Name: Ghulam Fatima

Instructor: Prof. Dr. Waseem Anwar

The discussion on literary criticism and theory takes on its journey with the first
systematic literary critic namely Plato (423 BC). His theory of Forms proposes two kinds of
things: the world of material objects assessed by senses that keeps on shuffling and the other
unchanging that is owned by reason. He criticizes Poetry in his book Republic by saying that
poetry is merely a result of Inspiration that cannot be seen as a creative endeavor. Also it should
not be taken as rational as poets sometimes themselves cannot understand what they wrote. He
then talks about Utopian state that beauty and truth belong to the objects of another world. The
proposition of mimesis: Imitation has been Plato’s widely criticized idea. He calls poetry/creative
endeavors merely a copy of the real objects which, according to him, eventually is not something
novel and moral but an imitation of the already present objects (e.g. truth and justice). By
proposing so he tries to prioritize philosophy over poetry which itself was an act of criticism on
the ongoing poetic scenario of his time. His didactic thoughts inspired by Socrates towards
poetry invited wide criticism whereas he also expressed his ideas about tragedy arousing pity and
fear. His critique of Democracy talks about a ruler who should be wise and not tyrant.
Opposed to Plato’s idealism, his pupil Aristotle (384-322 BC) valued logic and
knowledge. He argued that reason is the key to grasp the world of our senses that are represented
through poetry. Thus poetry is not merely an imitative attempt but a representation of the truths
involving forms and logical ideas. He rather puts art as an everlasting thing by not changing its
final cause. He further supports it by saying that history talks about what has been done in the
past rather poetry suggests the unseen and up-coming actions through its influential and
rhetorical powers. This realistic discussion fascinated many not only from his own age but is still
a powerful argument regarding the potencies of poetry and art. He further narrated the concepts
of Medium, Mode and Object that are still prevalent with their practical and scientific directions
in many fields. He presented his ideas about good and a bad hero that are represented in tragedy
by imitating objects in their peculiar ways and proposed the organic objectivity of plot. Thus he
emerges as the one who brought practical wisdom though his ideas. Addressing the prevalent
genre of Greeks, Aristotle talked about Peripeteia (a change in fortune), Anagnoresis (a dramatic
revelation) and Catharsis (an act of cleaning) what made this genre meaningful and practical
enough to propose and redefine the profound truths about life till the day.
Longinus (86 BC – 3 October 42 BC), the first romantic critic as said by R. A. Scott ,
participated in the discussion by adding his thoughts of grand thoughts, powerful emotions;

1
nobility of diction, figures of thoughts and speech and eventually a dignified word argument in
his work On the Sublime (1739). He proposed the concepts of True Sublime and False Sublime.
The true sublime uplifts our soul, he says. It not only pleases us but moves and transports us. He
writes “Nothing is poetry unless it transports”. Before him, critics were of the views that the
purpose of tragedy and poetry was to provide delight to its audience. Longinus however added
sublimity into this stream by explaining it in the productive ways. He attached true sublime with
loftiness of language and false sublime with mere use of bombastic use of language. The
criticism about stylistic feature added much worth in viewing the art work of that time and it
seems to be here with its invaluable contribution especially in today’s evaluation of poetry.
Sir Philip Sydney (1554-1586) with his work An Apology for Poetry (1580) defended
poetry in convincible ways. He positioned poets are creators in the times when poetry was not
being given much attention as a sublime art form. He referred to the classical times when a poet
was called a creator to have his own world of imagination. Poetry according to him was better
than philosophy. He defended the serious charges imposed on poetry by referring to classical
poets.
Further this theoretical framework is expanded by medieval theory of Hermeneutics
based on Augustine’s notion that language is divinely ordained reflection which summarizes that
the unity of meanings and interpretations are bound by Bible and the Nature. Augustine also
showed his distrust on poetic figurative language. The Renaissance critics took the doctrine of
Tragedy and worked on three unities (time, place and action).
Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1666) by England's first Poet Laureate, John Dryden (1631-
1700) sets the example of a consistence constructive criticism on Drama and other figures of
speech like satire and irony as well. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) called him “father of literary
criticism” on his contribution to literary criticism. It is said to be started as a new era in literary
criticism on the merit of composition in Samuel’s view. Criticism had got its foundations on
Greek, Romans and Italians before Dryden but it twirled its way towards English literary
criticism after that. His criticism on dramatic forms of different ages expanded the horizon of
English Drama especially by admiring Shakespeare and Ben Johnson. Alexander Pope’s An
Essay on Criticism pointed out the qualities of good and bad critics by giving the concepts of
Thesis (the problem in writing and judgement), Antithesis (what makes a bad critic) and
Synthesis (celebration of a good critic).
Immanuel Kant’s influence on subjectivity shaped the romantic poets that resulted in
writing poetry as a very personal expression. Poets like Wordsworth (1770-1850) and P. B.
Shelley (1792-1822) explored their personal moods and emotions in their poetry. They put more
emphasis on imagination that shaped the romantic notions of poetry. In Preface to Lyrical
Ballads (1802) Wordsworth defended the need of sensory imagination and simple use of
language in poetry unlike harsh language of neo-classics. He discussed stylistic features of
poetry not to defend his work but to find some true depth and seriousness in a literary work.
Biographia Literaria (1817) compiled by S. T. Coleridge criticized Wordsworth’s theory and
explored the concepts of Primary and Secondary Imagination and Fancy. Overall the romantics
viewed a poem as an organic form not to instruct and dictate anyone as opposed to neoclassic.

2
 In Culture and Anarchy (1869) by Mathew Arnold (1822-1888) discussed the term
Hellenism. The term first was as an influence of Greek myths and heroism in drama, poetry,
novels and stories whenever Europeans seemed to praise Greek culture in literature to represent
ideas. Mathew discussed this term to raise questions about everything as being the participant in
divine life. He too described the term Hebraism which was a sheer obedience to God’s will
without questioning anything. Thus he referred to Keats, Shelly and Byron as finding a balance
way between these two extremes in a work of art.

References
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8MJZww7UyI4
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle
3. Gamie, Samaa. "The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism." (2007): 99-109.
4. Longinus, active 1st century. Dionysius Longinus on the Sublime Translated from the
Greek, with Notes and Observations, and Some Account of the Life, Writings and
Character of the Author. By William Smith, .. London :printed by J. Watts: and sold by
W. Innys and R. Manby, 1739.
5. S. N. Hingu, Blog on Literary Criticism on Longinus (2013).
6. Sidney, Philip, 1554-1586. An Apology for Poetry, or, The Defence of Poesy. London :T.
Nelson, 1965.
7. Dryden, John. An essay of dramatic poesy. Clarendon Press, 1894.
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryden
9. Pope, Alexander, John Oldmixon, and Alfred Slater West. Essy on Criticism. CUP
archive, 1728.
10. Wordsworth, William. "Preface to lyrical ballads." First published in (1802).
11. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, and John Shawcross. Biographia literaria. London: Dent,
1927.
12. Arnold, Matthew, and John Dover Wilson. Culture and anarchy. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1960.