognized as the most important single factor in food
borne outbreaks, especially in warm climates and in communities without electricity. One must
ensure that the refrigerator is operating ideally to be effective in minimizing the growth of
psychotrophs and pathogens in food.

2. FOOD PREPARED FOR TOO LONG BEFORE SERVING. Time elapsed after processing or cooking
prior to actual consumption is critical considering the fact that microorganism reproduce every
15-20 minutes under favorable conditions to microbial growth. Whenever possible foods should
be freshly processed or cooked before serving. If not, should be refrigerated low enough at 4° C
or lower, or alternatively heated high enough at 60 °C or higher. In both instances, food should
always be protected against contaminants until ready for serving or consumption.

17
3. INFECTED PERSONS PRACTICING POOR PERSONAL HYGIENE. The human body is an important
reservoir of potentially hazardous microorganism such as coliforms, salmonellae and
staphylococci. Persons with wounds should not be encouraged to work in any food service
establishment. If he has to, the wound must be bandaged and the individual assigned to less
sensitive tasks such as housekeeping and other similar assignments. If workers fail to practice
adequate personal hygiene and sanitation, the probability is great tha microorganism will find
their way into the food. The problem is magnified further if the infected person works in a large
food service establishment of food manufacturing firm wherein he handles a large amount of food
for a large number of people during his tour of duty.

4. INADEQUATE COOKING OR HEAT PROCESSING. This is an important factor specially if initial

microbial level is high. Be aware that the extent and severity of a heat treatment to render a food
product safe depends considerably on the initial count. Thus a higher temperature is required and
a longer cooking time is necessary if the initial contamination level is high.
The consumer must be aware that most food entering the kitchen is not sterile but bears
a varying load of assorted microorganisms depending on the type of food and the treatment it
has received. For example, fresh foods such as raw meat and poultry and vegetables will carry
heavy bacterial loads. Some of these organisms will be capable, under the right conditions of
causing food-borne illness, while others play a role in food spoilage. Certain foods, such as canned
vegetables, fish and some meats, may have received heat treatment which has killed all bacterial
present.
Thus, at the ultimate stage of preparation before consumption, we must concentrate our
efforts to protect ourselves or, at least reduce the risk of food-borne illness. There are TWO BASIC
THINGS to remember when preparing food.

1. GOOD TEMPERATURE CONTROL throughout all kitchen procedures

Keep food at temperatures sufficiently hot (above 60˚C) or cold (below 7 ° C). This
bacterial growth and multiplication; the zone between 7 and 60 is the so-called "DANGER ZONE.”
Recommended refrigeration temperatures.
Produce 7° C or below
Dairy and Meat 4˚C or below
Seafood -1˚C
Where there are no facilities for storing food at safe temperatures, cooked food should
be eaten hot, immediately, and not stored. Avoid thawing frozen food in water or at ambient
conditions for extended period of time.
2. CAREFUL ATTENTION TO CLEANING PROCEDURES prevents cross contamination, that is avoid
the spread of organisms from raw to cooked foods by direct contact or via hands, surfaces,
utensils and cooking equipment.
Here is TEN GOLDEN RULES FOR SAFE FOOD PREPARATION in the home (or in the
restaurant or any food establishment):
1. Eat the food as soon as it has been cooked.
2. Make sure that food is thoroughly cooked.
3. Choose foods processed for safety.
4. Store perishable foods either in hot (near or above 60°C) or cool (near or below 7 °C)
conditions.
5. Make sure that food already cooked is reheated thoroughly (reaching 70˚C
throughout) prior t eating.
6. Avoid contact between raw foods and cooked foods.
7. Keep all kitchen surfaces meticulously clean.
8. Wash hands before handling food.
9. Protect foods from insects, rodents and other animals.
10. Make sure of the purity of the water supply, lf in doubt, the water should be boiled
or chlorinated
By following this advice, the risk of food-borne illness will be reduced significantly. In this
way good food will continue to be one of the greatest pleasures in life.

18
 PART II
MEAT HYGIENE
Meat Hygiene, a branch of the larger science of food hygiene, is the expert supervision of all meat
products with the object of providing clean wholesome meat for human consumption and preventing
danger to public health.
Wholesome meat is unadulterated-meat produced form healthy animals and processed under good
sanitary conditions which is aesthetically acceptable or meets man’s aesthetic and hygienic standards. It’s
simply meat which is “FIT TO EAT”.
There are two factors which can affect wholesomeness
1. Spoilage
When decay or decomposition of an undesirable nature has occurred in meat or its products it is
considered "spoiled." Spoilage may either be due to the growth and activity of microorganisms, insects,
action of enzymes, chemical reactions or physical changes in meat.
Meat is an ideal medium for microorganisms. From the time the carcass is slaughtered, there is
a race between man and microorganisms for consumption. Ideally, through good sanitary measures and
refrigeration, man usually wins the race. It must be noted, however, that spoilage organisms provide
consumer safety by causing undesirable appearance and/or odor. Without these indicators or spoilage,
pathogenic organisms could multiply unnoticed and food is consumed
2. Contamination - this is a condition indicating the presence of undesirable materials or hazards in
food.
Contamination of meat and meat products may be due to microorganisms or to causes other
than microorganisms. Contaminants in food may fall in any of the following categories
a. Biological e.g., bacteria, yeast, fungi, viruses, rickettsia, helminths, larvae of
insects, parasites, poisonous plants or animals and their parts.
b. Chemical e. g., residues of antibiotics, pesticides, fungicides, rodenticides,
hormones, heavy metals, carcinogenic substances like nitrosamines and other biogenic amines.
c. Physical e.g., pieces of fragments of cardboard, aluminum foil, chips of wood,
slivers of metal, glass, dead insects and their parts, sand stone, hair, paints, machine grease etc.
d. Radiological e.g., radioactive fallout, Strontium (Sr) 90, Cesium (Cs) 137, Barium 140,
etc.
Among the above contaminants, microorganisms are considered of prime importance from the
point of view of spoilage and public health. Their presence can result to more rapid spoilage and
deterioration of food resulting to abbreviated shelf-life. Worse, they can be hazards to consumer health
and safety due to food-borne infections and intoxications.
If meat is to be considered wholesome and completely fit for human consumption, it must not
contain any added ingredients that would affect its wholesomeness. The meat must consist of the
material stated on its label and possess only added substances that have been allowed by the law of the
country concerned.
Elements of Meat Hygiene

1. Ante-mortem Inspection - This involves the examination of each live animal or poultry prior to
slaughter for the purpose of eliminating those which are unfit for slaughter. It is important that
clinically affected animals are recognized and removed to ensure a wholesome meat supply.

2. Post-mortem Inspection - This is the examination of the carcass of each mammal or bird passed
for slaughter to eliminate it or any part of it if diseased or otherwise unfit, and to possibly
eliminate sources of contamination which attend a dressing procedure.
It provides information indispensable for the scientific evaluation of clinical signs and
pathological processes that can affect the wholesomeness of meat.

3. Re-inspection - This involves the continued supervision and inspection to ensure that meat after
leaving the slaughtering department continues to remain clean and wholesome during handling
and manufacture into a great variety of food products.

One should ensure that the product is handed in a clean environment with clean equipment that
no unfit or harmful ingredients are added to the product, that it has been properly prepared and
that is not mislabeled. Re-inspection controls may consist of in-plant observations, product
sampling within the plant and at the retail level for analysis of chemical, microbiological,

19
 serological, and nutritional characteristics and monitoring of the plants own quality control
program.

4. Sanitation – It is concerned with the environment where the product is handled until it reaches
the consumer. This begins in the livestock and poultry pens, the transportation facilities for the
animals, the structural aspects of the slaughter house and processing plant waters supply,
sewage disposal equipment of all kinds, personnel handling and preparing the product and all
similar details making up the environment to which the product is subjected.

The general cleanliness of the environment should be an important concern of the veterinary
inspector, such that he can prohibit the preparation of the product in an unclean environment
or under unclean conditions.
5. Labeling - Meat as it is purchased by the consumer should not bear any mark or label which is
misleading, neither should it be packaged in a way that would be misleading as to its identity
quality and quantity. Thus:
 Nothing should be added to meat during its handling which might impair its
wholesomeness.
 Neither should any substance be added which is not normal to or which is not expected
by the consumer to be an ingredient or a particular meat product.
6. Condemnation and Destruction of Unfit Materials
After detection of unfit animals, poultry, carcasses and parts and meat products, they should be
the immediate condemnation and prompt destruction of condemned product under the
constant supervision of the inspector.
SLAUGHTER
This is the process of putting an animal to death and subsequently preparing the carcass
and organs for human Food.
Three points to be compiled with in any method of slaughter:
1. The animal should be killed with a minimum of suffering both during the pre-slaughter
treatment and the killing operation.
2. Bleeding of the animal should be as complete as possible.
3. Sticking and bleeding should be performed in the most hygienic way in order to avoid
contamination of the meat.
Basic Factors in Slaughtering:
I. Dressing /Slaughtering Procedures
II. Slaughterhouse Features
a. Abattoir Proper
b. Stockyard
III. Equipment
IV. Water Supply
V. Lightning
DRESSING /SLAUGHTERING PROCEDURES
A. HOG SLAUGHTER
1. Shower and bath
2. Stunning
3. After stunning, the animal is restrained and lifted by hand or mechanical hoist into the cratch
table for sticking and bleeding (bleeding rail is preferable).
4. Scalding
5. Carcass is transferred to scraping table for dehairing and gambrelling.
6. Lifting of the carcass to a meat rail for final scraping.
7. Evisceration.
8. Inspection of carcass on rail and viscera on inspection table.
9. Offals are placed in buggy and taken to guttery for cleaning preparation and dispatching.
10. Splitting of the carcass.
11. Final washing.
12. Carcass is weighed, branded and meat inspection certificate issued.
13. Hanging of carcass prior to chilling.
14. Chilling or dispatching to fresh market (if abattoir has no refrigeration facilities)
B. CATTLE SLAUGHTER

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 1. Shower and bath
2. Stunning
3. After stunning, animal is shackled and lifted by mechanical hoist to skinning cradle (bleeding rail
is preferable).
4. Sticking and bleeding.
5. Partial flaying, removal of head and feet, and opening of breastbone and aitchbone on skinning
cradle.
6. Transfer of carcass to meat rail and completion of flaying or hide removal.
7. Evisceration after dropping of rectum.
8. Inspection of viscera on inspection table. Paunches are inspected on tripe stand after contents
are removed. Inspection of carcass on the rail.
9. Offals are placed in buggy and taken to tripery for cleaning, preparation and dispatching.
10. Carcass splitting, washing and trimming
11. Carcass is weighed, branded and meat inspection certificate issued for dispatching.
12. Hanging prior to chilling.
13. Chilling (if refrigeration facilities are available) or dispatching to market.
C. POULTRY DRESSING
1. Birds given a shower at receiving area.
2. Restraining of birds and hanging on lines.
3. Stunning.
4. Killing and bleeding.
5. Scalding
6. De-feathering
7. Beheading and feet cutting
8. Remaining feathers are picked by manual operation.
9. Crop incision and inspection.
10. Vent opening.
11. Extraction of esophagus and crop.
12. Evisceration.
13. Inspection of viscera and bird on the rail.
14. Viscera separated from carcass, sorted out and edible portions are cleaned and packed in plastic
bags for dispatching.
15. Carcass washing.
16. Weighing.
17. Chilling.
Methods of Chilling Poultry Carcasses
1. Slush-ice (static tank) chilling
2. Spray cooling
3. Air cooling
4. Carbon dioxide snow cooling
5. Continuous immersion chilling
STUNNING
A good stunning method must render an animal unable to experience pain and sensation prior
to hoisting and slaughter.

3 Basic types of Stunning Methods which are Considered Humane:

1. Mechanical Stunning – utilize a captive bolt which can either be penetrating
or non-penetrating.
2. Electrical Stunning – uses electric current or 1.25 amps. at 300-600 volts for
1-3 seconds.
3. Carbon dioxide gas anesthesia – pigs are exposed to 65-70% CO2 inside a gas
chamber for 22-45 seconds.

Table 2. STUNNING RECOMMENDATIONS

TYPE OF ANIMAL RECOMMENDATION
Bulls Penetrating captive bolt
Gunshot to forehead

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 Cows, Steers, Heifers Penetrating or non-penetrating captive bolt (where
brains are being saved)
Heavy Zebu or Brahman cattle Gunshot to forehead (shoot behind the poll)
Calves Penetrating or non-penetrating captive bolt
Gunshot to forehead
Electric stunning
Market weight pigs Electric stunning
(80-112 kgs.) CO2 gas anesthesia
Sheep Penetrating captive bolt
(Non-penetrating captive bolt must not be used)
Gunshot
Electric stunning using
a) Sharp pin electrode or
b) Electrodes soak in brine

Table 3. Appropriate Location of Mechanical Stunner during Stunning:

Animal Location of Mechanical Stunner

Sheep Frontal position/directly on top of head
Brahman cattle, Horse 1-2 cm. off the center of imaginary “X” in the middle of
forehead
Pigs, Calves Center of forehead

Methods to Determine Unconscious after Stunning:

1. EEG
2. ECG
3. Reflex testing of the stunned animal.
a) Reflexes of eye, conjunctiva, cornea and eyelid.
b) Body reflexes
1) Sudden collapse
2) Muscle contraction with curling of tail and/or tensing of neck and head drop
3) Drooping of ears
4) Grand Mal seizure: 3 phases
i. Tonic phase
ii. Clonic phase
iii. Animal regains consciousness

Some Problems Encountered During Slaughter Operations:

1. Ecchymosis or Blood splash
2. Spillage of ingesta through esophagus
3. Difficulty in restraint of animals
4. Gut puncture
5. Incomplete bleeding
6. Cross contamination
7. Separation of vertebrae during hide pulling
8. Fecal contamination of carcass
SLAUGHTERHOUSE FEATURES:
(Refer to NMIC Guidelines, 1997, pp. 8-21)

A. ABATTOIR PROPER
I. General Guidelines:The abattoir should be:
1. Well-constructed and well planned.
2. Simple in design, compact and durable.
3. Easy to clean and maintain.
4. Size should be adequate.
5. Entire areas should be fenced.
6. Provide good ventilation.
7. Provide adequate natural or artificial lighting.

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 8. Provide good and abundant supply of potable and hot water.
9. Provide satisfactory working conditions for employees.
10. Should have the following facilities:
a) Facilities for proper care of animals.
b) Facilities for humane slaughter.
c) Separate dressing floors for hogs and large animals.
d) Separate areas for handling meat and offals.
e) Facilities for proper handling of meat and byproducts.
f) Provision for hanging room, if possible, refrigeration facilities.
g) Provision for meat inspection and disposal of condemns.
h) Provision for triperies and gutteries.
i) Provision for waste product recovery.
II. Location
1. Far from residential buildings (at least > 100m.)
2. Readily accessible to markets.
3. Should not be adjacent to markets
4. If located near rivers and lakes, should be reasonable distance (at least 10m.)
5. If possible, should be sited near livestock production areas.
6. Availability of water and electricity.
7. 15 km radius from nearest accredited abattoir.
8. Readily accessible to transportation.
III. Lay-out
Objectives: a. To prevent or minimize contamination
b. To achieve a smooth traffic flow.
1. Separate dressing floors for small and large animals.
2. Separate exits for meat and offals.
3. Separate meat and offal handling rooms.
4. Separate facilities for tripe and gut cleaning.
5. Separate departments for handling edible and inedible materials.
6. Special room for slaughter or suspect cases.
7. Hanging room to cool carcasses.
Specifications for Lay-out:
1. Proper drainage systems
2. Should be rodent and fly proof
3. Efficient disposal system for effluents
4. Construction materials should be impervious and resistant to wear and corrosion.
5. Specifications for walls, floors and ceilings.
Walls:
• Of non-absorbent materials, water-proof, non-toxic.
• Easy to clean and disinfect.
• Light colored and washable.
• Junction between walls and floors should be rounded.
Floors:
• Of non-absorbent materials, water-proof, non-toxic.
• Easy to clean and disinfect; non-slip
• Should slope towards the drainage inlets.
Ceilings:
• Should be planned and constructed so as to avoid accumulation of dirt and condensation.
• Easy to clean.
6. Doorways should be of sufficient width and height.
7. Roofing is essential.

B. STOCKYARD
Considerations:
1. Smooth transition from stockyard to holding pen and to stunning pen.
2. Minimum stress to animals.
= space requirements:
2.2 sq. m. or 24 sq. ft./large animal

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 1.2 sq. m. or 6 sq. ft./small animal
= facilities for drinking water
= feeding troughs for animals staying for longer than 12-16 hours.
= properly roofed.
3. Secure and well-drained flooring.
= non-slip, deeply grooved, sloping towards drains; have side curbs to
contain floor washing.
= passage to stunning pen should not slope above 25˚.
4. Isolation of suspect pen.
5. Should consider natural species behavior.
Some Behavioral Characteristics of Cattle:
a. Wide panoramic black and white vision.
b. Depth perception is poor and dark shadows appear as solid objects.
c. Easily gets distracted with sudden movements and may balk.
d. Have a distorted visual field.
e. Have a natural following tendency.
f. Walking downhill is difficult.
Stockyard Lay-out:
1. Adequate capacity to hold animals that can be slaughtered in an 8-hour shift.
2. Design: roofed, even and diffuse lighting; curve and diagonal and with catwalks for personnel.
3. One-way traffic through pens.
4. High solid walls for raceways; with anti-back up gates; raceways should not slope above 20
degrees angle and should be curved.
5. Lead up chute to stunning pen should be long enough.
6. Flooring should be non-slip; with side curbs; sloping towards drains; should not slop downhill.

EQUIPMENT
Design of Food Processing Equipment
1. Simple in construction
2. Efficient in operation
3. Look clean
4. Can be cleaned and maintained at high microbiological standards.
Guidelines for Equipment:
1. Equipment must not allow accumulation of products which would eventually be subjected to
bacterial action and thus contaminate or otherwise degrade the food being processed.
2. Equipment must positively aid the cleaning and sanitation process.
a. All surfaces must be readily accessible for cleaning-in-place or readily dismantled for
cleaning.
b. It must not interfere with the maintenance of clean conditions in the surrounding area.
c. Supporting framework should be as simple as possible.
d. It should be constructed of materials which are:
1. Smooth
2. Hard and non-absorbent
3. Easy to clean
4. Inert under all conditions
5. Resistant
6. Aid in the identification of contaminants.
Unsuitable Materials for Equipment
1. Timber
2. Painted surfaces
3. Most plastics
4. Enameled surfaces
5. Copper
6. Vinyl coatings
7. Unprotected steel
Suitable Materials for Equipment
1. Protected steel
a. Stainless

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 b. Galvanized steel
Examples of Basic Meat Handling Equipment
1. Overheard rail and trolley wheel
2. Tripe washer
3. All-purpose
4. Scratch table
5. Skinning Cradle
6. Viscera truck
7. Paunch truck
8. Tripe inspection stand
9. Viscera working table
10. Viscera inspection table
11. Skull splitting block
12. Gambrel
13. Extension chains
14. Wheel trolley rack
15. Meat and offal trees
16. Clean-up hose and storage rack
17. Pithing knife
18. Stunning hammer
19. Knives
20. Steel rods
21. Scabbard
22. Selecting hook or boning hook
23. Block scrapper
WATER SUPPLY
The nature of the operations carried out in slaughtering and meat processing plants necessitates
the use of large quantities of water. The demand for an abundant supply of water is great. It has been
estimated that the average amount of water used per animal is:

240 liter/cattle
120 liters/hog
60 liters/sheep or goat

In a survey conducted on water usage in the various sections of an abattoir, it was found that
slaughtering/dressing procedures make up 70% of the total water usage. As such, the water supply can
be a major source of contamination.
Table 4. Survey of Water Usage in Various Sections of an Abattoir
Section % of Total Water Usage
1. Stockyards, including watering of animals 12-17
2. Boilers and byproducts 10-15
3. Killing and bleeding 2-5
4. Dressing 25-35 70% of
water usage
5. Offal cleaning 20-30
6. Cooling water for refrigerants 2-5
7. Changing rooms, offices, laudry 10-15

Water that should be used in the plant must be “potable”. To be considered potable, it should
meet certain criteria:

1. Water should not contain chemical substances or microorganisms in amounts that could cause a
hazard.
2. Water should be free of turbidity, color and disagreeable taste.

Regarding the presence of microorganisms, bacterial standards have been set for potable water. These
are:
1. Total absence of Escherichia coli in 100 ml

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 2. Less than 10 coliforms in 100 ml
3. A total bacterial count (after incubation at 37˚C for 18-25 hours) or less than 10
organisms/ml

Because demand for an abundant supply of water is huge in the abattoir/meat processing plant,
use of non-potable water may be permitted in certain areas to augment the supply of potable water.
These areas are restricted and must be clearly specified.

Specific Areas of Usage of Non-potable Water:

1. For moving solid materials in sewage lines.
2. In vapor lines associated with inedible rendering tanks.
3. On ammonia condensors which are not connected to the potable water supply.
4. In equipment used to handle or wash inedible materials preparatory to delivery to the inedible
rendering tank.
5. For washing down the floors of stock holding pens and yards.
6. For cattle showers, if in the opinion of the establishment Veterinarian Officer-in-Charge it is of
suitable quality and providing that a final shower is carried out with potable water.
Here are specifications regarding the plant’s water supply:
1. An abundant supply of potable water must be available in the production and preparation of
meat. The amount of water requirements per animal is as follows:
a. 24 liters/ox animal
b. 12 liters/hog
c. 6 liters/goat or sheep
2. The water storage tank must be covered and located in an elevated position.
3. Suitable water source could either be the municipal water works, a deep well or rain water.
4. An adequate supply of hot water must also available. The required temperature are:
a. Hot water sanitizing tanks for dipping equipment should not be less than 82˚C.
b. Scalding tank should have a temperature of not less than 60˚C.
5. Proper and regular maintenance of faucets and water gate valves must be observed.
6. Wastewater should flow into the drainage system and not spill over the floor.
LIGHTING
Adequate and good lighting is very important in any food processing establishment.
1. NATURAL LIGHTING – is preferred as daylight is energy-cost saving and causes the least
color distortion.
To provide the maximum benefit of natural lighting:
a) Buildings should be fitted with as much high glass windows as possible.
b) Buildings should have strategically placed skylights. However, direct lighting should be
avoided.
2. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING – is needed if operations take place at night and to supplement natural
lighting.
Light fittings should be robust, water proof, rust proof and easily accessible for cleaning and
maintenance. Use of fluorescent lights is highly recommended.
The level of illumination should be:
 220 lux – in processing areas and;
 550 lux – in inspection areas.
MEAT INSPECTION
Terms:

MEAT INSPECTION – professional investigation of animals prior to slaughter and of the meat
and entrails of slaughtered animals with reference to their fitness for human food:
includes ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection.

ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION – examination of animals and if necessary their closer scrutiny

in the pen in order that those sick or for some reason are unfit for human food
purposes may be sorted out and destroyed or otherwise properly disposed of.

POST-MORTEM INSPECTION – inspection of all parts of the slaughtered animal for signs of
disease or other conditions, which render the meat unsafe or objectionable as food.

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EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER – slaughter or an INJURED animal with the object of saving the
meat for human consumption and for humane reasons on the part of the animal that
is suffering.

COLD SLAUGHTER – preparation or the dressing of already dead (not killed) animal. Cold
slaughter carcasses are always CONDEMNED.

HOT MEAT (Clandestine Meat) – legally speaking, refers to meat sold to the public for
human consumption that did not pass both ante-mortem and post-mortem
examinations according to rules and regulations of meat inspection.

SUSPECT – this refers to an animal possibly affected by a condition or disease that requires
condemnation of the carcass, either wholly or in part, when slaughtered and is subject
to further examination to determine its disposal.

DOWNER – crippled or weakened animal unable to stand or showing abnormal locomotion.

It shall be treated as SUSPECT.

FIT FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION – it is meat that has passed and appropriately branded by
an inspector and in which no changes due to disease, decomposition or contamination
have subsequently been found.

RETAINED – carcasses, viscera, parts of carcasses, meat or other article so marked or

identified, are held for further examination by an inspector to determine their final
disposal.

DISPOSITION – this refers to the ultimate handling of a carcass, or its parts, after it has been
inspected.

BENEFITS OF MEAT INSPECTION

1. Public health is protected against bacterial, viral and chemical hazards through the consumption of
unfit meat.
2. Livestock are protected against the spread of infectious diseases, especially notifiable diseases.
3. Current diseases and injuries causing unnecessary losses in livestock can be reduced through a
system of animal disease data feedback to farms of origin.
4. Animal and food handlers are protected against zoonoses.
5. The meat industry and the public are assured against meat of inferior quality and that there is no
wastage of a valuable commodity.
6. Contamination of meat, premises, equipment and personnel by excessively dirty animals is
prevented.
7. Efficient handling of livestock before and at slaughter prevents losses and injuries in animal and
meat products besides ensuring high standards of animal welfare.
8. Material can be supplied for disease investigation and research.
NATIONAL MEAT INSPECTION SERVICE (NMIS)

Presidential Decree No. 7 (signed September 30, 1972)

- authorized the establishment of a National Meat Inspection Commission.
- requires the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection of animals and their carcasses by duly
designated veterinarians. With the passage of the Local Government Code, NMIC is now called
the National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS).

Functions of the National Meat Inspection Commission (NMIS):

1. Formulated and issue policy guidelines, rules and regulations to effectively implement a
National Meat Inspection System.
2. Coordinate with the various agencies concerned with the implementation of a comprehensive
national meat hygiene program relative to production, transport, marketing, legal control
(quarantine), abattoir construction, management and operation, ante- and post-mortem
inspection, and post-abattoir control.

27
 3. Foster effective exchange of information and coordination of projects, programs and activities
among various agencies.
4. Establish a mechanism for evaluating and classifying all slaughterhouse facilities within the
country, as follows:
AA - Those with facilities and operational procedures so adequate that the
meat processed therein is eligible for sale in any market within the
country or for export.
A - Those with facilities and operational procedures sufficiently adequate
that the meat processed therein is eligible for sale only in any market
within the country.
B - Those with facilities and operational procedures of minimum
adequacy that the meat processed therein is eligible for sale only in
the city or municipality in which the plant is located.
C - Those with facilities and operational procedures of less than minimum
standards that must be closed until minimum standards are provided
or achieved.

5. Develop a procedure of properly identifying the meat output of each plant so that the plant
classification and number is clearly shown.
6. Issue such measures as are needed to effectively implement a NMIS.
7. Develop a mechanism for disciplinary action on any governmental or private agency that refuses
to cooperate in the implementation of the NMIS.

ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION

Ante-mortem can be considered as the most demanding of the inspector’s responsibilities as it

demands recognition of significant signs of illness in the live animal. It is, however, one of the most
rewarding – by being able to anticipate post-mortem findings and thus effectively remove unfit animals
from the meat supply.

Letter of Instruction No. 16, Art. IV, Sec. 8 (a):

“An ante-mortem examination and inspection shall be made of cattle, carabaos, horses, swine,
sheep and goats, deer and rabbits, etc., about to be slaughtered at all national, city, municipal, and
licensed private abattoirs, before the slaughter shall be allowed. Such examination and inspection
shall be made in pens in the premises of the establishment at the time of slaughter. The temperature
of animals suspected of being affected with any disease condition shall be taken at all times as an
added gauge for their fitness for slaughter.”
Purposes of Ante-mortem:
1. To detect diseases in domestic animals with conditions that cannot be detected at post-mortem
inspection.
2. To give judgment on animals for emergency slaughter.
3. To prevent contamination of personnel, premises and equipment.
4. To provide the necessary information that will benefit livestock raisers, particularly in disease
prevention/eradication programs.
5. To prohibit the slaughter of animals that are still fit for work and/or breeding purposes,
including immature calves and those in advanced pregnancy.
6. To prevent unscrupulous butchers from making “DOWNERS” out of strong and healthy animals
by causing injury on them.
7. To hold up slaughter of animals pending recovery from transportation fatigue.
Requirements for Ante-Mortem Inspection:
1. Should be carried out solely by a veterinarian, preferably one who had long experience with
general clinical practice.
2. Provision for properly lighted and roofed holding pens.
3. Provision for suspect pen with separate drainage, washing facilities, restraining equipment and
is adequately roofed.
4. Provision for identification of live animals, especially of condemned and suspect animals.
5. Provision for facilities for removing condemned animals directly without entering the edible
products department.
6. Clean premises so that discharges indicative of disease may be observed on the floor.

28
 Procedure for Ante-Mortem Inspection:
1. Conduct ante-mortem inspection on the day of slaughter. (Examination must be conducted on
arrival at the abattoir and repeated immediately before slaughter. If the animal has been held
for more than 24 hours).
2. Observe the animals while AT REST.
3. Observe the animals while IN MOTION.
4. Determine whether the animal shall be:
 PASS FOR SLAUGHTER
 CONDEMN
 Hold as SUSPECT
 REJECT/DELAY SLAUGHTER
5. Results of Ante-mortem examination should be brought immediately to the attention of the
post-mortem inspector.

Ante-mortem Inspection and Dispositions:

Ante-mortem Examination

All clinical signs: All clinical signs:

NORMAL ABNORMAL

No history of With history of Signs indicative Signs indicative

recent illness recent illness of LOCALIZED of GENERALIZED
or medication or medication condition condition

REJECT
DELAYfrom
slaughter
slaughter
(24-48 hrs.)

SUSPECT CONDEMN
PASSED  Do closer examination  Dispose
 Record number on in Suspect pen.  If reportable disease:
A-M card  tag and slaughter last Isolate and report
or separately
HOW TO SUSPECT THAT AN
ANIMAL IS SICK, i.e. clinical signs are abnormal:
Look out for the following:
1. Listlessness
2. Respiratory symptoms
3. Fecal disturbances
4. Difficulty in movement
5. Weakness and loss of weight
6. Nervous disturbances
7. Fever
8. Off-feed
9. Unresponsive to calls or disturbances or noises
10. Discoloration of mucous membranes (or combs and wattles for birds)

DISPOSITION/JUDGMENT

I. PASS FOR SLAUGHTER – all animals that show no evidence of any disease or abnormal
condition; the animal is apparently healthy.
II. CONDEMN - outright condemnation or ante-mortem inspection is warranted for the
following:
1. Animal with symptoms indicating generalized infection, such as:

29
 a. With septicemic disease
b. With acute disease
c. With extensive and generalized edema (anasarca)
d. With FEVER
e. Moribund
f. If severely emaciated
2. Animal showing signs of infectious disease, especially diseases of a zoonotic nature, such as:
a. Anthrax g. Rinderpest
b. Black-leg h. Rabies
c. Hog cholera i. Foot and Mouth Disease
d. Acute Swine Plague j. Glanders
e. Leptospirosis k. Tetanus
f. Acute Swine Erysipelas i. Acute Hemorrhagic Septicemia
3. Animals showing signs of toxicity from chemical or biological agents.
4. Animals found dead or dying.
5. Reactors: a. Reactor to mallein test
b. Goat reactor to Brucellosis test
6. Animals with condition wherein treatment is impractical.
III. REJECT FROM SLAUGHTER:
1. Hyperimmune hogs to Hog cholera within 10 days after immunization.
2. Vaccinated hogs for Hog cholera within 28 days after vaccination.
3. Animals with advance stages of pregnancy.
4. Animals with signs of recent parturition or within 10 days after birth.
5. Immature calves, kids and lambs, except calves 2-4 months of age weighing 150 lbs. whose meat
is sold as veal.
IV. Hold as SUSPECT:
1. Animals suspected of being affected with any disease or abnormal condition.
2. Hogs in lots with animals diseased with hog cholera or swine plague.
3. Sexually mature boars/stags with sign of recent castration.
4. Reactors to tuberculin and Brucellosis tests.
5. EMERGENCY SLAUGHTERED animal.
6. DOWNERS.
Procedure to be followed for SUSPECTS:
1. Segregate for further examination in suspect pens.
2. Examine thoroughly in suspect/isolation pen. This will involve:
a. External examination
b. Temperature check
c. Mucous membrane examination
d. Check respiratory rate
e. Check pulse rate
3. Record results and make these available to the post-mortem inspector prior to slaughter of
suspect animals.
4. JUDGMENT following ante-mortem in suspect pen are:
I. PASS FOR SLAUGHTER – if found apparently healthy, release for slaughter.
II. PASS FOR SLAUGHTER as SUSPECT:
a. If animal is found to be suffering of a LOCALIZED condition, i.e. there is NO SYSTEMATIC
INVOLVEMENT. E.g. fractures, abscesses, bruises
b. If animal is affected by a condition which has not advanced to the point that would render
the animal unfit (i.e. all or parts of the carcass may still be salvaged for food).
c. If the animal is known to be a reactor to Tuberculin or Brucellosis Test.
d. Sexually mature boars/ stays with signs of recent castration.
e. Emergency slaughtered animal.
f. Downers

What to do for animals passed for slaughter as SUSPECTS:

 Record results and make these available to post-mortem inspector before slaughter of
suspects.
 Affix appropriate “SUSPECT TAG” on the animal for identification.

30
  Slaughter animals in a special room for suspect animals. If special room is unavailable,
suspect animals should be a slaughtered APART FROM REGULAR KILL, i.e at the end of the
batch of animals for slaughter for a day.
 A thorough post-mortem examination should always a conducted on these suspects.

III. CONDEMN if:

1. If condition is reached where treatment is impracticable.

2. If animal is with fever.
3. If with zoonotic diseases.
4. If severely emaciated.
5. If suffering from an INFECTIOUS ANIMAL DISEASE.
 Confine and isolate immediately where it may be treated while avoiding
contamination of premises, equipment and personnel.
 Report to PROVINCIAL VETERINARIAN for final judgment. If absent, defer
slaughter and continue confinement and isolate.
 Properly clean and disinfect contaminated pens, corrals, trucks, driveways and
compound.

IV. DELAY SLAUGHTER

1. If animal is known to have treated or given drugs, vaccines or chemicals.

2. If conditions might respond to treatment.
a. Isolate and give appropriate treatment. (The animal’s owner is responsible for his
animal’s treatment. If owner doesn’t want the animal treated, it is best to
condemn the animal).
b. Observe WITHDRAWAL PERIOD of drug.
c. If recovered, bring to suspect pen again for examination.
d. Disposition:
 Pass for slaughter
 Condemn
 Further withhold from slaughter.
DOWNERS
=Are animals which are unable to rise, unable to stand or moves about abnormally, from any cause
other than injury where, in the opinion of the examining officer the condition would respond to
treatment.
Procedures for DOWNERS:
1. Delay slaughter for a period not less than 24 hours and allow owner to have the animal
treated.
2. Submit to ante-mortem inspection for re-examination.
a. If IMPROVED in condition, but still unable to rise, delay slaughter for another 24
hours and re-examine.
b. If ABLE TO RISE and WALK, submit to route ante-mortem inspection. After
examination, the animal may be slaughtered as SUSPECT.
c. If animals have been treated, it should not be slaughtered until the withdrawal
period for the drug has elapsed.
d. If DETERIORATED in condition, CONDEMN the animal.

EMERGENCY SLAUGHTER
=This is the slaughter of INJURED animals with the object of:
a. Saving the meat for human consumption and
b. For humane reason on the part of the animal that suffering, i.e to cut short its suffering.
=This animals are not “sick” or diseased. They may be severely injured, cripped or disabled.

Procedure for handling emergency slaughter cases:

1. Examine quickly by taking the animal’s temperature, to ensure that it has no fever. (If with
fever, condemn as this indicates the presence of systemic infection)
2. Pass for slaughter as SUSPECT.

31
 3. Slaughter can be conducted outside normal working hours. Slaughter and handling need
not be carried out separate from apparently healthy animals.

If these animals are bled in the paddocks or lairages, the sticking wound should be protected
and the carcass dressed and treated as quickly as possible. The trip to the bleeding area of the
slaughter floor must be as fast as possible as and not longer than 10 minutes. Nevertheless,
animals down from the injuries for long periods do not bled very well.

4. If injured animal need to be slaughtered at night or on a SUNDAY or a HOLIDAY, the

inspector should be notified so that an ante-mortem examination can be made. If the
veterinary inspector is unavailable, the animal may be killed in the presence of a
representative of the municipal or city treasurer office and/or Chief of Police, but the
carcass and all its parts should be kept for inspection of the veterinary officer.
a. If all parts are not so kept for inspection, the carcass shall be CONDEMNED.
b. If the inspection, the carcass shows indications that the animal was sick or
diseased, the carcass should be CONDEMNED.

POULTRY ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION

1. Ante-mortem examination should be made on fowls in the day of slaughter. Birds must
be fasted for 12 hours.
2. Conditions that warrant CONDEMNATION on ante-mortem:
a. Nervous symptoms
b. Systemic conditions
c. Transmissibly to man, e.g. NCD
d. Discoloration of comb and wattles
e. Severe arthritis
3. Birds manifest signs of disease on ante-mortem inspection that would warrant its
condemnation on post-mortem should be CONDEMNED.
4. Any bird, which does not plainly show signs of disease, but is suspected to be infected
should be slaughtered as SUSPECT (Slaughter should be separate or apart from regular of
healthy birds)
Signs of SICK birds on Ante-mortem:
a. Ruffled feathers
b. Discoloration of wattles and comb
c. Nervous signs
d. Nasal discharge
e. Skin lesions
f. Dullness
g. Loose droppings from vent

SOME IMPORTANT DISEASE THAT SHOULD ALERT THE VETERINARIAN DOING THE ANTE-MORTEM
INSPECTION
1. ANTHRAX
This is a zoonotic disease caused by Bacillus anthracis. The disease in man either occurs
as wound infection, “Malignant pustule or carbule”, or as an acute pneumonia following
inhalation of spores. Sheep and cattle are very susceptible and usually the disease causes high
mortality among these animals. Pigs are less susceptible and infection tends to localize in tissues
of the throat and neck.
Signs of illness:
1. Animal trembles, staggers and breathes with difficulty.
2. Discharges: bloody feces, urine and saliva.
3. In hogs: swelling of neck. The swelling may be difficult to detect, but on occasions
can interfere with respiration and swallowing. The condition may cause
asphyxiation, which is manifested by cyanotic mucous membranes.
Judgment of suspect anthrax cases: CONDEMN:
1. Remove the animal immediately from the premises being a dangerous source of infection.
2. Pens and runways where animal was handled must be cleaned immediately. All straw,
litter, rope, manure and dispensable paraphernalia are burned.

32
 3. Disinfect all premises exposed to infection: Apply heated 5% Sodium hydroxide or
commercial lye.
It contains 94% NaOH or 2 ½ lbs NaOH to 5 ½ gallons of hot water. This is a very
causatic chemical. Personnel must wear protective clothing, boots, gloves and goggles. Should the
solution come in contact with the skin, treat using weak acid solution, e.g. vinegar
2. RABIES
This is a zoonotic disease. Mammals and birds are both susceptible. The virus enters the
body through a bite/ wound and goes to affects the central nervous system.
Signs: unrest, nervous, irritability, uncommon aggressive behavior, spasmodic convulsions and
progressive paralysis
Judgment: unfit for slaughter, CONDEMN
3. LISTERIOSIS
This affects cattle and sheep, but cattle are mainly affected. Sheep seldom live for 48-72
hours, while cattle can last for a week or more. It is a zoonotic disease. The disease in man can
could either be liver necrosis, meningitis, septicemia or abortion. In animals, the disease is
usually an encephalitis. The causative agent. Listeria monocytogens can grow in cold
temperature (temperature range for growth 3-45֯C)
Signs: nervous disturbances: circling, facial paralysis
Judgment: unfit for food, CONDEMN.
If you consider the condition treatable, the animal must be removed from the premises
and given proper treatment. If the animal recovers, pass for slaughter as suspects after a
thorough ante-mortem examination.

POST-MORTEM INSPECTION
Timing of inspection:
Inspection should be carried out AS SOON AS POSSIBLE after carcass dressing is
completed and, if possible, immediately after evisceration. Why?
1. If inspection is delayed, carcass may set, particularly in cold weather, making lymph
node and carcass inspection difficult.
2. Carcasses have to be moved to a chilling room within 1 hour after completion of
dressing.
3. Prompt inspection enables the inspector to detect abnormalities, which may easily
be overlooked if the post-mortem examination is conducted some hours later. for
instances, abnormal coloration of tissue, as in icteric carcasses, gradually disappears
due to enzymatic action of the reducing substances present in muscular tissue, odor
of uremic carcasses are obvious when the abdominal cavity is opened, but this soon
passes off and after a time only a slight odor of ammonia may only remain.
Purpose of post-mortem inspection:
1. To detect and eliminate abnormalities (whole or diseased parts), including
contamination, thus ensuring that only meat fit for human consumption is passed for
food.
2. To detect diseases of food animals or abnormalities affecting animals that is not
evident on ante-mortem examination.
3. To check the efficacy of slaughter and carcass dressing technique and diagnosis of
disease conditions for disease control purposes. (The presence of the inspector during
slaughtering and dressing discourages undesirable practices in the dressing
operation. The inspector should ensure that premises, equipment are in hygienic
condition before and during slaughter)
4. To confirm the ante-mortem diagnosis on the lesions found during post-mortem
inspection, especially when diagnosis in the ante-mortem is doubtful.
5. To determine the character and extent of diseased lesions, differentiating between
localized and generalized lesions, and between active and non-active conditions.
Facilities essential in post-mortem:
1. Adequately constructed abattoir so that carcasses and parts are delivered for
inspection in a satisfactory manner.
2. Even and well-distributed lighting facilities that do not distort colors.
3. Conveniently located hand washing facility with a supply of hot and cold running
water, liquid, soap, and paper towels. (It is preferred that faucets and pedal operated)

33
 4. Conveniently located sanitizers (hot water at 82֯C) for complete immersion of knives,
hooks and saws, etc. to prevent cross contamination between carcasses or between
diseased parts and other parts of the carcass.
5. Conveyorized lines that properly synchronized carcasses and offals (and heads for
large animals) for accurate identification of carcasses and their related organs and to
provide reliable information for any subsequent examination on the detained line.
Correlation is very important especially if carcasses and its related parts need to be
condemned or retained for further examination.
6. Facilities (e.g. tags, brands or seals) to identify condemned or retained carcasses or
viscera.
7. Facilities to contain condemned carcasses or parts and to remove them to the
inedible department.
Requirements for veterinary inspector:
1. Good eyesight and color differentiation
No one with defective vision, which cannot be corrected by mans of spectacles or
contact lenses, should be employed in meat inspection. Those people requiring these particular
aids should receive regular eye examination.
2. Good sense of smell
If defective, will seriously limit his judgment in many instances.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DISPOSITION ON POST-MORTEM INSPECTION

1. It should always be remembered that the costumer’s health, aesthetics or expectancy

must be considered first,
2. There should be NO unnecessary wasting of valuable food product. Post-mortem
inspection must be done in an efficient and systemic manner.
3. All abnormal tissue must be removed.
4. Determine if disease condition is:
a. LOCALIZED or GENERALIZED: Localized lesion necessities only condemnation of the
part affected, while a generalized condition will require condemnation.
b. ACUTE or CHRONIC: Carcasses with lesion in the healing process are not dealt with as
severely as one that is in the acute inflammatory stage.
5. Consider the GENERAL CONDITION of the carcass.
Some primary disease conditions are not serious enough in themselves to cause
condemnation of the entire carcass. However, the entire carcass should be condemned if there
is GENERALIZED DERANGEMENT OF BODY FUNCTIONS.
e.g. plugging of bile ducts by ascarids resulting to icterus
e.g. worn teeth caused difficulty in eating leading to emaciation of carcass
e.g. urethral calculi blocking urine resulting in uremic animal
e.g. chronic infection with Johne’s disease causes severe emaciation of the animal

6. Anytime a potentially harmful or toxic agent, such as pesticide or antibiotic residues or

toxins or poisons are present, the affected meat should NOT be considered, wholesome
since it may be injurious to the health of the consumer.
Remember the consumer experts to get only meat from healthy animals and meat that
meets contain standards of preparation, hygiene and composition.
7. A ZOONOTIC disease is dealt with more severely compared to non-zoonotic one.
8. A CONTAMINATED PART (that came in direct contact with disease carcasses, discharges
or exudates) should be immediately removed from the carcass. If the contaminated part
is not removed from the carcass within 2 hours after such contact the WHOLE CARCASS
shall be condemned.
9. Anything that is REPUGNANT or OFFENSIVE to the consumer should be condemned.
e.g. Carcasses with urine odor
e.g. Carcasses with abnormal sexual odor
e.g. Meat with neoplastic growths
e.g. Meat with parasitic infestation

34
TECHNIQUES ON POST-MORTEM INSPECTION
1. OPTICAL EXAMINATION of all organs and parts of the carcass
= This requires a working of normal and diseased organs or parts, especially color and size
2. PALPATION of all organs and parts of the carcass.
= The consistency and texture of organs must be considered, e.g. palpation for abscesses in the
tongue.
3. INCISION of the lymph glands, muscles and organs.
e.g. Incision of the parotid, submaxillary and retropharyngeal lymph node
e.g. Incision of the internal and external masseter muscles for cysticerci
e.g. Incision of bile ducts of the liver, heart, lungs, etc

3 routine inspection locations for large animals

1. Head
2. Viscera
3. Carcass

MINIMUM PROCEDURES FOR POST-MORTEM INSPECTION

CATTLE
Head
1. Observe all exposed surfaces
2. Observe tonsils
3. Incise parotid, submaxillary and retropharyngeal lymph node
4. Incise internal and external masticatory muscles
Viscera
1. Observe and palpate surfaces of the lungs
2. Incise bronchial and mediastinal lymph node
3. Observe and palpate external surface of the heart
4. Incise and observe musculature of the heart
5. Observe and palpate spleen
6. Observe and palpate liver
7. Observe, palpate and incise portal lymph nodes
8. Incise large bile ducts
9. Observe esophagus
10. Observe rumen and reticulum
11. Palpate rumino-reticular junction
12. Observe intestines and mesenteric lymph nodes. Incise a reasonable number of
mesenteric lymph nodes
13. Observe and palpate enucleated kidney
Carcass
1. Observe external and internal surfaces
2. Observe, palpate and incise superficial inguinal and internal iliac lymph nodes
3. Observe cut muscle surfaces. Incise if necessary
PIGS
Head
1. Observe head surface
2. Incise cervical and submaxillary lymph node
Viscera
1. Observe and palpate lungs
2. Observe, palpate and incise bronchial and mediastinal lymph node
3. Observe and palpate heart
4. Palpate liver
5. Observe portal lymph nodes. palpate and incise, if necessary
6. Observe spleen, stomach and intestines
7. Observe and incise gastric and mesenteric lymph nodes
8. Observe uterus
9. Observe and palpate kidney
Carcass

35
 1. Observe external and internal surfaces including joints
2. Incise superficial and inguinal lymph nodes
3. Palpate iliac and lumbar lymph nodes
POULTRY
RIGHT HAND OPERATION
1. Grasp one leg, run hand down the leg to determine presence of the bone disease
2. Open the body cavity to view its internal surfaces
3. Turn the body to view the outside of the bird (including head) for the disease
abnormalities and dressing imperfections
LEFT HAND OPERATIONS
1. Place hand over liver to feel for consistency texture and lesions, viewing
simultaneously.
2. Slip fingers around the liver and grasp the spleen between thumb and finger, rolling
spleen determine texture and presence of abnormal condition. (In case of layers and
broilers. It is not necessary to roll spleen). Simultaneously view other viscera while
checking the spleen.

POST-MORTEM INSPECTION AND DISPOSITION FOR ANIMALS THAT PASSED ANTE-

MORTEM INSPECTION:

Passed on ante-mortem

No evidence of Evidence of recent Evidence of Evidence of

medication LOCALIZED disease GENERALIZED diseases
generalized with potential for
condition
disease with producing food-borne
potential for illness
producing food-
Retain and test for Remove affected tissue
borne disease or residues
recent
medication Food-borne disease Food-borne
threat can be disease threat
removed by special cannot be
Passed if Condemn if Passed procedures removed by
negative positive special
procedures

Passed restricted
Condemned
(for sterilization or
PASSED refrigeration)

36
 POST-MORTEM INSPECTION FOR ANIMALS EVALUATION AS “SUSPECTS” ON ANTE-MORTEM
INSPECTION

Passed for slaughter as

SUSPECT

History of recent History of recent Signs indication of

illness medication LOCALIZED disease
Passed for slaughter as
SUSPECT

Passed for slaughter as

SUSPECT
Evidence of
Test for Evidence of No evidence
GENERALIZED Evidence
residues LOCALIZED of LOCALIZED
diseases with of
No condition disease
potential for LOCALIZED
evidence
producing food- disease
of illness
borne illness condition

Trimmed,
remainder
passed Passed
Trimmed, Passed if Condemn if
Condemned remainder negative positive
passed

Passed

CONDITIONALLY PASS
This is the deposition for carcass meat which is hygienically unsatisfactory of which in some way
may be hazardous for human and animal food, but may in some way be treated ( by refrigeration or
sterilization), under official supervision in such a manner that makes it safe for human consumption.

Conditionally pass for STERILIZATION:

1. Sub-acute and mild cases of Hemorrhagic Septicemia.
2. Icteric-like discoloration, which fades when examine under natural light.
3. Carcass with signs or recent parturition or in advanced state of pregnancy
provided there are no specific signs of septic infection.
4. Slight, calcified or encapsulated tuberculous lesions and confined to NOT
MORE THAN 2 LYMPH Nodes, provided there are no signs of recent systemic
invasion of the tubercle bacilli.
5. Carcass with moderate or slight infestation of Cysticercus bovis.
6. Carcass with moderate infestation of parasites NOT transmissible to man.
7. Fat of carcasses with slight moderate infestation of Cysticercus bovis.

What to do to continually pass for sterilization carcass meat.

 Carcass and its parts may be converted into edible meat by heating at
76 ͦC for 30 minutes.
 Fat may be converted into edible lard or tallow by heating to a
temperature not less than 104.5 ͦC for not less than 30 minutes.
 Conditionally Pass for REFRIGIRATION
1. Carcass with feedy or weedy odor
2. Carcass with slight or moderate infestation of Cysticercus bovis.

COLD SLAUGHTER
This is the preparation or dressing of already dead (not killed) animals. Cold slaughter carcasses
are always CONDEMNED.

37
Signs indicating cold slaughter:
1. Absence of bloody infiltration on the edges of the wound produced after bleeding.
2. Presence of cadaveric spots or levidity (blue discoloration) on the side of the animal on
which it has been lying down before death.
3. Presence of putrefying or decomposing odor, particularly in animals that have been dead
for several hours
4. Presence of cyanosis and foul odor in the internal organs
5. Complete fullness of venous blood vessels, especially of the liver, intestine and subcutis
6. Marked fluid content of the subcutis and muscles
7. Marked content of the blood in lungs and kidneys
Judgment: CONDEMN entire carcass and all its parts

JUDGMENT OF THE MEAT INSPECTOR

AT POST-MORTEM INSPECTION
1. PASS ENTIRE CARCASS as fit for human consumption
2. RETAIN CARCASS AND ITS PARTS for further examination
3. TRIM AND PASS REST OF CARCASS
a. If lymph node draining area is NOT affected, REMOVE ONLY AFFECTED PART and pass
rest of carcass
b. If lymph node draining area is AFFECTED, REMOVE ENTIRE PART/ORGAN and pass rest
of carcass
4. CONDEMN AFFECTED PART if:
a. Lesion is localized and inactive
b. Lesion is not numerous
c. Carcass is in good condition
5. CONDEMN ENTIRE CARCASS AND ITS PARTS if:
a. Lesions are generalized and acute
b. If cachexia is present
6. CONDITIONALLY PASS to inactive lesion:
a. Pass for sterilization
b. Pass for refrigeration
DESPOSITION OF CONDEMED CARCASSED AND PARTS

All condemns are immediately place in chutes, trolleys or trucks or other appropriate
containers and put in a room provided for the purpose and held there under the supervision of the
inspector.

A. IF RENDERING EQUIPMENT IS AVAILABLE: Condemns may be rendered to produce

valuable by-products. These, along with other proteinaceous wastes, should not be
simple burned, dumped into open drains or simply discarded as garbage. Their prompt
conversion into by-products can provide additional income, generate employment
opportunities, improve the livestock industry and minimize environmental pollution.

Raw Materials in the Production of Slaughterhouse By-products:

1. Slaughterhouse/ dressing plant condemns
2. Dead animals
3. Bone (green or dry)
4. Unserviceable hides, skins or pelts
5. Blood
6. Tannery fleshing and trimmings
7. Feathers

Slaughterhouse By-products from Rendering

Several environmental considerations must be considered when rendering inedible products

1. Prevention of cross-contamination of edible products. This should be the foremost

objective. Not only should separate equipment be utilized, equipment should also be well
segregated from other processing areas. Personnel who work in the rendering area

38
 should have separate clothing or should do this processing last. In larger operations,
different employees process edible and inedible products.
2. Control of odors. This is necessary to avoid complains and litigation problems. It can be
done effectively through the use of water vapor condensers. Proper siting and rendering
areas and wind direction should be considered in the planning and construction of
rendering facilities.
3. Destruction of pathogens. Precautions should also be taken to ensure destruction of
pathogens e.g by proper heat treatment, to minimize the likelihood of their transmission
by rendered inedible products used in animal feed.

A. IN THE ABSENCE OF A RENDERING EQUIPMENT:

Condemns could either be

1. Denatured with crude carbolic acid strong creoline solution or other prescribed agents.
2. Destroyed by incineration.
3. Buried deeply in the ground. Depth should NOT be less than 1 meter. Improperly buried
condemned meat or carcasses attract flies and rodents and also become sources in the
spread of disease for both man and animals.
4. Utilized in the production of methane gas.

METHANE GAS PRODUCTION (BIOGAS)

 Animal and vegetable waste are used in biogas production for heat, light and power
generation
 Materials that may be used in methane gas production are:
1. Manure
2. Effluents
3. Ruminal contents
4. Blood
5. Urine
6. Rejected fruit
7. Vegetable waste
8. Grain offal
9. Straws
10. Stalks
11. Chaff
12. Grass
13. Weeds
14. Households
 Wastes are converted to liquid humus through fermentation. During the process, gas
consisting of CO2 and methane gas is generated. Methane gas is collected, purified
and conveyed through pipes for use in generating heat, light and power. One hundred
pounds of chicken droppings can generate as much as 12.60 cubic meter of gas per
day for as long as 10 weeks, enough to supply the daily requirements of 4.20 cubic
meter of methane gas for cooking and light for a family of three. Compared to chicken
dung, the amount of methane gas from pig manure is about 25 per cent, ox manure,
12 percent and vegetable and fruit waste, 12 percent (NMIC Guidelines, 1977).
 A methane gas facility need not be sophisticated. It is simple to install and the whole
process need not be complicated. Methane gas is non-poisonous, of low
inflammability and can be carried in plastic containers. The slaughterhouse is ideally
suited for the production of methane gas because of the availability of blood, urine,
ruminal contents, meat and offal waste, effluents inth eform of floor washing,
manure and the like.

39
 CONSIDERATION DURING STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CARCASS MEATS
I. MEAT REFRIGERATION
II. MEAT TRANSPORT
III. MEAT MARKET

MEAT REFRIGERATION
REFRIGERATION= the process of reducing and maintain the temperature of a space or material
below the temperature of the surroundings.
PURPOSE OF REFRIGERATION= to slow down or arrest microbiological, biochemical and other
changes that result to meat spoilage.
However, refrigeration adds nothing to the quality of the final product. What determines product
(meat) quality is:
1. Initial quality of the meat
2. Standard of hygiene during processing
3. Processing temperature
4. Temperature and duration of storage
2 STEPS INVOLVED IN MEAT REFRIGERATION
A. Chilling of carcasses/ sides
B. Freezing, after deboning

CHILLING
Objective: to minimize spoilage by limiting bacterial growth

Freshly slaughtered animals are hot and moist, if these carcasses are place in chiller, water will be
removed from the surface of the carcass due to the differences in partial vapor pressures between
the chiller environment (air) and the surface of the meat. The greater the difference in temperature
between the chiller air and carcass, the greater the loss in moisture. Since carcass contamination
occurs in the surface, the removal of water is of great importance. Like all living organisms, bacteria,
need water before they can grow, thus drying of the surface results in a greatly improved storage
life. When carcasses are touching each other, both drying and cooling is prevented, mesophiles
(including pathogens) will be able to grow rapidly for several hours, and this practice should not be
allowed.
The storage-life of the carcass is dependent on the initial level of contaminating psychrotrophs and
factors such as temperature, surface dryness and gaseous temperature, affect their growth rate.
Pre-packed meat solid in supermarkets is wrapped in a plastic film or low water and high gas
permeability. Such condition will reduce the storage life appreciably. However in most cases storage
life is first limited by color changes.
The chilling temperature required reducing the temperature of carcass and sides at thickest point
are:
Beef and veal •≤ 15 ͦC in <20 hours
Mutton and lamb •≤ 7 ͦC in < 12 hours
Pork •≤ 10 ͦC in < 15 hours

How are these temperature achieved?

1. Chiller air temperature should be maintained at 0 ͦC.
2. Carcasses should be suspended clear of each other.
3. Air should be allowed to freely circulate over all carcass surfaces
4. Carcass temperature should be regularly monitored
However, in the object of achieving the correct temperature reduction of carcasses and sides, there are
problems encountered
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN CHILLING:
1. Cold Shortening
2. Weight Loss
3. Condensation

1. COLD SHORTENING
- This is the toughening of meat (due to contraction of muscle fibers) when subjected to a
temperature below 10°C or lower w/in 10-12 hrs. after slaughter or before onset of rigor mortis

40
 - This is not a problem in pig carcasses, but a common problem with mutton (sheep) and beef
carcasses.

- It varies from "rigor shortening” which occurs 8-10 hours after death and last for 15-20 hours
Principle Involved in Cold Shortening:
After death (before the onset of rigor), muscle enzymes continue to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) providing plenty of energy for muscle contraction to occur during rigor mortis.
However, when meat is cooled below 10 degrees celcius within 10-12 hours after slaughter, muscle
contraction occurs (or cold meat shortens) to the extent that it is noticeably tough when eaten. Muscles
that are already in rigor will not cold shorten regardless of the temperature at which they are held. Later
when pH of the muscle falls to 6.2 or below or after the onset of rigor, muscle enzymes become
inhibited from producing ATP, thus insufficient energy is available for muscle to cold shorten.

To avoid cold shortening:

1. Surface muscles should not be chilled below 10°C in 10-12 hours after slaughter
2. Surface muscles should not be chilled until the pH is equal to or less than 6.2, or
3. Simply don‘t chill carcasses until rigor mortis has taken place

But one can‘t wait for rigor mortis to occur before we can chill carcasses. It would favor bacterial growth
if carcasses were not chilled within 1 hour after completion of dressing.
MEASURES DEVISED TO PREVENT COLD SHORTENING:
1. AGEING of beef
-beef is not chilled below 10°C in 10-12 hrs. after slaughter, either by
 Hanging for 3 days at 1.5-3°C or
 Hanging for 7 days at 3 5-7 °C
Ageing of beef is done for the purpose of effecting changes in tenderness and flavor in meat which
are desired by some consumers. It works on the principle that meat contains enzymes capable of
digesting it, a process usually referred to as "autolysis." Thus ageing of beef can be considered a process
of controlled autolysis. For satisfactory results, temperature and humidity (set at 85 to 87%) need to be
rigidly controlled during the ageing process.

2. TENDERSTRETCH Method for hanging of beef sides for 20 hours

If shortening of muscles results in considerable toughening, then stretching of muscles will tend
to produce a tenderizing effect. From the traditional system of hanging carcasses via a hook inserted
behind the Achilles tendon, in the tenderstretch method, carcasses are hanged from the aitchbone. This
allows the hind limb to assume a relaxed position, largely preventing the muscles from shortening and
becoming tough. The transfer of the suspension point from the Achilles tendon to the eye of the
aitchbone (obturator foramen) or to the sacrosciatic ligament is usually done at any point after the final
wash area. The transfer must be completed within about 1 1/2 hour after slaughter

How?
-carcass side is hang on the line with the hook transferred from the Achilles tendon to the OBTURATOR
FORAMEN. Carcass side is hang on this position for at least 20 hours inside the chiller, after which it can
be afterwards hang by the Achilles tendon.
Improvement in tenderness of the rump, thick flank, striploin and scotch fillet in the tenderstrech
method is said to be equivalent to three weeks ageing at 2°C

3. Apply ELECTRICAL STIMULATION (ES) during slaughter

This method has been devised to hasten the onset of rigor, as well as to reduce the time taken
for the decline in pH. This works on the principle that carcasses are not chilled until their pH is ≤6.2.

Why At pH <6 2?

 muscle enzymes are inhibited from producing ATP

 RESULT: insufficient energy available to contract (cold-shorten) muscle

41
The effect of ES is to advance the process of rigor mortis by producing a pH of about 6.0 in two to three
hours after slaughter. Pulses of electricity are passed through the carcasses during or immediately after
slaughter the current causing the muscles to contract and thereby use up glycogen, ATP and creatine
phosphate. At the application of ES, a number of muscle contractions are made to occur in a short time
thereby accelerating the onset of rigor. It is important that good electrical contact be maintained
between the electrode and the carcasse.

Effects of Electrical Stimulation

Hasten decline in pH decrease shortening of muscle

Hasten onset of rigor and make meat more tender

Electrical Stimulation involves the application of electric current using either:

1. EXTRA LOW VOLTAGE (ELV) ELECTRODE SYSTEM

-requires application of 32-45 V w/in 2.8 minutes after sticking
3 ways to apply:
 rectal
 nostril-rectal
 nostril-leg

a. Rectal system - current is passed from one electrode to another, both of which are placed in the
rectum of the carcass very soon after stunning and sticking. Nerves in the rectum conduct the current
resulting in effective stimulation of the hindquarter primal cuts.
b. Nostril-rectal system - an electrode is inserted in or attached to the nostril, and another electrode is
inserted in the rectum after stunning and sticking. If applied within 8 minutes of stunning, this system
stimulates the nervous system in ‘he spinal region, as well as the rectum, resulting in effective
stimulation of the cube roll (muscles of the rib) and the hindquarter primal cuts
c. Nostril-leg (rubbing bar) system - an electrode is attached to the nostril, and another electrode is on a
rubbing bar, which touches the leg of the carcass as it passes. The rubbing bar should contact with the
carcass at the region between the pin bone and the stifle joint.

2. HIGH VOLTAGE (HV) ELECTRODE SYSTEM

- 110 V D.C or 1130 V AC applied within 60 min from stunning
- Method: side-stimulation (neck + Achilles tendon)

In both low and high voltage electrode systems, voltages must be adequate to overcome resistance at
the electrodes and ensure enough flow of current through the carcass. Either voltage electrode systems
present advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages and Disadvantages of ELV and HV Electrical Stimulation:

EXTRA-LOW VOLTAGE HIGH VOLTAGE
1. Low initial cost 1. high inital cost
2. increase in blood yield 2. Extra blood is expressed that is worth
collecting
3 Must be applied after sticking. Delay causes 3. Effective up to 60 minutes from stunning. This
decrease in effectiveness resulting to increase allows flexibility of installation at many locations
incidence of broken backs during hide removal on dressing chain
4. Application requires an on-going labor 4. Normally applied automatically (does not
component include ongoing labor cost)
5. Safer to use 5. Less safe, if improperly installed
Advantage of Electrical Stimulation:
1. Allows rapid chilling of carcasses
2. Allows hot boning of carcasses 2 hours after slaughter since cuts can be rapidly chilled
3. Promotes better flavor and color
4. Improves neck cleanliness in carcass

42
 5. Accelerates tenderness and reduces time for ageing
6. Avoids cold shortening and thaw shortening (a problem during freezing)

Disadvantage of Electrical Stimulation:

1. Increase incidence of broken backs when a downward hide puller is used
2. Stiffening of shackled and free legs cause problems in subsequent dressing operations
2. WEIGHT LOSS
During chilling, weight loss of carcasses occurs as a result of water evaporation from carcass
surfaces, causing a lower meat yield. For example, a 1000 kg carcass can loss 10% of weigh through
water evaporation equivalent to 100 kgs of meat weight. If we want to minimize weight loss of carcasses
for economic reasons, the relative humidity of air within the chiller will have to be 100%. However a
100% relative humidity would favor bacterial growth by increasing water activity.

It must be remembered that our primary objective for chilling is to limit bacterial growth that
will result to delay in meat spoilage. One way of doing this is by causing the evaporation of water from
carcass surfaces. Surface drying of carcasses is desirable from the point of view of hygiene in as much as
it prevents bacterial growth by lowering the as.

We, however, need to control the degree of surface drying of carcasses, otherwise we will have
excessive carcass weight loss. As such, we need to achieve a compromise between weight loss and
surface drying. To do this, we must minimize the degree of evaporation or weight loss to realistic
minimum levels. Considered minimum levels of weight loss are 1 ½ % for beef and 2% for mutton.
These can be achieved by a relative air humidity of 90-95%, while controlling the rate of microbial
growth on carcass surfaces.

3. CONDENSATION

This is the most common and major problem in chilling. It consists of the accumulation of or the
presence of moisture on chiller structures, particularly on overhead structures within the chilling room.
The presence of condensation is considered unacceptable since dripping condensate will result in the
contamination of carcasses

Mechanism of Condensation:

Water vapor is a normal constituent of the atmosphere. When air temperature is high (as in
ambient temperature), it will have a greater capacity to hold vapor. But, if air temperature fails, as in
chillers, its capacity to hold water vapor is reduced. Thus, water droplets appear in the air or liquid
water appears on solid surfaces in contact with air eg. walls or ceilings. Condensation is usually a result
of relatively warm, moist air coming in contact with a surface at a lower temperature.

Chiller air is usually maintained at high relative humidity of 85-95% to minimize weight loss. As
such, chiller air is practically almost saturated with water vapour during chilling, there occurs
correspondingly a decrease in the capacity of air to hold water vapour i.e. an increase in the dewpoint of
air.

Dew Point of air is the measure of the amount of water vapour is also used to refer to the
temperature at which water vapor will start to appear. Condensation will take place on a surface if its
temperature is below the dew point of the surrounding air. It results when relatively warm, moist air
comes in contact with a surface at a tower temperature. With the lower air temperature in chiller rooms
compared to adjacent vicinity, condensation easily occurs as the temperature of chillers is below the
dew point of the surrounding air, and correspondingly will have a lower capacity to hold water vapor in
the air . As such, are as most likely to be troubled with condensation are:

Drain trays below cooling units and ducting pipes carrying cold air. The surface of these is
always less than the surrounding air. This, in association with the low room temperature and high
relative humidity of chillers, results in continuous condensation

43
 Walls or ceilings between areas at different temperatures i.e., colder and warmer areas. These
surfaces are exposed to the warmer temperature due to heat leakage into the room with lower
temperature

Areas in cold rooms where there is intermittent contact with outside air, as in entrance and
exit areas. The entry of warm, moist air may result in considerable condensation on all low temperature
surfaces

CAUSES of Condensation and their PREVENTION:

1. Loading of hot and wet carcasses into chillers
The hot and moist bodies of carcasses increase the relative humidity within the chiller,
condensation easily occurs
Prevention:
 Allow as much water to drip out from carcass
 Avoid overloading of chillers with carcasses as this restricts air movement across the carcasses
and reduces the heat extraction, as well as puts in. more heat into the chillers
 Minimize operation of chillers when partly empty. Chillers should not be operated partly empty,
as the air will take the least line of resistance and by-pass the carcasses resulting to higher meat
temperatures
2. Inadequate refrigeration system
This result to high relative humidity in chillers that causes the air to become very saturated with
water vapor, thus condensation easily occurs when there is a change in chiller air temperature
Prevention:
 Chiller temperature should be regularly checked to ensure that the chilling cycle is working right
 Carcass temperature should also be checked to determine if chilling temperature is able to cope
with carcass temperature requirements. To check, a deep butt thermometer is inserted upward
medially through the hole in the aitchbone
 Ensure that there is NO heat leakage by proper insulating walls, doors and the ductwork pipes
carrying cold air
 Lighting facilities should be kept to a minimum. Light produces heat, which will add to the
refrigeration demand inside chillers
 Ensure the proper maintenance of the chiller refrigeration system
3. Entrance of warm air when chiller doors are opened

 Install an air-conditioned hot beef passage

 Install air curtains, plastic curtains, and air locks with double doors
 Load carcasses in BATCHES
 Prompt closing of chiller doors
Pre-cooling of chillers prior to loading

 Load carcasses into chillers as fast as possible

 Avoid pre-cooling of chillers
Washing of chillers with hot water

 Wash only at times remote from loading period

 Proper dry surfaces after washing
 Have properly designed floor drains
Principle involved in preventing condensation:

 Limit the quantity of hot moist outside air admitted into the refrigerated areas
CUTTING/BONING OF MEAT
This is conducted in the boning room of the abattoir. The temperature of the boning room
should be at 10°C. Although a temperature lower the 10°C is preferred, to minimize microbial growth as
more meat surface is exposed to contamination during the cut up process, a temperature lower than
10°C is uncomfortable to workers

1. HOT BONING (after electrical stimulation)

-This is the separation of meat from its bony attachments within 1-2 hours after slaughter of
electrically stimulated carcasses. It should be completed out within 3 hours from sticking.

44
Advantages of Hot Boning of Carcasses:
1. Saves on chiller space
2. Saves on direct refrigeration energy because bone and unwanted trim is excluded from the
refrigeration process
3. Evaporation of moisture from carcasses during chiling can ve avoided as cuts of hot boned meat can
be PREWRAPPED in moisture impermeable film prior to freezing

2. REGULAR BONING
-conducted after chilling of carcasses for 24 hours (carcass temperature is at 10°C)

FREEZING

After meat is cut up, it is packed in moisture impermeable film and frozen. Ideally, it is quickly
frozen (blast freezing) and then stored in temperatures of -18°C.
Objective: to stop bacterial growth (but it does not sterilize the product)
Principle: The lower the storage temperature, the longer will be the storage life of the product

Freezing Temperature Storage life of Meat

BEEF PORK
-12°C 4 months 2 months
-18°C >4 months – 18 months >2 months

Procedure in Commercial Freezing:

Boning Blast Freezing Freezer Storage

(-30 to -40 °C for 2 hours) (18°C onwards) (Boning room 10°C)

Problems encountered in Freezing:

1. Freezer burn
2. Weight Loss due to DripWeep
3. Thaw Rigor

1. FREEZER BURN

This refers to whitish or amber-colored patches on frozen meat surface due to excessive drying
cut of surface layers of meat. Freezer burn lowers the value of meat as meat with freezer burn spoils
faster, are noticeably tough, and develops off-flavors and fat rancidity. If freezer burn is at the stage, it
may disappear on thawing
Significance:
 spoils faster
 develop off-flavors
 rancid fat
 tough meat
Mechanism in Freezer Burn:
When meat is stored in a frozen condition in an atmosphere of low relative humidity, there is
rapid drying of the exposed tissue. As the drying progresses, the color of the surface tends to change to
a pale amber and the consistency of the surface tissue becomes dry and shrivelled. This condition is
caused by the evaporation of ice crystals leaving behind tiny air pockets, which tend to scatter the
incident light and cause the tissue to appear lighter in color. This change in the dessicated surface tissue,
if extensive, is irreversible and it persists after the meat is thawed. However, early stage freezer burn
develops off-flavors, including rancidity of fat. The incidence of freezer burn is less when the rate of
freezing is slower. It occurs most particularly in unprotected meat surfaces that are rapidly frozen
Prevention of Freezer burn:
1. Wrap meat with packaging material with low water vapor permeability and store in cartons. The
packaging prevents dessication and denaturation of meat during freezing

45
2. Freeze meat while the surface is wet. Water creates a thin layer just under the packaging film. This
layer evaporates first and is protective of the meat surface
3. Slow rate of meat freezing.. This causes the formation of a Iayer of collapsed cells on the surface
which delays or prevents the development of freezer burn (However, this will cause problems of
excessive drip and thaw rigor)

2. WEIGHT LOSS THROUGH DRIP OR WEEP

If meat is frozen extremely quickly, the water between the myofilaments freezes in aggregates
so small that there is distortion of the muscle cell. When this meat is thawed, the proteins incorporate
the water and there is very little drip.
In commercial practice, however, freezing is too slow outside the muscle cell where osmotic
pressure is less resulting to extracellular ice formation. The presence of extracellular ice causes increase
osmotic pressure extracellularly which tends to draw out water osmotically from the interior of the
muscle cell. This intracellular water is added causing the extracellular crystals to grow in size thereby
distorting and damaging the muscle cell wall.
Loss of water intracellularly causes denaturion of some muscle proteins. Denature proteins are
less able to reabsorb water and, consequently, losses much of its water holding capacity. Thus when
meat is thawed, not all the water is reabsorbed and these are lost as "dnp" or "weep".
If the thawed meat is refrozen, the damage of the muscle cell walls is greatly increased. When
the meat is re-thawed, there is great loss of cell contents (amino acids, proteins, lactic acid, vitamins
etc.) in the drip, resulting to marked weight loss. Thus, it is undesirable to freeze meat more than once.

Prevention of Weight Loss due to Drip Problem

Rapid freezing of meat, as in blast freezing, to minimize drip and damage to muscle structure.
Meat is quickly frozen using -30 to -40°C at air velocities of 5-6 meters/sec
Keep temperature constant during the/entire period of frozen meat storage. This prevents
further extracellular ice formation causing more damage to muscle cell walls and increase loss of cell
contents with the drip on thawing
3.THAW RIGOR

This is the intense shortening of muscle on thawing when meat is frozen before rigor is
completed. With the intense shortening, meat becomes very tough in consistency.
The shortening is far greater than any form of physiological contraction. It is even worse than
cold shortening. The muscle may shorten to as much as 1/5 of its original length and it will exude as
much as 30% of its weight as fluid or "drip "
Mechanism of Thaw Rigor:
When muscle is frozen pre-rigor, there occurs a massive release of calcium ions from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. This causes an increase store of glycogen and ATP in muscle. On thawing, the
rate of ATP breakdown occurs more than 10 time the normal rate and intense contraction of muscle
fibers results in thaw rigor. Glycolysis is completed in an hour.
Thaw rigor only occurs when the temperature is low enough to inactivate glycolysis before rigor
is completed. In normal practice, carcasses are chilled first and not subjected to freezing temperature
until a few days after slaughter. The muscles are then obviously post-rigor, so when thawed, they will
not shorten further. Although there will some loss of fluid, it will not be as extensive as in thaw rigor.
Prevention of Thaw Rigor:
1. Chill carcasses first for a few days after slaughter (to allow rigor mortis to occur) and then freeze meat
2. Thaw meat slowly at 3-5°C. Slow thawing in the lower shelves of the household refrigerator minimizes
the severity of thaw rigor

II. MEAT TRANSPORT

(Read NMIC Guidelines, 1977, pp 59-60)

A. Means of Transport for Meat:

1. Should be one that is not used for transport of live animals or any cargo that may affect meat or
edible offals
2. Must be clean and disinfected prior to loading
3. Must be provided with overhead rails for transport of non-frozen and unwrapped carcasses

46
4. Must be provided with suitable racks for frozen and adequately wrapped meat

B. Requisites for Correct Means of Transport:

1. Appropriate equipment and have appropriate design to maintain required temperature during period
of transport
2. Parts in contact with meat should be made of impervious corrosion-resistant material with smooth
surfaces for easy cleaning
3. Should be provided with facilities that prevent contact of meat with the floor and minimizes contact
between the meat and personnel
4. Edible offals must be transported in closed containers

If period of transport is:

Less than 2 hours Offals must be transported in insulted vehicles

More than 2 hours Offals must be transported under refrigeration

For frozen meat, thawing must be prevented. However, in case of accidental thawing, meat
must first be examined and evaluated by the meat inspector.
The inspector, to avoid tampering of meat, must padlock the entrance/exit of vehicle. Another
inspector, upon reaching the market, will unlock it.

III. MEAT MARKETS

(Read NMIC Guidelines: 1977, pp. 60-64)

1. Meat stalls must be located in a separate section of the market and far from fish stalls
2. Stalls should be of adequate size. If possible, it should be provided with a refrigerator
3. Building should have good ventilation and lighting
4. Walls should be smooth, hard and washable
5. Floors should be smooth and sloping towards drains. Drains should have traps and screens
6. Wooden counter tops should have at least a plastic covering
7. Chopping boards should be made of hard wood
8. Meat should be hung by means of a hanging rail and should not be kept lying on counters. The
bulk of meat must be hung in fly-proof storage
9. Latrines and hand-washing facilities should be provided for butchers and meat vendors
10. Meat section should be fly-proof
11. Signboards to indicate the kind of meat sold must be provided in conspicuous places
12. Butchers and vendors should have a regular medical check-up. They should wear clean
protective clothing
13. Meat markets must have its own maintenance personnel who will be responsible for the general
cleanliness of the meat market. Cleaning and disinfections should be done daily or more often if
necessary
SANITATION FACILITIES AND PROCEDURES IN PLANT OPERATION

PERSONAL HYGIENE OF PLANT EMPLOYEES

At many points in the various stages of handling, processing and preparing any edible product
for human food employees of the plant come in close and frequent direct contact with food articles.
Thus, plant employees are an important element in the environmental sanitary control of the food
establishment.

It is essential that the plant must have an established program of employee education and
training in proper food-handling techniques. This should emphasize on food-protection principles and
stress the many dangers that poor personal hygiene and insanitariness can cause to public health.

The plant should also provide facilities to aid in the personal cleanliness of employees. These
would include washing facilities, protective clothing, laundry service, showers, well-lighted dressing
rooms, toilets, canteens, etc

47
 Employees must be made to submit themselves to periodic health examination. However,
complete reliance cannot be placed on such health examinations. The inspector should be constantly on
the alert for conditions indicating infection, particularly those of a contagious nature.

When an employee is suspected of being affected, he is required to obtain a physical

examination and certification from the examining physician tnat he is in fit condition before being
permitted to handle food.

The hands and arms of the employee are probable sources of contamination particularly when
open sores are present. Such personnel with wound infections should not be allowed to handle food.
Each employee must take necessary care to prevent contamination of the food product with substances
such as perspiration hair, cosmetics, tobacco chemicals, and medicaments. They should learn to control
their hands and avoid unsanitary and unsigntly personal practices, e.g. picking of noses, scratching, the
scalp, sneezing or coughing without turning head away.

All reasonable precautions must be taken to prevent product contamination. In particular,

employee or visitor traffic pattern should preclude cross contamination between raw and cooked or
edible and inedible products.

Guidelines for PERSONAL HYGIENE

GOOD HYGIENE is essential for the maintenance of a sanitary environment in which to prepare
or process food. It can reduce the danger of human transfer of bacteria and contamination of products.
The following are important habits that should be cultivated by personnel intimately connected with the
handling of food:

1. Overalls and hair covers should always be worn and kept clean. This clothing should not be worn
outside the working area. Facemasks should be worn to cover nose and mouth when handling
ready-to-serve food
2. Smoking must not be permitted in the working area
3. Spitting must strictly be forbidden
4. A person about to sneeze or cough should turn his head away, from food materials and
immediately bring a tissue to his nose and mouth
5. Fingernails should be well trimmed. They look neater, are easier to keep clean and eliminate
potential growing places for bacteria
6. Food personnel should not scratch or touch their heads, face, nose, mouth, scaip, or other body
surfaces while handling foods
7. Food personnel should not wear jewelry or any other decorations while working in the
processing area
8. Food workers should wash their hands frequently using germicidal soap always after visits to the
toilet and before handling food products. Knowledge of proper use and maintenance of toilets
should be inculcated in the workers
9. A medical check should be kept on food handlers. Skin breaks, such as cuts and abrasions must
always be covered immediately with a sanitary dressing.
10. People suffering from a communicable disease, or who are carriers should not be allowed on the
working premises
11. Personnel should avoid touching food unnecessarily

CLEANING AND SANITATION IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

CLEANING - process whereby "residual visible dirt and chemical compounds are removed from a soiled
surface. This includes food scraps, fat, blood, manure, flaking paint, scale, rust dust, dirt, lubricating
compounds and chemical compounds
SANITATION - is the further reduction of bacterial numbers (invisible dirt) in a previously cleaned
surface to levels not normally hazardous to health

Objectives of a Cleaning and Sanitation Program

1. To restrict microbial activity

2. To reserve the freshness and palatability of the product
3. To ensure that the product is wholesome and free from pathogenic microorganisms

48
Important Considerations in Planning an Effective and Successful Program:

A. Is there an adequate supply of good quality WATER?

B. What is the right DETERGENT tor the job?
C. What is the right DISINFECTANT?
D. What are the best CLEANING METHODS?
A. WATER

1. Adequate amounts of water must be available, otherwise your cleaning program will be ineffective
2. Quality of the water:
3. Type of water: Soft water vs. Hard water
Hard water contains excessive amounts of metallic ions, mostly calcium and magnesium
The disadvantages of hard water are:
1. It neutraiizes soap, detergents and disinfectants.
2. It forms scale on equipment, on the inside of water heaters, and in steam boiler tubes, thus leading to
reduced efficiency from heat transfer losses and clogging.

2 types of water hardness:

a) Temporary hardness - This is due to the presence of bicarbonates. When water with temporary
hardness is heated, CO2 is evolved resulting in the precipitation of insoluble carbonates. (After removal
of the precipitates, one gets soft water)
b) Permanent hardness - This is due to the presence of sulphates. When such water is heated, there is
no precipitate. However, precipitation can occur when alkaline detergents are used.
Although many detergents are designed to perform well in hard water, the efficiency of the
detergent is generally reduced whenever hardness exceeds 100mg/ liter.

Here’s a simple test to determine the suitability of a detergent for use with hard water:
1. Prepare a solution of the detergent with the water to be used in the cleanin operation at the
recommended dilution
2. Heat solution to boiling
3. Observe whether a precipitate forms. If it does, the detergent is not suitable.

In many instances, the solution may become cloudy on heating. Although this does not necessarily
indicate that the detergent is unsuitable, its performance should be watched carefully as sometimes a
gray-white deposit, which is particularly noticeable on stainless steel, can build up with time.

b. Potability of water
Water used in a cleaning program should be of POTABLE (drinkable) quality.
POTABLE water does not contain chemical substances or microorganisms in amounts that could be
hazardous to health. It is the management‘s responsibility to ensure that the water supply is of
acceptable quality and that all necessary steps are taken to maintain this standard.

1. Conduct regular microbiological and chemical tests of the water supply.

2. Chlorinate industrial water.
B. DETERGENT

-Any substance that, either alone or in a mixture, substitutes physicochemical energy for some of the
mechanical energy required for removing dirt.

Function: to enable water to penetrate dirt by lowering the high surface tension.
Properties of a Good Detergent:
1. quickly and completely soluble
2. non-corrosive to metal surfaces and other factory surfaces
3. able to soften water completely
4. economical to use
5. non-poisonous and biodegradable
6. good wetting and penetrating action
7. emulsifying action of fat

49
 8. dissolving action on food solids
9. deflocculating, dispersing or suspending action
10. good rinsing properties
11. good scale and rust-removing properties
However, "no detergent has yet been developed which meets all the above properties or one that can
be called an ‘all-purpose detergent". One needs to mix several compounds to combine several
properties

4 Types of Chemical Compounds Commonly Used as Detergent Ingredients:

1. ALKALI AND ALKALINE SALTS

 Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) - cheapest of the strong alkalis. It is a powerful detergent and is
used to suspend protein and to convert fats to soap. However, it has no buffering action,
severely corrodes aluminum and galvanized Ion, strips paint and presents a hazard to personnel
using it. Because of its intense corrosive action, caustic soda is not recommended for manual
cleaning of equipment and utensils
 Sodium metasilicate - an effective detergent for many purposes. It is an excellent emulsifying
agent and has reasonable wetting and rinsing properties. Another advantage is that it possesses
anti-corrosive properties. However, it should not be used in water above 70°C, otherwise
redeposition of soil-detergent mixture may occur
 Sodium bicarbonate (soda ash) - not a good cleaner, but it is a cheap source of alkalinity and has
been used as a detergent filler for a long time. It is corrosive to aluminum and galvanized iron,
and in hard water forms a scale of calcium carbonate and other insoluble salts.
2. PHOSPHATES
 These are included in almost all detergents as they have several functions, but primarily they are
used to prevent the formation of insoluble metallic salts by the interaction of hard water or dirt
with the detergent, i.e. they prevent hard water deposits. The amount of phosphate needed
depends on the hardness of the water, composition of the detergent and other insoluble salts
 Sodium tripolyphosphate, sodium tetraphosphate, and trisodium phosophate are the
phosphates mainly used in detergent formulations. In addition to removing the minerals causing
water hardness, they have varying functions in emulsification, protein peptidization, and
dispersion.
3. SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS
 These are the main components of neutral, alkaline and acidic detergents. They are based on
petroleum products and can be produced to have desired wetting, penetrating, rinsing, foaming
and emulsifying abilities.
 There are 3 types: Anionic, Nonionic, and Cationic, classified according to the charge of the
molecule.
 An essential property of all surfactant molecules is that one end is attracted to water
(hydrophilic) and the other is attracted to oils (hydrophobic)
 When surfactant molecules are in the presence of oil and water, their many hydrophobic parts
will be attracted to small parts of the oil. Their hydrophilic parts will then assemble to present to
the water an entirely hydrophilic surface thus the oil becomes emulsified. As well as being used
as the basis for neutral detergents, surfactant is often a component of alkaline and acidic
detergents to enhance the cleaning and/or foaming properties.
4. ACIDS
 Acids are an important group of chemicals having specific action against alkaline or mineral
soiling. Phosphoric acid, sulphamic acid and sodium bisulphate are the most important acid
detergents used in the food industry.
 As acids are only effective in the removal of minerals and certain organic-mineral complexes that
are resistant to alkali-type products, it is essential that fat and protein and other organic soils be
removed first with an alkaline detergent before acid cleaning.
 When galvanized iron has been with acid detergents, an unsightly white film of zinc,
hydroxide/zinc carbonate will form upon drying. To mask this, a food-grade oil should be sprayed
onto the surface immediately after acid cleaning.

50
 CHOICE OF DETERGENT
Factors to consider in choosing the suitable detergent:
1. TYPE OF SURFACE
A detergent should remove soil without damaging the surface being cleaned. Table 7 shows the
effects of detergents and different pH on various surfaces. The pH of the detergents affects their
suitability for various surfaces.

Table 7. Effects of Acid, Neutral and Alkaline Detergents on Different Surfaces

pH
SURFACE ACID NEUTRAL ALKALINE
Aluminum Reacts Suitable Reacts, Some mildly
alkaline are
satisfactory
Cast Iron and Mild Reacts Suitable Suitable
Steel
Stainless Steel Generally suitable. Suitable Suitable
Avoid hydrochloric
acid at high
concentration and
high chlorine
concentration
Copper Brass Reacts Phosphoric Does not react, may May cause tarnish
Bronze acid based not give necessary unless formulated
detergents may be cleaning with corrosive
suitable as reaction performance inhibitor
rate is slow
Zinc (Galvanized Reacts Suitable Reacts. Some mildly
iron) alkaline inhibited
detergents are
suitable
Plastics Generally suitable. Generally suitable Generally suitable
Some solvents will
soften some types
of plastic
Glass and Ceramics Suitable except Generally suitable Generally suitable
hydrofluoric acid
will react
Wood (untreated) Not suitable Suitable Not suitable
Fabrics Suitable except for Suitable Suitable except for
wool and some wool and some
other delicate other delicate
fabrics fabrics
Concrete Reacts Suitable Suitable

2. TYPE OF SOIL (dirt) – either organic or inorganic

Organic soils are derived from animal or vegetable matter, e.g. oils, fats, greases, proteins, blood,
sugars, carbohydrates, cellulose. Alkaline or neutral detergents are best suited in removing
organic soils.
Inorganic soils are derived from substances in the earth’s crust as natural deposits, example: grit,
salt, rust, hard water scale, milk stones, etc. Acidic detergents are suited for removing inorganic
soils.

51
RECOMMENDED DETERGENT TO USE:
a.) For general cleaning purposes:
Alkaline detergent + Surfactant + Phosphate
(e.g. Na metasilicate)
b.) For special cleaning: removal of rust, milk stones, scales
Acid Detergent + Aryl thiourea

3. CLEANING METHOD
a.) Manual cleaning is where the detergent solution is applied to the surface being cleaned with
a brush or scouring pad. As the detergent used in this operation comes in contact with the
worker’s skin, it should be selected from the neutral or mild alkali range.
b.) Soak cleaning is a method whereby the article being cleaned is placed in a detergent solution
on an extended period of time, and the cleaning is accomplished as a result of the
combination of detergent concentration, contact time and temperature. In this case, the
detergent is not in contact with the operator, so medium and heavy duty alkaline and acid
detergents can be used.
c.) High pressure cleaning is the use of high pressure hoses and detergents, which could be
mildly alkaline or medium duty alkaline. This method of cleaning is time consuming. The most
suitable equipment is high pressure, large-volume spray equipped with a detergent-feed
system. The main disadvantage of the method is that it easily damages painted surfaces,
cement-rendered walls and concrete, and may force water into machinery and electrical
fittings.
d.) Foam cleaning. A foam agent is added to a detergent solution and sprayed through special
equipment to produce a white foamy layer of detergent-like shaving cream. This method uses
detergent more efficiently than conventional cleaning for it allows longer contact time
between detergent and dirt. In addition, the foam detergent mixture provides visual evidence
of the areas covered. However, it should be remembered that this method does not eliminate
the need for mechanical action and is only designed to use detergents more efficiently.
Detergents used can be either acid or alkaline combined with a neutral foaming agent.
e.) Gel cleaning. A gelling agent is added to a detergent solution and sprayed with aid of a
pressurized chamber. The gel-detergent sticks on the dirty surfaces and thus allows the
detergent to remain in contact with the dirt for a longer time. The mixture can be removed
easily with water. This method appears to use detergent most efficiently, but as in foam
cleaning the need for mechanical action remains.
f.) Clean-in-place (CIP) method. In-place cleaning allows larger items of equipment and
pipelines to be effectively cleaned without the necessity of dismantling and cleaning
manually, and frequently incorporates the use of permanently mounted spray balls. Some
precautions are necessary. Proper equipment must be used, all surfaces must be cleaned, and
detergent concentrations and temperatures must be carefully controlled. Detergents used in
this operation should be low foaming and can be either acid or alkaline
4. TEMPERATURE
High temperature can inactivated detergents. For example, sodium metasilicate cannot be used
in temperature above 70 degrees Celsius, otherwise deposition of detergent forms on the surface.
5. TIME
Sufficient contact time is needed for the detergent to penetrate dirt. At least 10 minutes contact
time is needed.
C. SANITIZER / DISINFECTANT
These are agents, either physical or chemical used to reduce the numbers of microorganisms to a
level that does not present a health hazard.
Sanitizing is usually carried out by one of the following methods:
a. Steam sanitizing
b. Hot water sanitizing
c. Chemical sanitizing
d. Ultra-violet radiation
With steam and hot water sanitizing, great care should be taken to ensure that the correct
temperature is maintained on the surface being sanitized, as a large drop in temperature can be

52
 encountered between the outlet of a steam or hot water hose and the contact surface, and this
will result in poor sanitizing.
In general, the disadvantage on the use of heat (steam or hot water) in sanitizing are:
1. Heat causes materials to deteriorate and equipment to distort.
2. Heat results to considerable time lapse before equipment is heated and cooled.
3. Heat causes baking-in of food and other residues on the surface.
4. Heat reduces visibility, thus decreases effectiveness of the method.
5. Heat leads to condensation problems.
6. Heat selects heat-resistant bacteria, which will be difficult to eliminate in subsequent heat
treatments. Thus, chemical disinfections should also be used at regular schedules.
UV Radiation is used in the disinfection of air and water. It however, produces ozone, which can
cause oxidative rancidity of fat.
Chemical Sanitizers can be divided into 3 major groups based on the agent that kills the
microorganisms:
A. HALOGENS (Chlorine, iodine, bromine)
B. QUARTERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS
C. PHENOLICS

CHEMICAL SANITIZERS
A. HALOGENS
1) Chlorine sanitizers are available in several forms, e.g.: a) sodium hypochlorite solutions
(which decomposes on storage); and b) chlorine containing powders, such as
chloramines, chloroisocyanurates (which have longer shelf life).
Advantages:
a. Fast acting
b. Nonselective and kill all types of vegetative cells
c. Inexpensive
Disadvantages
a. Instability; the chlorine is rapidly driven off with heat or is inactivated by contamination
with organic matter
b. Corrosive even to stainless steel when used at high concentrations. Chlorine based
sanitizers should not be in contact with galvanized iron, aluminum, steel, etc., for more
than 30 mins because of possible corrosion.
c. Chloramines have slow bacterial activity, requiring long exposure and thus,
recommended for swimming pools.
2) Iodine is a very good bactericide. However, it is volatile, toxic and very corrosive to metals.
It is totally unsuitable for use in sanitizing food-processing equipment. However, iodine
can be formulated into an “iodophor” by using suitable non-ionic surfactants and acid.
Iodophors substantially reduce the hazards of handling iodine. These are somewhat more
stable in the presence of organic matter compared to the chlorines.
Advantages:
a. Fast acting
b. Nonselective and kill all types of vegetative cells
c. Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
a. Instability – at about 49 degrees Celsius they vaporize
b. Sensitivity to pH. Because of the low concentration used, iodine can be rendered
ineffective by high pH water, or by traces of alkaline detergent solution. It is for this latter
reason that iodophors are not recommended for use in meat works.
c. Use of iodophors is somewhat restricted in food plants because iodine residues may
contaminate food products
3) Bromine - is usually incorporated in halogen sanitizers together with chlorine. The
bromine acts synergistically with the chlorine to improve bactericidal properties.

B. QUARTERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS (Quats)

These are a class of cationic surfactants
Advantages:
a. Stable to heat

53
 b. Less corrosive on metals
c. Easy on the skin
d. Effective at relatively high pH. This permits their formulation with alkaline materials
e. Have some detergency powers themselves
Disadvantages:
a. Selective. Not all type of microorganisms are killed; not particularly effective against Gram +
organisms (e.g Pseudomonas)
b. May form films on food-handling equipment
c. Not compatible with anionic-type synthetic detergents (almost exclusively used during the
cleaning step), and care must be used that they are not contaminated with the former
C. PHENOLICS
Substituted phenol compounds are excellent sanitizers. They are made soluble in water by the
addition of soaps and surfactants.
Advantages:
a. Wide spectrum of bacterial kill
b. Not grossly affected by organic soil
Disadvantages
a. Its strong characteristics smell precludes them from use in food handling operations
b. Some formulations are corrosive of the skin
D. DETERGENT-SANITIZER products are available which effectively combine cleaning and sanitizing
chemicals in one product, hence, one and not two applications are needed to clean and sanitize.
They can reduce the time taken to clean and sanitize, but they reduce the flexibility of the two-
steps process, i.e., sanitizing would not be done just prior to use. The use and cost of combined
detergent-sanitizer would normally be higher as some of the sanitizer is inevitably inactivated by
the soil.
REQUISITES FOR CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
1. Clean surface
2. Compatible cleaning and disinfection
3. Change of class of disinfectant used ate least once per month
CHOICE OF CHEMICAL DISINFECTANTS
1. Public health regulations;
2. Odor should not be absorbed by food;
3. Color should not taint food;
4. Non-corrosive properties;
5. Not affected by hard water;
6. Concentration;
7. Type of surface
8. Absence of organic matter; and
9. Spectrum of effectiveness.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SANITIZER ACTIVITY

1. CONCENTRATION: In general, destructive effect increases as the concentration of the sanitizer

increases. However, directions should always be followed closely to avoid problems such as
corrosion.
2. TIM: The longer the time that a sanitizer has to act, the greater will be its killing effect. It is
important to know how long the sanitizer being used will take to do the required job.
3. NUMBER OF MICROORGANISMS: The more the number of microorganisms present, the longer
will be the time required to achieved the desired kill rate.
4. INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS: One of the most important factor that influence the effectiveness of
chemical sanitizers is the presence of incompatible materials such as organic compounds, mineral
deposits, or traces of detergent solution.
STERILIZATION
It should be noted that sterilization is defined as the absence of all microorganisms. Sterilization is not
often a requirement in food processing. Methods of sterilization include the application of high
temperatures and pressures (autoclaving) and irradiation technique.
D. BASIC CLEANING AND SANITATION PROCEDURE
1. Dry clean the area and remove all utensils and packing materials etc.

54
 2. Rinse with water.
3. Apply a detergent solution and leave on surface for 10 mins.
4. For manual cleaning, scrub to loosen and remove dirt.
5. Rinse with potable water and drain.
6. Apply disinfectant solution, allowing at least 10 mins contact time.
7. Rinse with potable water and drain.
8. Clean and sanitize small utensils separately.
FOR SCALE REMOVAL:
1. Apply or soak in acid detergent for 15 minutes.
2. Scrub
3. Rinse
4. Remove excess water
5. Spray with food grade oil to remove white film of zinc hydroxide or zinc carbonate.
SCHEDULE for CLEANING and SANITIZING:
Cleaning and sanitizing should be done DAILY after the day’s production or when the operation
is finished.
Often the best routine is to clean and rinse a food contact surface at the end of a production period, then
sanitize just prior to the next production. This will ensure a minimum contact of the food with undesirable
microorganisms.
To develop an effective Cleaning and Sanitation program, it is necessary to:
1. Identify needs and defects;
2. Establish detailed cleaning instructions for all areas and equipment;
3. Set up a working programme;
4. Ensure that all personnel receive proper training in hygiene, environmental and personal;
5. Evaluate efficiently.

Additional information to think about

MAKE IT CLEAN CUT; MICROBES LURK ON KITCHEN CUTTING BOARDS

December 9, 1999, Health Scout
Priscilla Tucker
Safety Alerts (http://www.healthscout.com/cgi-binWebObjects/Af?ap=55&id=88187)

What’s lurking on your kitchen cutting board? You may not want to know, but you should if you want to
discourage the growth germs. Whether your board is wood, glass or plastic, the most important feature
of any board is that it can be cleaned and sanitized, the Mayo Health Oasis advises.

The experts at mayo says skip those antimicrobial treated boards. They don’t really work. The ideal board,
Mayo notes, should be smooth, non-porous and durable enough to be washed with warm, soapy water
and then run through the dishwasher. Failing that, rinse with a solution of bleach and water (1 to 2
teaspoons of liquid chlorine bleach per gallon of water) after every use. And never dry with a towel. You
may just re-contaminate it.

It’s best not to use the same board for everything. The Center for Food Safety and Applied nutrition
recommends one board for cutting up foods that will be cooked (raw meats, poultry fish, vegetables, etc),
and another for breads, fresh fruits, and the like. And always wash your board right after cutting up raw
meet. More than 20% of people don’t, according to a Food and Drug Administration Survey.
This University of Florida site, which compares plastic with wooden boards, notes that most of the 81-
million cases of food borne illness that occur in US each year can be traced to the home kitchen.

55
 A GUIDE TO PEST CONTROL PLANNING AND OPERATIONS

Introduction:
The presence of pest in any food establishment can jeopardize a company’s reputation by ruining
its products and causing serious contamination. They carry dangerous pathogens on their feet, fur,
intestinal tract and mouth. They have unhealthy feeding habits, preferring to feed in garbage, dumps and
sewers.
Currently, the modern concept of Pest Control goes much further than the killing of some pests
resulting merely in the reduction of pest population numbers. As such, the efficiency of pest control
supervisor or operative should not be judged by the number of dead pests that are produced – although
these may be substantial – but by the number which remain alive after treatment. These, even if small,
will be of great significance.
The task of the modern pest control operator is to bring about the rapid elimination of existing
pest infestations and to prevent further established infestation. Periodic upsurges of resident pests in a
treated area or building are a true indication of inefficient pest control.
Total elimination of established pest is a standard which most management and even health
authorities do not generally think possible. To achieve this desired standard of efficiency, it is necessary
to include in any pest control program, not only the application of carefully selected techniques, but also
measures related to Hygiene Enforcement – Warehousing Practice, Weed Control and Production
methods.
Essential prerequisites for effective pest control in any food processing plant are proper design
and construction, good housekeeping and cleanliness of physical facilities including equipment. It allows
therefore that without the cooperation of management, organized pest control will often give
unsatisfactory results that are relatively costly to achieve.

There are four basic rules that are essential for adequate pest control:

1. DENY ENTRY of pests into buildings. All out efforts should be taken in design and construction of
building to completely exclude all forms of pests.
2. DENY SHELTER. There should be no areas for pests to seek shelter and protection. Pests should
be denied a place to thrive, rest, hibernate, feed, mate or multiply.
3. DENY FOOD. Keep all areas scrupulously clean and completely free of all forms of filth or any
extraneous materials, which may serve as food. Food is basic biological need and denying pests
this necessity is tantamount to their destruction through starvation.
4. DESTROY all pests. If due to uncontrollable circumstances, pest gain entry, they should be
eliminated at all reasonable cost so as not to jeopardize the safety or quality of food
manufactured.
RODENT CONTROL

The rodents are more likely to be encountered in a meat works or abattoirs are:

1. The Brown, Common or Sewer Rat – Rattus norvegicus

2. The Ship, Roof or Black Rat – Rattus rattus
3. The House Mouse – Mus musculus

These three rodents are entirely different in their habits and an understanding of these is the first key to
their control.
The BROWN RAT is a fairly reliable and constant performer. It will live indoor or outside in deep
burrows. It can climb and swim when circumstances require it to do so. Droppings are deposited in defined
areas and food is consumed regularly at some point while the supply is available. Because it is a creature
of regular habits it is easy to control.
The SHIP RAT is smaller than the brown rat and very agile. It is a wonderful climber and uses this
ability as an aid to survive in encounters with the larger brown rat and other enemies. It does not swim
and burrow from choice. This rat has the most irregular habits of eating and movement. For this reason it
is difficult to control by baiting. Twice as many baiting stations as are used for Brown rat control should
be placed and great care taken to ensure3 that these are widely dispersed at all levels from roof to floor.
The HOUSE MOUSE is a reasonably static pest and will not move far from its nest or point of
manifestation. Mice are usually as difficult as Ship rats to eliminate by baiting. This is because they are

56
finicky, erratic feeders and will often remain inside a stack of bags or other harbourage in a position where
bait is not available to them.
Terms such as Brown or Black rat have nothing to do with identification, which can best be studied
from published works. The fur color of both rats ranges from albino to black and a white belly fur is often
present in both species.

LOCATION S IN RELATION TO CONTROL:

Informants offering advice to pest inspectors often suggest that certain specific areas such as rubbish tips
and river banks are the sole points of infestations. In a complex such as an abattoir it is necessary to
consider the total area as a whole divided into two parts.

1. All external surfaces

2. Inside all buildings

It is also very necessary to consider neighbouring property to obtain cooperation from owners.
While riverbank and rubbish tips, etc. may be spectacular points of infestations, they are also an
advantage to the pest controller. By drawing rats to them and focusing the main baiting program on these
points, one can bring about the extermination of large numbers of rats which otherwise might be
dispersed elsewhere.
The balance of the infestation may be much more difficult to eliminate. There may be Ship Rats
on the upper floors of buildings, mice in stacks, Brown Rats in wall cavities, under floors, amongst disused
machinery indoors and outside quiet areas.

INSPECTING FOR INFESTATION:

The only way of obtaining the whole infestation picture is by understanding a detailed inch-by-
inch survey of all buildings and grounds and making on the spot notes at the time.
Do not be put off by locked doors, disused stores, roof spaces, floor cavities, drains, piles of
rubbish or people who say “nothing here”, “only a few mice” and similar dangerous remarks.
A survey is an inspection for rat or mouse runs, droppings, urine stains (these and rat hairs
fluoresce with UV light), foot prints, gnawed wood and metal, tail swipes, body grease, smears on walls,
beams and pipes, nesting material, eating points, drinking points (most important to rats) and areas for
quiet day time harbourage.
When all of these have been discovered, listed and considered, the picture of infestation inside
and out will be known and a control plan, followed by a protection plan can be drawn up in its initial
stages.

CONTROL CAMPAIGN:
These would be little point in doing any control in premises next to an open sewer or similar “hot
spot” of infestation. Such influences must be eliminated.
Assuming then that everything has been done to discourage infestation and that the buildings, if
not the whole are, are as rodent-proof as possible, the choice of rodenticides can be considered.

Review the following points:

1. What is the present source of food and water?

2. Can a more attractive substitute or a more convenient supply be offered for either both?
3. Can the present supply be discontinued or mad unattractive?

The positive answers to the above points will enable the correct bait to be selected.
Remember that the water requirements of rats are high. The focal point of infestation would well
be a fire bucket, dripping tap, sink or toilet, toilet cistern, drain, puddles on the floor, ice on pipes, etc.
If rats can be denied their usual source of water by turning off, drying out, meshing over, adding
repellent disinfectants to puddles, removing watery fruit and vegetables, et., then water baits substituted
at convenient points as indicated by the original survey can be brought into use with tremendous effect.
Solid baits can be on whole or ground cereals singly or together, poultry or animal feeds and
pellets, fruit, bread, biscuits, fish or meat.

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 Usually ground cereals used intelligently will succeed in all instances where intense food
competition from products or stores does not exist.

POISONS:
The active ingredient (poison) to be used in the bait will be either an acute (single dose) or chronic
(multiple dose) poison selected from the following:

a. Acute
Thallium Sulfate
Zinc phosphide
Yellow Phosphorus
Antu
Arsenic Trioxide
Fortified Re Squill = a vegetable extract emetic. (Rats cannot vomit and in trying to do so is fatty
injured)

These contain acute poisons that should not be used in the presence of animals, food, raw materials or
processing areas. Such poisons require pre-baiting for maximum effect and they cannot be used for
continuous protection. (Pre-baiting involves laying the bait without the poison until they accept the bait
and eat large quantities. After which, the poison bait can then be laid).
b. Chronic:
Blood Anti Coagulant Type (Warfarin. Pivalyn, Coumarin) – liquid of solid
These blood anti-coagulants are the nearest approach yet to the perfect rodenticide. Although
slow in action, requiring consumption everyday for 5-10 days they have many advantages. No pre-
baiting is require, as they are relatively safe in the presence of humans, animals and food. They
can be used continuously as they do not create poison prejudice or bait shyness. Mixed with dry
cereal bases or in special whole grain baits they keep well in use.
c. Gases – Acute
Cyanide
Methyl bromide
Chloropicrin
The use of fumigant gasses for the elimination of rodents in stacks, whole buildings, ground areas,
etc., is best left to trained experts. It is well worth remembering that stacks close to a wall or built
round roof supports cannot be fumigated easily, if at all. Also, stacks or areas fumigated are pen
to re-infestation immediately once the gas is removed. There is no lasting protection from rodents
or insects.
d. Acute:
Sodium fluoroacetate (Liquid or Solid)
The use of Sodium fluoroacetate – 1080 (Ten Eighty) – is strictly controlled and it is doubtful if
permission for its use or supply could be obtained in normal circumstances. There is no known
antidote for this poison, which is totally restricted in some countries to use in sewers an empty
ships and banned altogether in others. It is remarkably effective against rats being extremely quick
in action. Sublethal dose are unknown and very small quantities are sufficient to bring about death
in less than twenty minutes.
CORPSE ODORS:
Contrary to mythical beliefs there is no way of poisoning a rat that does not have the attendant
risk or undesirable corpse odors.
Acute poisons are thought to cause corpse odors, because rats with rapidly developing symptoms
of poisoning retreat to deep harbourage and the quickly succumb.
Blood anti-coagulants appear to cause few corpses odors, possibly more in the case of mice. Many
rodents with bodies distended from internal haemorrhage move into the open or become too weak to
return to harbourages with difficult access. Traps can often be used to advantage to recover sick rats
during a baiting campaign with anti-coagulants.

TRAPS AND STICKY BOARDS:

It is not much use cornering a rat in a cupboard and then trying to kill it with a rodenticide that
takes 5-10 days to take effect.

58
 Traps can be useful where rats are known to have an established run. Often there is no need to
bait a trap. Place it with its nose to the wall as rats run close to the walls etc, and seldom across open
spaces. The old adage “one rat fifty traps” is a good one. If a trap is baited, a piece of fruit, potato or
vegetable will often be more attractive, because of its water content, than fish. Cheese is not very
effective bait, except perhaps for mice.
The best type of rat trap is one where the whole of the front forms a treadle so that the traps is
set off if any part of the front is touched.
Strong slow drying adhesive has been used to deal with small nuisance infestation of rats or mice.
The adhesive is spread on stiff cardboard or plywood pieces about 12’ square within 1’ of all sides.
An attractive baits is placed in the middle.

PLACING BAIT:
In any complex or buildings plus surrounding grounds with or without rivers, ditches, tips, etc., it
is essential to have a good number of outside baiting stations, well protected from the weather and
consumption by birds and animals. These baits will form a perimeter or first line of defense with additional
stations at key points inside the perimeter ring but outside the buildings.
Every building must be thoroughly baited from top to bottom with selected baits that must be
changed at frequencies dictated by circumstances. Anti-coagulant baiting stations must never be allowed
to become empty as a rodent’s blood recovers rapidly and the sequence must then start again.
A typical blood anti-coagulant baiting program might look something like this. (Not all
departments are listed).
RODENT BAITING PLAN
(in a Meat Processing Plant)

Commence and complete all baiting by 8, 10, 99. Check all baits and re-site or refill, 8 12, 99. Any
bait showing heavy consumption should be checked and refilled daily if necessary otherwise re-check
8,15,99. Thereafter visit all baits and change them monthly. Baits in wet locations, dusty areas, outside or
in the position where they may be crushed should be checked as often as circumstances warrant.
Eventually, 4-8 oz. dry or 1 pint liquid bait will be sufficient at each point internally. Double these
quantities are advisable externally.

AREAS BAIT COMMENTS

Offal dept. Dry cereal Bait on overhead hoist,
platforms and wide ledges*
Hides dept Dry cereal Bait in dry areas*
Freezer corridor Dry cereal Bait in dry areas
Carpenters Shop Dry cereal and liquid Bait beside and over chambers
Tallow boilers Dry cereal and liquid Bait floor and ledges
Cartoon Store Dry cereal and liquid Bait ledges and under fixture
Canteen Dry cereal and liquid Bait at all levels
Under timber buildings Dry cereal and liquid Bait stores and behind
cupboards
Offices Dry cereal Bait roof space and beneath
floor
First aid Dry cereal Bait mice in cupboard
Boiler House Dry cereal and liquid Bait heavily on floor and roof
trusses
Pump room Dry cereal and liquid Bait heavily on floor and roof
trusses
Refrigeration tunnels and plant Dry cereal and liquid Bait between plant and
freezers
Garage Dry cereal and liquid Bait behind benches and
overhead
Externally (Grounds) Whole grain impregnated Perimeter and round cooling
towers

*if permissible

59
PROOFING BUILDINGS AGAINST RODENTS:
Very few buildings are or can be made more than 90% rodent-proof. However, the proofing that
is done will have a significant effect on reducing penetration and is well worth doing.
When proofing, check all doors by looking under them at ground level. If a pen can be pushed
beneath a door, a half-grown rat can flatten itself and crawl beneath it.
Any mesh used for proofing should have a diameter of not more than ¼ inch and one thickness is
better than two.
When filling a wall, hole, or pipe entrance with concrete, first push the crushed chicken wire into
the hole to reinforce and support the concrete mix. To proof, a door with metal, use one piece passed
under it and folds upwards onto both sides.
 Fill rat burrows with earth. Check for continued activity.
 Keep trees and shrubs from touching buildings.
 Drains of all types must be filled with grills.
 Have an efficient garbage removal.
 Keep the area neat. Avoid or eliminate mechanical graveyards.
 Keep stacks several inches off the floor.

INSECT CONTROL
Insect pests are undesirable, not only from the standpoint of damages they bring about on food
materials but also because of their contaminating potential. They can enter through cracks in walls, floor,
and ceilings if defects occur in these structures. They frequent crevices for shelter, food, and drink.
As such, these crevices should be regularly monitored and sealed. Constant vigilance is essential
to avoid the build-up of their population. It is necessary that they are deprived of food, drink, and shelter,
the 3 basic necessities for their existence.
The modern pest control concept of—“elimination followed by continuous protection” applies in
insect control as well as in rodent control.

“RESIDUAL” insecticides should not be used anytime in edible processing departments. Since the
insecticides used are non-residual, the required protection can only be achieved by repeated
conscientious routine applications. These are costly in material and labor.
INSECTICIDES:
The choice of insecticides falls into two categories:
1. EDIBLE PROCESSING AREAS: Non-Residual Insecticides:
a.) Pyrethrum (Plant Extract)
Pyrethrum must be brought into contact with insects on the wing or crawling
insects. The longer the delay between spraying and contact, the less effective the spray
will be. The effects of Pyrethrum can be seriously reduced after only a few minutes of
exposure.
b.) Allethrin (Synthetic)
Allethrin is inferior to Pyrethrum for the control of crawling insects. It is a
synthetic type of Pyrethrum and not so readily available.
2. OTHER AREAS: Residual Insecticides:
Chlorinated hydrocarbons:
1) D.D.T. – outmoded
2) B.H.C. (Lindane) – insufficiently residual
3) Chlorane*
4) Aldrin*
5) Dieldrin*
* Out of favor due to persistence in pollution. Some resistance to Dieldrin is now shown by cockroaches.
All are useful for termite control.
6) Endrin – too toxic for general use.

Organophosphates:
1) Diazinon – useful but resistance by insects is developing
2) D.D.V.P. – short life with high vapor pressure (evaporates quickly), useful in specific circumstances
(Bird mites).
3) Malathion – low mammalian toxicity used widely in the grain industry, but some insect resistance
now showing.

60
 4) Fenitrothion – useful wide spectrum insecticide of recent development; no resistance is known.

Carbamates:
1) Baygon – gives variable results in cockroach control.
2) Sevin – not in general use due to a lack of manufacturing support.

FORMS OF INSECTICIDES:
Insecticides can take the form of:
 Sprays
 Mists
 Fogs
 Insecticidally active powders
 Neutral desiccant powders
 Baits
 Gasses or vapors
Whatever form is used, the “INSECTICIDE SHOULD BE TAKEN TO THE INSECT” not left for the
insect to collide with by chance.

How useful are the various forms of insecticides?

 FOGS, MISTS = residual deposit unsatisfactory for crawling insects. Correct for flying insects.
 SPRAYS = easy and clean to apply. The residual film is thin.
 POWDERS = good if remaining dry and clean. Long residual. Present contamination problems.
 BAITS = returning to favor for long residual control from microscopic deposits in joinery cracks
and similar locations.

APPLYING INSECTICIDES:
The aim is to apply a residual insecticide whenever permissible to maintain an active film or dried
spray, powder, or bait ready to deal with any insect invader after elimination has been achieved.
Program spraying of areas for cockroaches regularly, never less than 4 times a year.
Weekly spraying of an intensive nature with Pyrethrum in edible processing departments would
not be too frequent. As cockroaches are nocturnal in habit this is best done at night.
Any inspection for cockroaches must be done after 10 p.m. and the area should preferably have
been in darkness for two hours before the inspection.
Lockers should not only be sprayed regularly, but they should also be completely emptied before
spraying commences.
Areas receiving carton, bottle crates, packing material, hay, and straw, must be sprayed very
frequently to deal with the certain imports of pest infestation that will occur.
Drains underfloor and under building areas, roof, and wall cavities, the cases of electric motors,
the sealing rubber around the refrigerators, and even laboratory drawers and equipment must be
included in the spraying program.

RECOMMENDATIONS:
Suggested insecticides for the meatworks pest controller are:
1) Dieldrin/Chlordane, 1-2% in liquid and powder form for ant control.
2) Fenitrothion Spray, 2% for general residual pest control work.
3) Pyrethrum Extract, 0.3-0.6% equivalent in a neutral base oil. For spraying in edible production
areas.
4) Malathion, 2-5%. Application for tips and waste areas are spray or dust.
One gallon of spray will normally cover 1,000 sq. ft or double the area on glazed tiles or other highly
polished surfaces. (If the application rate is cut by half the concentration must be doubled). Use powder
at ½- 1 oz. per sq. yard.

COCKROACHES
These menaces are largely nocturnal and thrive in dark, humid, and filthy places. They often leave a musty
and moldy odor in places where they are present. They stain surfaces by their liquid, often dark-colored
feces. Roaches contaminate food more than they eat them. They carry filth on their dirty legs and bodies.
In addition, they regurgitate filthy substances or materials previously eaten or swallowed that may be
loaded with microorganisms.

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 In applying insecticides for cockroach control, no area, crack or piece of equipment (inside or out)
at any level must be left untreated. Ladders and a torch will be required.
The three principal species of cockroach that will be encountered are:
1. The German cockroach, Blatella germanica – markedly resistant to many insecticides.
2. The American cockroach, Periplaneta Americana
3. The Brown Banded cockroach, Supella supellectilium

The males and females, adults and young should be collected and studied for identification.
Remember the high production rate of insects, especially in relation to environmental temperature.
102 days at 20o C
44 days at 25 o C
28 days at 30 o C

High temperatures are easily obtainable in buildings or among stocks generating heat as a result of
infestation.
FLIES
Garbage, sewage, animal manure, human feces, and exposed food material attract flies and serve
as their breeding places. Because of their morphology and feeding characteristics, all flies should be
considered dirty. They carry disease-causing organisms in their mouth, intestinal tract, and their hairy legs
and feet. They have high contaminating potential if they alight on food.
The most astringent measure may be insufficient to cope with the fly infestation, but if the following
actions are taken regularly and conscientiously, maximum benefit will be gained.
1) Seek out all breeding sites and rectify conditions by removing garbage, washing and hosing down
regularly, keeping wet or moist rubbish and waste to a minimum.
2) Clean and spray all waste conditions daily. Include nearby walls etc.
3) Spray or powder all rubbish tips and similar attractive points daily. Fly bait used extensively in
small amounts is often very useful out of doors including wet surroundings.
4) Screen all windows, door, and other insect entrances.
5) Mist Pyrethrum Spray as often as possible when flies are active indoors. This can be done during
meal times and rest periods.
6) Where permissible apply residual insecticides frequently to the chosen alighting points of flies.
These can be often identified by regurgitation mark on shelf edges, walls, low ceilings, light
fittings, and cupboards. Avoid spraying plastic articles with a solution containing damaging
solvents.
7) In areas where edible materials are processed, airlocks or air curtains must be strategically placed
to prevent flies from gaining easy entry.
8) Have streetlights outside buildings as these will give flies a lesser tendency to enter the building
at night.
9) Use U.V. incinerators or insect electrocuters equipped with attractant lights to trap insects that
get into the working areas.
10) Keep garbage and drying sheds for hides as far away as possible.
11) Encourage all staff to appreciate the real dangers of fly infestation and to report this and take
action.

ANTS
These pests enter buildings looking for food, water, and harborage. They possess high
contaminating potential because of the distances they can cover and the nature of surfaces they traverse.
With their small size, they can penetrate virtually everywhere.
Ants are not readily deterred by insecticides and will walk over powder or spray to reach their
objective. Because so many are present in one nest the numbers killed by treatment are often insufficient
to give any control.
The location of the nest is essential for speedy ant control. Repeated treatment of open ground areas is
often necessary to maintain control in domestic and industrial properties. Chlordane and Dieldrin are both
particularly effective against ants. If however, the nest is out of reach such as the one established in a
cavity wall, a short life insecticide with a "vapor" effect such as D.D.V.P. may prove more effective.
The use of baits, usually sweet food, maybe available of a general distribution of insecticide cannot be
undertaken.

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 Ants are extremely persistent and liable to infest the same areas continuously, one infestation following
another. As much as possible, prevent spills on the floor. If spills cannot be avoided, clean all spills from
the table and floors. Inspect storerooms regularly and as frequently as possible. Clean areas under sacks,
bags, bins, and cartons frequently and regularly.

THE PEST BOOK

In any industrial establishment, it is most advisable to have a pest book irrespective of whether the
control is being undertaken by a contractor or a staff member.
The book should be ruled as follows:
 DATE:
 PEST:
 LOCATION:
 REPORTED BY:
 COMMENTS:

In this way, the infestation can be identified and located quickly and vague rumors, which may be second,
third, or fourth hand, avoided. Such books are useful for seasonal references and act as a guide for control
campaigns, check on the efficiency of methods, staff ability or contractor’s efficiency.
The pest book is best kept by a secretary or some other static and easy to contact person such as
a gatekeeper. Persons reporting pests may do so by phone or personal contact. Encourage all workers to
report any sign of infestation, whether it be a single cockroach or a suspected mouse dropping.

IMPORTANT DO’S AND DON’TS

1. Do keep chemicals locked up.
2. Do have all containers plainly labeled with contents and percentages.
3. Do keep in touch with Health Authorities and any other sources of technical information.
4. Don’t give chemicals away. If you do they pass out of your control but any blame will be yours.
5. Don’t take risks that may lead to poisoning, taint, contamination, or spoilage.
6. Don’t venture into safe areas in pursuit of pests.
7. Don’t spray inflammable materials in the presence of naked flames or live electrical equipment.
8. Don’t pick up dead rats, droppings, etc. with bare hands. Use paper or forceps and avoid the
spread of undesirable organisms.
9. Don’t keep rodenticides near insecticides or use the same scoop of containers for both.
10. Don’t keep mixed insecticides. Prepare fresh dilutions every day.

BASIC EQUIPMENT FOR THE PEST CONTROLLER

1. Overalls, gloves, goggles, barrier cream, safety helmet, rubber boots, powerful torch, notebook,
wiping cloth.
2. 2-gallon sprayer, powder blower, containers, funnels, measures, scoops. Optional motorized
pump, misting or fogging machine.
3. Baiting trays, traps, baiting bottles. Light weight-folding ladder.
4. Reference books on pests and pesticides.

GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE PEST CONTROL:

1. Vermin (rats, mice, flies, and roaches) are attracted to food and odors from food, regardless of
the state of the food, whether fresh or decomposed.
2. Pests are attracted to unclean or unsanitary comfort facilities such as toilets and bathrooms.
3. Good housekeeping is essential for efficient pest control. Keep empty crate, boxes, and other
containers always protected and inaccessible, especially at night. Adequately protect garbage and
rubbish by keeping them in non-odor absorbing, non-corrosive, easily cleanable containers.
Properly dispose of trash and refuse, whenever possible.
4. Regular inspection and cleaning schedules and effective cleaning procedures are basic measures
that help control pests by depriving them of food, drink, and shelter.

WATER SUPPLY
The water supply is always an important consideration in all food-processing establishments. Life
and hygiene are impossible without an adequate supply of suitable water.

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 Water is essential to human, plant, and animal life. It is needed as a medium for heating and
cooling; it is a vehicle for washing raw food materials, equipment, and premises; and most significant of
all, as an ingredient or component of many foods and various preparations.
In contrast to many other industries, food-processing establishments often require safe and
drinkable (potable) water that meets the minimum standards prescribed for potability. This is so because
water may serve as a source of contamination either directly (as an ingredient) or indirectly through
contaminated processing equipment, utensils, hands of food handlers, and surfaces of the processing
plant. When this occurs, the water supply may endanger the product and become a serious menace to
human health if it contains pathogenic organisms and toxic substances.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY:
Quantity of water available must be sufficient to meet the needs of the food establishment. The
amount must be dependable continuously at all times. Both the quantity and quality of the water required
will determine the choice for the source of the water supply.
The probable sources of water are:
1. Surface water = e.g., creeks, lagoons, seas, lakes
2. Groundwater = e.g., deep well or artesian well, springs; bored water
3. Town water supply = municipal reservoir of treated water; good source, but expensive.
4. Rainwater = this may be stored in big tanks; it cannot be depended on as supply varies with the
weather.
Surface water:
Precipitation that does not seep through the ground natural filtration and is not returned to the
atmosphere compromises the surface water and collectively comes in the form of streams, lakes, or
lagoons. Because of its origin and the conditions it undergoes, surface water may be polluted with mud
and sand, sewage, decayed vegetation, and animal material as well as with human, animal, and industrial
wastes. Inadequate treatment of such water often poses a hazard to public safety because it is highly
probable that they contain pathogenic organisms and toxic substances. Because of the likely pollutants
that may be present, the treatment of surface water provides an almost unlimited supply, which makes it
suitable for operations with high water volume requirements.
Groundwater:
This is water that comes from wells or springs. Wells provides the mechanism to draw water from the
groundwater table. Pumping facilitates extraction of water, but if the pumping rate exceeds the rate at
which the water is replenished by water-yielding formations, the water table decreases near the well and
saltwater tends to move into the vacated space. This happens especially in wells situated near saline
bodies of water. Usually, groundwater has a high mineral content and the water hardness can interfere
with many processing operations (e.g., by forming hard water scale on equipment and decreasing
cleaning/disinfecting efficacy).
Springs are also sources of groundwater. They are natural openings on the surface of the ground from
which groundwater flows as a result of gravity or pressure on the water table level.
Generally, groundwater possesses greater clarity and has relatively lower viable bacterial count
compared to surface waters. These characteristics arise largely as a consequence of nature's filtration and
percolation of various forms of precipitation like rain or snow through the ground and soil strata. Their
qualities mean lower cost of treatment or purification. However, the supply of groundwater is somewhat
limited in quantity and is therefore not suitable for urban consumers in populated cities with very large
volume requirements. Energy is required to pump out this water, making it a more costly source to tap
than surface waters. To minimize the effects of decreasing water table levels arising form seasonal
variations, the well should be deep enough to handle such a phenomenon.
QUALITY OF WATER
In considering whether the water is suitable to use, two elements of water quality must be taken into
account.
A. Safety of the water
B. Type of water
A. SAFETY OF WATER:
1. Water should be free from PATHOGENIC organisms.
This involves the application of the following measures.
 Conduct a sanitary survey to determine potential sources of contamination.
—An experienced public health expert, preferably a sanitary engineer, should if
possible, make a sanitary survey. It should cover not only conditions existing
during the period of the survey but also potential sources of pollution.

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  Conduct laboratory examinations:
—Laboratory examinations of a series of samples of the water supply, taken at
different times and under different conditions, should be made regularly.
In particular, the bacteriological examination of the water supply is a very
necessary and important part of the routine control in the plant. This consists of.
a. Standard Plate Count = a number of viable organisms per ml which grows
on a standard agar medium. This helps determine the purity of water and
serves as a warning that a source of contamination exists in the
supply/distribution line.
b. Coliform Test = e.g. Most probable Number per 100 ml. this determines
the extent of fecal pollution. Since practically all of the diseases known to
be commonly transmitted through the water due to organisms that are
discharged from the intestines of infected persons or animals. Pollution
with intestinal discharges is not only offensive but also by far the most
dangerous to which water supplies are exposed. In case results indicate
pollution, then further tests are required to identify the type of coliform
organism present, particularly the presence of Escherichia coli.
 Reasonable precautions should be taken to safeguard against contamination of
water supply, such as:
a. Location of the water reservoir. The water supply should be located at a
higher level or it should be located at a reasonably far distance from
sewage tanks, septic tanks, cesspools and seepage units;
b. The water reservoir tanks should be well-constructed and properly
covered to prevent contaminants from entering its opening;
c. A perimeter force should be built around the water supply to prevent
access of animals and unauthorized units; and
d. Water needs to be treated to remove harmful organisms, like boiling,
filtration, and chemical disinfection.
2. The water supply should not contain TOXIC SUBSTANCES at concentrations that may give
rise to actual danger to health.
The presence of any of these substances in excess of the concentrations quoted should
constitute grounds for the rejection of the water as a public supply for domestic use.
Table 1. Maximum Allowable Concentration of Chemical Substances in Water

TOXIC SUBSTANCES MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE CONCENTRATIONS

Lead (as Pb) 0.1 mg/L
Selenium (as Se) 0.05 mg/L
Arsenic (as As) 0.2 mg/L
Chromium (as Cr hexavalent) 0.05 mg/L
Cyanide (as CN) 0.01 mg/L
3. Chemical substances should be present within PERMISSIBLE so as not to impair the potability
of the water supply.
Because of the wide variations in the chemical compositions of water in different parts of
the world, rigid standards of chemicals quality cannot be established. The limits hereinafter
designated "permissible" apply to water that could be generally acceptable by the consumer;
values greater than those listed as "excessive" would markedly impair the potability of water
or its suitability for drinking. However, these limiting concentrations are indicative only and
can be disregarded in specific instances, e.g. highly mineralized sources of water.
Table 2. Permissible and Excessive Limits of Substances in Water

* Phenolic substances are highly objectionable in the water supply of a milk processing plant
because they impart a damaging taste and odor to any dairy product with which they come in contact.
Ordinary water treatment processes do not readily remove phenols.

B. TYPE OF WATER; its suitability for the cleansing process;

Water used for cleaning purposes is often heated. There arises the problem of scale formation
that may form in pipes and water heater, in such quantities as to clog them completely.

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 PERMISSIBLE EXCESSIVE
Total solids 500 mg/L 1500 mg/L
Color (platinum-cobalt scale) 5 units 50 units
Turbidity (turbidity units) 5 units 25 units
Taste Unobjectionable -
Odor Unobjectionable -
Iron (Fe) 0.3 mg/L 1.0 mg/L
Manganese (Mn) 0.1 mg/L 0.5 mg/L
Copper (Cu) 1 mg/L 1.5 mg/L
Zinc (Zn) 5 mg/L 15 mg/L
Calcium (Ca) 75 mg/L 200 mg/L
Magnesium (Mg) 50 mg/L 150 mg/L
Sulphate (SO4) 200 mg/L 400 mg/L
Chloride (Cl) 200 mg/L 600 mg/L
pH range 7.0-8.5 <6.5 or >9.2
Magnesium + sodium suphate 500 mg/L 1,000 mg/L
Phenolic substances (as phenol)* .001 mg/L .002 mg/L
The presence of scale formation on surfaces of kettles and other containers for heating
interferes with the cleaning processes and is objectionable to the eyes.
Scale is the deposition of mineral salts in the water resulting from a change in the chemical
equilibrium. As the chemical equilibrium changes, the water varies from corrosive to neutral to scale
forming. These properties depend on the hydrogen-ion concentration, alkalinity, and calcium-
carbonate saturation-equilibrium value. The latter is dependent on the carbon dioxide content and
temperature.

To correct the trouble of scale formation, there are 2 general methods available:
1. Water-softening:
a) By the removal of calcium, magnesium, and iron by precipitation with lime;
b) By base-exchange — i.e., the ZEOLITE process, by which one base, usually
sodium is substituted for another, usually calcium and magnesium. Zeolite-
softened water is still mineralized, but with compounds that are neither "hard"
nor "scale-forming."

2. Addition of compounds, e.g., polyphosphate, which alter the scale-forming

characteristic of the water.
Polyphosphate reduces the amount of scale formed on heated surfaces leaving
the precipitated minerals suspended in the water. These compounds are generally
called “softening compounds” or “broiler compounds.” They could be used with
soap and other detergents to reduce the amount of film and encrustants deposited
on the equipment and utensils.

WATER SUPPLY TREATMENT

Water treatment may be necessary to make the water safe, palatable, and neutral. That is neither
scale-forming nor corrosive.
a) SAFETY relates to the destruction or removal of pathogenic organisms that may infect
man or the product.
b) PALATABILITY relates to such physical and chemical characteristics as tastes, odors,
turbidity, and presence of iron and manganese.
c) NEUTRALITY of water relates to acidity, alkalinity, hydrogen-ion concentration (pH),
and hardness.

GENERAL METHODS OF WATER TREATMENT

1. COAGULATION and FLOCCULATION
This consists of adding a chemical coagulant to the water, which reacts with compounds
in the water to form a gelatinous FLOC to which are drawn minute particles of clay or other solids
in which are too small to settle by themselves. If, after the addition and mixing of the initial floc,
slow and gentle movement brings the small particles into contact with each other, they adhere
together and build up into masses large enough to be visible and settle rapidly through the water.

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 This process id called FLOCCULATION, if after a floc with good settling properties is formed the
water is conducted greatly into a settling (quiescent) tank. The flocculent matter, will nearly all
settle to the bottom within an hour or two, and the clarified water can be drawn from the top,
ready for filtration.

= coagulants +H2O FLOCS

The chemicals commonly used for coagulation are alum (aluminum sulfate), cooperas
(ferrous sulfate), chlorinated cooperas, polymer, ferric sulphate, and ferric chloride. By far, the
most common is alum. The amount of coagulant added depends on the turbidity of the water,
such that more coagulants are added when at increasing water turbidity.
To enhance the reaction of water with alum, lime is added to increase alkalinity when
water pH is 5.5.

2. SEDIMENTATION
This consists of allowing of particles and flocs present in water to settle down (by gravity)
to the bottom of the sedimentary/settling tank. The principal purpose of which is to remove a
high proportion of suspended solids before the water passes to the filters.

5 Factors that influence Sedimentation:

a) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FLOC = It is best to form a dense, firm floc rather than fine, feathery floc,
as the former will settle much more rapidly.
b) TEMPERATURE OF WATER = Temperature affects the viscosity of the water and this, in turn, affects
the rate of sedimentation. The rate of settling of floc at 30 oC is 2.3 times the rate at 0oC.
Allowances should be made for this factor, particularly in cold weather.
c) PERIOD OF TIME FOR SEDIMENTATION = This is the detention time computed by dividing the size
of the tank by the rate of flow through the tank. For a horizontal flow basin, the detention time is
usually 4 hrs.
d) DEPTH OF SEDIMENTATION TANK = This determines the time required for the floc to be deposited
to the bottom; not a very critical factor.
e) SURFACE OVERFLOW RATE = This is the surface area of sedimentation over time measured as ft/hr
or ml/sec. The surface overflow rate for a horizontal-flow basin should not be greater than 5 ft/hr,
while for a vertical flow sedimentation tank, the surface overflow rate is normally greater, around
10-12ft/hr.
3. FILTRATION
This is the passage of water through a bed of granular materials, usually sand. The object is to
remove all flocculants or particulate matter, bacteria, cysts and ova of intestinal parasites. Rapid
sand filters are the most common type and may be of either the gravity or the pressure type. Rapid
sand filters are normally operated at a uniform rate. As the filter begins to clog with retained foreign
matter, additional force is applied to maintain a constant rate of flow through the filter.
Rapid sand filters are periodically cleaned by back-washing them with filtered water often in a
combination of mechanical and compressed air agitation. It is essential that the velocity of the back-
wash must not be so great as to carry away the sand. The frequency of back-washing is usually every
48-72 hours. However, if the water is very turbid, filters should be back-washed every 24 hours.

4. WATER SOFTENING
This process aims to make water soft, i.e., relatively free from compounds of calcium and
magnesium, particularly their carbonates and bicarbonates. Not all waters need to be softened,
usually, only those to be used in boilers, heaters, pumps, piping, and fixtures to eliminate problems
in scale or milk stone formation. However, water used for cooling or general plant use, as in-floor
washing, vehicle washing, animal showers, and maintenance of grounds, need not be softened.
The method usually used for water softening is the CATION EXCHANGE (ZEOLITE) process. As hard
water is passed through a bed of granular zeolite, the calcium and magnesium are retained and an
equivalent amount of sodium is given up in exchange. When the capacity of zeolite is exhausted,
the zeolite is back-washed to clean and hydraulically regrade the bed, and a solution of NaCl is
introduced to regenerate the material. After the application of brine, the exchanger bed must be
rinsed clean of residual NaCl and of the Ca and Mg chlorides formed during regeneration. A bed
should not be over-rinsed as this will result in a loss of useful exchange capacity.

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5. AERATION
Water is exposed to air to remove considerable amounts of CO2 from the water and oxygen added
to water. It removes undesirable odors that may be present in the water. Through vigorous oxidation
using aerators, the microbial cells are destroyed by their own metabolism (endogenous oxidation).
After aeration, water is led into a settling tank where suspended solids are removed for return to the
aeration tank and the clear supernatant liquid flows to the receiving stream. Aeration usually takes
36 hours.
6. CHLORINATION
This involves the addition of active chlorine in the form of gaseous chlorine, calcium hypochlorite,
and sodium hypochlorite to water.
The object of chlorination is to bring active chlorine into contact with all portions of the water
being treated without interruption, in such concentrations, for such a period of time and under such
conditions that all pathogenic bacteria are destroyed, and to do so without producing deleterious
chlorinous tastes and odors.
When chlorine is added to water it will react with the organic and inorganic pollutants and will be
gradually used up. During these reactions, organisms are also destroyed by the hypochlorous acid and
formed when chlorine is dissolved in water. The destroying action takes time and there is a possibility
that before the organisms can be destroyed the pollutants may have used up the available chlorine.

Principle:
Chlorine + H2O Chlorine react with pollutants
(time)

Hypochlorous acid destroy organisms in H2O

(time)

FACTORS AFFECTING GERMICIDAL EFFICIENCY OF CHLORINE

1. AMOUNT OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC POLLUTANTS present in water
Chlorine reacts with the pollutants in water, thus the concentration of chlorine must be sufficient
to meet the demands of the pollutants and thus ensure the destruction of the microorganisms.
Suspended solids (turbidity) may shield embedded bacteria from the action of chlorine. Organic
matter reacts with the chlorine chemically and destroys its disinfecting properties. Thus, for
chlorination to be successful, water should be free or available chlorine residuals in water
(Orthotolidine Tests).
Iron and manganese in the reduced state react with chlorine ad destroy its disinfecting capacity.
When these metals are present in concentrations greater than one mg per liter, they also interfere
with the Orthotolidine test.
2. CONCENTRATION OF ADDED CHLORINE
With chlorine gas, the rate of bacterial kill increases as the concentration of chlorine increases.
With hypochlorites, the germicidal power of the solution is not directly related to concentration because
the alkaline nature of these compounds increases the pH of the solution. It is thus important to acidify
the hypochlorite solution to increase the germicidal efficiency.

3. pH OF WATER
The rate at which bacteria can be killed by chlorine depends on the amount of undissociated
hypochlorus acid (HOCl) that is present in the water. This amount increases as the pH of the solution
decreases. In waters that are acidic, (pH less than 7) the sterilizing effects decreases. Alkalinity or pH >
7.6 reduce the disinfecting capacity of chlorine.

4. TEMPERATURE of the water

Higher water temperature increases the bacterial rate of chlorination, but chlorine tends to
disappear from water faster.
5. TIME
Sufficient time must be allowed to ensure destruction of all organisms. For a specified residual
of .25 ppm, a minimum contact time of 20 minutes is essential. Where treated water is held in a storage
tank, it is desirable to apply the chlorine in advance to this tank to permit several hours of contact with
the chlorine before water is used.
TYPES OF CHLORINATION

types of chlorination methods are generally practiced:

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 1. Marginal Chlorination 3. Breakpoint Chlorination
2. Super Chlorination 4. Chloramine process

The different processes 1), 2), and 3) are best described by examining the figure (to be shown in
class) which illustrates typical residuals of chlorine in the water with increasing doses of chlorine after a
fixed period of contact.

1. MARGINAL CHLORINATION = corresponds with Point A and is the addition of sufficient chlorine
to the water to produce a chlorine residual which may be either free or combined. This level of
chlorination can only be used for water with a low level of contamination.
2. SUPER CHLORINATION = corresponds with Point B and is the application of the dose of chlorine
considerably in excess of that necessary for adequate disinfections. It is usually applied when
insufficient retention time is available and to water which has a heavy chlorine due to pollutants.
This method cannot be recommended as it usually results in water having a chlorinous odor and
tastes. However, it is used for retort cooling water especially to achieve a 2-5 ppm free residual
chlorine concentration.
3. BREAKPOINT CHLORINATION = corresponds with Point C. When small amounts of chlorine are
added to water, the first chlorine is used up in satisfying the chlorine demand of the water and
the formation of chloramines or other chlo-o-nitrogen compounds. As additional chlorine is
added, a free residual appears. This residual increases until it reaches a point when a reaction
occurs destroying the chloramines. The available chlorine is reduced by the reaction so that on
further addition of chlorine, there will be a gradual drop in available chlorine residual. From point
D, increased addition of chlorine will remain free in the water because the chloramines have been
destroyed. Point D is known as the “breakpoint”.
Breakpoint chlorination is the most suitable method for in-plant chlorination, meeting
residual chlorine requirement of 0.25 ppm at 20 minutes dwell time.
4. CHLORAMINE OR CHLORINE-AMMONIA PROCESS = is not suitable for in-plant chlorination as the
process slows down the rate of sterilization and is more suited to the treatment of large volumes
of water in dams, pools, etc. The chloramines are more resistant to the action of sunlight and
absorption by various substances. For the same residual, chloramines may take up to 100 times
longer contact period to give the same bacterial kill as free chlorine.
METHODS OF APLLICATION

Chlorine may be added to the water either as chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite or calcium
hypochlorite. Chlorine gas is generally used for in-plant chlorination where large volumes of water are
to be chlorinated.
Chlorine may be introduced into the water either by manual dosing of storage tanks or with the
use of automated dispensing equipment. Manual dosing is disadvantageous being labor intensive and
because it poses a potential danger to the operator during the application process. Using either
solutions of hypochlorites or chlorine gas, automated equipment may be used for in-line treatment of
water supplies, feeding chlorine in proportion to the water flow rate. This is necessary to avoid
fluctuations in the chlorine level which if too low, would be ineffective, or if too high, might produce off-
flavors and corrosion.
The water must be chlorinated en-route to the establishment’s holding tanks before use on the
plant to allow adequate in-contact time. Equipment used for dispensing chlorine must be provided with
alarm devices to indicate improper functioning of the equipments.
A regular bacteriological examination of the chlorinated water is mandatory to check the
effectiveness of the chlorination procedure. In addition, daily checks of free chlorine residuals at a
number of points within the establishment must be made. The most commonly used test to determine
the amount of available chlorine (or free chlorine residuals) present in chlorinated water is the
ORTHOLIDINE test.
Possible Hazards to Water Supply:

1. Cross connection
This results from faulty or accidental connections between potable water supply pipes and pipes of
water of unknown or questionable safety. Improper plumbing installation can result to this problem.
Potable water then becomes contaminated with unpotable water.
2. Backsiphonage

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 The results when contaminated liquid is forced by atmospheric pressure towards a potable water
supply that is under vacuum. Negative pressure occurs when there is a vacuum in the pipeline. The
vacuum may occur due to clogging of pipes, sudden demand for a large quantity of water elsewhere in
the system, pump failure, rupture in the water line, or placing a greater demand on the supply line than
it is designed to carry. This problem is compounded in multi-story buildings when the force of gravity
increases the intensity of the partial vacuum. The negative pressure may draw or suck in contaminated
or polluted water or soil present around submerged pipelines.
The danger of back-siphonage is prevented through the elimination of submerged water lines or the
use of a vacuum breaker. The vacuum breaker is a device that will admit air to the water line in the
event of a partial vacuum, thus eliminating the sucking of contaminated water into the supply system.
This needs to be installed on submerged water outlets, most especially when flow of water is not
continuous.
3. Back flow
This occurs when contaminated liquid reverses direction because of differential pressure existing
between 2 systems, both of which are at pressures greater than atmospheric pressure. The reverse in
flow may result to contaminants gaining access to the potable water supply.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Wastewater treatment is becoming an important concern for environmental and economic

reasons. Wastes have to undergo some form of treatment prior to disposal to help curtail environmental
pollution in receiving waterways or to the land. In addition, some forms of wastes may still be
potentially useful and may therefore be processed to economically important materials such as foods
and feeds to help extend our dwindling food suply and resources.
Wastewater from food processing establishments often possesses a high organic nature. If left
untreated and dumped directly into public and natural waters, their decomposition is harmful to
biological life in water ecosystems because there is often not enough oxygen in them for adequate
degradation and decomposition.

Pollution Problems due to Sewage Wastes:

1. DISEASE HAZARD
Microorganisms can enter the water from domestic wastes, raw and partially treated waste, run off
of animal waste and even human waste. As a result, many disease outbreaks have occurred due to
contamination of waters receiving untreated wastewater.
Harmful chemicals (e.g., organic compounds from human and animal wastes, synthetic compounds
like detergents, inorganic compounds like fertilizer, heavy metals like mercury, and toxins), which could
be present in effluents, may also pollute bodies of receiving waters. These may lead to endocrine
disruption leading to hormonal and reproductive disorders, cancer, birth defects, kidney and liver
damage, etc.

2. FISH KILL
Dumping of effluents with toxic substances has resulted to fish death. In addition, microorganisms
responsible for decomposing organic compounds in water may use up dissolved oxygen in waterways,
leading to the suffocation of fishes requiring oxygen for respiration, thus causing them to die.
3. ACCELERATED EUTROPHICATION
Nutrient-rich sewage released in waterways stimulates growth of algae and flagellates. The
increased algal vegetation consumes much of the oxygen needed by fish contributing to fish kill. In
addition, bodies of water become dirty in appearance, have unpleasant odors of methane and hydrogen
sulfide, and an unpleasant taste. Excessive growth of aquatic plants because of the increase in nutrients
can clog waterways.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

This refers to the quantity of oxygen required for the stabilization of the oxidizable organic
matter present in the effluent. It is the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to aerobically
breakdown the organic matter present in the effluent. It is usually determined after incubating a sample
of water at 20°C for 5 days. It measures the pollution capacity or organic strength of any effluent, such

70
that the higher the BOD, the greater is the quantity of organic matter in the effluent and the greater is
its pollution capacity.
Treatment of Pollutants in Waste Water

Since large quantities of water are used in connection with many operations involving both
edible and inedible products in meat and poultry plants, adequate liquid waste disposal facilities are
imperative. There are two systems of disposal in the plant, entirely independent of each other:

a.) Sanitary lines = carry the wastes from toilet rooms and dressing rooms and
b.) Disposal lines = pick up and remove other liquid wastes throughout the plant.
It is necessary that complete separation exists between these 2 disposal lines to void the kind of
contamination that would result if wastes from the sanitary system backed up into edible products
departments should a stoppage in the lines occur.
Wastes from toilets and dressing rooms are usually delivered to septic tanks. Bacteria gradually
digest the organic matter that settles in the tank, reducing it to a stable humus that must be pumped
out every 2 to 3 years.
Wastewaters from disposal lines in the plant require some form of treatment of processing
before they can be discharged into surface waters such as lagoons, lakes, creeks, rivers or streams. Their
disposal presents a problem because of large flow, seasonal variations in volume of operations, high
peak production, organic strength of wastes, high temperature of the wastes and their disagreeable
odor.

PRE-TREATMENT:

This involves separating solid wastes from liquid wastes. Due to the initial separation, less water
is used, thus lowering the concentration of pollutants. The objective is to reduce the waste load that
goes to waste water treatment and the concentration of pollutants, present in the wastewater.
The approach to the problem of wastewater treatment starts within the plant and not during
the primary treatment. It is far easier and cheaper to prevent the gross contamination of the water than
it is to treat the contaminated water leaving the plant. Remember that the cost of wastewater
treatment is proportional to the volume of water being treated.
The fear of recued water flow causing sewer line clogging is not realistic. Cutting water in half
would, in effect, double the pollutant concentration. However, since raw sewage is only about 0.1%
solids, such doubling would still make raw effluent only 0.2% solids (99.8% water). This would not
significantly affect its flow through the system. As such, plants would continually look at means to
minimize the quantity of waste in water and the quantity of water used.

Among the measure that can be implemented are:

1. Recovery of all blood = this can be collected in containers and used for by-product manufacture.
2. Dry pumping of paunch material followed by hauling away of the gross paunch material.
3. Dry clean-up before hosing.
4. Closer supervision of cleaning operations.
5. Recovery of grease = this is allowed to float and is then collected by scraping out.
It is recommended that the effluent be separated into 2 streams:
a) MANURE-LADEN effluent = containing paunch contents
b) MANURE-FREE EFFLUENT = this has high solid and fat content from the kill floor and processing
areas.

TREATMENT OF MANURE-LADEN EFFLUENT:

1. WET CLEANING = this is the general practice of paunch cleaning wherein paunches are washed
out of all solids and the solids removed from the water using mechanical screens.
Disadvantage: Effluents produced have a high BOD and solids are likely to load and block screens.

2. DRY CLEANING = paunches are opened and the contents dumped in the container which is, in
turn, emptied by vacuum to bulk storage tank for final disposal. After which paunches are washed
in the normal manner.
Advantage: decreased water consumption, decrease BOD level and decreased solid content of effluent.

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 Recovered solids are generally disposed off either by burial or surface spreading on pasture.
These are however, considered unsatisfactory practices and alternative methods have been suggested,
such as:

a) Dry rendering of paunch solids and adding it to meat meal s cattle food; or
b) Aerobic composting of solids to serve as soil conditioner
c)
TREATMENT OF MANURE-FREE EFFLUENT:

The type of treatment depends on the nature of the impurities to be removed and the degree of
wastewater purity required.

Pollutants in Waste Water

Suspended Solids Colloidal Matter Dissolved Matter
e.g.,
e.g., e.g., Nutrients from detergents;
Sand, grit, clay, stone, pieces Fecal matter, garbage, fibers urine; toxic wastes of heavy
of meat metals; non-biodegradable
(mainly inorganic) (mainly organic) organic chemicals

PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

Treatment Treatment Treatment

Physical Biological Chemical

The selection for the most suitable system depends upon costs and many factors, such as land
are and the BOD level reduction required in the final effluent as determined by the particular means of
disposal.

PRIMARY TREATMENT: (Physical)

1. Settling Basins (Save-alls or catch pits)
This is the most common primary effluent treatment, which involves settling of solids and
floating of fats. The fats and solids are then removed mechanically by top and bottom scrapers and
transferred automatically.
2. Screens = e.g., bar screens, band screens, sieve bend
These can be used to remove smaller particles of solids from the effluent. However, an
undersized of poorly selected screen is worse than useless because it will be subjected to sever
blinding with fat. The debris is mechanically removed from the screen and taken to be incinerated/
composted in landfills.
3. Air Flotation Unit
This utilizes air assisted fat flotation cells to assist in the floating of both fat and solids by
gravitational rising. The process takes advantage of the buoyancy of lighter materials such as grease
and oil. When such materials ascend naturally to the surface after quiescent storage for some time,
they are skimmed off. Flotation may be enhanced and extended to particles that are marginally
heavier than water by introducing or releasing finely divided air or gas bubbles that have a tendency
to attach themselves to the particles. These bubbles not only impart buoyancy but also entangle
them with the surface foam structure that bubbles themselves create. Essentially, addition of
wetting or foaming agents to promote flotation corresponds to the addition of coagulating or
precipitating agents during sedimentation.
Air is injected into the effluent to assist in floating of fats. The floating fats and suspended solids
are then scraped out from surface of the tank. The fats may then be rendered to tallow for use in
animals feeds or soap manufacture.
Depending on the choice of primary treatment, an effluent from an air flotation unit or a well-
screened effluent, which has passed through an efficient save-all, could now be ready for secondary
treatment. The fat recovered from the save-all or air flotation unit should be transported to the
digester as soon as possible to minimize the degree of free fatty acid formation.

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SECONDARY TREATMENT: (Biological)

This is also called biological treatment because it employs microorganisms that literally consume
the organic matter in the effluent and break it down through their cell respiration to carbon dioxide and
water. Biological treatment is usually applied to effluent from meat and poultry plants because of it high
organic content.
The principle involved depends on the capacity of adventitious organisms to obtain essential
food materials from waste waters, and to elaborate gelatinous films which together with the microbial
cells bring forth essential characteristics of the most advanced aerobic or anaerobic biological treatment
systems.
1. POND SYSTEMS:
These are generally considered ideal for the treatment of abattoir wastes if sufficient land area
is available. They can produce very clean effluents with higher removal of pathogenic organism than
other systems, and maintenance and labor costs are low.
a) Anaerobic Ponds
This should preferably consist of at least 2 anaerobic ponds, 3 to 5 meters deep. The reduction
in BOD is performed by microorganisms, which functions in the absence of oxygen. Given an effluent
with BOD of 2000 ppm, the pond should be big enough to allow detention time of 10 days.
Reduction of 80-90% in BOD is commonly achieved within these ponds.

When anaerobic ponds are used for the first time, it is best to bypass fat reclamation units in the
primary treatment system for a short period so that paunch and fat material can float to the surface
of the pond and form a compact crust. The crust helps in improving anaerobic conditions, retains
heat generated in digestive process and minimized odor problems. Well-managed and designed
anaerobic ponds should last for at least 10 years before they need cleaning out. But if the pond is
used for effluent without primary treatment, cleaning out should be after 2 or 3 years.
b) Aerobic Ponds
This consists of shallow ponds (1-2 meters deep) in which BOD reduction is performed by
microorganisms which function in the presence of oxygen. Reduction of BOD is 70-80% with
detention time of at least 7 days. A common problem with this system is algae growth that can
contribute to the BOD. To reduce algae in the effluent, pond effluent can be drawn off at least 30
cm below the surface.
c) Forced Aeration Pond
This required surface mechanical aerators that ensure oxidation and continuous movement of
the waste to keep the bacterial sludge in suspension. This pond system requires less land and has a
depth of 2 ½ - 4 ½ meters and a detention time of 2-10 days. If properly designed, BOD reduction by
90% can take place in 4 days.
d) Activated Sludge Process
This system involves mixing of recycled biologically active sludge or floc in aerated tanks or
ponds with wastewater previously subjected to primary treatment. The microorganisms in the floc
adsorb organic matter from the wastes and convert it to stable end products. The floc, which is a
mixture of microorganisms, food and slime material, can assimilate organic matter rapidly, hence
the name, activated sludge. This is added to the water entering the tank.
As water moves slowly through the tank, it is vigorously aerated to produce an ideal
environment for growth of organisms. After aeration for 1-3 days, the sludge/wastewater mixture is
discharged to a sedimentation tank or clarified. Here the floc settles out, producing a clear effluent,
low in BOD, and a biologically active sludge. A portion of the settled sludge is recycled to serve as an
inoculum, while excess sludge is removed from the system and dewatered by filtration or
centrifugation and used as compost. The removal of some sludge is needed to maintain steady-state
conditions.
Advantages:
1. It removes 90-95% organic matter in effluent.
2. It requires less land, being more compact.
3. It does not smell so much.
4. It is less subject to clogging.
5. It is less conductive to flying insects.
Disadvantages:
1. Entails high capital cost to install.
2. Required a lot of energy to operate and is thus, expensive.

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 3. Trickier to operate, hence required supervision of trained operators.
4. Can be more easily overwhelmed and lose its effectiveness when faced with a sudden overload
or fluctuations in waste loads.
e) Oxidation Ditch ~ Pasveer Ditch
This is an extended aeration system. It consists of a racetrack circuit round which sewage is
brushed by a rotor/aerator to introduce oxygen into the wastewater. Detention time in the ditch is
usually 3 days. The most common problem encountered is foam production. To avoid, one can put
up planks to scrape off the foam, which is then transferred to a box until the foam naturally
collapses. Application of a foam dispersant/surface-tension reducing agent, e.g., diesel oil, may also
remove foam, but can destroy ditch fauna.
f) Barrier Ditches
This requires a long strip of sloping land – the longer the better. The land is then excavated and
divided by barriers of wood/ concrete/ steel into a series of sections or “mini-lagoons”, each of
which overflows into its adjacent lower neighboring ditch. The ditch should be large enough to
give at least 60 days retention to allow sufficient bacterial degradation of organic wastes. Each
section should be 1.5-2 meters (5-6 ft.) deep and 13-27 meters long. Annual desludging is
required for the 1st few sections. The system involved passive aeration with no power input,
thus, running cost is nil.
2. Rotating Disc
This consists of batteries of circular discs concentrically mounted on rotating shafts. Discs are 2-
3 meters diameter and are 40-50% immersed in basins of effluent, rotation being counter-current or
co-current. Rotation is at 2-10 rpm.
During rotation, successive portions of each disc become exposed to the air, absorb O 2 and are
then re-immersed in the effluent. A biological floc soon becomes established on the disc and hence
bacterial purification of the effluent can take place.
3. Trickling Filtration
This requires a filter, consisting of either stones or plastic filling that is packed in a bed. The filter
bed brings organic pollutants of effluent into contact with microorganisms capable of utilizing it in
the presence of oxygen.
The system, however, entails high capital cost to install, although minimal amount of civil work
is required to operate it. Also, pollutants have the tendency to block unless double filtration is
adopted.
TERTIARY Treatment
Using the anaerobic/ aerobic ponding system, the discharge should have BOD levels ranging
from 30-80 ppm. This is above the permitted maximum level for discharge into waterways and thus, a
tertiary treatment stage may be necessary to attain effluent BOD’s of 20 ppm or less. Large number of
Salmonellae and other pathogenic organisms can be present in the effluent discharged from meat
works, and it is therefore advisable to keep stock away from these areas.
Many chemical pollutants in domestic sewage are not removed after secondary treatment. For
example, NO3 and PO4 may remain as dissolved nutrients and is a major cause of eutrophication of
receiving waterways. Non-biodegradable synthetic organic chemical, e.g. acids, metallic salts, solvents,
etc. may also remain and destroy organisms disrupting the natural food chain in the water ecosystem.

1. Land Irrigation
One simple way to achieve tertiary treatment is by spraying or flood irrigation onto land in such
a manner that the grasses and soil provide a habitat for the microorganisms and a vast surface area
for absorption of organic impurities. Almost any species of grass is satisfactory, provided that it
grows quickly and forms a turf that protects the soil from erosion and compaction.
Land treatment is a form of waste treatment, which originated from ancient times. It involved
the application of sewage to a large tract of land on which crops are raised. This method required a
large land area. It may yield objectionable odors and pose a health hazard to people close to the
facility. This method may be used in countries where there are large parcels of arid, non-arable
lands. This way, these lands may be rendered productive after some time and after undergoing
other preparative procedures.
2. Chlorination
After secondary treatment, the water is generally disinfected with chlorine to kill any pathogenic
organisms that may persist and is then discharged into a natural waterway.

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 However, aside from chlorine being directly toxic to people directly handling it, it can also be
exceedingly toxic to some fish. Levels that are too low to measure have been found to inhibit the
hatching of trout eggs and the development of embryos. Chlorine may upset the entire ecosystem
by modifying food chains. In addition, chlorine reacts to some extent with organic compounds to
form chlorinated hydrocarbons. Many of these compounds are toxic and non-biodegradable, and
some have been identified as compounds that cause cancer, abnormal development, and
reproductive problems.
ADVANCED TREATMENT (Tertiary Treatment)
Many people pale at the idea of recycling waste water. However, we should remember that all
water is recycled by nature. Purifying water by the methods below would be very expensive. But the
costs might be justified in water-short areas, as the quality of the treated water would be so high it
could be recycled back into the municipal water supply.
1. Coagulation and Sedimentation
This entails adding flocculating agents (e.g. lime, alum, ferric chloride, polyelectrolytes) which
causes inorganic colloidal particles that are water-loving to become adhesive and form bigger
particles (flocs). The flocs can settle out in a shorter time.
2. Adsorption/ Chemical Filtration
This is a process by which molecules of gas or liquid adhere to the surface of solid, is adsorbed,
held and thus removed. For example, activated carbon can cause selective/ preferential binding of
organic pollutants to its solid surface area. Adsorption removes chemicals that produce offensive
tastes and odors, including chlorinated hydrocarbons.
3. Oxidation/ Ozonation
Potassium permanganate (KmnO2) and ozone may be used to oxidize waterborne wastes that
resist oxidation by air in the presence of microorganisms.
4. Reverse osmosis
This process involves application of excess pressure on the concentrated side so that pure water
is squeezed through the membrane and thus frees it of dissolved ionic and other soluble pollutants.
5. Distillation
Water can be made to evaporate leaving wastes, salts, and other materials in solution behind.
Water is then recondensed to produce pure water.
6. Disinfections
e.g., by chlorination, ozonation.

DISCHARGE OF UNTREATED WASTEWATER into waterways should always be AVOIDED. However, if

there is no alternative to discharging effluent, AFTER PRE-TREATMENT, the following points should be
considered:
1. Body of water into which effluent is discharged should be of LARGE VOLUME with SUBSTANTIAL
WATER MOVEMENTS to prevent concentrated contamination and to facilitate biological
breakdown.

2. Rivers into which effluent is discharged should NOT be source of drinking water and should have
a SUBSTANTIAL and PERMANENT (i.e., non-seasonal) flow.
3. The sea could be suitable for discharge of effluent, if the OUTLET POINT IS BELOW THE LOW-TIDE
MARK. This is often not possible in areas with a large tidal range and extensive tidal flats. Current
and tides should be such as to carry the effluent out to sea.

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) Program

HACCP is a system that identifies specific hazards and preventative measures for their control to
ensure FOOD SAFETY. It is a variation of the technique of monitoring quality in production systems, but
emphasis is not on quality, per se, rather on the critical points to minimize the introduction of hazards to
human health. HACCP is geared towards increased FOOD SAFETY. It PREVENTS hazard BEFORE they
become problems.

Benefits of HACCP:

1. Less End Product Testing 5. Less downtime

2. Less Inventory on hold 6. Less Returns
3. Less recalls 7. LESS INSPECTIONS

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 4. Less Reworks

HAZARD = any biological, chemical, or physical property that adversely affects the safety of the food.
Examples of hazard are:

BIOLOGICAL CHEMICAL PHYSICAL

Bacteria Detergents Metal
Parasites Sanitizers Wood
Viruses Antibiotic Residues Glass
Moulds Equipment Oil Debris
Yeasts Allergens Stones

CRITICAL CONTROL POINT = a POINT, STEP or PROCEDURE at which control can be applied and a food
safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels.

FOUNDATION of a HACCP Program: PRE-REQUISITE Program

PRE-REQUISITES Standards For:

Premises  Outside Maintenance
 Inside Maintenance
 Water Quality
 Air Quality
 Sanitary Facilities
Transportation, Receiving & Storage  Transportation
 Receiving & Inspection
 Storage
Equipment Performance & Maintenance  Equipment design
 Equipment installation
 Equipment calibration
 Equipment maintenance
Personnel Training  Personal hygiene
 Manufacturing controls
 Personnel & equipment flows
Sanitation  Sanitation
 Pest control
Health & Safety Recalls  Recall System
 Recall Initiation

Pre-requisite Programs + HACCP Plans = HACCP Program

HACCP builds on EXISTING in-house quality and continuous improvement program. Although the PRE-
REQUISITE Program is intended to control most hazards, some Hazards are controlled by Critical Control
Points.

Before we apply the 7 HACCP principles, the following PRELIMINARY STEPS should be done:

1. Assemble the HACCP team.

2. Describe the PRODUCT.
3. Identify INTENDED USE of the product.
4. Construct a FLOW DIAGRAM and FACILITY LAYOUT.
5. Verify the flow diagram and facility layout on site.
7 HACCP Principles:

1. Identify HAZARDS in the System

2. Determine CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS
3. Establish CRITICAL LIMITS
4. Develop MONITORING Procedures
5. Establish CORRECTIVE ACTION Plan
6. Establish and Effective RECORD KEEPING System

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 7. Determine procedures for VERIFICATION of the System

4 BASIC STEPS INVOLVED in HACCP:

1. Development of a SCHEMATIC or FLOW CHART of the entire production, processing & distribution
procedures.
2. Identification of POTENTIAL TROUBLE SPOTS (Hazards) on flow-charts.
3. Selection of appropriate SURVEILLANCE Procedures depending upon the particular hazard.
a) Timing of Surveillance
b) Frequency of Surveillance
4. Determination of METHOD for evaluating the effectiveness of the surveillance system.
 Monitoring Procedures
 Establish CRITICAL LIMITS
 Deviation Procedures
 CORRECTIVE ACTION

Sample HACCP Plan

Product Name: Mozzarella Cheese
Description CCP Item & Description
Process Step Raw Milk – Receiving
CCP/ Hazard # #1
Hazard Description Pathogen growth due to time/ temperature abuse.
Preventive Measures Check each load for temperature, acidity, visual and
odor
Critical Limits Temp: ≤6°C
Acidity: pH 6.6 – 6.85
Visual: Normal color, no sign of
separation of milk
components

Odor: No off odors

Monitoring Procedures  Receiver to record load temperature and check
milk for visual or odor abnormalities

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  Lab Technician to test route sample for pH
Deviation Procedures TEMPERATURE
 If temp. ≤6°C and ≥4°C, and acidity, odor, and
appearance are NORMAL, process immediately
if plant is in operation. If plant is not in
operation, cool load immediately and store
isolated for evaluation prior to next production.
 If temp. ≤6°C and ≥4°C, and acidity, odor, or
appearance are NOT normal, contact supervisor
for authorization to reject load.
 If temp. ≥6°C, contact supervisor to reject load.
ACIDITY
 If pH of sample falls outside critical limits,
resample & retest load following recalibration
of pH meter. If acidity is confirmed to be outside
critical limits, contact supervisor for
authorization to dump load.
ODOR/ APPEARNCE
 If any abnormalities are observed, contact
supervisor for further evaluation and
instructions.
- pH Meter Caliberation: Used posted
Verification Procedures procedure each morning and
prior to all load re-check.
- Calibrate driver’s and receiver’s
thermometers monthly and
prior to re checking warm loads.
- Lab Supervisors to audit records weekly to
verify that they are complete and that all
reported deviations have been dealt with
according to the HACCP plan and have been
recorded.
- Load Temperature
HACCP Records - Load sample, acidities, odor/appearance.
- Calibration records for thermometers.
- Log of action taken for all deviations.

Helpful Hints to Get Started with HACCP

1. Use system you already have in operation.

- Build on WHAT YOU ALREADY DO.
2. Listen to the PERSON actually working in the area of a Critical Control Point.
3. Educate, Encourage, Coach.
4. Keep it simple and easy to use.

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 FOOD PRESERVATION
 The need to preserve food became essential for survival as man developed a community existence and it
became necessary to find ways of providing a reserve supply of food. Man’s eating habits changed over
the years and continue to change in the present time as our living standards rise. The changes markedly
led to an increased demand for preserved food products.
 The consumer of today is no longer content with purchasing the basic materials and spending much
time in preparing a meal as was customary a generation ago. With improved technology, manufacturers
have met this challenge by producing and increasing variety of prepared and ready-to-consume foods.
However, the process of manufacture must be inspected and supervised to ensure that the various
processing procedures do not impair the wholesomeness of the product. These procedures should not
result in adulterations, either by adding substance not normal to the product or by failure to remove a
substance normally removed during the process of manufacture. These process should not also be
permitted to impart a deceptive character to the product. Moreover, the product must have an
increased shelf life and must be acceptable and safe for the consumer to eat.
 To accomplish these points, it is necessary that the, inspector knows the normal process of manufacture
for each product and be alert to those steps in: the processing of the particular product where
deviations from the normal might occur. With this knowledge, he is able to plan his inspection routine in
an efficient manner and provide effective supervision over the handing, processing and packaging of the
food product prior to their distribution.
METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION
 Food-borne microorganism includes bacteria, molds, yeasts, protozoa helminths viruses and rickettsiae
that can be found on or in food. In some cases, microorganisms are deliberately used in manufacture as
well as the preservation of certain foods, but in most cases the foods is accidentally contaminated with a
variety of microorganism. Except in rare cases, mere contamination of food will not present a health
risk, and as such will never result in overt spoilage. However, the risk from contamination lies in the
possibility of subsequent proliferation of such organisms to numbers large enough to result in disease or
to lead to biochemical changes that make the food unacceptable to the consumer. As a rule it is very
difficult, if not impossible, to prevent contamination entirely. Thus foods preservation is based on:
1. Prevention or removal of contamination
2. Inhibition of microbial growth during lag and log phases, thus delaying microbial
decomposition and;
Destruction of microorganism.
 Since prevention, and in particular removal of contamination, is very difficult quality rests
mainly on the prevention of growth of most initial contaminants
 The use of both sun and fire to preserve meat and fish by drying and/or smoking and the
combination of these methods with salting date far back into history. Today, modern methods
of food preservation employ elaborate refinements of primitive processes plus newer
techniques. The various practices utilized in food preservation are summarized below.
1. Asepsis or keeping out microorganisms
2. Removal of microorganisms
3. Maintenance of anaerobic conditions
4. Drying
5. Use of chemical preservatives either developed by microorganisms or added
6. Irradiation
7. Mechanical destruction of microorganisms
8. Use of Low temperatures
9. Use of High temperatures
10. Combination of 2 or more methods
 It should be remembered that regardless of the method of preservation of foods, spoilage
would occur eventually due to chemical or microbial action on the food. However, the storage
life of most food can be increase to the desired period using appropriate techniques.
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF SPOILAGE
1. CHEMICAL SPOILAGE, such as development of undesirable colors, randicity of fats, the lost of
vitamins or the disappearance of nitrite in meat products. It usually accounts for 10% of
spoilage problems.
2. MICROBIAL SPOILAGE, This is more important than chemical spoilage, For example, meat
spoilage due to microbial action accounts for more than 90% of spoilage. Microbial spoilage is
divided into:

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 A. Spoilage due to the presence of pathogenic microorganism, making the food a public
health risk, and
B. Spoilage due to organoleptically detectable amounts of undesirable end products,
produced by harmless microorganisms or spoilage organisms.
The reason for separating microbial spoilage into two categories is because foods that contain
that contain hazardous numbers of pathogenic bacteria or quantities of bacterial toxins that exceeds the
clinical threshold are generally not overly spoiled. Moreover, as a rule, effective measures against the
growth of organism causing food-borne illnesses, completely fail to deterioration. However, complete
inhibition of spoilage agents, particularly if refrigeration is used as the method of preservation, will in
most instances, also control outgrowth of pathogens and toxin formation. This does not mean that
measures resulting in control of deterioration will render the food safe, since some causes of food
transmitted disease – an occasional bacterium, but particularly viruses, protozoa and worms – are,
dangerous in very small numbers. However, limitations of their growth may, at the very best, greatly
reduce and also eliminate direct or indirect (cross contamination) hazards
From the above, it should be clear that methods of preservation are all aimed primarily at
controlling microorganisms, and the reasons why these methods are successful are given below.
l. ASEPTIC HANDLING
In nature, there are numerous examples of asepsis, or keeping out microorganism as a
preservative factor. The inner tissues of healthy plants and animals are usually free from microorganism.
If there is a protective covering about the food, microbial decomposition is delayed or prevented. It is
only when this protective covering has been removed or damaged that the inner tissues are subject to
decomposition by microorganism.
In the food industries, an increasing amount of attention is being given to the prevention of
contamination from the raw material to the finished product. To illustrate this point, an animal at the
slaughter will carry millions of microorganism in the hide and fleece and in the digestive tract, however,
the muscle tissue will contain no or only a few microorganism. Thus, using aseptic techniques it is
possible to obtain sterile meat. In actual practice, contamination does occur and only the degree of
contamination can be manipulated to a certain extent.
Thus, processing food requires careful handling of the raw product and food should be
processed in a microbiologically clean environment. In addition, personnel should obtain a high degree
of personal cleanliness, and conform to hygienic practices while on duty to the extent necessary to
prevent contamination of food products. Whenever water or ice is used in food processing, chlorination,
ozonation or filtration is essential since polluted water can add significant numbers of microorganism
including pathogenic organism to a food.
Many of the commonly employed methods in food preservation depend on the delay in the
initiation of growth and hindrance to growth once it has begun, and aseptic handling is important to
achieve this.
Whenever microorganisms are added to a food and conditions are favourable, the organism will
begin to multiply and will pass through a succession of phases lag, log, stationary and death phases.
Especially important in food preservation is the lengthening, as much possible of the lag phases. This
can be accomplished by:
1. The introduction of as few spoilage organisms as possible, i.e., aseptic handling;
2. Reducing the degree of contamination using methods such as pasteurization, for the fewer
organisms present, the longer will be the lag phase;
3. By avoiding the addition of actively growing organisms (in log phase). Such organisms might be
growing on unclean containers, equipment, or utensils that come in contact with food;
4. By changing the environmental conditions; and;
5. By actual damage using processing methods such as heating.
Often a combination of methods for delaying initiation of growth is enough to give a food the desired
storage life.
During the logarithmic phases of growth, the generation time of the organisms will be shortest,
and its length will vary with environmental conditions during growth, such as the type of food, its pH,
temperature, etc. The generation time shortens as conditions become more favorable, thereby reducing
the storage life of the food.
Aseptic handling is not only important in increasing storage life of food but is important
whenever further processing is required also. As such we need to be concerned with the “BIOBURDEN”
of microorganisms on or in a food. This takes into consideration the kinds and numbers of organisms
present. The kinds are important in that they may include spoilage organism, those desirable in food

80
fermentation, or even pathogenic microorganism, The numbers of microorganism are important
because the more spoilage organisms there are, the more like food spoilage will occur, the more
difficult will be the preservation of food, and the more likely will be the presence of pathogenic
organisms. The bioburden may be the result of contamination, growth of organisms or both.

The quality of many kinds of foods is judged partly by the numbers of microorganism present.
For example, in the dairy industry, the quality of milk is judged by its bacteria content. In the
meatpacking industry, sanitary methods of slaughter, handling, and processing reduce the load and thus
improve the keeping quality of the meat or meat products.
In the canning industry, the bioburden, or number of organisms in the food determines the heat
process necessary for the preservation of a food. If a food is heavily contaminated especially if the
contamination induces heat-resistant spoilage organisms, the heat-process required to destroy the
microorganism will be so severe that the product will become unacceptable to the consumer.
In industries involving controlled food fermentation, e.g., in cheese making, the fewer the competing
organisms in the fermenting material, the more likely the success of the fermentation.
Thus, aseptic handling is a pre requisite for any successful method of preservation.
ll. REMOVAL OF Microorganisms
At most, the removal of microorganisms is not very effective in food preservation, but under
special conditions it may be helpful. Removal may be accomplished by means of filtration, centrifugation
(sedimentation or clarification),. Washing, or trimming.
1. FILTRATION
Filtration is the only successful method for the complete removal of organism, and its use is limited
to clear liquids. The liquid is filtered through a previously sterilized “bacteria-proof” filter made of
sintered glass, and the liquid id forced through by positive or negative pressure. This method has been
used successfully with fruit juices, beer, soft drinks, wine and water.
2. CENTRIFUGATION or SEDIMENTATION
Centrifugation or sedimentation, generally is not very effective, in that some but not all, of the
microorganisms are removed. Sedimentation is used in the treatment of drinking water, but is
insufficient by itself. When centrifugation (clarification) is applied to milk, the main purpose is not to
remove bacteria but to take out other suspended materials, although centrifugation at high speeds
remove most of the spores.
3. WASHING
Washing of raw food before fermentation or canning process removes most of the soil
microorganism on the surface and, in this way, increase the proportion of desirable lactic acid bacteria
in the total flora. Washing also removes soil organisms that maybe resistant to the heat process during
canning. Likewise, the removal or organisms from aquipment coming into contact with food, followed by
their disinfection, is an essential and effective procedure during the handling of all kinds of food.
However, washing of food maybe dangerous if the water adds spoilage organisms or moisture
encourage growth of microorganisms.
lll. MAINTENANCE OF ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS
A preservative factor in sealed, packaged foods may be the anaerobic conditions in the
container. A complete fill, evacuation of unfilled space (the head space in a can) or the replacement of
the air by carbon dioxide or by an inert gas such as nitrogen (as in vacuum packaging) will about
anaerobic conditions. Spores of some of the aerobic sporeformers are especially resistant to heat and
may survive in canned food but be unable to germinate or grow in the absence of oxygen. Production of
carbon dioxide during fermentation and accumulation at the surface will serve to make conditions
anaerobic there and prevent the growth of aerobes.
IV. DRYING
Preservation of foods by drying has been practiced for centuries. Some foods, e.g., grains, are
sufficiently dry as harvested, or need some drying only, to remain unspoiled for long periods. Most
foods, however, contain enough moisture to permit action by their own enzymes and by microorganism,
so that to preserve them by dryness, either by removal of binding (e.g., by solutes) of moisture, is
necessary.
Drying usually is accomplished by the removal of water, but any method that reduces the amount of
available moisture, i.e., lowers a , in a food, is a form of drying. Thus, for example, dried fish may be
heavily salted so that the moisture is drawn from the flesh and bound by the solute and, hence, is
unavailable to microorganisms. Sugar may be added, as in sweetened condensed milk, to reduce the
amount of available moisture.

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 A. Removal of moisture
Moisture may be removed from foods by any of a number of methods;

a. Sun-drying = Moisture is removed by the exposure to the sun’s rays without use of any
artificially produced heat and without controlled temperatures, relative humidity or air
velocities. Solar drying is, however, limited to climates with a hot sun and a dry
atmosphere, and to certain fruits, such as raisins, prunes, figs, apricot, etc.
b. Drying by mechanical driers = Most methods involve the passage of heated air with
controlled relative humidity over the food to be dried, or the passage of food through
such air. The simplest drier is the evaporator or kiln, where the natural draft from the
rising of heated air brings about the drying of the food. Currents of heated air across the
food or moving on conveyor belts through heated air may be used to dry food. Liquid
food, such as milk, juices, and soups, may be evaporated by the use of relatively low
temperature in a vacuum; drum-dried by passage over a heated drum, with or without
vacuum; or spray-dried by spraying the liquid into a current or dry, heated air.
c. Freeze drying = or the sublimation of water from a frozen by means of a vacuum plus
heat applied at the drying shelf. This process is used for a number of foods, including
meats, poultry, seafood, fruits and vegetables.
d. Drying during smoking = The smoking process aids in the preservation by impregnation
of the food near the surface with chemical preservatives during smoking, by combined
action of the heat and these preservatives during smoking, and by the drying effect
specially at the surface.
e. OTHERS
 Electronic heating= removal of still more moisture from fairly well dried food
 Foam-mat drying= liquid food is whipped to a foam, dried w/ warm air, &
crushed to a powder
 Pressure-gun puffing= partially dried foods are given a porous structure to
facilitate further drying
Tower drying= tomato concentrate, milk, potatoes, are dried using dehumidified air at 30 0C or lower
For the proper control of dehydration, the following factors need to be considered:
Factors in the Control of Drying
1. Temperature used= varies w/ food and method of drying
2. Relative humidity of air= varies with the food, the drying method and the stage
of drying. It usually is higher at the start of drying than it is later.
3. Velocity of air
4. Time of drying
Improper control of these factors may lead to CASE-HARDENING. This results more rapid
evaporation of moisture from the surface (than diffusion from the interior) forming a hard,
impenetrable surface film that hinders further drying.
B. Reduction of water activity (lower aw)
Microorganism have an absolute demand for water, for without water no growth can occur. Each
organism has a maximal, optimal and minimal aw. As the aw is reduced below the optimal level, there is
lengthening of the lag phase growth and a decrease rate of growth during log phase, thus delaying
microbial decomposition and preserving the food.
Factors affecting aw requirements of microorganisms:
1. Kind of Solute
Different solutes have different capacities for lowering aw. For example, NaCI lowers aw
more than KCI, and thus more inhibitory.
2. Nutritive value of culture medium (food)
In general, better medium for growth, i.e., the more nutrients in the food for microbes,
requires further lowering of aw to inhibit microorganisms and preserve food.
3. Temperature
Most organisms have the greatest tolerance to low aw at about optimal temperatures.
4. Oxygen Supply
Growth of aerobes takes place at a lower aw in the presence of air than in its absence, and
the reverse is true for anaerobes.
5. pH

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 Most microorganisms are more tolerant of low aw at pH values near neutrality than in acid
or alkaline media.
6. Inhibitors
The presence of inhibitors, e.g., antibiotics, alcohol, NO2, NO3, narrows the range of aw
requirements for growth of microorganisms.
Ways of lowering aw
1. Addition of SOLUTES and IONS to tie up H2O in solution
An increase I the concentration of dissolved substances, such as sugars and salts is in
effect a drying of the material. Not only is water tied up by solutes, but also water tends
to leave microbial cells by osmosis, if there is a higher concentration of solute outside
the cells than inside.
2. Use of hydrophilic colloids or gels
Hydrophilic colloids (gels) make water unavailable. As little as 3-4% agar in a medium
way prevent bacterial growth by leaving too little available moisture.
3. Crystallization of Water
Water of crystallization or hydration is usually unavailable to microorganism. Water
when crystallized as ice can no longer be used by microbial cells. As more ice is formed
in a food, the concentration of solutes in the unfrozen water is increased lowering the
aw.
Intermediate-moisture products
These are commercially prepared foods that contain 20-40% moisture and have non-refrigerated
shelf stability. They are to as reduced-water activity products. Their aw ranges from 0.75 to 0.85. Their
aw adjusted for drying, by additives (solutes such as sugar, salt, and even glycerol) or by a combination
of drying and additives.
They may contain viable organisms and spores that are unable to multiply due to restricted a w.
They may also contain antimycotics to suppress yeasts and molds.
These includes soft candies, jams, jellies, honey, dried fruits, pepperoni, country ham, jerky, dried
fish and moist pet food packaged in a flexible pouch.
Effects of Reduced aw:
1. Inhibition of common food pathogens
2. Inhibition of bacterial spore germination
3. Increase susceptibility of nonsporeformers to pasteurizing temperatures
4. Slowing down of microbial multiplication.
V. USE OF FOOD ADDITIVES
FOOD ADDITIVES is substances of mixture of substances, other than the basic food stuff which is
present in food as a result of any aspect production, processing, storage or packaging, it is intentional
added to food.
Chemical Preservatives are chemical agents that serve to retard, hinder, or mask undesirable changes in
foods by microorganisms, food enzymes or chemical reactions. Preservatives may inhibit
microorganisms by interfering with their cell membranes, their enzyme activity, or their genetic
mechanisms.
Use of Preservatives:
1. As inhibitors of microorganisms
2. As antioxidants to hinder the oxidation of unsaturated fats
3. As neutralizers of acidity
4. As stabilizers to prevent physical changes
5. As firming agents
6. As coatings or wrappers to keep out microorganism
Factors that influence the effectiveness of chemical preservatives in killing microorganisms or
inhibiting their growth and activity are:
1. Concentration of the chemical
2. Kind, number, age and previous history of the organism
3. Temperature
4. Time
5. Chemical and physical characteristics of the substrate (moisture content, pH, kinds and amounts
of solutes, surface tension, and colloids and other protective substances)
Characteristics of an Ideal Antimicrobial Preservative:
1. With wide range of antimicrobial activity

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 2. Nontoxic to humans or animals
3. Economical
4. Has no effect on the flavour, taste, or aroma of the original food
5. Not inactivated by the food or any substance in the food
6. Does not encourage the development of resistant strains
7. Kills rather than inhibits microorganisms
Most preservatives are only inhibitory at acceptable concentrations. Only ethylene and propylene
oxides and diethyl pyrocarbonate are lethal to microorganisms at normal concentration of use.
So far, the ideal chemical preservative has not yet been found. The most commonly used
preservatives are sodium chloride, nitrates, sulphites and sulphurous acid and hypochlorites.
COOMON ANTIMICROBIAL PRESERVATIVES:
 Organic Acids and their salts
Lactic, benzoic, sorbic, acetic, citric, and propionic acids, all which are organic acids, can be
used in food processing. These prevent mold growth and most bacteria by decreasing the pH of
food. They are used in butter, jams, jellies, figs, apple slices, malt extract, margarines,
carbonated beverages, fruit salads, pickles, relishes, fruit juices, etc.
Phosphoric acid is used in some of the soft drin, e.g., colas.
Food prepared by fermentation process, e.g. sauerkraut, pickles, etc. are preserved mainly
by acetic, lactic and propionic acids produced during the: microbial fermentation. Acetic acid is
used in mayonnaise, pickles, catsup, pickled sausage, and pigs feet and for treatment of
wrappers
De-contamination of carcasses (beef, sheep, chicken, etc.) using organic acids is also
possible, and is more successful than de-contamination of carcasses using hot water. Because of
the conditions that prevail in vacuum packaged chilled meat, lactic acid producing bacteria
outgrow the microorganisms, hence the normal “cheesy”, sour smell when these packs are
opened
 Nitrites and Nitrates
Nitrates and nitrites are used in curing of meats. Nitrates acts as reservoir for nitrite. Nitrites
decompose to nitric acid, which forms nitrosomyoglobin when it reacts with the home pigments
in meats forming a stable red color. Nitrites have some bacteriostatic effect in acid solutions
and have been recommended for the preservation of fish. However, nitrites can react with
secondary and tertiary amines to form nitrosamines, which are known to be carcinogenic. Until
such time that a better preservative can be found, the inhibitory property of nitrites toward
Clostridium botulinum in cured meats cannot be discounted.
 Sulfur Dioxide and sulfites
In aqueous solutions, sulfur dioxide and sulfites form sulfurous acid, which is an active
antimicrobial compound. The effectiveness of sulfrous acid is enhanced at low pH. They are
used to prevent enzymatic and non-enzymatic changes or discoloration in some foods
Sulfur dioxide, sulfites and metabisulfites can be used in meats and meat products but the
loss of thiamine naturally occurring in the high concentration in meat, should be considered.
Sulfur dioxide is applied chiefly to dried fruits and vegetables, where the main purpose is the
conservation of color and not inhibition of microorganisms although moulds are affected more
readily than yeast of bacteria. They are still used in the wine industry to sanitize wine-making
equipment and to reduce the normal flora of the grape must. Potassium pyrosulfite has been
used as a source of sulfur dioxide in canning powders.

 Ethylene and Propylene oxide

These two gases are sterilants. Ethylene oxide kills all microorganisms, while propylene
oxide, although it kills many microorganisms, is not effective. They are primarily used as
sterilants for packaging materials, fumigation of warehouse, and “cold sterilization” of plastics,
chemicals, pharmaceuticals, syringes and hospital supplies. They have also been used
successfully in dried fruits, dried eggs, gelatin, cereals, dried yeasts, and spices.
 Sugar and Salt
Concentrated sugar brines (NaCI) have been used successfully in the preservation of foods.
These lower the aw. Water is withdrawn from microorganisms placed in solutions containing
large amounts of dissolved substances such as salt or sugar.
Sodium chloride (salt) is used in brines and curing solutions or is applied directly to the food.
The addition of salts results in a high osmotic pressure acid hence, plasmolysis (destruction) of

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 microorganism. It dehydrates food microbial cells by drawing out and tying moisture. It ionizes
to yield chlorine ions, which are harmful (germicidal) to microorganisms. It sensitizes the cell
against carbon dioxide and interferes with the action of proteolytic enzymes.
Food preserved by high sugar concentrations are sweetened condensed milk, fruits in syrups,
jellies and candies. High osmotic pressure may inhibit microbial growth but it cannot be relied
upon to kill microorganisms. Yeasts and molds are relatively resistant to osmotic changes; hence
jellies and jams can be spoiled due to growth of these organisms.

 Alcohol
Ethanol, a coagulant and denaturizer of cell proteins, is most germicidal in concentration
between 70-95%. Flavoring extracts, e.g., vanilla and lemon extract, are preserved by their
alcohol content. Methanol is poisonous and should not be added to foods.
Liqueurs and distilled liquor usually contain enough alcohol to ensure freedom from microbial
attack. The alcoholic content of beer, ale and unfortified wine is not great enough to prevent
their spoilage by microorganisms, but limits the types able to grow.
 Formaldehyde
Addition of formaldehyde to foods is not permitted except as a minor constituent of
woodsmoke. It can be used in the treatment of walls, shelves and floors to eliminate molds and
their spores. Formaldehyde probably combines with free amino group of the protein of cell
protoplasm, injures nuclei and coagulates proteins. Although effective against molds, bacteria
and viruses, it can only be used where its poisonous nature and irritating properties are not
objectionable.
 Woodsmoke
This has the following effects
a) Adds desirable flavors to food
b) Preserves food by impregnating food with chemical preservatives (e.g., formaldehyde,
phenols, cresols, and pyrollgneous acid)
c) Improves color of meat and gives glossy appearance to smoked fish
d) Tenderizes meat
e) Has germicidal action, being more effective against vegetative cells smoke than bacterial
spores
Rate of germicidal action of smoke increases with its concentration and the
temperature and varies with kind of wood used. Smoking temperatures for meat vary from
43 to 71oC, and the smoking period lasts from a few hours to several days
The application of “liquid smoke” a solution of chemicals similar to those in
woodsmoke, to the outside of foods has little or no preservatives effect, although it
contributes to flavour
 Spices and other condiments
These do not have any marked bacteriostatic effect, but may help other agents in preventing
the growth of organisms in food. The essential oils of spices (e.g., cinnamon, cloves) are more
inhibitory than the ground spices. Volatile oil of mustard is most effective against yeasts.
Horseradish, garlic and onion may also be bacteriostatic or germicidal.
 OTHERS
Halogens
These kill organisms by oxidation, injury to cell membranes or direct combination with cell
proteins.
Hypochlorides are used in the treatment of water used in food plants and can be incorporated in ice
for icing fish. They are used for washing foods or equipment and for cooling. Microorganisms are
harmed by oxidation or by direct chlorination of cell proteins.
Hydrogen Peroxide has been used as a preservative, usually in conjunction with heat. One method
for the pasteurization of milk for cheese manufacture involves the addition of water and the use of a
comparatively low heating temperature.
Gas storage or foods is ordinarily combined with chilling storage , and in the presence of optimal
concentrations of carbon dioxide or ozone, a food will have a longer storage life. A higher relative
humidity can be maintained or a higher storage temperature can be used without shortening the
storage life.
 Vacuum-packaged chilled beef utilizes carbon dioxide released by the muscle tissue to increased
storage life, while mixtures of CO2 and N2 can be used to prevent small goods.

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 Ozone cannot be used with foods harmed by oxidation, such as butter, meat, etc.
 The removal of oxygen inside a can will eliminate the growth of certain microorganisms, will
reduce the growth rates of others, or will have no effect.
11. Antibiotics
Nisin has been employed to suppress anaerobes in cheese and cheese products. Natamcyn is
effective against yeasts and mold, and has been tested in orange juice, fresh fruits, sausage and
cheese.
Experimentally, antibiotics have been combined with heat in attempts to reduce the
thermal treatment necessary for the preservation of low and medium acid canned foods
However, those used for food should not be those used for treatment of human disease.
The use of antibiotics in the preservation of foods is being discouraged, since the effect of
an antibiotic or microorganisms is known to vary and microorganisms are known to become
adapted to increasing concentration of an antibiotic. However, attempts have been made to
test the bacterial effect of edible plant extracts, e.g., of carrot, green bean, tomato, and celery
plants, in combination with a milder heat treatment than usual, to destroy bacterial and
bacterial spores.
12. Developed Preservatives
Food fermentation produces new and desired flavors and also helps preserve the food.
Preservatives produced in foods by microbial action are acids (chiefly lactic) and alcohol
Developed acidity plays a part in preservation of sauerkraut, pickles, green olives,
fermented milk, cheese and sausages. The alcohol content of beer, ale, fermented fruit juices,
and distilled liquors has a preservative effect. However, these preservative agents need to be
supplemented by low temperature, heat, anaerobic conditions, sodium chloride, sugar or added
acid.
VI. IRRADIATION
In the search for new, improved methods of food preservation special attention has been given
to the possible use of radiation.
a) Low-frequency, long-wavelength, low-quantum energy radiation affects
microorganisms though thermal agitation of the food.
b) High frequency, shorter wavelength radiation, with high quantum energies excites or
destroys organic compounds and microorganisms without heating the product.
Microbial destruction without the generation of high temperatures is termed “cold
sterilization”.

1. Ultraviolet radiation
This is used to reduce surface contamination of some foods and to sterilize water. It is
used for the treatment of water used for beverages; aging of meats; treatment of knives for
slicing bread; treatment of bread and cakes; packaging of sliced bacon; slicing of eating
utensils; prevention or growth of film yeast on pickle, vinegar and sauerkraut vats killing of
spores on sugar crystal and in syrup; storage and packaging of cheese; prevention of mold
growth on walls and shelves; and treatment of air in storage and processing rooms.
It utilizes germicidal lamps (quartz-mercury vapor lamps or low pressure mercury
lamps) emitting 254nm. Radiation can have an irritating effect of skin and mucous
membranes.

Factors influencing effectiveness of Ultraviolet rays:

1. Time= more effective w/ longer time of exposure
2. Intensity= depends on powder & distance of lamp to the object and the kind and
amount of interfering material in the path of the rays
3. Penetration= no penetration through opaque material, thus rays affect only the
outer surface of most irradiated foods and don’t penetrate to microorganisms
inside the food. Lamps, however, reduce the number of viable organisms in the air
surrounding the food.
2. Ionizing radiation=not currently in use
Kinds: x-ray, gamma rays, beta rays, cathode rays
Low level irradiation (1kiloGray) has been approved for use on:
1. Fresh fruits and vegetable (to kill insects and inhibit spoilage; delay ripening)
2. Dehydrated vegetables (to kill insects and bacteria)

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 3. Pork(to delay spoilage; inactive trichinae)
4. Grain (to kill insects)
C. Microwave heating= becoming increasing popular at consumer level
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with specific frequencies 915 megacycles or 2,450 megacycles.
The energy or heat produced by microwaves as they pass through a food is a result of extremely rapid
oscillation of the food molecules. Germicidal effect is due to generation of heat produced by excitation
of food molecules.

VII. USE OF LOW TEMPERATURE PRESERVATION

Low temperature are used to retard chemical reaction and action of food enzymes and to slow
down or stop the growth and activity of microorganism. The lower the temperature, the slower will be
the chemical reaction, enzyme action and microbial growth. Growth and metabolic reactions of
microorganism depend on enzymes and the rate of enzyme reaction is directly affected by temperature.
Thus, each microorganism has an optimal temperature for growth and a minimal temperature, below
which it cannot multiply. However, although cooler temperature may prevent growth, slow metabolic
activity may continue.
One of the most important factors governing growth of microorganism is the temperature span
within which microorganism can grow. This range from about -5 to 80 ⁰C: the upper temperature limit
for biological growth is determined by the thermolability of the cellular proteins, while the lower
temperature limits is set by the freezing point of water. However, biological growth is possible at
temperature far below the minimal temperature that permits growth. Thus, freezing will result in the
death of some cells, it is not an effective method sterilization.
The holding of foods at refrigeration temperatures is applied to fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy
products, fish and other marine products, eggs and some eggs products and some heat processed
canned foods. In addition, many food processed by other methods may be stored in household
refrigerator before or after preparation of serving.
Low temperature storage selects the type of spoilage flora to predominate psychrotrophs, psychrophiles
or mesophiles, depending on temperature.
Table 1. Classification of Microorganisms according to their growth requirements.
Group Temperature (C) for growth

Minimum Optimum Maximum

Thermophiles 37-40 45-75 60-80
Mesophiles 8-15 20-45 40-50
Psychrophiles (-5) (+5) 10-15 20
Psychrotrophs (-5) (+5) 10-37 20-50
The spoilage of flesh type food held under refrigeration is due to the growth of psychrotrophic
organism. These are commonly found in soil and water and on vegetation. The psychrotrophic species,
which form the major component of meat spoilage floras, include Pseudomonas, Moraxella,
Acinetobacter, Lactobacillus, Microbacterium themosphactum, certain genera of the family
Enterobacteriaceae, etc. it should be remembered that although psychrotrophic organism can grow at
temperature near freezing; the growth rate is relatively slow.
Psychrotrophic bacteria with an optimum growth temperature of 15 ⁰C or less occur only in
permanently cold environment and are therefore not usually found in spoilage.
However, it is not uncommon to find large numbers of pathogenic and/or coliform organism i.e.
mesophiles on refrigerated or frozen meat due to inadequate refrigeration after slaughter. Since
refrigeration does not result in a significant reduction of mesophilic organism, inadequate refrigeration
anywhere along the food chain could lead to their growth resulting in food poisoning. Refrigeration of
meat and other products will often give a storage life that is shorter that desired and other factors must
be considered.
APPLICATION:
a) Common or Cellar Storage
Storage is usually not much below that of outside air and seldom lower that 15⁰C. It is
used for storage of root crops, potatoes, vegetables and fruits for a limited period. Deterioration
by food enzyme and microorganism is not prevented; but is slower than at atmospheric
temperatures. Too low a humidity in the storage cellar result in losses of moisture from the
stored food, and too high a humidity favors spoilage by microorganism. In locations where no
refrigeration is available cellar storage is the rule.

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 b) Chilling or “Cold Storage”
Storage is at temperature not far above freezing (0-10⁰C). It usually involves holding
foods at low temperature using mechanical refrigeration (refrigerators or chillers) or cooling by
ice. It is the most common method for temporary preservation for foods until some other
preservative process is applied. Most perishable foods, including eggs, dairy products , meat,
poultry, fish &other marine products., vegetables and fruits (except banana), may be held in
chilling storage for a limited time. Enzymatic and microbial changes in the food are not
prevented but are slowed considerably.

c) Freezing or “ Frozen Storage”

This involves the use of freezing temperature at lower than -15⁰C, using mechanical
freezers and quick freezing procedures. Under frozen storage, microbial growth is prevented
entirely and the action of food enzymes is greatly retarded. The lower the storage temperature,
the slower will be any chemical or enzymatic reactions. Since enzymatic reactions may still
continue, it is a common practice to inactivate enzyme of vegetables by scalding or blanching
before freezing.
Food stored at around -15⁰Cmay not be susceptible to microbial spoilage. Usually,
microbial problems occur either before freezing or on prolonged thawing at unsuitable
temperatures.
FREEZING OF FOODS
1. Slow or Sharp Freezing
This involves freezing in air at -15 to 29⁰C and freezing occurs in 3 to 72 hrs.
2. Quick freezing
Food is frozen in a relative short time, in 30 minutes or less. To accomplish, three
methods may be used.
a). Direct immersion of food in refrigerant = e.g. freezing of fish in brine
b). Indirect contact with refrigerant = where food or package is in contact with the passage
through which the refrigerant at -17.8 to -45.6⁰C flows.
c). Air-blast freezing = where frigid air at -17.8 to -34.4⁰C is blown across the materials being
frozen.

Advantage of quick freezing over slow freezing

a). smaller ice crystals are formed. Hence less mechanical destruction of food cells.
b). shorter period of solidification, hence less time for diffusion of soluble materials and
separation of ice.
c). more prompt prevention microbial growth and
d). more rapid slowing of enzyme action.

3. Nitrogen freezing
This is used for overseas shipment of frozen packaged foods. Cartooned foods are
stored in special insulated aluminum case with N 2 during storage on the ship. Certain fruits and
vegetables, fish, shrimp, and mushrooms are now being frozen by means of liquid nitrogen.

4. Dehydrofreezing
Fruits and vegetables have half of their moisture removed before freezing.

VIII. USED OF HIGH TEMPERATURES OF HEAT

High temperature is one of the safest and most reliable method of food
preservation and heat is widely used to destroy organism in the food products inside
cans or other type of package that restrict entrance of microorganism or re-
contamination after processing . Killing of microorganism by heat is supposed to be the
caused by the denaturation of the proteins and, especially, by the inactivation of
enzymes required for metabolism.
The heat treatment selected will depend upon the kind of organism to be killed,
other preservative methods to be employed, and the nature of the product and effect of
heat on the food. The heat treatment necessary to kill organism or their spores varies
with the kind of organism. Its state, and the environment during heating.

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 More recently, decontamination of carcasses without altering its physical
condition using hot water has been used successfully to increase storage life. However,
since recontamination can occur aseptic handling of the treated animals becomes
essential which might necessitate the need to re-design handling, packaging, and
storage facilities.
Certain factors are known to affect the heat resistant of cells or spores and must
be kept in mind when microorganism are compared and when heat treatments for the
destruction of an organism are considered .in general, cells and spores differ widely in
their resistance to high temperatures.
Factors affecting Heat resistance of microorganisms.
1. TIME TEMPEARTURE RELATIONSHIP
The time for killing cells or spores under a given set of conditions decrease as
the temperature is increased.
2. INITIAL CONCENTRATION OF CELLS AND SPORES
The more cells and spores present, the greater the heat treatment necessary to
kill them. Thus, more contaminated food requires a higher heat treatment.
3. PREVIOUS HISTORY OF THE VEGETATIVE CELLS OR SPORES
The conditions under which the cells have been grown and spores have been
produced, and their treatment thereafter will influence their resistance to heat.
a). Culture medium
 The better the medium for growth, the more resistance the cells or spores.
 A small amount of glucose in a medium may lead to increased heat
resistance, but more sugar may result in the formation of enough acid to
cause decreased heat resistance.
 Some salt e.g. phosphate and magnesium ions, may decrease the heat
resistance of bacterial spores produced in a medium containing them.
 Prolonged exposure to metabolic products reduces heat resistance of cells
and spores.
b). temperature of incubation
 There is increase resistance when the temperature is optimum for
growth of microorganism. This increase further as the temperature
approaches the maximum for growth.
c). Phase or growth or age
 Bacterial cells show their greatest resistance during late LAG phase and
during their maximum stationary phase, followed by a decline in
resistance.
 Microbial cells are least resistant during their phase of logarithmic
growth.
 Very young (immature) spores are less resistant that mature ones.
 Some spores increase in resistance during the first weeks of storage but
later begin to decrease in resistance.
d). Desiccation
 Drier spores of some bacteria are harder to kill by heat than those kept
moist.
4. COMPOSITION OF THE FOOD in which cells or spores are heated
The medium where spores or cells are heated affects their thermal death time.
a).Moisture

 Moist heat is much more effective killing agent than dry heat.
 Dry materials need more for sterilization than moist heat.
b. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
 Cells or spores are most resistant in a substrate with pH at or near
neutrality.
 An increase in acidity or alkalinity hasten killing by heat, but a change
toward the acid side is more effective than a corresponding increase in
alkalinity.
 Heating at high temperature cause a decrease in the PH of low or
medium-acid food; and the higher the original pH, the greater the drop

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 in pH caused by heating. Foods with an original pH of <5.5 to 5..8
change little in acidity as a result of heating.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS

 LOW-acid foods = pH >5.3, e.g., peas, meat, fish, poultry, milk

 MEDIUM-acid foods = pH bet. 5.3 and 4.5, e.g. spinach, asparagus,
beats,c).pumpkin
other constituents of substrates
 ACID foods  = Low concentrations
pH between 4.5 andof3.7,
NaCl
e.g.(<3%) are sauerkraut.
berries, protetive of some spores.
 Sugar protect some organism; protection is high for some osmpohillic
organism and low for others, high for spores and low for non
osmophillic cells. Protective effect may be related to a resulting
decrease in aw. A reduce aw does result in an increase in observed heat
resistance.
 Glucose protects E.coli & Pseudomonas fluorescence against heat better
than NaCl; at aw levels near the minimum growth; but gives no
protection to Staphylococcus aureus, whereas NaCl is very protective.
 Colloidal materials (protein, fats) are protective against heat.
 Germicidal substances e.g. H2O2 aid heat destruction of MO:⁰
Some Generalization on HEAT RESITANCE of Bacteria and Bacterial spores:
 Vegetative cells and spores vary in heat resistance.
 Spores are more heat resistant than vegetative cells.
 Cocci are usually more heat resistant than rods
 Bacteria w/ higher optimal & maximal temperature for growth (e.g.
thermophiles, thermodurics) are more heat resistant.
 Bacteria that clump or form capsule are more heat resistant.
 Cells w/ high lipid content are more heat resistant.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE HEAT PROCESS TO BE USED:
A. What organism will be killed:
 Pasteurization (<100⁰C) = kills the part of vegetative cells.
 Boiling (-100⁰C) = kill vegetative cells & part of bacterial spores.
 Sterilization (>100⁰C) = all cells and spores may be killed.
B. Use of other preservative methods aside from heat.
 Curing ingredients (nitrite, nitrate) & salt in meat lower severity of heat
process.
 Alcohol (produced during fermentation of beer and win) permits a low heat
treatment, since alcohol will destroy or inhibit growth of surviving organism.
C. Effect of heat on product
 Some food such as milk and peas can be heated to only a limited extent
without undesirable changes in appearance or loss in palatability, whereas
others, like corn or pumpkin, can undergo a more rigorous heat treatment
without marked changes.
HEATING AT <100⁰C (Pasteurization)
 Kills part of vegetative cells
 Examples of pasteurizing heat treatment:
Low temperature-long time (LTH, Vat or Batch Pasteurization) = 63oC to
30 minutes.
High temperature-shot time (HTST) = 72⁰C for 15 seconds.
Ultra-High treatment (UHT) = 135⁰C for at least 2 seconds.
 Used when:
1. More vigorous heat will harm product, e.g.,, pasteurization of milk to kill mesophillic
pathogens.
2. Mail spoilage organism present are not very heat resistant, e.g., yeast in fruit juices
3. Surviving spoilage organism will be taken care of by additional methods of
preservation, e.g. chilling, pickling, salting, refrigeration, packaging, maintenance of
anaerobic concentration, etc. alcohol produced during fermentation of beer and
wine, permits a low heat treatment of these products since alcohol will destroy
bacteria.

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 4. Competing organism are killed, allowing a desired fermentation by starter organism.
HEATING AT 100⁰C (BOILING)
 Kills all vegetative cells but NOT bacterial spores in food
 In the past, home canners processed all foods for varying lengths of time at
100⁰C or less. This treatment is sufficient to destroy all vegetative cells but
not bacterial spores in the food. However, some outbreaks of Clostridium
botulinum poisoning due to the consumption of home –canned low-acid
foods did occur and home pressure cookers should be used for the less acid
foods.
 Used in home –canning for acid foods.
1. Containers immersed in a bath of boiling water.
2. Steamer = containers exposed to flowing steam
3. Oven heat = baking, may cause explosion of jars
4. Simmering = gentle boiling
5. Roasting = internal temperature at 60-85⁰C
6. Frying = internal temperature ,100⁰C
7. Warming up of food
HEATING ABOVE 100⁰C
1. Kills all vegetative cells and bacterial spore
2. Temperatures > 100⁰C are obtained for meats by steam under pressure in a steam
pressure sterilizers or retorts. Commercial sterility of low-acid food is obtained by
processing the food in pressure cooker or steam under pressure at temperatures of
116 or 121⁰C at 10-15 lbs. pressure for various lengths of time.
3. UHT (Ultra High temperature) for milk at 150⁰C for 1 second by use of steam
injection or steam infusion followed by ‘flash evaporation” of the condensed steam
and rapid cooling.
Conclusion
Method to preserve foods are concerned with the prevention of contamination of the
food, which requires processing under hygienic conditions. It may also involve the elimination or
reduction of contamination such as pasteurization and canning and the prevention or delay of
growth of the contaminating organism by changing the environment such as chilling, drying etc.
When growth is delayed microorganism are mot destroyed and their growth will
recommence as soon as the condition become more favorable. Thus through cooking of food
and the prevention of recontamination, in particular when cooked foods are stored for some
time, is the final safeguard in the prevention of food spoilage and poisoning.
HEAT PROCESSING: CANNING
Canning may be defined as a process of preserving food which involves two essential technical
operation:
 The food must be hermetically sealed (without air) in a container which has suitable
protective properties, e.g. tin, can, jars, flexible pouches, and
 The system must be given a heat treatment to inactivate potential spoilage or to
produce a state of “commercial sterility” in the product.
COMMERCIAL STERILITY
Heat treatment for canned foods are designed to make the product and container commercially
sterile. Commercial sterility differs from total sterility in that some organism may survive the heat
treatment, but because of the condition that prevail in the container during storage, the surviving
organism do not grow, produce toxin or spoil the product.
The need to achieve commercial sterility determines the minimum heat treatment to be applied
to a product. In some instances the minimum heat treatment is sufficient to cook the product to the
desired extent but with other products the minimum heat treatment cause excessive cooking. There is
sometimes a temptation for canners to use less than the recommended minimum heat treatment. Such
action usually results in the product not being commercially sterile so it may become toxic and poison
consumers, or the product may spoil and the cans may swell and have to be destroyed. Clearly, it is
essential for people in the canning industry to know what heat processes are require for their products,
how these processes are to be applied, and the nature of the risk they take if less than minimum
processes are used.

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 FACTORS INFLUENCING HEAT PROCESSING REQUIREMNTS
These factors fall into three main classes
1. Chemical nature of the product, especially its acidity
2. Types and number of potential spoilage organism
3. Temperature history of the product during the heat treatment.
CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE PRODUCT
The most important compositional factor determining the minimum heat treatment of a
product is its pH. Foods are classified as being acid if their pH is below 4.5 or low acid if their pH is in the
range 4.5 to about 7.5 few; If any canned foods have a pH greater than 7.5
Commercial sterile is obtained in acid foods, which include most fruit and tomato products, by
simply bringing temperature of the product to about 95⁰C and then cooling. Such a treatment is
sometime known as “pasteurizing process” and it’s sufficiently severe to kill vegetable cells of yeast,
molds, and bacteria, but is probably not severe enough to inactivate all spores. However, germination
and growth of surviving spores are inhibited by the acidity of the product and the product remains stabe
during storage.
At higher pH of low-acid foods (vegetables, fish, and meats) spores may germinate and the
resultant vegetative cells may grow and cause spoilage unless the heat process applied to these foods is
severe enough to inactivate the spores. Low acid foods are, therefore, usually processed in steam under
pressure at temperature of 116 or 121⁰C and sometimes in steam at temperature up to about 140⁰C.
Some low acid foods are acidifier to reduce their pH less than 4.5 so that lighter heat treatments
may be used. These foods include onions, which have added acetic acid, and papaw and bananas that
usually have added citric acid. Other less well defined compositional factors also influence heat
processing requirements of some products. For instance, canned and bottled beer is frequently given a
heat process that is equivalent to holding the beer at only 60⁰C for only 10-20 minutes. Such a light
pasteurizing process result to a commercially sterile product because beer us acidic, contains alcohol
and other inhibitory substances, and because there are usually only small numbers of well-defined
contaminating microorganism. The curing ingredients, nitrate, nitrite, and salt used in meat also show
some inhibitory action and many canned cured meats receive processes of low severity although the
scientific basis for the success of such light processes is still under investigation. The antibiotic nisin
inhibit the growth of bacterial spores that may survive the heat treatment. The restricted availability of
water in such products as sweetened condensed milk or salted fish is another factor influencing heat
processing requirements.

CONTAMINATING ORGANISM
There I little detailed information about the effect of different numbers of organism on the heat
process requirements of acid foods. This position probably arise from the fact that contaminating
organism are quickly killed at temperatures of about 90⁰C in acid products and the heat treatment used
in the industry are more than sufficient to give commercial sterility in most instances. Occasionally,
however, acid foods such as pears and tomatoes, which have pH close to 4.5, spoil if heavily
contaminated with organism of Clostridium butyricum type. Such spoilage is usually controlled by
reducing the level of contamination, by improved cannery, sanitation, by acidifying the products, and by
increasing the severity of the heat process.
The organism, which are capable of spoiling low-acid foods, include those that form heat
resistant spores, so high temperature processes are needed to give commercial sterility in these foods.
In some instances these processes lead to over-cooking, so much attention has been given to
determining minimum safe processes.
Usually heat treatments for low-acid foods are designed to inactivate large numbers of spores of
the organism Cl. Botulinum. Although these spores are not as heat resistant as the spores of some other
Clostridium and Bacillus types, Cl. botulinum is capableof producing lethal toxin, sometimes without
swelling the container or obviously altering the appearance of the food. Since this organism present a
public health risk, recommended heat treatment have a large safety margin. Thus, commonly used
processes, the botulinum cook or 12D process, are sufficient to reduce the chance of a spore of Cl.
botulinum from surviving to less than in one million (1012).
The severity of the heat treatment required giving commercial sterility increase as the number
of spores increases. For example, the time say 121⁰C to inactivate a suspension of spores would be
doubled if the number of spores were increased ten-fold. Clearly then, processes of greater severity are

92
needed to produce commercial sterility in heavily contaminated products than in bacteriologically
cleaner products.
As already pointed out the spores of Cl. botulinum are not as heat resistant as the spores of
some the other organism that may contaminate the product. However, heat treatments for commercial
use are designed to inactivate large numbers of spores of Cl. botulinum and are therefore sufficient to
inactivate small numbers of more heat resistant spores. Recommended heat processes may fail if the
number of highly heat resistant spores is large but in some circumstances spoilage would not caused by
Cl. botulinum. Efficient plant sanitation and the use of raw material containing few heat resistant spores
are essential if botulinum processes are to give stable product.
If heavy contamination by heat resistant spores is unavoidable, as is sometimes the case for
instance with mushrooms, the heat process should be calculated on the basis of the heat resistance of
these particular organisms.
TEMPERATURE HISTORY OF THE PRODUCT
Another factor influencing the minimum heat treatment for a product is the temperature
history at its point of slowing heating. There are appreciable delays before the temperature at the
slowest heating point in a product being processed in a container becomes high enough to inactivate
potential spoilage organism.
The length of time needed to heat the slowest heating point of a product (to standard
temperature of 121⁰C) is influenced by the following.
1. Size of the can
Bigger cans require a high heat treatment compared to smaller cans.
2. Initial temperature
If the initial temperature of the product, particularly at its slowest heating is low, more
heat treatment is needed to heat up this point to the desired temperature.
3. How the heating process occur
i.e either by convection or conduction. Under this, the type and temperature of the
heating medium and the times the cans are to be heated at that temperature must be
considered.
a. CONDUCTION - e.g. baked beans, meat loaf, and the direction of the heat is from outward to
inward or the inner parts of the can. A higher heat treatment is required as it takes longer time
before the slowest point of heating (central area or geometric center) becomes heated.
b. COVECTION – e.g. peas in brine; heat distribution is more less uniform as heat coming from
the top, bottom and around the can are directed inwards. Heating is faster and less time is
required to heat the slowest point of heating (3 1/2 – 1 ½ inch from center) to the required
temperature.
With some products, it is also essential to specify other factors e.g. with asparagus spears that cans
must be processed in the upright position and the minimum process varies according to whether the
tips are up or down. Maximum drained weights are specified for some products such as mushrooms
pieces in brine because excessive fills reduce the slowest heating in the can.
4. Time the cans need to be heated
Cells and spores of microorganism differ widely in their resistance to high temperatures.
The heat resistance of a microorganism is expressed in terms of ‘thermal death time”.
This decrease logarithmically with increase in temperature. Process calculations for
low acid foods are usually based on the heat resistance of the pathogenic spore-forming
organism Clostridium botulinum.
Thermal death time is the time in minutes required to inactivate a population of the organism at a given
temperature.
For a suspension of Clostridium botulinum, complete inactivation occurs after 2.8 minutes at 121⁰C,
assuming that the suspension was heated instantly to 121⁰C, held at that temperature for 2.8 minutes
and then instantly cooled to a sublethal temperature. However, in a can of food, instantaneous heating
and cooling do not take place. It is thus important to calculate the F value and L value.
F0 value is the time in minutes at 121.1⁰C that is equivalent in lethal effect to the process being
evaluated. It measures the sterilizing efficiency of a report process. For example, if the entire contents
of a can should be heated instantly to 110⁰C and held at that temperature for 36 min and then instantly
cooled, the process would equivalent to 2.8 min at 121.1⁰C, and have a F0 value of 28 min.
L value is the time at 121.1⁰C that is equivalent in sterilizing value to 1 minute at some other
temperature. Since 36 min. at 110⁰C is equivalent to 2.8 min at 121.1⁰C; then 1 minute at 110⁰C is
equivalent to .08 minute (2.8 min divided by 36 min) at 121.1⁰C (L value at 110⁰C = .08).

93
Thermocouples are usually used for measuring the temperature in cans with the processing equipment
during the heating and cooling phases of a process. Measurement of temperature is done so as to
determine how much heat treatment is required for the particular batch so that the minimum heat
treatment can be used and thus avoid excessive cooking of the product.
The order of death by heat of microorganism is logarithmic. Thus, it is important to know how long we
need to heat a product to ensure the destruction of viable spores (or cells) in the product. This requires
calculation of the decimal reduction time.
Decimal reduction time
(D value) is the time of heating a temperature to cause a 90% reduction in the count of viable spores (or
cells).
Given; 1,000 spores contaminating the product whose heat resistant is D 100 is 2 minutes. How
long should one heat the products to reduce the number of contaminating spores to a 0.1 cell level?
After 2 minutes of heating, you destroyed 900 spores (90%), with only 100 remaining spores left
to cause spoilage of the product. This means that after 2 minutes at 100⁰C; you destroyed 90% os spores
or you decreased the microbial population at 10-fold. If you want to reduce the number of 1 cell, you
will need to heat product for 8 minutes.
Thus, the higher the number of organism containing your product, the longfer the time needed to heat
the product with the attendant risk of overcooking your product. To avoid you might want to shorten
your cooking tine by 90%. To do this one needs to calculate the z value.
Z value is the temperature (⁰F = in Fahrenheit) need to reduce the heating time in
minutes by 90% or 10-fold. Your reference z value is always 18⁰F.
Given; D100 = 2 minutes. How high should be one increase the heating temperature so as
to decrease the heating time by 90% or 0.2 minutes?
Solution; 100c is equal to 212⁰F. Therefore, your z value is equal to 230⁰F [= 212⁰F
+18⁰F] which is equivalent to 110⁰C at 0.2 minute.
PURPOSE FOR KNOWING THE HEAT TREATMENT REQUIRED PER BATCH:
1. To give each can in the batch the same specified process.
2. To use a heating medium which is well-defined and controllable.
3. Usually to heat and cool the cans as quickly as practicable to minimize overcooking.
Factors that determine the time required to bring the center of the container of food up to the
sterilizing temperature
1. Materials of which the container made.
Glass has a slower rate of heat penetration than metal can.
2. Size and shape of the container
The larger the can is, the longer it will take to reach a given temperature at the center
because the distance to the center of the larger can is greater and it has less surface per
volume or weight. Thus, larger can are heated longer. In addition a long slim cylindrical
can will heat faster than will the same volume in compact cylindrical form.
3. Initial temperature of the food
There is no difference in the time required for the center of a can to reach the retort
temperature for a food at a low initial temperature heats that the same food at a higher
initial temperature. However, the food with the higher starting temperature is in the
lethal range for the microorganism for longer time, and its average temperature during
heating is higher.
4. Retort temperature
5. Consistency of can contents and size and shape of pieces
6. Rotation and Agitation
TIN CAN CONTAINER
The tin plate used in canning must be corrosion resistant and must be strong enough to support
or give rigidity to its content. Two types of cans commonly used are (1) Ordinary plain tin can (2) enamel
lined or lacquer can.
The sealing compound should:
1. Adhere to the tin plate or stick to the enamel
2. Be impermeable to liquids and gasses
3. Not impart any odor or taste to the products in the can
4. Not affect contents of the product or no reaction must take place.
STEPS IN CANNING:
1. Selection and preparation of material

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 2. Filling of cans with products
3. Exhaustion of air
4. Sealing of can
5. Placing in retort
6. Removal of cans from retort or can is submerged in running chlorinated water to cool it.
ABNORMAL CONDITIONS OBSERVED IN CANNED PRODUCTS
FLIPPER = can with one end bulging, with or without jarring after being processed and cooled. Bulging is
either due to overfilling or to failure to exhaust can.
SWELL = can with badly ends, resisting pressure with fingers and which bulges outwards sometimes
after being processed. Bulging is caused by bacterial spoilage.
SPRINGER = can with convex or bulging ends, which may be pressed with fingers but will spring out
again after pressure is released.
LEAKERS = cans exuding part of its contents , Causes: 1 defective sealing of can due to faulty adjustment
of machine, 2 Overfilling, 3 defective soldering and 4 Careless handling during transport.
BUCKLES = type of swelled can which may be result of improper cooling; high internal pressure inside
can causes it to bulge.
PANNELED CANS = cans which are ruptured or distorted through excessive external pressure.
MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF CANNED FOODS
Microbial spoilage is indicated by off-odors, macroscopic changes in the product, large number
of microorganism in smears and yields of many viable spoilage organism on culture from the product.
Microbial spoilage can occur as a result of 4 circumstances.
1. Under processing
2. Post-process leakage of cans
3. Failure to retort or process cans
4. Spoilage in the product of food while in the can before retorting.
(The first two causes the major importance)
1. UNDERPROCESSING
A canned is said to be under processed when it receives a process insufficient to kill or
inactivate the organism likely to spoil it. The spoilage organism may be bacterial spores
in low-acid food or yeast and vegetative bacteria in hot –filled processes. Under
processing can result from:
a. Incorrect process calculation, retort operation or error in process timing.
b. An excessive spore load (low-acid products) or excess contamination with
yeast, lactobacilli and other bacteria (acid products).
c. Contamination of the food with an unusually heat-resistant spore type.
The commonly recommended processes are designed for products produced under conditions
of good canning practice and having average bacterial loads. If there are errors in retorting practice, or
the rate of heat penetration has been reduced by changes in the back, or the ingredients are overload
with spores then the process may be inadequate.
Cereals, sugars, spices and salt may contain high counts of spores. These ingredients should be
monitored regularly for spore contamination and to check the necessary frequency of and method of
sanitation. Redesigning of equipment may be needed to prevent build-up of heat resistant spores.
2. POST-PROCESS LEAKAGE
This is the commonest form of spoilage. In practically all cases it is cases it is indicated, on
microscopic examination, by the presence of heat labile organism, present singly or in mixture. These
may be cocci, yeast coccobacilli and rods or non - sporing types. Non – sporing rods (rods of non-
sporulating species) can generally be differentiated from rods of spore former; the latter are usually
larger, more than 2um in length, have parallel sides, occur in short chains and usually gram positive.
Some spore – forming species are gram – negative, and old cultures of gram positive species may be
negative.
Leakages of cans at high temperature may occur, and may be indicated by the presence of one
or more types of spore – forming organism of not very high heat – resistance.
Microbial evidence of leaker spoilage is usually conclusive. Processing should be stopped
immediately after the faults are remedied.
Cans should be examined for obvious faults and leaks and tested for leak by a recommended method.
The cans seams should also be stripped or “pulled down” by an expert of seam examination.

Most cans are soundly made and very satisfactory but seams may often momentarily during
cooling stresses or during rough handling after processing and allow microbes to be sucked in. This is

95
particularly dangerous when cans are wet and they contact contaminated equipment such as wet
conveyor belts.
3. FAILURE TO PROCESS
If a retort load misses retorting then a high proportion of the cans can be expected to spoil and
show a similar microscopic picture to that post-process leakage, but probably no seam leaks.
4. PRE-PROCESS SPOILAGE OR INCIPIENT SPOILAGE
This is often caused by holding a product too long at temperatures favorable to growth before canning
and processing. A hold-up in the processing operations of one or more hours may occur after closing this
could result in incipient spoilage and gas production that could show as vacuum loss and soft swells.
Microscopic examination would reveal many organisms of mixed types but on culture no viable organisms.
A highly contaminated ingredient may be another cause of incipient spoilage.

MICROBIAL EXAMINATION OF CANNED FOODS

A microbial examination can determine the microbial state of the cans, i.e. whether they are
sterile or non-sterile, the type of microorganisms present in them, and whether they will spoil. Sterility
testing yields important information on the condition of batches of cans and assesses the possibility of
spoilage occurring storage and distribution.
Together with the incubation test, sterility testing measures the effectiveness of processes and
plant methods. Both sterility testing and incubation test should be routine cannery practice.
Can incubation in many ways are better than sterility testing because the test is simpler, requires
less skill and provide information on a much larger sample. Incubation test are the final quality assurance
check before release of the product on the market.
Microbial examination on the other hand, particularly of cans spoiled during incubation, allow
diagnosis or problems in processing and therefore enable correct remedial measures to be untaken. A
microbial examination may quickly provide an answer specially if a diagnosis of the cause of spoilage can
be made from a microscopic examination of the can contents; this can be done in 1 – 2 minutes. Remedial
measures can be taken immediately.
CAN INCULATION TEST: Incubation of samples of cans from each production batch is an essential part of
the manufacturer’s quality control; also done in compliance with regulations.
a) FOR QUALITY CONTROL – samples of each production batch or retort load should be incubated at
appropriate temperature. The sample should be large enough to give a reasonable chance of detecting
abnormalities in the populations of cans from which the sample is drawn. In still retorts, sampling should
consist of at least two cans from different position in each retort load, e.g. one from the center, the other
from the top. For products processed under continuous or discontinuous agitating retorts and by aseptic
methods. It is recommended that at least one can be obtained from each line every 15 minutes. The can
must be identified at the time it is removed.
Half of the cans should be incubated at 30 – 37 C for 14 days to detect mesophilic spoilage and
half at 50 – 55 C for 10 – 14 days to test for thermpohilic spoilage. Thermophilic spoilage is not a problem
in acid foods so there is little point in incubating these products at 50 – 55 C. Thermophilic spoilage does
occur in meat products so they should be incubated at both temperature ranges.
Following incubation, all cans should be inspected for swells, and then at least 10% should be
opened for thorough inspection for the containers and contents. If no swells occur, and if the contents of
all opened cans show no evidence of spoilage or pH change, the lost can be considered satisfactory.
Changes in pH and swelling of the cans after more than 2 days incubation at 30 – 37 C usually
indicate under-processing. Leaker spoilage, due to mesophiles and organisms entering the can after
processing, is usually rapid, occurring within 1 – 2 days.
Incubation at 50 – 55 C should demonstrate obligate and facultative thermophiles, both flat,
sours, and the contents examined in the dark discoloration resulting from thermophilic producers, e.g. in
corn, peas, or meat pack with cereals.
Spoilage only at 37 C of above may require a recommendation for storage at temperatures well
below 37 C spoilage at 50 – 55 C but not at 37 C requires a recommendation for storage below 37 C, and
indicates that the batch is unsuitable for shipping through or to the tropics.
Incubation of the first and last cans packed each day, i.e. probably the worst and best samples of
the day’s pack with regard to microbial status, may reveal spoilage problem within a few days of the
beginning of operations.
The occurrence of swells or flat sours in a particular batch of cans from a retort or day’s production
of apparently sound cans suggest that under-processed occurred as a result of an error in the process or
an unusually heavy contamination of spores in some ingredients. Spoiled cans distributed randomly

96
 throughout a season’s pack may result from faulty double seaming, defective cans or under-sterilization
from the use of a borderline process.
b) FOR COMPLIANCE WITH REGULATIONS – in making incubation tests to determine whether batches of
canned products comply with regulations a distinction should be made between freshly processed cans
and those which have been held at ambient temperatures above 20 C for 4 weeks or longer. Cans in the
latter category may be considered to have been incubated and defective cans have probably undergone
changes which could be done detected without resort to microbial culture methods. Often a whole batch
may be inspected visually for swells and gross can seam defects, i.e. leaking cans or weepers. This is
frequently done when bright-stacked, i.e. unlabelled. Processed cans are labelled and packed into cartons
at the end of the holding period in the warehouse.
Cans that are labelled straight off the processing line may be checked in a similar manner provided
the containers were held on pallets before being packed into cartons, provided the cartons are not
immediately sealed.
STERILITY TESTS: sterility tests may be conducted by the cannery staff or regulatory authorities
(government importing and exporting agencies), importing and exporting countries and some
government bodies may frequently check consignments of canned goods for sterility, perhaps after a fixed
or standard incubation period. Cannery may conduct sterility tests to determine the possibility of spoilage
occurring in a batch of cans during storage and distribution, which may be a routine procedure or arise
from the effectiveness of manufacturing processes as guide to future processing requirements. Spoilage
from all causes should not exceed 0.1%.
Sterility tests may be in a number of ways. The cans may be opened under stringent aseptic
conditions and a large sample (10 – 15g) of product transferred to a suitable enrichment medium, or the
can may be pierced aseptically and the product enriched with a suitable bacteriological medium, the can
is then sealed and incubated.
Both these methods require good aseptic techniques and the operations should preferably be
performed in a special sterile room in a laminar flow cabinet. By transferring five or more samples in the
first method, the results will indicate whether the product is consistently non-sterile and whether the
contaminating organisms are similar throughout. An occasional non-sterile culture among sterile multiple
samples is usually taken as an indication of contamination resulting from faulty technique.
A third method is to incubate the unopened cans and this was considered earlier. It does not
strictly test for sterility if the product is unstable for growing heat-damaged spores but it gives the best
indication of “commercial sterility” as the exact conditions are those under which the surviving organisms
have to grow.

ROUTINE PROCEDURE FOR THE MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION FOR SPOILED CANNED GOODS
1. Sample
Obtain a representative sample of cans, usually 6 – 8 spoiled and 2 or more unspoiled cans for
comparison will suffice.
2. History and External Examination
Record date of processing, batch number of raw materials and additives used, time and
temperature of process, coding procedures, level of spoilage, time to first spoilage, can weight,
vacuum, etc.
3. Opening and Aseptic Sampling
a. Clean the cans, particularly the end to be opened with alcohol swab.
b. Flame the end of the inverted can. N.B. very swollen cans should be sterilized with a swab
dipped in .02% Hg2Cl in a detergent and wiped dry with a sterile swab. DO NOT FLAME.
c. Cover with a sterile petri-dish.
d. Open with a flame-sterilized can opener.
e. Transfer samples to wide-mouth tubes or bottles by means of wide-mouth pipettes or sterile
spatula.
f. Store samples at 0 – 1 C.

DIAGNOSIS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS FOR CANNED PRODUCTS

Condition
pH of the Microscopic Cultural Causes of
of the Process Diagnosis
product appearance observations spoilage
container
A. LOW ACID PRODUCTS

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Swollen 1–2 Heavy Mixed- 1) Mixed Leaky Faulty,
pH cocci, colonies of closure,
units diplococcic, labile defective
below yeasts, organisms, seams,
control short rods growth rough
of non- usually handling
sporing aerobic and after
types anaerobic at processing,
30 – 37 C + excessive
growth at 50 contaminati
– 55 C on of
cooling
water
Swollen 1–2 Heavy Mixed- 2) No Growth a) Pre- Delays,
pH cocci, process faulty
units diplococci, spoilage storage of
below yeasts, raw
control short rods b) Faulty materials &
of non- media, ingredients
sporing agar too
types hot
Swollen 1–2 Heavy Rods Obligate a) Under- Very heat
pH thermophile processing resistant
units in pure spores
below culture in all
control cans
Swollen 1–2 Heavy Rods Obligate b) Faulty Very heat
pH thermophile cooling resistant
units in pure spores
below culture in all
control cans
Swollen 1–2 Heavy Rods Facultative a) Incorrect
pH spore Marginal process of
units formers of Process heavy spore
below low heat loads,
control resistance b) Leaks Faulty
Or mixed at high seams, or
sporing temperat sealing
types, ures compound
growth at 30
– 37 C & 50 –
55 C
Swollen 1–2 Heavy Rods, Putrefactive Under- Heat
pH sometimes anaerobic processing resistant
units sporing sporeformers spores
below in pure
control culture in all
spoiled cans
Flat 1–2 Heavy Rods Obligate Under- Very heat
pH thermophile, processing resistant
units facultative spores (“flat
below anaerobe, sour type”)
control pure culture
in all cans
ACID PRODUCTS (pH less than 4.5)
Swollen Little Normal Cocci, Impure Leaky Faulty cans
change yeasts, culture of or closing
rods or cocci,

98
 rods, singly yeasts and
or mixed rods
Swollen Little Normal Cocci, Pure culture Under- Heat
change yeasts, of rods or processing resistant
rods, IN cocci, SAME spores of
ALL CANS IN ALL CANS Clostridium
butyricum
GENERAL PRODUCTS
Swollen Normal Normal As in No growth Non- Gas
unspoiled microbial formation
from
chemical
reation H2
from
corrosion
CO2 from
overheating
N2 from
nitrate swell

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 Part III. FISH HYGIENE
FISH INSPECTION

In most cases, organoleptic examination is enough to determine the wholesomeness of the fish
and fishery products. Those found to be of borderline quality are subjected to laboratory analysis.
Organoleptic examination, being subjective in nature, must be supplemented by laboratory method to
arrive at a sound and fair conclusion.

Fish inspectors conduct the examination at the fish landings and city markets. Such inspection is
commonly termed as “field inspection”. Trained fishery technicians, bacteriologists and chemists perform
the laboratory analysis. They determine whether the fish is caught by the use of explosive, the bacterial
content, and the degree of spoilage of the same. This analysis is usually referred to as the “laboratory
inspection”.
FIELD INSPECTION

Fish inspectors inspect fresh, frozen and processed fish and fishery products as well as the
sanitation of the processing establishments. The different points under consideration is such inspection
are:
I. INSPECTION OF FRESH FISH
FRESH FISH – may be defined as in fish in good condition, with or without ice, which has been
thoroughly chilled as soon as possible after catching to a temperature as near as possible to 0 C but in no
case lower than -1.4 C.
Fresh fish are sold in the following terms:
1. Whole or round fish – marketed just as is (without alteration from the time it was caught).
2. Dressed – (sometimes called “drawn or gutted” fish) – fish with the gills and the entrails
removed. It is not yet ready to be cooked as purchased.
3. Pan-dressed fish – dressed fish with the head, tail fins, gills, entrails and scales are
removed. It is ready to be cooked as purchased.
4. Fish steaks – cross-sectioned slices of large fish, usually ½ to 1 inch thick. They are ready
to be cooked as purchased.
5. Fillets – are the sides of fish cut lengthwise from the backbone. They should be practically
boneless and very often skinless.
In the laboratory manual, a guide was provided on how to inspect fish organoleptically.
II. FROZEN FISH INSPECTION
Frozen fish and fishery products are fish which has been subjected to temperature lower than –
1.4 C, has been frozen hard to the center in one freezing and maintained in the frozen state except when
thawing and refreezing is done as part of a processing procedure.
Frozen fish is usually intended for American and European clientele, as Filipinos by heart do not
relish eating frozen fish or meat. Even iced, (hilado) fish seems not to agree with our palate. However, you
will find this kind of fish in supermarkets and other so-called high-class establishments, catering solely to
the upper middle class and foreign segments of the population. For the guidance, listed below are the
characteristics of frozen fish that you are liable to encounter.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD FROZEN FISH CHARACTERISTICS OF OFF-

CONDITIONED FROZEN FISH

1) WHOLE AND GUTTED fish should be firm Soft and limp, with disagreeable odor,
odourless free from evidence of dehydration signs of dehydration and freezer burns,
and freezer burn. When gutted, the insides inside has foul odor or is rancid and the
should be clear and bright, and the sound (fish wall has dull appearance.
swimming air bladder) odourless and free from
blood.
2) FILLETS AND STEAKS - should be wrapped Soft and flabby, sometimes limy flesh,
completely to prevent dehydration, have fresh sometimes with greenish discoloration,
and bright appearance, free from blemishes odor sour and blood along the
and blood along the backbone; and with typical backbone in darkish color.

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 odor of the species when broken or pulled from
the skin or wrapper.

NOTE: Frozen fish products must have all the qualities of sound fresh fish to freezing because freezing
does not make good fish out of bad fish.

III. PROCESSED FISH INSPECTION

Fish is processed mainly to prolong its keeping quality or to alter the flavor of the finished product
to cater to the taste of the end-user. Processed fish and the fishery products are usually divided into
“cured” and “canned fish”.
1) CURED FISH – are fish preserved by drying, salting, smoking, cooking, or by the use of chemical
preservatives. The same may be cured using one or combinations of preserving techniques. It may
also be prepared in a whole, split, or in portions.
Forms of Cured Fish:
a) SALTED – the kind of salted fish are:
1. Dried whole (tuyo) – dilis, tunsoy, lapad, sapsap, etc.
2. Dried split (daing) – bangus, kanduli, hasa-hasa, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND DRIED SALTED CHARACTERISTICS OF OFF-

FISH CONDITIONED DRIED SALTED FISH

Dried fish whole or split, appears fresh, firm Loss of original firmness, fish appears
with discernable crisp dryness, odor fresh, limp and flabby, odor becomes
head firmly attached to the body, absences of offensive, becomes sticky to the touch,
bruises and the blood strains, absence of scales become loosen and denuded
molds and red halophilic organisms. areas present. Heads loose or are
separated from the bodies.

3. Brine salted (balbakwa) – the fish should be firm and bright; scales, fins and head
adhering tightly to the body. The belly should be intact and not ruptured. The smell is not
fresh, no rancidity. As the fish becomes stale, the body becomes limp and flabby, the
discoloration due to dehydration, and the belly cavity ruptured or burst.
4. Bagoong - usually called fish paste is made of fish or shrimps, which has been salted and
has undergone fermentation and ripening. Whether made out of fish or shrimps, it should
be well cleaned, possesses sweet ripe smell, free from insects, maggots and sand and
other extraneous materials. If insects or maggots are present, the whole batch should be
condemned.
5. Buro – dilag, hito, etc. with cooked rice added to impart sour taste. It should be well
washed and free of blood strains, remnants of intestines, loose scales and other
extraneous materials. The fermentative materials shall be clean and wholesome. The
smell should be sweetish sour ripe odor.
Curing by salting, which is the most common technique, is in reality subdued fermentation. The
inhibitive action of salt on the proteolytic action of organisms on the proteinous component of fish
produces what is termed as the “ripened” state of the finished product.
b) SMOKED FISH (tinapa) - the Filipino method of smoking fish is actually a combination of salting,
cooking and smoking. The fish is first immersed in brine for a length of time and then boiled and
finally smoked. The characteristics of smoked fish are:

GOOD SMOKED FISH OFF-CONDITIONED SMOKED

FISH
Brightly gross and firm appearance of the body, Dull and limp appearance of the
scales and fins attached to firmly to the body; free body, head loosely attached or
from extraneous materials and grit from smoking; separated from the body, fins
the fish should have fresh, clean and smoky odor. broken and scales loosened from
the skin. The fish is usually moldy
and has sour odor.

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 In the processing of fish and shellfish by salting, drying or smoking, the primary preservative effect
I from a low water activity. Bacterial counts on fully cured seafoods are generally low, unless there has
been extensive surface contamination. Only halophilic bacteria that have no public health significance can
persist on the surfaces of contaminated cured seafoods, and such products can be passive carriers of
disease organisms. Generally, however, the microbial hazards of fully cured seafood products are hardly
significant.
2) CANNED SEAFOODS – such as salmon, tuna, sardines, and similar products, which are given a full
retort process, should be “commercially sterile” and free from living bacteria that are potentially
pathogenic. For such foods, the bacteriological hazards are the same as those for other low acid
canned foods and relate, with one exception, to the problems of improper or inadequate
processing or leakage. The one exception relate to scombroid poisoning. Sardines have
occasionally been retorted to contain up to 200,000 spores of Clostridium per g but, though
swelled cans sometimes occur, reports of disease outbreaks have been lacking. The
microbiologists must, however, depend on good control at the processing level to ensure a safe
final product.
SEMI-CONSERVED canned products include a wide range of seafood that present formidable
bacteriological problems. The stability and safety of these products depends on the combination of
preservatives and pasteurization. Most are pickled products that depend on salt (e.g. anchovies) or a low
pH (e.g. mussels) for stability after a heat processes, which destroys organisms that might be hazardous
or might cause spoilage. Yeasts may cause illness after growing in a semi-conserved seafood. Some
smoked products (e.g. salmon) are also canned, using a minimal heat treatment, and in these cases, salt,
smoke constituents, and a low water activity are presumed to be stabilizing factor. In all these cases, the
margin of error is small, although there appears a substantial historic record of food poisoning from semi-
conserved products. Such products may be found in chilled foods display cabinets where low temperature
provides an additional protective effect. Changing public taste; particularly in Western countries, has
caused a trend toward milder tasting products. This has led to reduction in the antibacterial action of
pickling curing process, and it is often this milder type of product that appears in the refrigerated display.
These products when stored in higher temperatures may support the growth of dangerous bacteria.

IV. INSPECTION OF THE PROCESSING ESTABLISHMENTS (Plant Inspection)

This phase of inspection deals with the environmental sanitation of the plant. Fish processing
plants operating in sanitary condition will most likely turn out good quality products, while an unsanitary
establishment will never produce wholesome products. It is not that the products offered for sale appears
to be normal, it must be definitely wholesome. Rigid supervision during every step of the operation will
eliminate contamination and will ensure that only sound products are produced.
With this thought in mind, requirements for plant sanitation are incorporated in the fish
inspection. These requirements are directed towards the elimination of the unsanitary conditions of
existing plants and serve as guide to the proper construction of new ones.
To assess the sanitation of the plant, fish inspectors are guided with the following requirements:

LOCATION – must not be located adjacent to stables and other industries which might give rise to
objectionable odor or color like chemical factories; must be inaccessible to stray animals or loitering
people; must be easily reached by well paved roads; must be always free from wastes, dirt and the like,
which serve as contaminant and breeding places of flies and other vermin.
WATER SUPPLY – must have abundant potable water supply
SEWAGE DISPOSAL – must be efficient and if possible provided with facilities for the treatment of the
sewage before the same is release to the common sewage system.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
a) Floor – shall be of smooth concrete or other impervious materials, must slope properly to drains
and shall be free from cracks or lines, crevices or holes. Must be kept clean, before, during and
after operation.
b) Walls – must be constructed of tiles, concrete or other equivalent materials: having smooth,
washable, waterproofed, slight colored surface. Must be clean all the time. Such walls shall be
constructed as to permit extensive cleaning and washing up to a height off 4 feet.
c) Ceiling – ceiling of rooms and working areas must not be less than nine feet in height or such
materials, constructed and finished as to permit an efficient and thorough cleaning. The ceiling of

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 multistoried buildings should be waterproof and dirt-proof, that is, no dirt or water can penetrate
it to leak, drop or soil the floor or products underneath.
d) Lightning - the working area should be sufficiently lighted with non-glaring lights.
e) Drainage – must be fully covered, provided with bell traps and sufficient in number.
f) Ventilation – must be very well ventilated to preclude suffocative feeling and other uneasiness.
g) Toilet facilities – must be sufficient in number and of approved type. It must not open directly to
any working area and must be rodent and vermin proof. The same must be clean all the time.
h) Rodent and Insect control – contamination of fish and fishery products by rodents and insects is
always a continuing problem in processing plants. Thus the building should be rodent- and insect-
proof to eliminate such problem.

PERSONNEL
a. Employer
1. No one shall knowingly employ in a working area of the plant any person suffering from
any communicable disease or is a “carrier” of the same or has an infected wound or open
lesion on any part of the body.
2. Owners or operators shall provide a dressing room for their laborers and other
employees.
b. Laborers
1. All laborers must be subjected to a regular medical examination and must possess the
necessary health certificates.
2. All laborers shall wear clean clothes and protective headwear of an approved type while
in the working area.
3. All persons engaged in handling, processing or packaging fish should wash their hands
thoroughly with soap and water before the commencement of work and after each
absence from duty.
4. Fingernails – all nails shall be trimmed short. Wearing nail polish by workers handling and
processing fish with their bare hands is not permitted.

EQUIPMENT AND UTENSILS

Tables, chopping blocks, scales, weights, tongs, knives, etc. must be thoroughly cleaned and
wash with hot water and suitable detergent before and after working.
OTHER SANITARY PRACTICES
1. Spitting shall be prohibited in places where fish are handled, processed, packaged and
stored.
2. No products or substances may be kept in the premises which is likely to affect the smell
or taste of fish and fishery products in anyway rendering unwholesome for human
consumption.
3. Waste of all types, especially those derived from fish, shall be immediately placed in
watertight container until the same is disposed of in a sanitary manner. These containers
are disinfected at least once a day.
4. Domestic animals should not be allowed to roam or stray in any part of the processing
establishment.

LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF FISH AND FISHERY PRODUCTS

Bacteriological Examination - (for wholesomeness)

1. S.P.C. (Standard Plate Count) – this test is an index of the degree of contamination to which fish
has been subjected. A count of more than 200,000 colonies per gram of fish is indicative of poor
quality fish.
2. M.P.N. (Most Probable Number) – presence of coliform organisms is indicative of fecal
contamination. The presence of more than 100 coliform per colonies in a gram of fish is
considered unfit for human consumption.
Note: Bacteriological analysis is in reality an index of the sanitation of the processing plant.
B. Test for Freshness
1. T.M.A. (Trimethylamine) – a value of 15 mg of trimethylamine nitrogen per 100 grams of fish
meat is considered generally to indicate that the said fish is unfit for human consumption.

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 2. Total Volatile Acids – a value of more than 15 mg of volatile acids per 100 grams of fish is generally
considered to indicate that the fish is unfit for human consumption.
3. Test for pH – (shucked oysters and other mollusks) – pH value below 5.6 is indicative that the
oyster is spoiled.
C. Test for Indole Content – chemical test to determine decomposition of canned shrimps, oysters and
crabmeat.
D. X-ray examination – for the detection of fish caught through the use of explosives. The resulting film
will disclose dislocation of the backbone, detachment of the bones of the thoracic region from its
attachment from the vertebrae, ruptured blood vessels, displacement of the internal organs and the
presence of blood in the air bladder.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC OF FISH CAUGHT WITH EXPLOSIVES

1. Loss of scales, breakage of fins, tails, eyes and lower jaws. Fishes with deep bodies may have their
stomachs literally blown away.
2. There are red splotches under the skin of the fin bases and of the nape, chin or cheeks.
3. In small and translucent fishes, effusion of the blood may be noted protruding through the skin
and flesh in the region of the vertebral column and the abdominal cavity.
4. Portions of the viscera or internal organs may be noted protruding from the vent.
5. The body of the fish freely bends sidewise and when pulled lengthwise seems to be loose. This is
due to the breakage or loosening of the vertebrae in the spinal column.

MICROBIOLOGICAL HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH FISH, SHELLFISH AND THEIR PRODUCTS

In most parts of the world, fish and shellfish re second only to meat and poultry as staple animal
protein foods. However, in some countries (e.g., Japan), they are the principal source of protein. This is
also true in several provinces in the Philippines, particularly near coastal areas.
Dried and salted fish have been items in international commerce for centuries. Consumption of
fish tended to be localized close to areas of capture. However, with the recent developments in food
technology, especially freezing and canning, seafood have now become common items of international
trade and are consumed in inland areas remote to seacoast.
Fish and seafood products share with other the potential of acting as transporters of disease. In
almost every region of the world, seafood, notably shrimps and tuna, are harvested and subjected to
primary handling and processing operations that range from highly sophisticated to quite primitive, and
from impeccably hygienic to dirty and potentially dangerous. The risk is related to broader conditions of
the environment, such that:

a. In areas with low water and air temperature, the risk is less than in tropical zones.
b. In areas endemic for diseases, e.g. cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, poliomyelitis and other similar
diseases, the risk is greater than in areas free of such diseases.
c. In areas where there is frequent disposal of human wastes directly to waters, there is an increased
risk, especially in regions of high population density.

MOLLUSCS, a sessile filter feeders, concentrate bacteria and viruses from the water. As such, this seafood
can be dangerous carrier of enteric pathogens. They can be doubly dangerous for many are eaten raw or
only lightly cooked. The frequent disposal of human waste directly to the bodies of water and the
continuing increase in human populations in cities must raise the level of the concern about these hazards.

MICROBIOLOGICAL SPOILAGE OF FRESH FISH AND MOLLUSCS

Fresh fish is an excellent substrate for microorganisms because of high water activity, neutral pH
and a high level of soluble nutrients. During rigor mortis, the muscle undergoes the same biochemical
changes are seen in mammalian muscle, but the ultimate pH of 6.2or more is higher than in beef. In few
species of flatfish (e.g., halibut), the pH may fall to 5.8. Whether post-mortem biochemical change has a
direct influence of microbial growth is not clear, but it is a common observation that microbial spoilage
processes are not evident until after the resolution of rigor mortis.

104
RIGOR MORTIS IN FISHES VS. MAMMALS
Onset Duration Final pH
FISH 1-7 hours after death 1 hour 6.2 – 6.6
MAMMALS 8-10 hours after death 15 – 20 hours 5.3 – 5.5

Microbial spoilage of fish is usually described as a “proteolytic process”. However, some protein
hydrolysis can also take place. Nevertheless, for fresh fish spoilage there is no involvement of
carbohydrates. As a result, the pH of spoiled fresh fish increases.

Mollusks spoilage may involve glycogen breakdown. This leads to a lowering of pH as acid
accumulates.

To delay spoilage in fish and seafood, the principal methods of preservation are:
1. Chilling with ice or refrigerated brine (salted water) at 0 C.
2. Freezing at less than -1.4 C.
3. Canning
4. Smoking
5. Drying
6. Salting
7. Fermentation
8. Pre-cooking or blanching for lobsters, crabs, or shrimps.

“ALKALINE RIGOR”
This is spoilage observed in fish when final pH is 7.0. It is characterized by chalky texture of flesh.
Cause: excessive struggling of fish before death
Prevention:
1. Minimize struggling of fish before death
2. Sell fish alive.

INITIAL MICROFLORA

The flesh and internal organs of freshly caught healthy fish are normally sterile, but bacteria may
be found on the skin, gills, and on the intestine. The numbers of bacteria reported to occur are as
follows:

Skin = 102 – 107/ cm2

Gills = 103 – 109/ cm2
Intestine = 103 – 109/ cm2

The wide range shown on the counts reflects the effects of environmental factors, such that:

a. Lower counts are found on skin and gills from fish taken from clean cold waters, while higher
counts come from fish taken from tropical or subtropical waters and polluted areas.
b. Counts in the intestines are directly related to feeding activity. Low counts are observed in non-
feeding fish, while high counts are gathered from feeding fish.
c. Mollusks, with their sedentary mode of life carry microbial populations reflective of the bacterial
condition or surrounding waters. Seasonal variations have also been observed with higher counts
during summer months.
d. The predominant microflora in these counts are also reflective of the environment.
Psychrotrophic bacteria predominate in the microflora of fish caught from temperate waters,
while mesophilic bacteria predominate in those fish coming from tropical waters.

SOURCES OF SPOILAGE ORGANISMS

1. During capture: nets, ropes, deck boards, human hands, clothing, etc.
2. During off-loading from vessels at quayside; hooks, forks, pews, boxes, baskets.
3. During storage after capture; ice or refrigerated seawater and containers.

105
 4. During selling at public auctions: unclean containers, birds, rodents, flies, auctioneers, sellers,
buyers, spectators, etc. (Fish are displayed in wooden, metal or plastic containers on open or
covered quayside or in auction shed.)
5. During wet processing: direct handling by humans, direct handling by humans, direct transfer
from gut/skin to flesh; environmental transfer (e.g. knives, machines)

PREVENTION OF SPOILAGE

1. Use copious amounts of chlorinated water.

2. Workers should wear clean protective clothing and washable gloves.
3. Workers should be provided with disinfectant dips for hands and equipment.
4. High quality of in-plant housekeeping and sanitation.
5. High bacteriological quality of incoming raw material.

RATE OF SPOILAGE depends on the following factors:

1. Level of surface contamination per volume.

2. Feeding activity of fish.
3. Temperature

COMMON SPOILAGE ORGANISMS:

1. Pseudomonas sp.
2. Altermonas putrefaciens
3. Moraxella sp.
4. Acinetobacter sp.
5. Flavobacterium sp.
6. Coryneform bacteria

FISH-BORNE DISEASES

Fishery products are responsible for a significant proportion of outbreaks of food-borne illness. Many
substances or organisms hazardous to health can be ingested with fishery products. These includes
parasites, toxic chemical pollutants, toxins and pathogenic microorganisms.

Fish-borne diseases can be categorized into 3 groups depending on the source of the responsible agent.

I. Agents naturally present in the aquatic environment

II. Agents derived from pollution of the aquatic environment
III. Agents derived from contamination after harvest

I. AGENTS NATURALLY PRESENT IN THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT

1. Vibrio parahemolyticus – common cause of gastroenteritis. The organism is part of the

normal microflora of channel and coastal waters. The level of contamination appears
seasonal:
a. In temperate countries: highest in summer and autumn, lowest in winter.
b. In tropical countries: highest in dry season, lowest in wet season.
Incubation Period: 3 – 36 hours.
Foods Involved: raw or inadequately cooked marine products; food contaminated with
vibrio from water or kitchen utensils.
Symptoms: Diarrhea, severe abdominal pain, usually nausea and vomiting; mild fever and
headache; Recovery is within 2 – 5 days (Mortality rate is low; majority of deaths occur in older, debilitated
persons.)
Control:

106
 a. Prevent growth of organism through refrigeration and freezing.
Growth stops at less than 9 – 10 C.
b. Destruction of organism through proper cooking of fish/seafood, is
readily destroyed by heat. Heat food at 100 C shortly before consumption.
c. Prevent cross-contamination of cooked products with seawater.
2. Vibrio cholerae – common part of the microflora in brackish surface waters. Some strains
produce cholera toxin.
3. Vibrio vulnificus – occurs in raw seafood from channel and coastal waters. In persons with
pre-existing diseases, infection with the organism may result to fatal septicemia.
4. Clostridium botulinum – produces a heat-labile toxin, which causes a neuroparalytic disease
in man and animals. The organism is a natural contaminant of ocean and fresh water and
fishes.
Type E: implicated in outbreaks, especially in cooler areas of the world.
Type D: found infrequently in tropical and subtropical waters.

Implicated food: preserved foods (smoked, salted, canned or fermented) eaten without further
cooking. (Fresh frozen fish is considered low risk food as normal cooking inactivated toxin

Prevention of Botulism:

1. Complete destruction of spores by heating and prevention of recontamination of cooked product.

2. Inhibit growth of Cl. botulinum by salting, smoking and holding at temperatures less than 3 C.
3. Adequately cook or heat seafood prior to eating.
5. Agent of Scombroid Poisoning

Scombroid poisoning is a result of the consumption of tuna, fresh frozen, or canned,

containing high level of histamine. The symptoms are vomiting, diarrhea and allergic reactions,
including puffiness around the eyes and mouth, tingling and itching. Antihistamines are helpful in
relieving the symptoms. The toxin responsible, histamine, is resistant to heat, and incident of scombroid
poisoning have resulted from consumption of canned tuna.

Implicated food: fresh, canned, dried, smoked, and salted fish.

Cause of poisoning: consumption of scombroid fish in which bacterial growth had taken
place. The flesh of fish contains large amounts of amino acid histidine. This can be
decarboxylated by bacteria, especially the Enterobacteriaceae group, resulting to histamine
formation. Histamine (toxin) is heat resistant.
6. Dinoflagellate Toxins – cause of “paralytic shellfish poisoning”, ciguatera poisoning,
Gonyaulux poisoning or red tide poisoning. Cooking freezing, smoking, salting or drying,
does not destroy toxin.
Implicated food: fish/ seafood from tropical or subtropical waters, especially waters around
coral reefs and islands.
Prevention:
1. Prevent marketing of fish likely to be hazardous.
2. Monitoring waters known to present a hazard and preventing harvesting of
fish/shellfish at times when toxix algae are present in the water in high
concentrations.
II. AGENTS DERIVED FROM POLLUTION OF AQUATIC HABITATS

Pathogens can be introduced into watercourses either by:

a. Intentional or accidental discharge of treated or untreated sewage
b. Run-off from land during rain.

Polluting pathogens:

A. BACTERIAL PATHOGENS, e.g. Salmonella typhi, Salmonella species, Clostridium perfringens,

Vibrio cholera, etc. from persons/animals suffering from enteric infections which excrete pathogenic
microorganisms in their feces in vast numbers.

When bacterial pathogens are present in fish/shellfish, temperature abuse between harvest and
consumption can easily lead to multiplication so that the infective dose level is reached.

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 Prevention:
1. Prevent growth by adequate refrigeration or freezing.
2. Cook food thoroughly.

B. VIRAL PATHOGENS – diseases caused include hepatitis, viral gastroenteritis, etc.

Outbreaks occur with consumption of oysters, mussels, clams and other shellfish
especially if eaten raw or mildly cooked.

Enteric viruses don’t multiply outside their human host. Therefore, mishandling of food
after harvest is not necessary for disease transmission. Only a very small dose is required to cause
disease.

Prevention:

1. Harvest only from water not unacceptably polluted.

2. Subject fish/shellfish harvested from doubtful waters to a process that will
inactivate or remove pathogens.
3. Conduct sanitary surveys of waterways to identify source of pollution.
4. Continually monitor the bacteriological quality of water and shellfish.
5. Purification of bivalve’s shellfish. This involves holding of shellfish in
unpolluted waters before marketing.
2 methods:

a. Depuration – use of man-made tanks.

b. Relaying – use of unpolluted natural waterway.

C. PARASITIC PATHOGENS

Trematodes – fresh water fishes, crab or crayfish serve as 2nd intermediate host.
I.
a. Clonorchis sinensis - cause liver damage
b. Opisthorchis felineus, O. viverrini – cause cirrhosis of the liver.
c. Heterophyses heterophyses – causes abdominal pain, mucoid diarrhea and
endocarditis.
d. Metagonimus yokogawai – cause mild diarrhea.
e. Paragonimus westermanii – cause chronic cough and hemoptysis;
Camarines, Sorsogon, Samar, Leyte and Agusan.
II. Cestodes
a. Diphyllobotrium latum – cause gastroenteritis, anemia and weakness.
Intermediate hosts: Fresh water fish, crab or crayfish
III. Nematodes
a. Anisakis matina – causes eosinophilic enteritis. Parasite found in
marine fish
b. Angiostrongylus cantonensis – cause eosinophilic meningitis: shrimps,
land crabs are paratenic hosts of the parasite.
Foods Implicated for Parasitic Pathogens:
- raw or insufficiently cooked fresh, fish shrimps, crabs or insufficiently dried, salted or
pick fish/seafood.

Control of Parasitic Pathogens:

1. Proper sewage disposal

2. Inadequate cooking
3. Inadequate freezing
4. Inadequate salting, drying or pickling

III. AGENTS DERIVED FROM CONTAMINATION AFTER HARVEST OR CATCHING

During processing, storage, distribution and preparation for consumption, fish or shellfish may
become contaminated with a number of potentially pathogenic microorganism. For example, infected
workers or use of polluted water in food processing or preparation establishments may introduce

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pathogens of typhoid fever, hepatitis and cholera to fishery products. In addition, pathogens that cause
bacterial food borne illnesses can contaminate fishery products such as Staphylococcus aureus,
Salmonella sp., Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus, etc.

Possible sources of Contamination:

1. Utensils, equipment, containers
2. Bodies of humans
3. Food ingredients
4. Use of non-potable water for washing and processing

Control:
1. High standard of hygiene among processing personnel.
2. Use of procedures designed to minimize direct or indirect human contact with food.
3. Use of ingredients with low level of contamination.
4. Use of potable water in processing and washing.
5. Strict separation of raw and cooked products.
6. Stringent control of temperature of the product at all stages of processing.

MILK HYGIENE

MILK-BORNE DISEASES

Throughout the ages, man has recognized the excellent food value of milk. Milk, however, is a
ready and efficient vehicle for a great variety of disease agents. Several diseases of man may be spread
through milk, if human being who are carriers of infectious disease or who have common contact with
persons who harbor such infection contaminate it. A number of diseases of dairy animals may also be
transmitted to man through milk when it is produced from infected animals. The environment where milk
is produced may also contain pathogens that can contaminate milk.

Milk-borne diseases are diseases acquired through the ingestion of milk products or by drinking
milk.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK-BORNE DISEASE EPIDEMIC:

1. Milk-borne epidemics are usually explosive in character, the incubation period being short.
2. Milk-borne disease epidemic is usually concentrated in specific or definite areas of the community,
while for water-borne disease epidemic, the occurrence of cases is distributed evenly over the area.
3. Milk-borne diseases are confined to families using a common milk supply and occur most common
in families or individuals consuming greater quantities of milk or milk products.
4. Milk-borne disease outbreak lasts only a short time and most of the cases occur at the same time.

POINTS TO CONSIDER IN THE INVESTIGATION OF MILK-BORNE EPIDEMICS:

1. Number of epidemic cases if the disease existing in the involved territory during the time covered
by the epidemic.
2. Number of houses invaded by the disease.
3. Number of invade houses directly or indirectly supplied in whole or in part by the suspected milk.
4. Time covered by the epidemic.
5. Tracking down of the source of the suspected milk.
6. Special incidence of the disease among milk drinkers.
7. Elimination of other medium or sources and/or carrier of the infection.
8. Effect in the epidemic in the closure of dairy plant, farm or distributor.
9. Finding the causative organism in the milk.
10. Location of “carriers” of the disease agent amongst workers.

MEASURES TO TAKE AFTER IDENTIFYING A MILK-BORNE DISEASE EPIDEMIC:

1. Notify local health authorities for them to initiate an investigation.

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 a) Establish a spot-map.
b) Immediately stop the supply of suspected milk.
c) Proceed to the producer’s farmer dealer’s premises where milk is handled and start a
thorough investigation. Samples of milk should be taken aseptically and examined in the
laboratory.
2. Give immediate medical attention to individuals affected by the disease.
3. Isolate and treat sick or carrier animals.
4. Request for mandatory pasteurization of milk sterilization of milk bottles, utensils and equipment and
disinfections of the premises where milk is handled.
5. Check out water supply as possible source of contamination.

IMPORTANT PROVISIONS OF THE MILK AND DAIRIES REGULATIONS TO SAFEGUARD THE INFECTION
OF MILK BY DAIRY WORKERS:

1. Persons engage in the handling of milk must be free from disease. Any case of infectious disease among
the workers of their families must be immediately reported to the medical officer of health. Any worker
who has been in contact with disease must not take part in milking until the danger of infection is over.
2. The dairymen are prohibited from using any receptacle used for washing and scalding milk vessels for
the purpose of washing or boiling bed or body clothing for any purpose liable to cause contamination
of milk.
DISEASES THE MAYBE TRANSMITTED THROUGH MILK

A. BACTERIAL INFECTIONS AND INTOXICATIONS:

1. HUMAN TUBERCULOSIS

Tuberculosis has existed in man for many centuries, and the human body is its chief reservoir of
infection. The principal source of the human type of infection is the sputum of the consumptive. There
are no data to show that human tubercle bacilli have been spread through milk as a result of human
contact with it. Since the disease develops slowly in man, proof of such infections by milk is not
obtainable. Nevertheless, persons employed to handle milk and milk utensils should be free from
suspicion of being tuberculous.

2. TUBERCULOSIS OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Milk consumed raw is the principal vehicle for the transfer of tubercle bacilli from animals to man,
but airborne infection does occur. Incidence of tuberculosis infection in man depends largely on the
presence of the organism (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in dairy animals and on the amount of raw or
inadequately heated milk consumed by the population.

Sources of contamination of Tubercle bacilli in milk:

1. Direct or indirect contamination of milk from contaminated environment (manure, dust, etc.)
2. Excretion of organism in milk by affected udders or udders with tuberculous lesions.

Control measures:

1. Eradication of the infection in dairy animals

a) Regular Tuberculin testing of dairy animals.
b) Segregation or removal of the positive cases or reactors from herd.
c) Maintain only tuberculosis-free herds.
2. Health control of milk handlers.
3. Proper pasteurization of milk since temperature of 62.8 C for five minutes or 71 C for 12 – 15 seconds
kills the organism.
3. TYPHOID FEVER

Causative agent: Salmonella typhi – excreted in the feces or infected individuals or carriers (person
who have recovered from infection but still harbor organism.)

Sources of contamination of milk:

1. Hands of infected persons or carriers who are careless in their personal habits.

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 2. Flies whose bodies have been contaminated with exposed human excreta as in unsanitary
privies.
3. Polluted water supply.
Examples: seeping of polluted water to potable water wells; rinsing of milk containers
and equipment with cold water just before using them for handling milk. A
dangerous practice if water is polluted.
Control measures:
1. Pasteurization of milk
2. Observance of sanitary practices by milkers or milk handlers.
4. PARATYPHOID FEVER
This resembles typhoid but is usually milder than typhoid and gives a mortality of 3.3% as
compared with an average of 9% in the case of typhoid.
The causative agents (Salmonella paratyphi, S. schottmuelleri) are present in the feces and urine
of infected persons or animals and in the foods contaminated by infected individuals or by carriers.
Sources of infection:
1. Direct contamination of milk and milk products by human carrier.
2. Indirect contamination through water, flies, adulterants and sometimes milk containers
returned from houses inhabited by sick patients or carriers.
Control measures:
1. Pasteurization of milk
2. Infected individuals or carriers should be prevented from handling.
5. SALMONELLOSIS (Acute Gastroenteritis)

Causative agents: 1. Salmonella dublin

2. Salmonella typhimurium

Sources of Infection:

1. Hands, clothing or body of humans with unsanitary habits.

2. Feces of infected milking animals
3. Feces of infected rats and mice
4. Infected cows excrete organisms in their milk.

Control Measures:

1. Improved hygiene of the barn

2. Detection and elimination of animals’ carriers
3. Health control of handlers
4. Routine pasteurization of milk
5. Hygienic bottling or packaging and storage of milk
6. Rigid sanitary practices in the dairy and retail shops

6. SEPTIC SORE THROAT and SCARLET FEVER

Causative Agent: Hemolytic streptococci

Sources of Contamination:

1. Persons suffering from the disease may contaminated milk by directly coughing and
sneezing on the milk.
2. Infected milkers may infect udders of healthy cows while milking with their hands. As a
result, the udders become infected and cows excrete the organism in the milk.

Control Measures:

1. Keep affected persons from contact with milk especially during the milking process.
2. Proper pasteurization which destroys the causative organism.
3. Exclusion from milk supply of milk from affected quarters and milk showing abnormal
changes

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 4. Adequate cooling of milk after milking.

7. STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXIC GASTROENTERITIS

Causative Agents:

 Staphylococcus agalactiae, S. dysgalactiae = susceptible to penicillin

 S. uberis and S. pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus = resistant to Penicillin
The principal health hazard from a staphylococcal infection of milk lies in the production
of some strains of an ENTEROTOXIN. This substance causes acute gastroenteritis in man. It is heat
stable and remains in pasteurized milk if the organism had an opportunity to grow prior to
pasteurization.

Sources of Infection:
1. Nose or skin of humans especially if boils, cuts or carbuncles are present.
2. Udder and skin of dairy animals infected directly or indirectly by hands of milker.
Control Measures:
1. Workers with cuts, boils and other staphylococcal lesions on the hands should not be
allowed to handle milk or milk products.
2. After proper pasteurization, milk should be cooled as soon as possible to 10 C or lower and
kept at this temperature until processed to prevent reentry and multiplication of organism.
8. BRUCELLOSIS

Causative organism: Brucella abortus – in cow ; B. mellitensis – in goats.

Source of Infection:
1. Direct contact with animal infected by causative organisms or with infected animal tissues
and discharges.
2. Consumption of milk from infected dairy animal as the organism is excreted in the milk.
3. Inhalation of dry infected material

Control Measures:

1. Eradication of diseases from dairy animals.

a) Testing and slaughter of reactors
Test: Blood agglutination tests
b) Cleaning and disinfections of barns and shelters to which infected dairy animals
have had access.
2. Vaccination of dairy animals
Proper consideration should be taken in the use of live vaccines for the organism may
be excreted in the milk.
3. Adequate heat treatment of milk and milk products.
Organism is killed at 62.8 C for 3 – 5 minutes.
4. Souring and maturation of milk products.
e.g. storage of cheese for several months; acidity greater than 5% is detrimental to
organism
9. ANTHRAX

Causative Agent:

 Bacillus anthracis – present in tissues of the infected animal and in the blood. Milk from the
infected animals is so altered in appearance that it is not likely to be consumed.
Sources of Infection:

1. Grazing of dairy animals on infected pastures.

2. Ingestion of organism mostly with insufficiently cooked meat or milk of infected animals
a) Organism is excreted in milk
b) Milk contaminated from discharges or surroundings of affected animals
Control Measures:

1. Proper pasteurization of milk

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 Organism can be destroyed along with phosphatase enzyme at pasteurization
temperatures but spores are more resistant to heat treatment.
2. Proper cooling of milk
3. Vaccination of dairy animals
4. Because spores of the organism are resistant to heat treatment, no milk from infected herd
should be used for human consumption until 2 weeks after the last clinical case of the
disease has occurred.
5. Taking adequate precautions to prevent contamination of milk during production, handling
and processing.

10. BOTULISM

Rarely is the ingestion of milk and milk products the cause of the disease.

Causative Agents: Clostridium botulinum and Cl. parabotulinum

Source of Infection:
- Organism present in soil and may contaminate milk and milk products.

Control Measure:
- Proper pasteurization of milk to destroy the organism. Spores, however, are resistant
to common forms of heat treatment.

11. CHOLERA

Milk acts sometimes as vehicle for Vibrio cholera

Sources of Contamination:
1. Soiled hands of a patient or a convalescent carrier.
2. Use of contaminated raw water for dairy purposes or adulterating milk with water.

Control Measures:
1. Heat treatment of milk, if possible up to the time of consumption.
2. Use of food sanitary habits by dairy workers.

12. CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS (WELCHII INFECTION)

The organism is widely distributed in human, animal and insect feces. It multiplies rapidly in food
that is stored after cooking or preheating and causes gastroenteritis in persons consuming it.

Sources of Contamination in milk:

1. Feces of man, animals and insects.
2. Dust (containing spores) in cow heads and dairies.

Control Measures:
1. Environmental hygiene = not sufficient to prevent contamination of milk if milk is
stored under conditions suitable for spores to vegetative and
multiply.
2. Pasteurization of milk
3. Rapid cooling and storage of milk at temperature below 15 C before and after pasteurization.
This is the best measure of control.
13. COLIFORM INFECTION (Gastroenteritis)

Causative organisms: Escherichia coli – known to cause gastroenteritis of infants and

children, rarely of adults, either alone or in
association with enteroviruses.

Citrobacter and Klebsiella = variable evidence

Sources of Contamination:

1. Organism may cause mastitis and is thus excreted in milk.

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 2. Contamination of milk with putrefactive bacteria originating from cow manure and hay dust.
3. Use of polluted water supply.

Control Measures:
1. Exclusion from the milk supply of milk from quarters affected with mastitis.
2. Cooling and storage of milk below 10 C before and after pasteurization.
3. Proper pasteurization of milk.
4. Use of clean potable water for dairy purposes.
14. DIPHTHERIA

Causative agent: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Sources of Contamination:

1. Nose or throats of infected persons or carriers

2. Ulcers on teats of dairy animals.

Control Measures:
1. Examination of milk handlers for diphtheria infection.
2. Pasteurization of milk (organism killed at 54 – 60 C)

15. LEPTOSPIROSIS – a worldwide disease

Causative org: Leptospira sp. = organism very labile; easily destroyed by slight acidity, thus
human infection has not been traced to milk, easily
destroyed by boiling water.

Sources of Contamination:
1. Organism may infect the udder causing mastitis and are thus, shed in milk.
2. Infected animal sheds organism in milk whether mastitis is present or not; infected milk
discharges may be a source of infection of dairy animals in farm.

Control Measures: Adequate heat treatment of milk

16. LISTERIOSIS

Causative organism: Listeria monocytogenes

Sources of Contamination: organism may localize in the udder causing mastitis and is thus
excreted in milk.

Control Measures: pasteurization with the use of high temperatures and longer time.

17. PASTEURELLOSIS (Hemorrhagic Septicemia) = affects all milk producing animals.

Causative organism: Pasteurella multocida

Sources of Contamination:

1. Oral and nasal discharges of dairy animals

2. Excretion of the organism in milk of affected animals
Control Measure: Pasteurization of Milk

18. RAT BITE FEVER

Causative organism: Streptobacillus moniliformis – normal inhabitant of upper respiratory

tract of rats and other rodents.
Most of human infections are acquired through the bites if rats, but oral infection can also take
place.

Source of Contamination:
1. Excretion of organism in urine of rats

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 2. Environmental contamination of milk in rodent infected diaries.

Control Measures: Proper pest control in dairy farm and plant

19. SHIGELLOSIS (Bacillary dysentery) – cosmopolitan food-borne infection

Causative agent: Shigella dysenteriae. Some species of Shigella survive pasteurization

temperature even survive better in pasteurized milk than in raw milk. They can also
survive 4 – 5C for 11 – 49 days.

Sources of contamination:
1. Bowel discharges of infected person or carriers
2. Contamination of utensils by soiled hand of milkers
3. Use of contaminated water supply
4. Contamination of milk by flies that have come in contact with infected human excreta

Control Measures:
1. No milk for human consumption should be sold from a place occupied by patient unless a
person handling the milk occupy quarters separate from the house where patient is sick and
unless all utensils are cleaned and kept in a separate building.
2. All attendants upon the patients should be prohibited from contact with the milk or
utensils.
3. Precaution must be taken to exclude flies.
B. PATHOGENIC FUNGI

These may infect udder tissue and be excreted in milk.

e.g. Nocardia asteroides – survives pasteurization temperature
Candida albicans
Control Measure: Exclude from the milk supply all grossly abnormal milk.

C. RICKETSIAL DISEASES

1) Q – FEVER - a worldwide disease

Causative organism: Coxiella burnetti. The principal reservoirs for human infection are cattle,
sheep and goats through milk.
Sources of Infection:
1. Ingestion of raw milk from infected animals.
2. Inhalation of infected dust previously contaminated with amniotic fluid and fetal
membranes of infected animals.
Characteristics of the Organism:
1. Heat resistant. It can survive pasteurization. It is even more resistant than tubercle bacilli.
2. Can survive freezing temperature.
3. Organism is excreted in milk, but infected udder doesn’t usually show any abnormalities.
Control measures:
1. Heat treatment of milk and cream
2. Calving and lambing should be away from milking shed and dairy
3. Recontamination of heat-treated milk with dust and discharges should be prevented.
D. PARASITIC INFECTIONS
Sources of contamination:
1. Parasites whose infective stage are shed by milk handlers may contaminate the milk.
2. Parasites e.g Toxoplasma gondii, are excreted in milk.
3. Contamination of milk with infected soil.
Control measures:
1. Observance of sanitary procedures during milking process.
2. Heat treatment of milk.
3. Adoption of hygiene practices by milk handlers.

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 E. VIRAL DISEASES
Except for tick-borne encephalitis, the importance of viral agents in milk borne disease has not
been clear-cut. This could be due to:
a) Lack (until recently) of reliable laboratory techniques for many viral agents
transmitted by the oral routes.
b) Insufficient epidemiological knowledge.
In developing countries with low sanitary standard, there is a strong probability of milk-borne
disease because of the livelihood that heavy contamination with human viral pathogen will be introduced
at various points in the production line, whether the milk is pasteurized or not.
The contamination arising from milk handlers is by far the most important source of potential viral
disease in man although a potential source of infection could be the milk animal itself.
1. ENTEROVIRUSES
= Multiplies in the GIT of man and animals
e.g. Coxsakie viruses = resistant to usual HTST
= Oral route is believed to be the portal of entry.
= Milk suspected, but 4.so far there is no conclusive evidence.
= Excreted in feces by clinically healthy individuals.
2. ADENOVIRUSES
= Respiratory route appears to be the mode of transmission; may also be excreted on the feces
leading to feco-oral transmission.
= can be considered a good candidate of milk-borne disease.
3. VIRUS OF INFECTIOUS HEPATITIS
= Infectious hepatitis is one of the most serious viral diseases.
= Mode of transmission; oral
= Can be shed by convalescent and clinically normal individuals.

Source of contamination:
A. Direct contamination from soiled human hands in milk.
B. Defective water supply in milk plants or distribution centers.
4. FOOT AND MOUTH VIRUS ( FMD VIRUS)
= One of the most contagious disease of cattle, man is slightly susceptible.
= milk-borne infection is seldom observed.
= Virus shed in milk, although affected animals may cease to secrete milk.
= Characteristics of virus= does not survive pasteurization procedures.
5. TICK- BORNE ENCEPHALITIS VIRUS
=Virus had been demonstrated in milk of naturally infected goats and is excreted in milk 2-6
days after infection. It had also been demonstrated in milk from artificially infected sheep. It had
also been demonstrated in cream, butter and curd prepared from infected milk.
= Cow’s milk can be vehicle of infection of man but is not as important as goat’s milk.
Characteristics of the virus:
1. Survive 2 months at 4 C
2. Relatively heat resistant and remains partly active in milk kept at 60 C for 20 minutes.
3. Completely inactivated at 70 C for 20 minutes or at 80 C for 10 seconds.
Mode of infection:
A. Tick bites
B. Per os = by drinking unheated milk of infected goats
6. OTHER VIRUSES
Those transmissible to man by direct contact with milking animals are:
1. Cowpox
2. Vaccinia
3. Vesicular stomatitis

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 4. Contagious pustular dermatitis (“ORF” in sheep and goats )
5. Pseudocowpox ( milker’s nodules)
Natural transmission of these viruses from cattle to man has not yet been demonstrated.

MILK HYGIENE

Milk hygiene is the expert supervision of all milk and milk products with the object of providing
clean, and wholesome food for human consumption and preventing danger to public health.
MILK- physiological secretion of the mammary glands of mammals to provide nourishment for their
young.
Characteristics of Milk Pertinent to Public Health:
1. Highly perishable food.
2. Good media for bacterial growth and other microorganisms.
3. Contains transient inhibitory substances, such as;
Lactenin I – present in colostrum
Lactenin II – present in normal milk
4. Carrier of disease producing microorganisms that can affect man and animals.
Constraints that have Retarded the Development of our Local Dairy Industry:
1. Lack of capital
2. Prevailing opinion temperate breeds of dairy animals, particularly cattle cannot thrive in the
Philippines.
3. Disruptive competition by the imported milk industry.
4. Low productivity of animals used for milk production.
5. Marketing problems.
6. Lack of diversification of dairy plants.
7. Lack of support from the government.
Highlights of Republic Act No. 4041:
1. Granting of loans to dairy farmers and processing plants
2. Establishments of collecting centers
3. Requires milk-processing plants to utilize at least 5% of locally produced milk.
4. Establishment of a dairy research and training institute.

MILK COMPOSITION, ITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Common Terminologies:
 Fat = milkfat
 Total solids = dry matter of milk
 Solids-not-fat = group of constituents in milk compromised by proteins, carbohydrates and
minerals
 Serum solids = frequently used in the ice cream industry which refers to solids-not-fat- content
of milk.
 Ash= minerals of milk
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK
Major Constituents of Milk (Cow’s Milk)
CONSTITUENTS AVERAGE CONTENT (%)
1. Water 86.9
2. Fat 4.0
3. Proteins 3.5
Casein 2.8
Lactalbumins 0.7
Lactoglobulins

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 4. Lactose 4.9
5. Minerals 0.7
TOTAL 100%

Average Composition of Milk of Various Mammals

TOTAL
SPECIES Fat % Protein % Lactose % Ash % Authority
SOLIDS %
Cow 4.00 3.50 4.90 0.70 23.10 Turner
Goat 4.09 3.71 4.20 0.78 12.86 Frahim
Woman 3.70 1.63 6.98 0.21 12.57 Gardener & Fox
Mare 1.59 2.69 6.14 0.51 10.96 Lenton
Ass 1.50 2.10 6.40 0.30 10.30 Fleishmann
Sow 6.77 6.22 4.02 0.97 17.98 Hudges & Hart
Ewe 6.18 5.15 4.17 0.93 16.43 Konig
Water buffalo 12.46 6.03 3.74 0.89 23.91 Levine
Camel 5.40 3.00 3.30 0.70 12.39 Barthe
Reindeer 18.70 11.10 2.70 1.20 33.70 Yeppe
Whale 22.24 11.95 1.79 1.66 38.14 Takata

Constituents of Milk
1. WATER – comprise 87 % of milk; it serves as dispensing medium for the solid constituents of
milk.
2. MILKFAT – under the present pricing structure, this is considered as the most important
constituent. It is responsible for the smooth body, texture and rich mellow flavor of many dairy
products.
All dairy products, except skim milk have varying amounts of milkfat, e.g.
Butter - 80% or more
Cheese - 30- 40 %
Ice cream - 10-18 %
In milk, milkfat is dispersed in globules, surrounded by a thin membrane. When milk is vigorously
agitated, as in churning, the mechanical action ruptures the membrane allowing the fat to
coalesce and form granules of butter.
3. PROTEIN- milk proteins are an excellent source of amino acids. One quart of milk supplies 50 %
of the recommended daily intake of proteins of adults.

Three kinds of proteins in milk:

a. Casein – this comprises 80 % of the total protein in milk. It exists in milk as calcium
caseinate. It can be precipitated by the following:
1. Acids
2. Action of enzymes
3. Alcohol
4. Heat at 121 °C for 1 hour

b. Lactalbumins – these are differentiated from casein on the basis of the following
characteristics:
1. Easily coagulated by heat
2. Not coagulated by either the action of enzyme rennin or by acids.
c. Lactoglobulins – comprised by immune globulins. The concentration of lactoglobulins
increase greatly during the colostrum period. These contain transient inhibitory

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 substances, Lactenin l and Lactenin ll. Lactoglobulins are similar to lactalbumins being
readily precipitated by heat and not coagulated by either acids or rennin.
Because of the effect of heat on lactalbumins and lactoglobulins, these proteins influence the heat
stability of milk and dairy products during processing and manufacturing.
4. LACTOSE- principal carbohydrate of milk. Milk is the only source of lactose.
Certain bacteria have the ability to ferment lactose to lactic acid. The fermentation is
responsible for the souring of fluid milk and butter. However, in cheese, buttermilk, and sour
cream manufacture, lactic acid fermentation is economically advantageous.
Occasionally, lactose may crystallize in ice cream if the concentration is high or if the
temperature fluctuation occurs in storage. When this occurs, the defect known as “sandiness”
becomes apparent in ice cream.
5. MINERALS – comprise the “ash” of milk. Those present in milk are:
a. Phosphorus g. Manganese
b. Sodium h. Magnesium
c. Potassium i. Copper
d. Zinc j. Iodine
e. Iron k. Sulfur
f. Aluminum l. Calcium
Milk is an excellent source of calcium and phosphorous, but a poor source if iron, copper and
iodine.
6. MISCELLANEOUS - minor constituents in milk which are present in relatively small
amounts are:
a. Enzymes
The important enzymes, which play a part in dairy processing and in the
spoilage of dairy products are:

1) Lipases - involved in the breakdown of milkfat to free fatty acids, which cause
the development of rancid flavor of milk. This is present in all raw milk but is
inactivated by pasteurization. However. Any rancidity that may result from
lipase activity prior to pasteurization process.
2) Proteases - involved in the breakdown of milk proteins to peptides and amino
acids.
3) Alkaline phosphatase - a naturally occurring enzyme of milk that is inactivated
heat under conditions very similar to those required for proper pasteurization.
It’s absence in pasteurized milk is used as a chemical index for proper
pasteurization.
4) Lactases -involved in the fermentation of lactose.
b. Vitamins- the following vitamins occur in varying amount in milk.
Fat- soluble Vitamins Water-soluble Vitamins
1) Vit. A 1) Vit. B
2) Vit. D 2) Vit. C
3) Vit. E
4) Vit.
c. Pigments
1) Carotene- precursor of Vitamin A; responsible for the yellow color of milkfat
2) Riboflavin -water-soluble yellowish green pigment which is readily observed in cheese
whey.

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Physical Properties
1) Freezing Point of Milk: -53 to -56°C, Ave. -55°C
a. Decrease in the concentration of lactose and minerals raises the freezing point of milk.
b. Decrease or increase in protein and fat concentration does not affect the freezing point
of milk.
c. Improper cooling or exposure of milk to sub-freezing temperature can decrease the
palatability and appearance of milk upon thawing due to destabilization of fat and
casein constituents.
d. Addition of water causes the freezing point of milk to increase.
2) Acidity of Milk
Normal pH of milk: 6.5-6.8
Titratable acidity of fresh milk: 0.10-0.22%
a. Apparent Acidity – varies with the solids-not-fat content of milk. This is the inherent
acidity of milk, which depends on citrate, phosphate, protein and dissolved CO2 content.
b. Developed Acidity- results from conversion of lactose to lactic acid by lactose
fermenting bacteria. Excessive fermentation causes souring of milk.
Developed acidity or fermentation activity of bacteria must be properly controlled to
produce the desirable fermentation in culture dairy products, such as buttermilk, sour
cream, yogurt and in many varieties of cheese.
3) Effect of Agitation
Agitation of fresh warm milk should be minimized as this can result to:
(a) Foam production
(b) Partial churning of fat
(c) Induce development of rancid flavor
4) Effect of Heating
a. At 37°C, the warming temperature for milk during the process of clarification or separation, no
important changes in physical and chemical characteristics of milk occurs.
However, exposure for a prolonged period of time at this temperature causes an increase in
bacterial count.

b. Pasteurization temperature:
63°C for 30 minutes by the vat method
72°C for not less than 15 seconds by high temperature short time
method (HTST)
135°C and 150°C for 1-4 second each time by Ultra High Temperature (UHT) Method.
Pasteurization temperature destroys many microorganisms in milk. It inactivates enzymes,
phosphatase and lipase. It would not cause any important changes in milk provided that the milk is
cooled to 4°C or below immediately afterwards.
c. Prolonged heating at 100 °C or boiling milk causes major changes in the physical properties of
milk including a characteristic “cooked” taste and brownish tint in color. It also precipitates
lactalbumins and lactoglobulins.
d. Sudden changes in temperature e.g. condition of warm milk to cold milk can result to rancidity
due the activity of lipase.

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5) Specific gravity of Milk: 1.027-1.040
a. The specific gravity of milk can be increased by addition of solids-not-fat and/or removal of
milkfat.
b. The specific gravity of milk can be decreased by addition of solids-milk and by the addition of
water to milk.
6) Size of Fat Globules: Ave. 3.0 µm in diameter; can be 3.0 to 3.3µ to 4.0µ
Size varies:
a. Among breeds, for example, Ayrshires and Holstein have smaller fat globules than Guernseys
and Jerseys.
b. Among individual cows in a breed. This could be due to heredity.
c. Stage of lactation. The mean volume per fat globule has been found to decrease from early to
late lactation.
7) Color of milk
The color of milk ranges from bluish while to deep yellow to light orange. Several factors affect
milk color such as:
a. quantity of total solids
b. pigments of milk
c. nutrition of animal
d. stage of lactation
e. age of cow
f. length of storage
DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS
A. MILK
Milk is exclusively the normal mammary secretion obtained from one or more milkings without
either addition thereto or extraction therefrom.
1. Cow’s milk is the whole, fresh, clean lacteal secretions free from colostrum obtained by the
complete milking of the healthy cow and contains less than:
a. 8.25% of milk solids-not-fat
b. 3.00% of milk fat
2. Carabao’s and/or Buffalo’s Milk is the whole, fresh, clean lacteal secretions free from colostrum
obtained by the complete milking of the healthy carabao and/or buffalo and contains not less than:
a. 9.0% of milk solids-not-fat
b. 7.0% of milk fat
3. Goat’s Milk is the whole, fresh, clean lacteal secretions free from colostrum obtained by the
complete milking of the healthy goat and contains not less than:
a. 8.5% of milk solids-not-fat
b. 3.5% of milkfat
4. Fresh Skimmed Milk is milk from which the milk fat has been separated to reduce its milk aft
content to less than 1% and the solids-not-fat should not be less than 8.5%.
5. Pasteurized Milk is milk that has been subjected to a temperature not lower than 63°C and
holding it continuously at that temperature for not less than 30 minutes or at least 72°C and holding
it continuously at that temperature at least 15 seconds. Immediately after pasteurization the milk
should be promptly cooled at 10°C or lower. Provided, that nothing in this definition shall be

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construed as banning any pasteurization process which has been recognized to be equally efficient
and which is approved by health authorities.
6. Sterilized Milk is the milk that has been heated without concentration or appreciable loss of
volume to a temperature of at least 212°F (100°C) for a length of time to kill all the organisms in
hermetically sealed containers and conforms to that standard and quality of milk as defined.
7. Homogenized Milk is milk which has been treated in such manner as to ensure break-up of the
fat globules to such an extent that after 48 hours of quiescent storage at 7°C, no visible cream
separation occurs on the milk and the fat percentage of the top 100 cc of milk in a quart bottle or
of proportionate volumes in containers of other sizes, does not differ by more than 10% fat
percentage of the remaining milk as determined after thorough mixing.
8. Reconstituted or Recombined Milk is a product which results from the combining of milk
constituents with fluid milk or potable water, and which comply with the standards for milk fat and
solids-not-fat of milk as defined.
9. Flavored Reconstituted and/or Recombined Milk is flavored milk made from reconstituted
and/or recombined milk to which has been added a flavoring and/or other additives as permitted
by the Food and Drug Administration.
10. Sweetened Condensed Milk is the liquid or semi-liquid food made by evaporating a mixture of
sweet milk and refined sugar (sucrose) or any combination of refined sugar (sucrose) and refined
corn (dextrose) to such points that the finished sweetened condensed milk contains not less than:
a. 28.0% of total milk solids
b. 8.0% of milk fat
c. The quantity of refined sugar (sucrose) or combination of such sugar and refined corn
(dextrose) must be sufficient to prevent spoilage.
11. Reconstituted and/or Recombined Sweetened Condensed Milk is a product that results from
the recombining of milk constituents with fluid milk or potable water, which compiles with the
standards for milk fat and solids-not-fat of Sweetened Condensed milk. The quantity of sugar used
must be sufficient to prevent spoilage.
12. Sweetened Condensed Skimmed Milk is the product obtained by partial removal of water
only from skimmed milk with the addition of sugar and must contain not less than 24% of milk
solids.
13. Evaporated milk is the liquid obtained by the partial removal of water from milk and must
contain not less than:
a. 25.9% of total milk solids
b. 7.8% of milk fat
It may contain one or more of the following optional ingredients:
1. Disodium phosphate or sodium citrate or both; calcium chloride added in a total
quantity of not more than 0.1% by weight of the finished evaporated milk.
2. Carragean or salts of Carragean or other similar emulsifier which has been recognized
to be equally efficient, and which health authorities approve.
It must contain a minimum of:
Vitamin A- 2,000 USP per 14 oz can
Vitamin D- 400 USP

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14. Reconstituted and/or Recombined Evaporated Milk is a product which results from the
recombining of milk constituents with fluid milk or potable water, which complies with the
standards of milk fat and solids-not-fat of evaporated milk.
It may contain one or more of the following optional ingredients:
1. Disodium phosphate or sodium citrate or both; calcium chloride added in a total
quantity of not more than 0.1% by weight of the finished evaporated milk.
2. Carragean or salts of Carragean or other similar emulsifier which has been recognized
to be equally efficient, and which health authorities approve.
It must contain a minimum of:
Vitamin A- 2,000 USP per 14 oz can
Vitamin D- 400 USP
And it must be homogenized. It is sealed in a container and so processed as to prevent spoilage.
15. Evaporated Skimmed Milk is the liquid product obtained by the partial removal of water only
from skimmed milk and contains not less than 20% of milk solids.
16. Whole Milk Powder (Dried Full Cream Milk, Full Cream Milk, Full Cream Milk Powder, Dried
Milk) is the powder obtained by the removal of water only from the milk and contains:
a. Not less than 96.5% total solids
b. Not less than 25% of milk fat
c. Not more than 3.5% of moisture and with or without added Vitamin D.
17. Partly Skimmed Milk Powder (Partly Skimmed Dried Milk) is the powder obtained by the
removal of water only from partly skimmed milk and must contain:
a. Not less than 96.5% total solids
b. Between 1.5% and 26% milk fat
c. Not more than 3.5% water
18. Skimmed Milk Powder (Non-fat Dried Milk, Dried Skimmed Milk) is the powder obtained by
the removal of water only from skimmed milk and must contain:
a. not less than 96.5% total solids
b. not more than 1.5% fat
c. not more than 3.5% of moisture
19. Reconstituted and/or Recombined Skimmed Milk is a product which results from the
recombining of skimmed milk constituents with potable water, and which must contain not less
than 8.5% milk solids-not-fat.
20. Milk Beverage or Skimmed Milk Beverage is a food mixture or confection, which is prepared
from milk or skimmed milk to which has been added flavorings, and other additives as permitted by
the Food and Drug Administration.
21. Chocolate Milk is the beverage made by the addition of chocolate or chocolate flavors to whole
milk and contains not less than 3.0% of milk fat and not less than 12% total solids by weight.
22. Chocolate Drink or chocolate-flavored drink generally consist of fluid skimmed milk or skimmed
milk powder, with or without buttermilk powder, and potable water to which have been added
cocoa powder, sugar, stabilizer such as vegetable gums or other thickening agent, with or without
the addition of flavoring agent such as salt and vanillin.
23. Malted Milk is the product made by combining whole milk with the liquid separated from a
mash of ground barley malt and meal, with or without the addition of salt, sodium bicarbonate or

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 potassium bicarbonate in such manner as to secure full enzyme action of the malt extract and by
removing water and contains:
a. not less than 7.5% milk fat
b. not more than 3.5% of moisture
24. Filled Milk is made from skimmed milk whether or not condensed, evaporated, concentrated
or powdered, to which has been added or which has been blended or compounded with any fat or
oil other than milk fat, so that the resulting product whether or not condensed, evaporated,
concentrated, powdered, dried should contain at least 3.0% of vegetable fats and 9% M.S.N.F. It
must be enriched with 2000 USP Vitamin A and 400 USP Vitamin D.
a. Evaporated Filled Milk, Unsweetened Condensed Filled Milk is the product made by
recombining non-fat or skimmed milk; constituents with refined vegetable fat in such a manner
that it contains not less than 6% vegetable fats and 20% milk solids-not-fat.
It should contain a minimum of :
Vitamin A- 2000 USP per 14 oz can
Vitamin D- 400 USP
b. Sweetened Condensed Filled Milk, Sweetened Evaporated Filled Milk is the product
made by recombining non-fat or skimmed milk constituents with refined vegetable fats in such a
manner that it contains not less than 7% vegetable fats, not less than 22% milk solids-not-fat; not
less than 2000 USP units of Vitamin A and not less than 400 USP of Vitamin D per ounce can and to
which resulting product is added a quantity of refined sugar sufficient to prevent spoilage.
25. Low Fat Milk is milk from which sufficient milk fat has been removed to reduce its milk fat
content to not less than 1.0% and not more than 3.0%.
26. Reconstituted or Recombined Low Fat Milk is a product which results from the recombining
of milk constituents with fluid milk or potable water and which contains not less than 1.0% and
not more than 3.0% of milk fat.
27. Buttermilk Powder (dried Buttermilk) is the powder obtained by the removal of water only
from buttermilk which is a product resulting from the manufacture of butter from milk or cream,
and must contain:
a. not less than 4.5% butterfat
b. not less than 96% total solids
c. not more than 4.0% moisture
Buttermilk is a liquid product of the manufacture of butter from cream and will be sweet or
sour according to the nature of the cream used. It must contain not less than 0.35% fat and 8.7%
milk solid-not-fat.
28. Yogurt is prepared from milk (whole, partially or fully skimmed, concentrated milk or milk
reconstituted from partially or fully skimmed dried milk) homogenized or not, pasteurized or
sterilized and fermented by means of specific microorganisms or combination of Streptococcus
thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
29. Toned Milk is milk prepared by the addition of reconstituted milk to locally produced milk in
order to reduce the fat content to a predetermined standard while maintaining or increasing the
contents of solids-not-fat.
B. CREAM 1. Cream is the sweet fatty fluid or semi-fluid separated from cow’s and/or buffalo’s milk, with
or without the addition and intimate admixture therewith of sweet and sweet skim milk and contains at
least 18% of butterfat.

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 2.Homogenized Cream is a cream that has been mechanically treated in such a manner as to alter
its physical properties, with particular reference to the condition and appearance of globules.
3. Light Cream, Table Cream or Coffee Cream must contain at least 12% and not more than 18%
butterfat.
4. Whipping Cream must contain not less than 30% butterfat and may contain up to 35% butterfat.
5. Homogenized Whipping Cream is a cream that has been mechanically treated in such a manner
as to alter its physical properties, with particular reference to the condition and appearance of
globules.
6. Reconstituted or Recombined Cream is a product which results from the combination of dry
cream, butter or milk fat with cream, milk, skim milk or potable water, with or without stabilizer
and which complies with milk fat standards or cream.
C. CHEESE
Cheese – is the fresh or matured product obtained from milk, cream, skimmed or party skimmed milk,
butter milk or a combination of some or all of these products either by draining after coagulation or by
any other method which would give the same result.
Cheddar Cheese (Canadian Cheddar Cheese) – is the cheese made by the cheddar process from mated
and milled curd, obtained by the action of rennet or other coagulating agent on whole milk, to which no
skim milk has been added or from which no milk fat has be removed and contains not more than 39% of
moisture and its solids contain not less than 50% of milk fat.
Washed Curd Cheese – is similar to that of Cheddar Cheese except that the slabs of curd are cut into
pieces, cooled in water, and soaked in the water until the whey is partly extracted and water is
absorbed. It contains not more than 42% of moisture and its solids contain not less than 50% of milk fat.
Colby Cheese – is similar to that of Cheddar Cheese excepts that a part of the whey is drained off, the
curd is cooled by adding water and stirring is continued so as to prevent the pieces of curd from matting.
The curd is drained, salted, stirred further, drained and pressed into forms. It contains not more than
40% moisture and its solids contain not less than 50% of milk fat.
Granular Cheese – is similar to that of Cheddar Cheese and Colby Cheese but a part of the whey is
drained off and the curd is then alternately stirred and drained to prevent matting and to remove the
whey from the curd. It contains more than 39% of moisture and not less than 50% of fat in the solids.
Brick Cheese – is the cheese prepared from the whole milk and the other ingredients by action of
harmless lactic acid-producing bacteria, present in such milk and added thereto. Sufficient rennet (with
or without purified calcium chloride in a quantity, not more than 0.02% calculated as anhydrous calcium
chloride, of the weight of the milk) is added to set the milk to a semi-solid mass. It contains not more
than 44% of moisture, and its solids contain not less than 50% of milk fat.
Blue Cheese – is the food prepared from milk and other ingredients by the action of harmless lactic acid-
producing bacteria, present in such milk and added thereto. Harmless artificial green or blue coloring
quantity, which neutralizes any natural yellow coloring in the curd, maybe added. Sufficient rennet (with
or without purified calcium chloride in a quantity not more than 0.02% calculated as anhydrous calcium
chloride, of the weight of the milk) is added to set the milk to a semi-solid mass. The presence of bluish
green mold spores of the mold Penicillium roqueforti throughout the cheese characterizes it. It contains
more than 46% of moisture, and its solids contain not less than 50% of milk fat.
Roquefort Cheese, Sheep’s Milk Blue Mold Cheese, Blue Mild Cheese from Sheep’s Milk – is the cheese
prepared from sheep’s milk and another ingredients by the action of harmless lactic acid-producing
bacteria, present in such milk and added thereto. Sufficient rennet is added to set the milk to a semi-

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solid mass. It is characterized by the presence of bluish-green mold throughout the cheese. It contains
not more than 43% moisture, and its solids contain not less than 50% milk fat.Limburger Cheese – is the
cheese prepared from milk and other ingredients by the action of harmless lactic acid-producing
bacteria, present in such milk and added thereto. Sufficient rennet or other safe and suitable milk
clotting enzyme that produces equivalent curd formation, or both with or without purified calcium
chloride in a quantity not more than 0.02% (calculated as anhydrous calcium chloride) of weight of the
milk is added to set the milk to a semi-solid mass. It contains not more than 50% moisture, and its solids
contain not less than 50% of milk fat.
The finished product shall contain if manufactured from:
a) Single variety of cheese
i. Note more that 43% of moisture, except that pasteurized washed curd cheese or
pasteurized processed Colby cheese which is not more than 40% pasteurized Swiss
cheese or pasteurized processed Gruyere cheese which is not more than 44% and
pasteurized Limburger cheese which is not more than 51%.
ii. Not less than 47% of minimum fat contents, pasteurized processed Swiss cheese that is
not less than 43%, and pasteurized processed Gruyere cheese, which is not less than
45%
b) Two or more Varieties
i. Not more than 43% of moisture, except pasteurized processed cheese, made from two
or more of the varieties of Cheddar cheese, washed curd cheese, Colby cheese, and
granular cheese which is not more than 40%, a mixture of Swiss cheese and Gruyere
cheese which is not more than 44%.
ii. Not less than 47% of minimum fat contents except pasteurized process Gruyere cheese
made from a mixture of Swiss cheese and Gruyere cheese is not less than 45%
Cottage Cheese – is a soft uncured cheese prepared from sweet skim milk, concentrated skim milk, and
non-fat dry milk by the action of harmless lactic-acid producing bacteria with or without rennet or other
safe and suitable milk-clotting enzyme
If concentrated skim milk or non-fat dry milk is used, water may be added in quantity not in
excess of that removed when skim milk was concentrated or dried.
The finished cottage cheese contains not more than:
a) 80% moisture; and
b) 0.5% stabilizing agent
Creamed Cottage Cheese – is the soft uncured cheese prepared by mixing cottage cheese with a
creaming mixture of cream with milk or skim milk or both to which one or more of the following
optional ingredients may be added:
a) Salt
b) One or any combinations of two or more of:
i) Non-fat dry milk and concentrated skim milk
ii) Sodium caseinate, ammonium caseinate, and potassium caseinate
iii) Dried milk products
iv) Lactose
c) A culture of harmless lactic acid and flavor producing bacteria with or without rennet
d) A preparation of pasteurized skim milk or cottage cheese, whey with added citric acid or
sodium citrate
e) Lactic acid, citric acid, phosphoric acid

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 f) Stabilizing ingredient
g) Safe and suitable flavoring ingredients
The finished creamed cottage cheese contains:
a) Not more than 80% of moisture
b) Not less than 4% of milk fat
WHEY
Whey is the serum that remains after the coagulation of the casein when cheese is manufactured.
BUTTER
Butter is a fatty product exclusively derived from milk and contains:
a) Not less than 80% of milk fat by weight
b) Not more than 2% of milk solids not fat by weight
c) Not more than 16% of water by weight
WHEY BUTTER
Whey butter is a fatty product derived from whey containing no other fat than milk and contains:
a) Not less than 80% of milk fat by weight
b) Not more than 2% of milk solids not fat by weight
c) Not more than 16% of water by weight
WHEY CHEESE
Whey cheese are the products obtain by concentration of whey and the moldering of the concentrated
whey, with or without the addition of milk and milk fat and contains not less than 10% of milk fat.
EDIBLE ICES
1. Ice cream
2. Milk Ices
ICE CREAM – is the common and usual name of frozen food made from cream or a mixture of milk and
cream, or from a combination of dairy products, with or without water, having substantially an
equivalent composition. The food is sweetened with sugar or other suitable sweetening agent and may
contain natural or artificial flavoring or other food ingredients such as coca, fruit and nuts, to
characterize it as a kind of ice cream. It may contain small amounts of added salt as seasoning and
contains not less than:
a) 10% of milk fat
b) 10% of solids non-fat (SNF)
c) 18% total milk solids
d) 30% to 33% total solids
e) Not more than 0.5% stabilizer
f) Must be “free” from coliform bacilli, the tolerance level being 200,000 innocuous per gram
For ice cream containing chocolate or fruits or nuts –
a) Not less than 8% of milk fat
b) 14% of total solids
Products with less than 10% of minimum milk fat are designated by another name such as “milk
ice” and contain 11% of minimum total milk solids.
SHERBET – is the frozen food other than ice cream from a milk product with or without –
a) Water
b) Sweetening
c) Fruit or fruit juice
d) Citric, or Tart

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 e) Flavoring preparation
f) Food color
g) Not more than 0.75% of the finished product or stabilizer and shall contain –
i. Not more than 5% of milk solids, including fat; and
ii. Not less than 0.35% acid determined by titration and expressed as lactic acid.

FACTORS AFFECTING MILK QUALITY

I. Microorganisms
II. Chemical Residues
III. Off-flavor

MICROORGANISMS
=Bacteria, yeast and molds
Sources of Contamination:
1. Teat Canal
Prevention:
a) discard foremilk
b) regular use of strip cup
2. Soil, manure or body discharges of dairy animal
Prevention:
a) Wash, sanitize and dry udder and teats before milking.
3. Milker
Prevention:
a) Strict personal cleanliness
4. Barns or milk parlors
Prevention:
a) Well constructed, properly maintained and adequately ventilated
b) Avoid feeding dusty or moldy roughage during milking
5. Milking machine, pipelines, milk cans, bulk tanks and other equipment
Prevention:
a) Immediately clean after use, sanitize before using again.
6. Water for washing and rinsing equipment
Prevention:
a) Clean potable water should always be used.
Control Measures Against Growth of Contaminating Microorganisms:
1. Cool warm milk as rapidly as possible (4°C) and maintain at that temperature during transport
and storage.
2. Proper pasteurization. This destroys pathogenic bacteria and 98% of spoilage bacteria, molds
and yeasts.
Types of Bacteria Found in Milk:
1. Lactic Acid Formers
Lactic streptococci and lactobacilli are commonly responsible for souring of milk which has not been
adequately refrigerated.

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 Formation of lactic acid from lactose proceeds very rapidly at temperature above 24°C. At greater
than 0.22% developed acidity, casein is coagulated to form smooth gel typical of sour milk.
2. Psychrotrophs
These grow rapidly 10°C but less rapidly below 4°C. They cause undesirable physical changes and
off-flavors of milk.
Possible sources of combination are:
1. Water supply
2. Soil, vegetation and hide of the animal
3. Unsanitary practice in the milk room: especially improper cleaning and sanitation of
the equipment.
3. Thermophiles
These are heat-loving bacteria which grow well at 50°Cand above.
Possible sources of contamination are:
1. Feeds, particularly hay and silage
2. Manure
3. Soil
Their presence in milk indicates, dusty, poorly ventilated milk barns.
4. Thermodurics
These are mesophilic bacteria, which are able to survive pasteurization. Theie presences
indicates uses of unsanitary equipment in the process or pasteurization of milk.

Undesirable Activities of Microorganisms:

1. Production of mycotoxins by molds e. g. Aspergillus
2. Production of lactic acid and denaturation of casein by lactic acid bacteria before processing.
3. Proteolytic action of heat resistant bacteria that survive pasteurization. These suppress lactic
acid bacteria and cause product to have a putrid flavor.
4. Lipolytic and proteolytic activity of spoilage psychrotroph at temperature less than 5°C during
storage of freshly drawn milk from cow.
5. Gas formation from anaerobic organisms e. g. Clostidium
6. Gas hole formation in cheddar cheese.
7. Toxic production by pathogenic bacteria, e. g. Staphylococcus aureus
8. Growth of pathogenic bacteria, e. g. E. coli and other enteric organisms.
9. Presence of viruses.
CHEMICAL RESIDUES
ANTIBIOTICS
There should be no detectable amounts of antibiotics in milk for the following reasons.
1. Possible allergic reactions in consumers.
2. Development of bacterial tolerance by some pathogenic bacteria.
3. Presence of antibiotics can cause problems in dairy product manufacture.
4. Presence of antibiotics can result to false readings in bacterial counts.
5. Antibiotics are not reduced by pasteurization or other processing methods.
Sources of Antibiotics:
1. Udder infusion for treatment of mastitis
2. Systemic administration of antibiotics.
3. Deliberate addition of milk.

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 Test used for Antibiotic Detection: Disc Assay Test
Program to Avoid Antibiotic Residue in Milk:
1. Read instruction on label.
2. Milk treated cows last.
3. Discard milk from all four quarters of treated cows.
4. With hold all milk from treated cows (don’t include in bulk milk) for at least 72 hours.
PESTICIDES
Pesticides used in dairy farms and plants must be non-toxic and not cause injury to the
consumer. Pesticide residues should not be present in milk above the allowed tolerance level.
Reasons why pesticide should not be present in milk:
1. Pesticides can be excreted in milk and stored in body fat.
2. They can be toxic in small amounts.
3. They are not destroyed of removed by pasteurization.
Sources of pesticides:
1. Contaminated forage fed to dairy animals.
2. Accidental ingestion by animals.
3. Use of pesticides on dairy animals and barns to control flies, lice, ticks and other ectoparasites.
Prevention against Pesticide Residues in Milk
1. Use only approved pesticide for dairy.
2. Ensure forage does not contain pesticide residues.
3. Conduct own forage production operations.
4. Proper application and storage of pesticides.
Test for pesticides: Paper chromatography

Fly bioassay method

RADIONUCLIDES
Radioactive elements may be present in milk as a result of emission of alpha, beta and gamma rays.
Sources of Radionucleotides:
1. Cosmic rays
2. Radioactive elements in the earth
3. Fallout from atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons
4. Nuclear power plants
Milk has been selected for radionuclide surveillance because it is available daily throughout the year
and because its importance in diet of children and adults.
PRESERVATIVES AND DISINFECTANTS
Except for hydrogen peroxide which may be used to milk as preservatives if it cannot be cooled or
pasteurized immediately, the addition of preservatives should be strongly condemned and guarded
against for the following reasons:
1. Chemicals tend to mask unhygienic practices but don’t provide any safeguard against
pathogenic organisms.
2. Certain amounts, e.g. formalin and boric acid, can be toxic in small amounts.
Sources of contamination:
1. Deliberate addition to milk

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 2. Improper sanitation of utensils and machinery with chemical disinfectants.
HEAVY METALS
Cadmium, lead, zinc, tin, and copper and other heavy materials may gain entry into milk and milk
products from corroded metal surface of utensils, dairy implements and containers. Incidence of
poisoning is, considered rare.
OFF-FLAVORS
The taste of fresh milk is a combination of sweetness (lactose) and saltiness (due to low NaCl
content). However, milk may acquire a number of undesirable odors and flavors, which can impair
its quality and render it unpalatable to the consumer.
Causes of Common Off-Flavors of Milk and Methods of Prevention and Control:
1. BARNY (cowy, musty, unclean)
Causes:
a) Foul odors inhaled by cows housed in dirty stables, which are poorly ventilated travel by
way of the lungs and circulatory system to the udder and enter the milk.
b) Bedding and manure may enter the milk via milking machine from dirty udders of by
allowing the teat cups to touch the floor or bedding materials.
Prevention: Clean cows, clean milkers and well-ventilated, clean stables will eliminate this flavor, which
is a more problem in conventional barns than in milking parlors.
2. BITTER (rancid, tainted)
Cause: The enzyme LIPASE, which is always present in raw milk, when activated by any of the following
factors, hydrolyzes milk fat releasing fatty acids, some of which have a pronounced disagreeable flavor.
a) Agitation of warm milk in the risers of pipeline milking systems cause rancidity.
b) Temperature changes in milk may catalyze the lipase; these include slow cooling; addition of
warm milk to cold milk; warming milk to 26.6°C or above, then cooling to low temperatures;
freezing and thawing of milk.
c) Cows in late lactation giving small amounts of milk often produce milk; which is highly
susceptible to rancidity.
Prevention
a) Eliminate, if possible, risers in milk pipeline systems.
b) Keep agitation at a minimum in handling warm milk.
c) Cool milk as quickly as possible to 4°C or less.
d) Avoid freezing milk, and do not permit cooled milk to be rewarmed.
e) Check strippers and cows in late lactation for rancid milk. If present, dry off the cow. The bitter
flavor may be judged to be unclean when the milk is first drawn. However, after several hours,
the milk will have a tainted taste that renders undrinkable.
3. FEED (Garlic, grassy, onion, silage, weedy)
Cause: The most common off-flavor in milk is caused by various types of feeds consumed by cows. Any
sudden change in the ration is likely to result in a corresponding change in the flavor of milk.
a) Feeding silage before milking, especially grass silage with a high butyric acid content.
b) If cows breathe the odor from silage, it will also appear in the milk, though less pronounced than
if silage is fed prior to milking.
c) If cows are pastured, off-flavors result from weeds eaten by the cows or when the herd is turned
onto lush pasture. Wild garlic and wild onion are examples of weeds that cause objectionable
flavors in milk.
Prevention:

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 a) Unless the herd has constant access to silage in loose housing, plan to feed silage after milking.
b) Bring cows into the barn from pasture at least 3 hours before milking to reduce off flavors in
milk
c) Use herbicides to control noxious weeds.
4. MALTY or HIGH ACID (grapenuts, sour)
Causes: High bacterial counts are the cause of malty or high-acid milk. Malty flavor is present when the
milk has very high bacterial count but before it has had time to sour.
a) The usual source of the bacteria is milking equipment; which are not properly cleaned and
sanitized.
b) Slow cooling or failure to lower the temperature of the milk to 4°C allows the bacteria to
multiply rapidly.
Prevention:
a) Keep the cows clean.
b) Clean milking equipment immediately after each use, and sanitize it prior to using.
c) Cool milk rapidly to 4°C and hold it at that temperature. The key words are CLEAN and COLD.
5. OXIDIZED (cardboard, tallowy)
Causes: Since the flavor of oxidized milk resembles the taste of cardboard or tallow, consumer naturally
object at it. There are 3 causes of oxidized flavor in milk:
a) Some cows produce milk with a cardboard flavor, especially when fled in the barn or dry lot.
b) When milk is exposed to sunlight for 15 minutes or more, it is quite likely to develop an oxidized
flavor.
c) Dissolved copper or iron act as catalysts in milk. These may be in the water supply for rinsing
equipment or may be picked up by the milk from rusty or worn utensils.
Prevention:
a) Do not exposed milk to sunlight.
b) Use stainless steel equipment.
c) Drain all chlorine form utensils and equipment after sanitizing.
d) Although considerable research has been done with anti-oxidants and alpha tocopherol (Vitamin
E) as feed additives to prevent oxidized flavor in the milk of certain cows, a practical solution to
this problem has been achieved yet.
6. MISCELLANEOUS
A) COOKED
Pasteurization, especially the high temperature-short-time (HTST) method may impart a “cooked” flavor
to the milk as a results of release of volatile, sulfydryl compounds from milk proteins. Milk dealers must
be constantly alert in all phases of milk processing to avoid flavor defects.
B) FLAT
Milk that is low in total solids has a flat taste. Milk low in lactose lacks the slightly sweet flavor of normal
milk, and milk that is low in milkfat lacks the smooth flavor that is characteristic of higher tasting milk.
C) SALTY
Cows with mastitis, in late lactation, and occasionally individual cows in earlier stages of lactation may
yield salty milk vas a result of excessive amounts of sodium chloride from the blood plasma passing into
the alveoli of the udder. The milk should be discarded, the mastitis treated, and cos in late lactation
should be dried off.
D) PHYSICAL DEFECTS
There are v3 common physical defects, which detract from the palatabily of milk:

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 1. CHALKY
Milk that is homogenized before UHT (Ultra High Temparature) pasteurization may acquire a
chalky texture. Homogenizationafter pasteurization will eliminate this problem.
2. ROPY
Ropy milk is quite viscous and has slimy threads on its surface. It is not to be consumed with
stringy milk from quarters with acute mastitis. Ropy milk does not develop ropiness until several
hours after milking. Coliform bacteria and some Streptococci form a gelatinous membranes
around their bodies, and gums and mucins from it cause the ropiness in milk. Unless the
bacteria have caused lactic acid fermentation, the flavor is normal and it is safe to drink after
pasteurization. Obviously, however, consumers will not appreciate its slimy texture. Proper
washing of cow’s udder with a sanitizing solution before milking, sterile utensils, and
pasteurization of milk will eliminate this defect.
3. SWEET CURD
Some bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, S.cereus and Streptococcus faecalis subsp. Liquefaciens) secrete
a rennet-likeenzyme, which coagulates milk without an increase in acidity. The enzyme digests
the phospholipid membrane surrounding the fat globules allowing them to coalesce and form a
cream line. The enzyme is destroyed by pasteurization, but some bacteria may survive and if the
milk reaches temperatures between 20.5°C and 43.3°C the defect may occur.

7. UNNATURAL FLAVORS
Careless or thoughtless use of disinfectants, medicines or spays on milking cows or in the dairy
barn can result in unnatural flavors in milk, which are highly objectionable to consumers.
a) DISINFECTANTS. All spays with a creosote base can impart an objectionable flavor to milk if
ingested on forage or inhales by cows.
b) INSECTICIDES. Fly sprays and other insecticides can also give milk an unnatural flavor or odor.
c) MEDICATIONS. Some preparations used for treating sore teat have pungent odors, which will be
picked up by milk passing through the teat cup.
d) PESTICIDES. Spray residues on leaves of alfalfa or other forage crops consumed by milking cows
can cause off-flavors in milk.

Most of these problems can be avoided by using odorless medications and by exercising
judgments in using disinfectants around the barn and in proper choice of insecticide and
pesticides.
KEEPING QUALITY OF MILK
KEEPING QUALITY OF MILK – is the period in hours which elapses from its production until it is
considered unsuitable for consumption, either because it curdles on boiling or it develops an
undesirable odor or flavor. In the determination of keeping quality, during this period, the milk should
be kept at 15.5°C
ENDPOINT OF KEEPING QUALITY – is the stage of deterioration when milk is unsuitable for
consumption. It varies with the personal likes and dislikes of individuals testing of milk. It also varies
depending on the combined action of the different types of organisms that affect keeping quality of
milk.
Test used to determine KEEPING QUALITY of milk:
1. Alcohol Precipitation Test (APT)

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 2. Clot-on-Boiling Test (COB)
3. Methylene Blue Reduction Test (MRB)

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE KEEPING QUALITY OF RAW MILK:

1. Bacterial Flora
2. Mineral-salt balance
3. Season of the year
4. Temperature
5. Degree of Agitation during transit
6. Development of those physical and chemical reactions that lead to the production of abnormal
taints and flavors.
1. BACTERIAL FLORA
Milk contains relatively few bacteria when it leaves the udder of a healthy and clean cows, and generally
these bacteria do not grow in milk under the usual conditions of handling. However, micrococci and
streptococci, at a range of 500-1,000/ml, have been recovered from aseptically drawn milk.
The keeping quality of milk be correlated with the colony count of the sample:
a) Higher counts usually produce a lower keeping quality, except at counts of 800-1,000/ml
consisting mostly of udder micrococci, which produce little acid but are strongly proteolytic.
b) Counts greater than 1,000 but less than 5,000/ml usually produce maximum keeping quantity,
particularly if the predominant organisms is Streptococcus lactis which produce sufficient acid to
inhibit activity of proteolytic micrococci.
c) The presence of coliforms, even in small numbers, causes considerable decrease in keeping
quality due to the production of butryric and acetic acids that give a sharp unpleasanr flavor to
milk. In addition, coliforms have an inhibitory actions of the formation lactics acid by
Streptococcus lactis.
2. CHANGE IN MINERAL CONTENT
Small changes in relative proportions of salts of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and citric acid affect
keeping quality. Milk produced on limestone soils has greater keeping quality that those produced on
clay soils. Cows approaching the end of lactation period or are suffering from mastitis produce milk of
poorly keeping quality.
3. SEASON OF THE YEAR and TEMPARATURE
There is no effect on keeping quality provided milk is kept well cooled and clean. However, the
temperature at transit during warmer months of the year can favor increase in bacterial count resulting
to decrease keeping quality.

4. DEGREE OF AGITATION
Excessive agitation tends to break up clumps of bacteria leading to decrease in keeping quality.
Excessive handling, e.g. sieving, pumping, clarifying and pouring from one vessel to another, can cause
further decrease in keeping quality.
5. CONDITION UNCER WHICH MILK IS PRODUCED
Clean cows, sterile utensils and thorough cooling after milking are all essential good keeping
quality of raw milk.
During the normal milking operation, milk is subject to contamination from the animal,
especially the exterior of the udder and adjacent areas. Bacteria found in manure, soil, and water may

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enter from this source. Clipping the cow, especially the flanks and udder, grooming the cow, and
washing the udder with water or a germicidal solution before milking reduces such contamination.
Paving and draining barnyards, keeping cows from stagnant pools, and cleaning manure from the barns
or milking parlor reduces contamination of the cow with soil, water, and manure.
Probably the 2 most significant sources of contamination are dairy utensils and milk-contact
surfaces, including the milk pail or milking machines, as the case may be, strainers, milk cans or
pipelines, and the bulk-milk cooler. If dairy utensils or the milk-contact surfaces are inadequately
cleaned, sanitized, and dried, bacteria may develop in large numbers and enter the next milk to touch
these surfaces.
Other possible sources of contamination are the hands and arms of the milker or dairy workers,
the air of the barn or milking parlor, and flies. The quality of the farm water supply used in the milking
parlor for cleaning, rinsing, etc., will have some effect on the quality of the milk.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE KEEPING QUALITY OF HEAT-TREATED MILK
1. Nature of treatment in heat treated milk
2. Extent of contamination
3. Storage temperature
Milk is an excellent culture medium for many kinds of microorganisms, being high in moisture, nearly
neutral pH, and rich in microbial foods. Because milk is so readily changed by heat, the mild heat
treatment called pasteurizations is used for its preservation.
Objective of Pasteurization:
1. Kill the pathogens that may enter the milk and be transmitted to people;
2. Improve the keeping quality of milk; and
3. Destroy microorganism that would interfere with the activities of inoculated desirable organism,
such as starter culture in production of fermented dairy products. E.g: cheese, fermented milk,
etc.
Pasteurization kills yeast, molds, most psychrotrophic bacteria, the coliforms and rapid acid producers
such as Streptococcus lactis. The spoilage of pasteurized milk then depends on:
1. Bacteria that survive pasteurization, the “thermodurics” and sporeformers;
2. Bacteria that enter the milk following pasteurization, post pasteurization – contamination.
3. Possible presence of heat resistant residual microbial enzymes.
4. Temperature of storage.
1. NATURE OF HEAT TREATMENT
Methods of heat treatment of Milk:
a. Vat/ Batch Method = 63OC for 30 minutes
b. High – Temperature Short Time Method = 72 OC for not more than 15seconds
c. Ultra – High Temperature = 135OC and 150OC or 1 – 4 seconds.

Sterilized milk has a longer keeping quality compared to pasteurized milk.

1. EXTENT OF CONTAMINATION
Careless production and handling of milk, which results to the introduction of
organisms, which are heat resistant, leads to short keeping quality of heat treated milk.
Contamination of heat treated milk due to the use of unsterile holding tanks, unsterile
bottle filling machines and unsterile bottle cause rapid deterioration of heat treated milk.

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2. TEMPERATURE USED AND AFTER HEAT TREATMENT
Pasteurized milk should be kept at not more than 10OC, but not lower than 3-4OC during
the whole time from bottling after pasteurization to deliver to the consumer.
If pasteurized milk is refrigerated, spoilage usually results from heat resistant
psychrotrophic organisms. Current spoilage problems or pasteurized milk are related to spore
forming psychrotrophic bacilli. Growth at low temperatures is slow but significant.
Assuming a generation time of 8hr at 7OC, 1 cell could become 1 million in 20
generations (about 6 to 7days), or 2 million in 7 to 8days or 1 billion in 10days.
CONTROL OF MILK PRDUCTION AT THE FARM
The production of high quality milk is very important because quality of the products
derived from raw milk, e.g fluid milk, butter, cheese, ice cream, etc, is directly affected. Defects
such as cowy, unclean, disinfectant odor, saltiness and sour flavor must not be present. All these
are due to contamination of the milk while still at the farm.
Factors involved in the Production of Clean Milk at the farm:
A. HEALTH OF THE ANIMALS
1. Dairy animals should be healthy
2. Dairy animals should be kept clean
B. HEALTH OF THE WORKERS
1. Workers should be healthy
2. Workers should practice good personal hygiene
C. PREMISES
1. Building should be well constructed, well ventilated, well lighted and well drained.
 Floors and walls should be smooth, impervious, concrete material; color should
be light.
 There should be no edges where dust might collect.
 There should be good outlet and inlet ventilation.
 Adequate well distributed natural and/or artificial lighting should be provided.
 Toilet facilities for workers should be provided and maintained in a sanitary
condition; these should not open directly to the milk room.
 Floors should have suitable slope to drains and gutters should have rounded
edges.
 Ceilings should be constructed in a way that dust, condensate or hot air don’t
accumulate.
2. Buildings should be kept thoroughly clean and in good order and maintenance.
 Racks and hooks should be present in milk room to hang milking equipment.
 Pathways to the milk room should be free of mud and manure; use concrete or
asphalted pavement.
 Floors, walls, windows, ceilings should be kept clean.
 No trash, unnecessary articles, animals or facilities should be found in the milk
room.
 Pesticides and medicines should not be stored in milkhouses.
3. Location should be suitable.
 Milking shed should be at elevated area.
 Milk rooms should be far away from polluting doors.

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  Position should be such that milking shed is protected aginst the winds that
carry odor and dust.
 Manure storage should be inaccessible to dairy animals.
D. WATER SUPPLY
 Supplies should be abundant.
 Should be clean and potable.
 Should be pollution free. There should be no connection between safe and unsafe
supplies.
 Should be regularly checked for bacteriological and chemical quality.
E. UTENSILS
 Should be made of suitable material, easily cleaned and correctly designed.
 A washing convex through (with rounded corners) and the right kind of stiff hand
brush should be available.
 All utensils used in the milking operation or any surface which have come in contact
with milk should be:
1. Rinsed with clean water.
2. Washed with warm water containing suitable detergent and brushed.
3. Rinsed with clean water and dried.
4. Sterilized with suitable disinfectant solution.
5. Rinsed with clean water, and
6. Hang or place in an inverted position on draining rack to dry. They should be protected
from dust.
F. MILKING MACHINE
 Should be kept thoroughly clean and sterile condition. After each milking….
1. A plentiful supply of cold water should be drawn through the teat cups and tubes.
2. Follow with an application of hot water with caustic soda or alkaline detergent.
3. Periodically change to acid detergent every 4th day to avoid detergent residues and milk
stones from depositing on surfaces.
4. Rinse with clean water.
5. Sterilize with steam, and
6. Hang to dry.
2 or 3 times per week, teat cup lines should be dismantled, washed in detergent and sanitized. The
rubber parts should be boiled in 5% caustic soda.
G. METHODS TO PREVENT CONTAMINATION
1. PEST CONTROL – prevent pests from breeding and having access to buildings.
a. Screen all opening
b. Rat proof all openings
c. Ensure efficient waste disposal
2. DUST CONTROL
a. Pigs, poultry and other domestic animals must not be allowed in milking sheds and
neither should be pilled near them.
b. Practice of giving dry feed while milking should be discouraged to avoid
contamination of milk by dust.
c. Bare ground around milking shed should be planted with grass to keep dust away.
d. Avoid putting up vehicle roads in close proximity to the milking sheds.
3. CONTROL OF CONTAMINATION

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 A. Milking Operation
1. Before milking, the flank, tail, udder and teats of the animals should be cleaned,
sanitized and dried.
2. Milker should be wash his hands and forearms thoroughly and dry them with a
clean cloth and towel.
3. Foremilk from each teat should be discarded.
4. Filter/ strain milk to remove extraneous materials.
B. Cooling of Milk
1. Cool milk immediately to less than 100C and maintained thereat.
2. Protect milk from direct sunlight.
3. Avoid overcooling of milk.
C. Feeding Routine
1. Give feeds after milking.
2. Bring in animals from pasture at least 3hrs before milking.
MILK AT THE DAIRY PLANT
1. Milk collected and delivered to the dairy plant.
2. Weighing and conduct of Platform test.
3. Transfer of milk through pipelines for pumping into coolers.
4. Cooling of milk = milk which is not immediately used in production for greater than 1hr must be
cooled 40C.
5. Storage = raw milk can be stored at 40C for not more than 48hrs in storage tanks while being
continuously agitated (by paddies or air bubbles) at a moderate rate to avoid creaming of milk.
6. Clarification = milk is pumped through a centrifuge (clarifier) to remove any solid foreign
material, e.g. blood or somatic cells, straw or manure.
7. Pasteurization
8. Homogenization = milk is pumped into a small opening under pressure (in a homogenizer) to
break up fat globules into smaller particles so these do not rise to form cream layer, resulting to
an even dispersion of fat.
9. Bottling/ Packaging or processing into other dairy products, e.g. cheese, powdered milk, ice
cream and etc.
Hygienic Control at the Dairy Plant
Objectives of Hygienic Control:
1. To ensure the consistent daily turnout of safe and clean products.
2. To preserve the keeping quality of dairy products.
Important considerations in Hygienic Control:
A. DAIRY BUILDING
 Should be designed and equipped for functional and hygienic efficiency. It should
aid in saving time, reducing labor and other operational costs and facilitate the
turnout of products that comply with legally prescribed bacteriological quality
standards.
 STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
1. Floors – should be constructed of materials impervious to water, smoothly
finished, effectively and efficiently drained.
2. Walls – should be of adequate height (at least 4 m. in rooms used for
processing), have smooth, cleanable surface, which should preferably be
vitreous tiles or cement plastic finished up to a minimum height of 2 meters.

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 3. Ceilings – should be smooth and have a light-colored surface.
4. Doors – should be self – closing.
5. Windows and other external openings – should be screened to give protection
against insects and vermin.
6. Lighting – whether natural or artificial, should be efficient for the purpose for
which the room is used. However, dairy products must be protected from direct
sunlight that causes their spoilage by oxidative effects of the ultraviolet rays.
7. Ventilation – should be adequate to reduce odors and condensation of
moisture.
8. Milk and Cream Reception Platform – should be separated from the processing
area. If possible, separate rooms should be provided for the different stages of
treatment. Washing of cans and bottles should be carried out separately from
the processing room so as to avoid the possibility of contamination of products
and of equipment. In multiple product dairies, each product should be treated
in separate rooms or in separate floors.
9. Hand washing facilities – should be adequately and conveniently located in
processing rooms and should be fitted with running water, soap, approved
sanitary towels or hand dryers. Use common towel should be prohibited.
10. Toilets – should be provided, but should not open directly into any room, which
is used for processing, handling or storing dairy products.
11. Storage rooms of Factory Requisites or Dairy Products – should be kept clean
and tidy, as untidiness there predisposes employees to careless hygienic
practices in the processing sections of the dairy. All ingredients used in dairy
products and all packaging materials should be stored therein so as to be kept
clean and dry, and should be handled in such a way to avoid contamination.
12. All buildings – should be kept in good repair and surroundings in a clean and tidy
condition. The yards should be paved, especially where they provide access to
vehicles and well drained. Planting of lawns, shrubs and garden beds in front of
a dairy adds appreciably to appearance and stimulates pride among employees,
with a beneficial attitude to the performance of their duties.
13. Cleaning – to avoid absorption by milk products or contamination of equipment
from milk residues, all floors and drains of milk reception and processing rooms
should be cleaned after their daily use. This involves hosing down to remove
remnants of milk, sweeping a detergent solution over them with a stiff broom
and finally hosing with hot water. Floors and drains should be flushed clean with
water as often necessary during the daily operations.
B. PERSONNEL
1. Employees should wear clean washable clothing, consisting, if possible, of white overall and
cap.
2. Employees should be compelled to wash their hands after visiting the toilet or before
resuming work, or whenever they become otherwise soiled.
3. Smoking and expectorating should be forbidden in dairy premises.
4. Education of employees on the various aspects of good plant hygiene should be encourage
for them to appreciate and understand the scientific principles upon which sanitary laws are
based.

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 C. WATER SUPPLY
 An abundant supply of good quality potable (reasonably soft) water is essential at a
dairy for such purposes as:
a. Cleaning of equipment and washing floors;
b. Washing of milk or cream from vats and washing butter during manufacturing
process;
c. Steam raising;
d. For refrigeration facilities;
e. For cream and milk cooling;
f. For production and maintenance of vacuum for processing, etc.
Water storage tanks at dairies should be periodically and regularly emptied and cleaned to avoid
contamination of products from equipment rinsed with water.\
Regular bacteriological and chemical checks should be conducted at various points of the plant to
determine the quality and suitability for use of the water supply. If necessary, water treatment should
be instituted to remove hardness and filtered and chlorinated to make them of satisfactory
bacteriological quality.
D. UTENSILS AND EQUIPMENT
1. All utensils and equipment with which milk or milk products come into contact and multi-
purpose containers. E,g. milk and cream cans, must be made of smooth, impervious material
(preferably stainless steel). These must be resistant to corrosion by milk and milk products,
as well as by detergents and bactericides at the concentration and temperature used for
their cleaning.
2. Design must facilitate operation and cleaning. For example, interiors should be smooth,
metal joints and seams must be finished with a smooth surface.
3. All equipment must be kept in good repair.
4. All joints of pipes for conveying milk must be leak proof.
5. Milk cocks, bends or taps on piping and other equipment and sanitary pumps for pumping
milk and cream , must be designed to permit ready, complete dismantling of ail component
parts of cleaning.
6. All utensils and equipment used for treatment or storage of dairy products must be
thoroughly cleaned after each time of use. This must be followed by suitable bactericidal
treatment.
7. Efficiency of measures adopted for the maintenance of equipment in a hygienic condition
may be assessed by visual inspection and laboratory test.
E. LABORATORY CONTROL
 Bacteriological tests should be conducted on equipment and work surfaces to assess the
effectiveness of the cleaning and sanitation program, as well as the quality of the water
supply. Likewise, lab tests on products before and after treatment should be mandatory.
For testing of products , great care is necessary to avoid contamination during sampling.
MILK QUALITY TEST
Before the main concern over milk quality was mainly limited to freedom from adulteration.
However, with the increasing realization that milk is an effective vehicle or agent for the spread of
diseases, there has been a shift to the bacteriological testing of milk. An additional advantage of
bacteriological tests is that it gives an indication on the probable keeping quality of milk.

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 Test on the quality of milk are mainly don on receiving platforms and laboratories of dairy plants
or of milk receiving stations (or collection centers). Usually milk is delivered to these areas in cans or
tanks. Samples of milk are then taken from these containers and tested:
Purposes for conducting tests:
1. To asses the care taken in the production and processing of milk.
2. To determine the probable cause of unduly high bacterial populations.
3. To carry out compositional test (fat, total solids, etc.) to detect sub-standard supplies, or as basis
for payment.
4. To give evidence of mastitis, adulteration and etc.
TEST FOR MASTITIS:
These are inexpensive, rapid and simple tests that can be used on the farm (or in the laboratory).
1. STRIP CUP TEST
 Helpful test in detecting early stages of mastitis and preventing abnormal milk from
getting into the bulk.
 Involves the physical examination of foremilk to detect the abnormal appearance of
clots, ropy, watery appearance, mucus secretion, blood tinged milk and etc.
2. CALIFORNIA MASTITIS TEST (CMT)
 Utilizes the reagent alkyl aryl sulfonate, which measures the cell concentration
(leukocyte concentration) of the milk sample by reacting with DNA of the cell nuclei that
cause precipitation and gel formation. Bromocresol purple indicator is added to the
reagent to identify samples which are high acid (yellow) or alkaline (purple). Positive
results are indicated by precipitation, the degree is correlated to estimate the number
of cells/ml.
3. MODIFIED WHITESIDE TEST
Addition of 2 drops of 4% sodium hydroxide to 5drops of thoroughly mixed milk sample on a
black Bakelite sheet causes the precipitation of large clumps of coagulated material in milk with
high leukocyte counts. It is believed that the NaOH reacts with nuclei acid to form Na salt. The
serum solids and fat globules become adhered to the gelatinous mass to produce the
characteristic flakes and strings of precipitates.
MILK TESTS ON RECEPTION
I. PLATFRM TESTS
Rapid quality sorting procedures adapted daily at receiving stations whereby milk of
inferior quality or questionable quality can be detected immediately as it is delivered
and usually before dumping into the delivery container.
A. ORGANOLEPTIC TESTS = one utilizes the full use of the sense of sight, smell and taste, may
require prior heating of milk sample as detection of off-flavors or odors in cold milk is difficult.
1. SMELL – normal milk has pleasant odor, requires smelling of can lid as it is removed to
detect undesirable odors indicative of feed, weed, barny, disinfectant flavors and etc.
2. SIGHT – normal milk color varies from bluish white to yellowish white; appearance of milk is
noted, including that of milk containers, for if dirty, leaky and severely dented indicate poor
handling of milk.
3. TASTE – normal milk is slightly sweet and has a pleasant test; test may involve some hazard
unless the milking animal is known to be free from zoonotic disease like tuberculosis,
brucellosis and etc. tasted milk should not be swallowed.

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B. TEST FOR DEVELOPED ACIDITY = indicates the keeping quality of milk and its heat stability for
pasteurization.
1. ACIDITY TEST – involves titration of definitive volume of milk with a standard alkal solution
(0.1 N NaOH); titratable acidity of normal fresh milk is 0.16 – 0.18%.
2. Ph DETERMINATION – utilizes a potentiometer to determine the pH of milk; normal pH of
fresh milk is 6.5 – 6.7%.
3. ALCOHOL PRECIPITATION TEST – involves mixing an equal volume of milk with ethyl alcohol;
if milk curdies (form clots/ precipitates); it should be rejected for pasteurization.
4. CLOT ON BOILING TEST – involves boiling of milk in a water bath; if it curdies (form clots), it
should be rejected for pasteurization.
C. DYE REDUCTION TEST using TEN MINUTE RESAZURIN TEST
Dye milk mixture is incubated at 37C for 10 minutes.
Interpretation of readings:
RESAZURIN DISK READING: ACTION RECOMMENDED:
4-6 Accept for pasteurization.
1-31/2 inclusive Advisable to reject for pasteurization.
0 and ½ Reject

D. SEDIMENT TEST
Gives and indication of the amount of insoluble material present in milk in the form of dirt or
cellular debris, the presence of visible dirt is objectionable in milk and indicates poor sanitary
practices. However a good sediment score does not give any assurance nthat the milk is
acceptable bacteriologically. It is, however, a good test to convince the dairy farmer that there is
something wrong with his milk . the test should performed once a week without telling the
farmer when.
Procedure: 1 pint of milk from the last half gallon of full chrn/ milk can is pumped into a small
cotton wool filter pad.
Results: clean milk should leave no sediment. Dirty milk will give a deposit varying in color from
yellow, indicating cellular material (pus), to black indicating dust or dirt .

A = very clean
B = clean
C = dust particle
E = dirty
F = very dirty
E. TEST FOR WATERING = conducted if the milk looks “suspiciously thin”.
1. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY using the LACTOMETER METHOD – specific gravity of
normal milk is 1. 027 – 1.040; if the specific gravity of milk sample become less than this milk
is adulterated with water.
2. DETERMINTION OF FREEZING POINT using a CRYOSCOPE – freezing point of normal milk is -
.53 to -.56C; each increase of .0056C in freezing indicates 1% addition of water. This is a
confirmatory test for adulteration of milk with water.

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 II. ROUTINE TESTS
Purpose of Routine Tests:
1. To assess the bacteriological quality of milk, also its probable keeping quality.
2. To asses the care taken in the production and handling of milk.
RAW MILK
A. BACTERIAL COUNTS
1. DIRECT MICROSCOPIC COUNT – 0.01ml of milk is deposited in a 1cm2 area of glass slide,
dried, stained and the number of bacteria determined by counting them using a calibrated
microscope. The method does not work well with samples of raw milk containing fewer than
50, 000 cells or clump/ml.
2. STANDARD PLATE COUNT – colonies of bacteria which has developed after incubation of
diluted sample of milk in a petri dish containing a standard agar are counted. The number of
colonies multiplied by the dilution rate equals the standard plate counted per milliliter. The
test is useful in estimating the bacterial population of milk, especially where bacterial
numbers are low.
B. DYE REDUUCTION TESTS – these test are based upon the lowered oxidation-reduction potential
of raw milk with high bacterial counts. The greater the number of bacteria (and somatic cells)
present in the sample to utilize the oxygen, the shorter the time required to decolorized the
sample. These tests provide a basis for classifying milk and also give a rough estimate of the
number of bacteria/ml.
1. METHYLENE BLUE REDUCTION TEST (MBR) – a blue color after 4 ½ hours of incubation
indicates the milk is good quality (200,00 bacteria/ml or less)
2. RESAZURIN DYE REDUCTION TEST – addition of resazurin dye to a sample of fresh milk
produces a blue color which changes to lavender, then pink as the sample is reduced; Milk
which requires more than 3hrs to become lavender is of acceptable quality.

C. TEST FOR KEEPING QUALITY

1. Clot-on-Boiling Test
2. Alcohol Precipitation Test
3. Methylene Blue Reduction Test
PASTEURIZED MILK
A. TEST FOR EFFICIENCY OF PASTEURIZATION
1. PHOSPHATASE TEST – test involves the detection of phosphatase enzyme in pasteurized
milk; an enzyme inactivated of pasteurizing temperature. The presence of enzyme either
indicates:
a. Inadequate heat treatment or
b. Addition of raw milk to pasteurized milk.
2. STORCH’S TEST – involves the detection of peroxidase enzyme which can be destroyed by
heat.
B. TEST TO INDICATE POST PASTEURIZATION CONTAMINATION
1. STANDARD PLATE COUNT
2. COLIFORM TEST by Presumptive Method – to detect the presence of coliforms in heat
treated milk products to see if contamination has taken place after the process. The test
cannot be taken as an indication of fecal contamination for high counts are frequently due
to neglected milking equipment rubberware. It is, thus, a gauge of environmental sanitation.
The test has been found by many authorities to furnish a better indication of the care taken

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 in production than does the total bacterial count. The test utilizes either the tube dilution
method or the plate method, wherein measured amounts of milk or its dilution are
inoculated into a selected medium containing ingredients tending to inhibit growth of non –
coliforms.
C. TEST FOR KEEPING QUALITY
1. METHYLENE BLUE REDUCTION TEST
STERILIZED MILK
 STERILITY TEST – to determine whether the product is sterile or not milk is incubated at
300C for 14days to attempt to propagate any bacteria present. After which the milk
sample is inoculated into different media.
ENUMERATION OF SPECIFIC GROUPS OF BACTERIA
1. COLIFORM COUNT – presence of coliforms indicates unsanitary condition during production,
processing or storage; inoculated media are incubated at temperature 30 – 370C.
2. THERMOSISTANT COUNT – indicates if utensils used in milk production and processing have
been adequately cleaned and sterilized; also indicates too long exposure of milk to pasteurizing
temperature, samples are incubated at 550C.
3. PSHYCHOTROPHIC COUNT – indicates post pasteurization contamination; this group of bacteria
grows at temperatures 2-100C.
COMPOSITIONAL TESTS
A. DETERMINATION OF FAT – determination of fat content of milk is very important for dairymen
as basis for payment for fluid milk is its total weight and milkfat content.
1. BABCOCK TEST – involves the addition of H2SO4 to milk in a special container , centrifuging
and the fat content is determined by noting the upper meniscus.
2. GERBER TEST – uses H2SO4 and amyl alcohol to dissolve solids not fat and a centrifuge to
collect milkfat in the neck of the test bottle. Test differs from Bobcock by the:
a. Addition of amyl alcohol to reduce the chances of getting charred materials in the fat
column;
b. Shorter time involved in the performance of the test; and
c. Reading is made on the lower meniscus.
B. DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS and SOLIDS-NOT-FAT CONTENT
1. GRAVIMETRIC METHOD – involves the weighing a small sample of milk, drying it in a
vacuum oven at 100-1050C, then reweighing the dried sample and calculating the
percentage of total solids.
2. LACTOMETER METHOD – approximate percentage of solids in milk can be determined
from its specific gravity and fat percentage.
Total solids % = Lactometer reading + 1.2 x Fat %
Solids-not-fat % = Lactometer reading + Fat %
3. PLASTIC BEADS METHOD – ten plastic beads of different color s with specific gravity
ranging from 1.025 to 1.034 are placed in a bottle, warmed to 39 0C for 5minutes and
cooled. Then a sample of milk is added to the bottle and the number of beads on the
bottom of the jar is counted.
Solids-not-fat % = 9.13 - .276 x number of beads + 0.307 x fat%
TEST FOR ADULTERATION
A. ADULTERATION WITH WATER:
1. Determine the FREEZING POINT using the cryoscope.
2. Determination of SPECIFIC GRAVITY using Lactometer.

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 B. ADULTERATION WITH COLORING MATTER – milk together with an equal amount of ether is
allowed to stand for a few minutes. A positive result is indicated by the formation of a yellow
colored supernatant ethereal solution.
C. ADULTERATION WITH RICE WASH using the INDOLE TEST – milk sample is boiled and 1-2 drops
of tincture of iodine is added. Positive result is blue color.
D. Adulteration wich COCONUT MILK using the RESORCINOL test - milk mixed with resorcinol and
HCL and boiled; Positive result is pink. rose-red or violet color.
E. Detection of FORMALDEHYDE using HEHNER’S test - milk is mixed with H2SO4. Positive result is
the formation of a yellow middle layer.
F. DETECTION OF CHLORINE containing DISINFECTANT using WODE’s test – KI, HCL and starch
solution are added to milk. Positive result is blue color.
G. DETECTION OF QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS using EOSIN TEST – milk is mixed
with distilled water, eosin solution and buffer then centrifuge. Positive result is the formation of
red tetrachlorethane layer.
H. DETECTION OF ANTIBIOTIC RESIDUE
 Disc Assay Test – presence of antibiotic in milk is detected by zone of inhibition around
sample disc.

The whole manual is credited to my professor Dr. Loinda R. Baldrias of UPLB. This e copy is made for
personal reading and for veterinary student review. Selling of printed material is strictly prohibited.

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