Trigonometry Workbook

To be used with ALEKS curriculum.

Trigonometry Formula Sheet
Equation of a Circle Arc Length

(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑟𝑟 ⋅ 𝜃𝜃

Sum and Difference Formulas

sin(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) = sin 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵 + cos 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵
Sine Formulas
sin(𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵) = sin 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵 − cos 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵

cos(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) = cos 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵 − sin 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵

Cosine Formulas
cos(𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵) = cos 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝐵𝐵 + sin 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵

tan 𝐴𝐴+tan 𝐵𝐵 tan 𝐴𝐴−tan 𝐵𝐵

Tangent Formulas tan(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) = 1−tan 𝐴𝐴 tan 𝐵𝐵 tan(𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵) = 1+tan 𝐴𝐴 tan 𝐵𝐵

Double-Angle Formulas Half-Angle Formulas

sin 2𝜃𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝛼𝛼 1−cos 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 1+cos 𝛼𝛼

sin 2 = ±� 2
cos 2 = ±� 2
cos 2𝜃𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃𝜃 − sin2 𝜃𝜃
= 1 − 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝛼𝛼 sin 𝛼𝛼
= 2 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 − 1 tan =
2 1 + cos 𝛼𝛼
2 tan 𝜃𝜃
tan 2𝜃𝜃 =
1 − tan2 𝜃𝜃

Law of Sines Law of Cosines

𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 cos 𝐴𝐴

= =
sin 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝐶𝐶 𝑏𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝐵𝐵
sin 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝐵𝐵 sin 𝐶𝐶 𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝐶𝐶
= =
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐

Complex Numbers De Moivre

𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 (cos(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 )) 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 (cos(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛))

𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1 1 𝜃𝜃 360° 𝜃𝜃 360°

= (cos(𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 )) 𝜔𝜔𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 �cos � + 𝑘𝑘� + 𝑖𝑖 sin � + 𝑘𝑘��
𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
for 𝑘𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛𝑛 − 1

Vectors
𝒖𝒖⋅𝒗𝒗
Angle Between: cos 𝜃𝜃 = ‖𝒖𝒖‖ ‖𝒗𝒗‖

Work: 𝑊𝑊 = (|𝑭𝑭| cos 𝜃𝜃)𝑑𝑑

 Unit 1
Trigonometric
Definitions

1
2
Angles
A ray is a part of a line that starts at a point and goes on forever in one
direction.

Draw an example of a ray.

Consider two rays with a common endpoint. The rotation from one ray
(the initial side) to the other ray (the terminal side) determines an angle.
The vertex of an angle is the point at which the two rays forming the
angle meet.

Draw an example of an angle.

Show your angle to a classmate and ask them the following questions:

Can you tell which ray is the initial ray and which ray is the terminal ray?

If yes, what about the drawing tells you which side is which?

If no, what could be added to the drawing to indicate which is which?

Make a list of the parts of an angle.

3
 If the rotation is in the counterclockwise
direction, then the angle is positive. If the
rotation is in the clockwise direction, then the
angle is negative.

Was your example on the previous page a positive angle or a

negative angle?

The rotation can be greater than a full revolution.

Draw an example of an angle that is negative and greater than a full revolution.

Two different angles may have the same initial and terminal sides. Such
angles are called coterminal.

Add a coterminal angle that is less than a full revolution to your example above.

An angle drawn in standard position has its initial ray aligned with the
positive side of the 𝑥𝑥-axis and its vertex at the origin.

Redraw your example above so that it is drawn in standard position.

A positive angle, 𝜃𝜃, is shown below in standard position. Draw −𝜃𝜃 in standard position.

4
Measuring Angles
Angles cannot be measured with
the distance between rays.

An angle, 𝐴𝐴, is given to the left. Various

measures of the arc length connecting the initial
and terminal ray are also given.

Why does this picture illustrate that angles

cannot be measured with the distance between
rays?

The nearest pizza store has a special where you get one of each size pizza for a small price.

You and 5 of your buddies decide to split the pizzas. So, you cut each pizza into 6
equal sized pieces (go ahead, draw the cuts on the pizzas above). Each person gets
one piece from each pizza. As you fill your plate, you stack the pizza slices and
notice something about the angles of each slice. What did you notice about the
angles of each slice?

Even though each slice is a different size, it represents the same fraction of the
pizza. What fraction of the pizza is each slice?

Since this fraction is constant, no matter the size of the pizza, it represents the angle of each slice.

The measure of an angle is a fraction of one revolution.

5
 Since the measure of an angle is a fraction of one revolution, to calculate the measure of the angle, we
need to divide the number of parts to the whole.

For example, with the pizza illustration, one slice of pizza represented the angle we wish to measure,
1
and six slices of pizza make up the whole. This makes the measure of the angle . Notice that this is a
6
1 slice 1
unit-less measure because the units cancel each other out. = .
6 slices 6

The same is true when measuring an angle using a given arc length. You should divide parts to a whole
and make sure the units match. This means that an angle measure can be calculated by dividing an arc
length by the measure of the whole distance around the outside of the circle.

What measurement represents the whole distance around the outside of the circle?

length of the subtended arc

the measure of an angle =
circumference

GROUP WORK – Divide and conquer: A

group will work together to find the
measure of the angle, 𝐴𝐴 (shown below),
as a fraction of a revolution. Each group
member should use a different circle.

Record the results in the table below (round to four decimal places):

Radius of Circle 1 inch 2 inches 3 inches 4 inches

Arc Length 1.0472 inches 2.0944 inches 3.1416 inches 4.1888 inches
Circumference of Circle
(Hint: 𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)
Measure of Angle 𝐴𝐴 (Arc
Length divided by
Circumference)

Can you measure an angle without referencing a full circle?

6
One of the most commonly known units with which to measure angles is degrees.

1 th
One degree, denoted 1°, measures of a full revolution.
360

Why do you think 360 is a good number to use? Where did it come from? Why not 100 or 1000? (Feel
free to google)

Some divisions of a full rotation are more common than others. We call these special angles.

Eight equal sized pieces Twelve equal sized pieces.

Each piece is _______ degrees. Each piece is _______ degrees.

Use your work above to label the degree measures indicated by the following image:

7
 Geometry Review
Fill in each blank and draw a picture of the angle described.

Definition Example

An __________ angle measures less than 90°.

A __________ angle measures 90°. This angle is usually indicated by a square at the
vertex.

An ____________ angle measures more than 90° but less than 180°.

A ________________ angle measures 180°.

If the sum of the measures of two angles is 90°, we say that the angles are -
__________________________.

If the sum of the measures of two angles is 180°, we say that the angles are
__________________________.

8
Measuring Angles Module Notes

9
10
Discovering Radian Measure
1. Gather the following materials:

• Printed Circle • String Candy

• Ruler

2. Meet someone new: Find a friend to work with. Preferably work in pairs.

3. Measure out 1 radian:

• Measure the radius of your circle using the string candy; pinch the candy so that it is
exactly the length of the radius of the circle.
• Hold one end of the radius length string candy where the initial ray meets the
circumference of the circle. Wrap the candy around the edge of the circle
counterclockwise and mark its ending location.
• Draw a line from this point to the center of the circle with your ruler. You are now
looking at an angle of one radian!!

When the length of the radius of a circle is

wrapped around the circumference of the circle,
the central angle cut off is one radian.

4. Consider what you know about measuring angles. To be a valid

angle measure, the radian must be a fraction of a rotation.
Explain how the length of the radius is a fraction of the
circumference of the circle.

5. Measure out more radian measures:

• Continue wrapping your radius length string candy around the circumference of the
circle. Mark each whole radian measure as you go.
• Compare your markings to your friend’s markings.
o Did your markings end up at corresponding angles?
o How many (approximate) radius lengths did it take to get all the way around
your circle?
o How many (approximate) radius lengths did it take to get all the way around
your friend’s circle?
o Does the size of the circle affect the number of radius lengths needed to
complete one revolution of the circle?

11
 6. Find the number of radians required to make one full rotation

If you keep wrapping the radius length piece of string candy around
the circumference of a circle, you will need a little more than 6 full
radius lengths. This is true NO MATTER the size of the circle!

What is the formula for the circumference of a circle?

This formula literally tells us that the circumference of a circle is the

length of the radius, 2𝜋𝜋 times! See the image to the right.

1 th
One radian measures of a full rotation.
2𝜋𝜋

7. The connection between arc length, radius length and radian measure.
Complete the table below:
𝜃𝜃 (in radians) When the radian measure of the angle
𝑠𝑠
is 1 radian, the length of the
1 𝑟𝑟 intercepted arc (usually denoted 𝑠𝑠) is
2 2𝑟𝑟 equal to the length of the radius of the
circle.
3 3𝑟𝑟
4 When the radian measure of the angle
is 2 radians, the length of the
5
intercepted arc is equal to twice the
6 length of the radius of the circle.
𝜃𝜃

Write a formula that relates 𝑠𝑠 to 𝑟𝑟and 𝜃𝜃.

12
Special Angles
Some divisions of a full rotation are more common than others. We call these special angles.

Eight equal sized pieces Twelve equal sized pieces. Six equal sized pieces.

Each piece is ____ radians. Each piece is ____ radians. Each piece is ____ radians.

Compare your work above to the radian measures

indicated by the following image:

13
 Converting Between Degree and Radian Measure
We can also use the idea of fractions of a rotation to convert radians to degrees and degrees to radians.
Recall that any fraction is the number of parts divided by the whole.
Scan the QR code to
How large is a half rotation if we are measuring in degrees? _______________ view a video
explanation of this
How large is a half rotation if we are measuring in radians? _______________
topic!
This allows us to write the following proportion:

Degree Measure Radian Measure Parts

The fraction of a half rotation = = =
180° 𝜋𝜋 Half

Use this proportion to convert angle measures from degree to radian and vice versa.

14
15
 Radian Measure Module Notes

16
Circles
Consider the circle in the coordinate plane to the
left.
(𝟒𝟒. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑, 𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕)
What are the coordinates of the point in the center
of the circle?

What do we call the distance from the center of a

circle to a point on the circumference? What is this
distance for the circle shown?

Inscribe in your circle a right triangle so that the

hypotenuse of the triangle is the radius of your
circle.

Find the length of each side of the right triangle.

Consider any circle whose center is (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘) and radius is 𝑟𝑟.
Let (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) be a point on the circumference of the circle.

Write an expression containing 𝑥𝑥 and ℎ that measures the

length of the horizontal side of your right triangle.

(𝒉𝒉, 𝒌𝒌)
Write an expression containing 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑘𝑘 that measures the
length of the vertical side of your right triangle.

Use the Pythagorean Theorem to write an equation using

these lengths and the radius of the circle.

The standard form of the equation of a circle is

(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑟𝑟 2

where (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘) is the center of the circle and 𝑟𝑟 is the radius of the circle.

17
 Special Angles on the Unit Circle

The unit circle is a circle of radius 1 centered at the origin.

What is the equation of the unit circle?

18
The special angles created by cutting a full rotation into 12 or 8 equal size pieces and their
corresponding points on the unit circle are shown below.
√2 √2
Use the Isosceles triangle below to prove that � , � is the point that
2 2
intersects the unit circle at 45°. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 = 1
2

2𝑥𝑥 2 = 1
1
𝑥𝑥 2 =
2
1 √1 1 √2
𝑥𝑥 = � = = =
2 √2 √2 2

√3 1 1 √3
Use the equilateral triangle below to prove that � , � and � , 2 � are the points that intersect the unit
2 2 2
circle at 30° and 60°, respectively.
1 1
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 =
2 2
1 2 1 2
� � + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 2
𝑥𝑥 + � � = 1
2 2
1 1
+ 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 𝑥𝑥 2 + = 1
4 4
3 3
𝑦𝑦 2 = 2
𝑥𝑥 =
4 4
3 √3 √3 3 √3 √3
𝑦𝑦 = � = = 𝑥𝑥 = � = =
4 √4 2 4 √4 2

Symmetry in the Unit Circle

19
 Circles Module Notes

20
Trigonometric Definitions
There are three main trigonometric functions known as Cosine, Sine, and Tangent.

The cosine function takes as its input an angle in standard position and (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
outputs the corresponding horizontal displacement from the center of
the circle (measured in terms of the length of the radius). 𝑟𝑟

Output: Number 𝜃𝜃
Function name: 𝑥𝑥 of radius lengths
cos 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃) = to the right (left
𝑥𝑥
𝑟𝑟
is indicated by a
negative number)
Input:
Angle

The sine function takes as its input an angle in standard position and (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
outputs the corresponding vertical displacement from the center of the
circle (measured in terms of the length of the radius). 𝑟𝑟
𝑦𝑦
𝜃𝜃
Function name: Output: Number
𝑦𝑦
sin 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃) = of radius lengths
𝑟𝑟 above (below is
indicated by a
Input: negative number)
Angle

The tangent function inputs an angle in standard position and outputs (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
the slope of the terminal ray.

𝑦𝑦
Function Output: Rate of
𝑦𝑦 change; vertical 𝜃𝜃
name: tan 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝜃𝜃) =
𝑥𝑥 length compared 𝑥𝑥
to horizontal
Input:
length
Angle

Shown below is a circle with radius 1.6. The point (−0.41, −1.55) is on
the terminal side of the angle measuring 255.25∘ and on the circumference of the circle. Fill in the
blanks:

sin( )=

cos( )=

tan( )=

21
 The Quotient of Sine and Cosine
Divide your definition of sine by your definition of cosine to see what happens!
sin 𝜃𝜃
=
cos 𝜃𝜃

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃

Conceptualizing the Trigonometric Definitions

Have you ever played with a skip ball or foot hula hoop?
https://youtu.be/p3Sk2joZTZg

Cool chick over there is playing with a skip ball and we are going to track
the motion of the ball!

Imagine that cool chick is standing at the center of the coordinate plane
below. The circle that is made by the ball of the skip ball is shown by the
circle of radius 2. (Let’s assume the skip ball travels in a perfect circle.)

The hash marks on the circle represent whole number radian angle
measures.

(−0.8323, 1.8186)
(1.0806, 1.6829)

(−1.9800, 0.2822)

(1.9203, −0.5588)

(−1.3073, −1.5136)

(0.5673, −1.9178)

22
 To track the location of a point in a coordinate plane, we will need three values. We need the distance
to the right of the origin (the 𝑥𝑥-value) and the distance above the origin (the 𝑦𝑦-value) and the angle of
rotation (𝜃𝜃). We will focus on each of these measures, one at a time, as we consider the skip ball
rotating around the girl. Imagine pausing time to take a snapshot of the skip ball.

Note that the measurements we find are only comparable to a circle of the same size. To make the
measurements more generalized, we should not measure in feet, but measure in terms of the size of the
circle. The radius should be used as our “measuring stick”. This way, any circle with any radius length
would have the same location on the circumference of the circle.

Imagine that the skip ball begins its rotation exactly to the right of the girl.

• Draw the girl and the skip ball on the image to the right.
• What is the radian measure of this angle? _______________
• How many feet to the right of the girl is the skip ball? ____________
o How many radius lengths is this distance? (i.e. this distance is
how many times as large as the radius of the circle?) ________
• How many feet above the girl is the skip ball? ___________
o How many radius lengths is this distance? ___________
• What is the slope of the neck of the skip ball? ___________

We can state this information using function notation.

Output:
Function name: 2 Radius lengths
cos cos(0) = = 1
2 to the right, 1

Input: Angle,
0 radians

Input: Angle, Input: Angle,

0 radians 0 radians

0 0
sin(0) = = 0 tan(0) = = 0
2 2
Output: Output: Slope
Function name:
Function name: Radius lengths of a horizontal
tan
sin above, 0 line, 0

Let’s check these results with our calculator:

First verify that your calculator is in radian mode. Press ‘DRG’ and make sure
that ‘RAD’ is underlined. If it is not underlined, use the arrow button until it is
underlined.

Press clear to exit the menu.

Next, press the ‘COS’ button and then enter the number 0 and close the
parenthesis. Press ‘ENTER’ to evaluate the function.

23
 As the skip ball begins to rotate counterclockwise, it will first reach the hashmark that represents an
angle of 1 radian.

• Draw the girl and the skip ball on the image to the right. (1.0806, 1.6829)
• What is the radian measure of this angle? _______________
• How many feet to the right of the girl is the skip ball?
____________
o How many radius lengths is this distance? (i.e. this
distance is how many times as large as the radius of
the circle?) ________
• How many feet above the girl is the skip ball? ___________
o How many radius lengths is this distance?
___________
• What is the slope of the neck of the skip ball? ___________

If we write this information using our function notation, what would it look like? Fill in the blanks below:

cos(_______) = ________________ sin(_______) = ________________ tan(_______) = ________________

Check each value with your calculator.

Group Work
Fill in the tables below using the picture on page 24 (round to four decimal places as needed):
Group Angle Number Number Write in function Number Number Write in function
Measure of feet to of radius notation of feet of radius notation
(radians) the right lengths to 𝑥𝑥 above lengths 𝑦𝑦
cos(𝜃𝜃) = sin(𝜃𝜃) =
(𝜃𝜃) of the girl the right 𝑟𝑟 the girl above the 𝑟𝑟
(𝑥𝑥) of the girl (𝑦𝑦) girl
(𝑥𝑥/𝑟𝑟) (𝑦𝑦/𝑟𝑟)
0 2 1 cos(0) = 1 0 0 sin(0) = 0
1 1.0806 0.5403 cos(1) ≈ 0.5403 1.6829 0.8415 sin(1) ≈ 0.8415
1 𝜋𝜋/2 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
2 2 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
3 3 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
4 𝜋𝜋 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
5 4 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
6 3𝜋𝜋/2 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
7 5 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
8 6 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
9 2𝜋𝜋 cos(____) ≈ sin(____) ≈
Group Angle Measure (radians) (𝜃𝜃) Slope of the neck (𝑦𝑦/𝑥𝑥) Write in function notation
tan(𝜃𝜃) = 𝑦𝑦/𝑥𝑥
0 0/2 = 0 tan(0) = 0
1 1.6829/1.0806 ≈ 1.5574 tan(1) ≈ 1.5574
1 𝜋𝜋/2 tan (____) ≈
2 2 tan (____) ≈
3 3 tan (____) ≈
4 𝜋𝜋 tan (____) ≈
5 4 tan (____) ≈
6 3𝜋𝜋/2 tan (____) ≈
7 5 tan (____) ≈
8 6 tan (____) ≈
9 2𝜋𝜋 tan (____) ≈

24
Verbal Conceptualization
Use the context of the skip ball to fill in the blanks below.

What does 𝑥𝑥 measure?

𝑥𝑥 is the number of �� �� the skip ball is ��

___________
��� ��������� the girl.
__________________
feet / radians above / to the right of

What does 𝑦𝑦 measure?

𝑦𝑦 is the number of ___________

�� ��� �� the skip ball is __________________
����������� the girl.
feet / radians above / to the right of

What does dividing by 𝑟𝑟 do to these measurements?

Dividing by 𝑟𝑟 converts these distances from __________________

����������� to __________________
�����������.
radius lengths / feet radius lengths / feet

Why do you think it is necessary to divide by 𝑟𝑟?

It is necessary to divide by 𝑟𝑟 because it allows us to use ____________

������� size circle and end up with
only one / any
the same calculations.

Consider the image to the right. Notice

the points that pass through each circle
along the ray that terminates at 60°.

All the 𝑥𝑥 values of the points are

different; however, they are all the same
proportion of the radius. Every 𝑥𝑥 value is
half of the length of the radius.

This means that it doesn’t matter which

size circle we use. At 60°, cosine is
always 1/2 because the 𝑥𝑥-value of the
point is always half as much as the radius
of the circle.

Never forget that the input of these

functions is the �� �����. As such, the
____________
radius / angle
trigonometric function value depends on
the angle, and not 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, or 𝑟𝑟.

25
 Using the ALEKS Calculator
The following examples ask you to calculate an algebraic expression containing a trigonometric function.
Note that you can enter the entire expression into the ALEKS calculator and avoid intermediate
simplification.

26
Trigonometric Definitions Module Notes

27
28
Unit Circle Trigonometric Definitions
𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥
Recall, sin 𝜃𝜃 = and cos 𝜃𝜃 = .
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟

If the circle is a UNIT circle, what is 𝑟𝑟?

Write formulas that can be used to find sin(𝜃𝜃) and cos(𝜃𝜃) if the
terminal ray of 𝜃𝜃 intercepts the circumference of a unit circle at the
point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦).

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃) =

Using the Unit Circle to Find Sine and Cosine Values

Hint:

29
 Is Math Applied to the Input or the Output?
When working with functions, sometimes we see mathematical operations applied to the input of the
function and sometimes we see mathematical operations applied to the output of the function.

For each of the following expressions, determine whether the mathematical operation affects the input
or the output of the function.

2 cos 𝜃𝜃 means to multiply the ____________

������� by 2.
input or output

cos 2𝜃𝜃 means to multiply the ____________

������� by 2.
input or output

cos2 𝜃𝜃 means to square the �� ����� .

____________
input or output

− cos 𝜃𝜃 means to change the sign of the ____________

������� .
input or output

cos(−𝜃𝜃) means to change the sign of the ____________

������� .
input or output

Does it make a difference in the value of the expression if math is applied to the output versus the
input? (Would the value of the expression be different?)

30
The Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions
𝑎𝑎
What is the reciprocal of ? _________
𝑏𝑏

What is the reciprocal of 𝑐𝑐? __________

Is a reciprocal the same thing as an inverse?

https://youtu.be/6ZlEmF2ZK80

Name Function Reciprocal In the calculator (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) on a circle (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) on the unit
Name of… of radius 𝑟𝑟 circle

Cosecant 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1 csc(𝜃𝜃) = csc(𝜃𝜃) =

csc(𝜃𝜃) =

Secant 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 sec(𝜃𝜃) = sec(𝜃𝜃) =

sec(𝜃𝜃) =

Cotangent 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1 cot(𝜃𝜃) = cot(𝜃𝜃) =

cot(𝜃𝜃) =

31
 Unit Circle Definitions Module Notes

32
Trigonometric Properties
Reciprocals and Ratios
Trigonometric identities are equations involving trigonometric functions that are always true no matter
the value of the angle.
1
For example, csc 𝜃𝜃 = is a trigonometric identity.
sin 𝜃𝜃

Can you list all the trigonometric identities we have discussed so far?

33
 Even and Odd Properties
If 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓 is an even function. Give an example of an even function.

If 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) = −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓 is an odd function. Give an example of an odd function.

Evaluate each of the following:

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
sin � � = sin �− � =
6 6

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
cos � � = cos �− � =
6 6

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
tan � � = tan �− � =
6 6

Even Trigonometric Functions:

Odd Trigonometric Functions:

Even function: drop

the negative

Odd function: bring

the negative out to
the front

34
Coterminal Angles Revisited
Explain the meaning of the following sentence: The
5𝜋𝜋 17𝜋𝜋
angle is coterminal to the angle .
6 6

17𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
Find the difference: − =
6 6

5𝜋𝜋 17𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 17𝜋𝜋

True or False: = True or False: sin � � = sin � �
6 6 6 6

To find a coterminal angle, add or subtract a full rotation.

Periodicity
The Merriam-Webster dictionary definition of “periodically” is “at regular intervals of time”.
Trigonometric functions are periodic.
Evaluate the functions below to further investigate:
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
sin = sin � + 2𝜋𝜋� = sin � + 4𝜋𝜋� = sin � − 2𝜋𝜋� =
3 3 3 3

35
 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Consider the angles: , + 2𝜋𝜋, + 4𝜋𝜋, and − 2𝜋𝜋.
3 3 3 3

What can be said about all the angles above?

What do you notice about the sine function when evaluated at these angles?

At what regular interval do the sine function values repeat?

At what regular interval do the cosine function values repeat?

At what regular interval do the tangent function values repeat?

The period of a function is the interval of input values that correspond to

repeated output values. For any integer 𝑘𝑘,

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝜃𝜃 + 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Instead of finding the function value at the given angle, you can find the function value at its coterminal
angle.

36
Trigonometric Properties Module Notes

37
38
SOHCAHTOA
Warm-Up
Write the six trigonometric definitions using 𝜃𝜃, 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, and 𝑟𝑟. DO NOT ASSUME 𝑟𝑟 = 1.

Inscribing a Right Triangle

Recall that we can inscribe a right triangle inside any
circle. Therefore, the circle trigonometric definitions
can be expanded into triangle definitions.

• 𝑦𝑦 represents the length of the side opposite 𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦

(across from) 𝜃𝜃 – Rename 𝒚𝒚 as opposite
𝜃𝜃
• 𝑥𝑥 represents the length of the side adjacent
𝑥𝑥
(next to) 𝜃𝜃 – Rename 𝒙𝒙 as adjacent

• 𝑟𝑟 represents the length of the hypotenuse –

Rename 𝒓𝒓 as hypotenuse

Write formulas for the six trigonometric functions given that 𝜃𝜃 is an acute
angle in a right triangle and we know the length of the side opposite of 𝜃𝜃
(𝑂𝑂), the length of the side adjacent to 𝜃𝜃 (𝐴𝐴) and the length of the
hypotenuse of the triangle (𝐻𝐻).

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 =

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 =

https://youtu.be/4iC-gjKvc7A

39
40
41
 SOHCAHTOA Module Notes

42
Linking Circles and Right Triangles
Inscribing Larger Angles
Recall that the SOHCAHTOA definitions are based on the idea
of inscribing a right triangle so that the terminal ray is the
hypotenuse of the triangle.

Notice that the angle, 𝛼𝛼, “fits” in both the circle and the
triangle. This may lead you to think that the SOHCAHTOA
definitions are only applicable to acute angles that terminate
in quadrant one. Could an obtuse angle be one of the angles in
a right triangle?

Consider an angle that terminates in quadrant 2.

Notice that 𝛽𝛽 is not actually inside the triangle. Does this

change the sine and cosine values of 𝛽𝛽?

This means, if we construct our triangles appropriately, we

can use SOHCAHTOA definitions for angles that are not
acute.

For REFERENCE, label the acute angle near the origin and
inside the triangle as 𝛽𝛽′.

Find the sum: 𝛽𝛽 + 𝛽𝛽 ′ =

Next, consider an angle that terminates in quadrant 3 and an angle that terminates in quadrant 4.

For REFERENCE, label 𝛾𝛾′ and 𝛿𝛿′ as the acute angles inside the corresponding triangle and near the origin.

Subtract: 𝛾𝛾 − 𝛾𝛾 ′ = Add: 𝛿𝛿 + 𝛿𝛿 ′ =

43
 Reference Angles
Remember those prime angles that we REFERENCED at the beginning of this lesson? They are actually
called REFERENCE ANGLES!
To draw a reference angle:

1. Draw the given angle in

Let 𝜃𝜃 be an angle in standard position. The
standard position
reference angle 𝜃𝜃′ is the acute angle formed by
2. Draw an angle from the
the terminal side of 𝜃𝜃 and the 𝑥𝑥-axis.
terminal ray to the 𝑥𝑥-axis

Because reference angles are acute, they can Click here or scan the QR code to
never be negative and can never be greater than watch it in action!
𝝅𝝅
𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗° �or �.
𝟐𝟐

44
When the Angle is Not Given
When an angle is not given, we can use other information to draw an inscribed triangle. Then we can apply the
SOHCAHTOA trigonometric definitions to evaluate functions.

45
 Pay Attention to Positives and Negatives
Label each coordinate of each ordered pair as either
positive or negative.

Find the sign of tangent in each quadrant.

Note that reciprocals will have the same sign.

46
Linking Circles and Right Triangles Module
Notes

47
48
Test 1 Practice Quiz

49
50
 Unit 2
Graphing
Trigonometric
Functions

51
52
Review of Transformations
Translations

_________________ ����� each ____

����������� 𝑐𝑐 ________ � value.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦

_________________ ����� each ____

����������� 𝑐𝑐 ________ � value.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦

_________________ ����� each ____

����������� 𝑐𝑐 ________ � value.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦

_________________ ����� each ____

����������� 𝑐𝑐 ________ � value.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦

Explain how you can tell the difference in a horizontal translation and a vertical translation if given the
equation of the function.

53
 Reflections
Use the graph below to reflect the given points over the 𝑥𝑥-axis. Fill in the table.
Given Point Reflection over the 𝑥𝑥-axis
(−3, 2) →
(1, −3) →
(−4, −1) →
(3, 4) →
What happens to the coordinates of an ordered pair when it
is reflected over the 𝑥𝑥-axis?

Function notation of reflection

over the 𝑥𝑥-axis: −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

Use the graph below to reflect the given points over the 𝑦𝑦-axis. Fill in the table.

Given Point Reflection over the 𝑦𝑦-axis

(−3, 2) →
(1, −3) →
(−4, −1) →
(3, 4) →
What happens to the coordinates of an ordered pair when it
is reflected over the 𝑦𝑦-axis?

Function notation of reflection

over the 𝑦𝑦-axis: 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥).

54
Expansions and Contractions
Vertical expansions and contractions have equations like 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎 ⋅ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). Multiply ___

Check it out on Desmos: values by

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/dgnqermjhh
___.
How does the graph change if 𝑎𝑎 > 1?

How does the graph change if 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1?

Horizontal expansions and contractions have equations like 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥𝑥). Multiply ___

Check it out on Desmos: values by

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/0yjieshfeo
___.
How does the graph change if 𝑎𝑎 > 1?

How does the graph change if 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1?

55
 Review of Transformations Module Notes

56
The Graphs of Sine and Cosine
Sine
Below is the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥. Make note of the 5 “quick plot” points within the first cycle.

Give the domain, range and period of sin 𝑥𝑥:

Domain: Range: Period:

Cosine
Below is the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 Make note of the 5 “quick plot” points within the first cycle.

Give the domain, range and period of cos 𝑥𝑥:

Domain: Range: Period:

57
 Drawing Graphs in ALEKS
To draw a graph in ALEKS, plot all points corresponding to minima and maxima within one cycle. Then
within this cycle, plot all points along the "midline" (that is, points whose 𝑦𝑦-coordinates are midway
between the function's maximum and minimum values).

Then click on the graph icon.

58
Vertical Transformations of Sine or Cosine
Recall the Five Quick Plot Points
Use the 5 quick points to draw a sketch of the graphs of sine and cosine:

Sine Cosine

Transform the Five Quick Plot Points

Plot transformations of sine and cosine by transforming the 5 quick plot points according to the rules of
transformations.
__________________________
���������������
Add/Subtract/Multiply/Divide

__________
����� ���-value.
�� to every ______
How many? 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑦𝑦

The midline is the horizontal line that lies midway between the function’s
maximum and minimum values. In 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑑𝑑 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑑𝑑, the
midline is 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑑𝑑.

59
 __________________________
���������������
Add/Subtract/Multiply/Divide

__________
����� ���-value.
�� to every ______
How many? 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑦𝑦

What is the equation of the midline of this graph?

__________________________
���������������
Add/Subtract/Multiply/Divide

__________
����� ���-value.
�� to every ______
How many? 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑦𝑦

For the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥, the value of the vertical scaling
factor |𝐴𝐴| is called the __________________ of the function. The amplitude
represents the largest amount of vertical deviation from the midline of the
sine/cosine wave.

60
 For the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥) + 𝐷𝐷 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥) + 𝐷𝐷, the amplitude and
midline are…

Amplitude = Midline: 𝑦𝑦 =

Using Transformations
When drawing a graph using transformations, you will click on a series of buttons provided in ALEKS.

First, choose the correct graph from the following choices…

Which of the above is the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 and which is the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥?

Next, perform any vertical

stretching or shrinking indicated
by the equation. Identify the
amplitude of the function. If the
amplitude is not 1, then you will
need to use the vertical stretch
or compression tool.

When you select this tool, a red

dot will appear at the maximum
of one cycle. Click and drag the red dot either up or down until your graph has
the appropriate amplitude.

Below is an example of a sine function with an amplitude of 3 and a cosine

1
function with an amplitude of .
2

Amplitude is 3.
1
Amplitude is 2 .

61
 If the coefficient of the trigonometric function is negative, then the graph
should be reflected over the 𝑥𝑥-axis. Press the “Reflection across x-axis”
button.

Finally, identify any vertical shifting by determining if there is a constant added or subtracted from the
trigonometric function. Use the “Translation” tool and then click and drag to shift the graph to the
appropriate location.

Note that you should reflect before you translate to

avoid errors. If you translate first and then reflect,
the graph would have come out (wrong) like this…

62
Vertical Transformations of Sine or Cosine
Module Notes

63
64
Horizontal Transformations of Sine or Cosine
Recall the Five Quick Plot Points
Use the 5 quick points to draw a sketch of the graphs of sine and cosine:

Sine Cosine

Transform the Five Quick Plot Points

Plot transformations of sine and cosine by transforming the 5 quick plot points according to the rules of
transformations. Don’t forget that horizontal transformations are always backwards.

__________________________
���������������
Add/Subtract/Multiply/Divide

__________
����� ���-value.
�� to every ______
How many? 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑦𝑦

1
The graph of 𝑦𝑦 = cos � 𝑥𝑥� is an expansion of the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 by a factor of 2.
2

This expansion changes the length of the cycle; this expansion changes the length of the period. What is the length
1
of the period of 𝑦𝑦 = cos � 𝑥𝑥�?
2

65
 __________________________
���������������
Add/Subtract/Multiply/Divide

__________
����� ���-value.
�� to every ______
How many? 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑦𝑦

3 2
The graph of 𝑦𝑦 = sin � 𝑥𝑥� is a compression of the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 by a factor of .
2 3

This compression changes the length of the cycle; this compression changes the length of the period. What is the
3
length of the period of 𝑦𝑦 = sin � 𝑥𝑥�?
2

The Period of a Transformed Sine or Cosine Function

What is the period of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥? ________
1
Because the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = sin(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) and 𝑦𝑦 = cos (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) are constructed by multiplying 𝑥𝑥-value by , the
𝑏𝑏
1
period of these functions must be 𝑏𝑏 ⋅ 2𝜋𝜋.

For the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵) + 𝐷𝐷 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵) + 𝐷𝐷, the amplitude,

period, and midline are…

Amplitude = Midline: 𝑦𝑦 = Period =

Using Transformations
To perform any horizontal stretching or shrinking indicated by the equation identify
the period of the function. If the period is not 2𝜋𝜋, then you will need to use the
“horizontal stretch or compression” tool.

When you select this tool, a red dot will appear at the end of one cycle
(at 𝜃𝜃 = 2𝜋𝜋). Click and drag the red dot either left or right until your
graph has the appropriate period.

66
 2𝜋𝜋
Below is an example of a sine function with a period of 3𝜋𝜋 and a cosine function with a period of .
3

2𝜋𝜋
Period is .
3
Period is 3𝜋𝜋.

Begin by choosing 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃 from

the graph palette.

Reflect the graph over the 𝑥𝑥-axis

with the button.

Press to horizontally
compress the graph.
1 2𝜋𝜋
Drag the red dot to ⋅ 2𝜋𝜋 = .
3 3

Horizontal Translations __________________________

���������������
Add/Subtract/Multiply/Divide

__________
����� ���-value.
�� to every ______
How many? 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑦𝑦

67
 __________________________
���������������
Add/Subtract/Multiply/Divide

__________
����� ���-value.
�� to every ______
How many? 𝑥𝑥 or 𝑦𝑦

Shifting and Scaling must be Factored

Factor the equation to separate the

scaling factor and the translation.

1 𝜋𝜋 1 𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦 = sin � 𝑥𝑥 + � = sin � �𝑥𝑥 + ��
2 6 2 3
𝜋𝜋
This reveals the translation to be to the
3
left.

68
Horizontal Transformations of Sine or
Cosine Module Notes

69
70
Multiple Transformations of Sine or Cosine
Using mathematical operations to calculate coordinate points becomes tedious and prone to error when
there are multiple transformations. Alternatively, don’t forget that trigonometric functions have an
immense amount of symmetry.

Use Midline and Amplitude to find all 𝑦𝑦-values

At this point, you should be able to close your eyes and visualize the general patterns of the 𝑦𝑦-values of
the sine and cosine functions.

Label each point on each graph below as either max, min, or mid.
How would these
graphs change if
𝐴𝐴 < 0?

If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠�𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶)� + 𝐷𝐷 or 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐�𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶)� + 𝐷𝐷, the midline is _____ and the amplitude is
_____.

Use Phase Shift, Period and Symmetry to find all 𝑥𝑥-values

5 2 𝜋𝜋
Consider graphing 𝑦𝑦 = cos � 𝑥𝑥 + �.
2 3 3
2 𝜋𝜋
times what is 3 ?
First, we need to know the first 𝑥𝑥-value in the cycle. When there are no 3
transformations, the first 𝑥𝑥-value is always zero. Recall that we must factor the 2 𝜋𝜋
expression before identifying the horizontal shift. ⋅ 𝐶𝐶 =
3 3
2 𝜋𝜋 2 𝜋𝜋
3
𝑥𝑥 + = �𝑥𝑥 +
3 3 2
� Solve for 𝐶𝐶.
Now we can identify the horizontal translation as in previous lessons. Recall that
“plus” indicates we are to shift the graph to the left. This graph will have a first 𝑥𝑥-
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
value that is units to the left of zero, at 𝑥𝑥 = − .
2 2

Because this first point is so important, we give it a special name. It is known as the phase shift.

The phase shift of a function is the 𝑥𝑥-value of the new location of the first point
in the cycle.
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶) + 𝐷𝐷 or 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶) + 𝐷𝐷, then the phase shift is found by
solving the following equation:
𝐶𝐶
0 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 → 𝑥𝑥 = −
𝐵𝐵

71
 Next, find the period of the function. Recall the formula for the period of a function: ____________
5 2 𝜋𝜋
Find the period of 𝑦𝑦 = cos � 𝑥𝑥 + �.
2 3 3

Then, the last point of the cycle can be found by adding

First Last
the period to the 𝑥𝑥-value of the first point. + period =
𝑥𝑥 value 𝑥𝑥 value
𝜋𝜋
Add: − + 3𝜋𝜋 =
2

Finally, use symmetry. There should be three more points on the graph equally spaced between the two ends.
HINT: To find the midpoint of an interval, add the ends and divide by two (just like finding an average).

Find the following: Amplitude: Period: Phase Shift: Midline:

72
Find the following: Amplitude: Period: Phase Shift: Midline:

5 3
Graph the function 𝑦𝑦 = − 2 sin �2 𝑥𝑥� − 1.

73
 Find the following: Amplitude: Period: Phase Shift: Midline:

Using Transformations

Find the following: Amplitude: Period: Phase Shift: Midline:

Find the following: Amplitude: Period: Phase Shift: Midline:

74
Multiple Transformations of Sine or Cosine
Module Notes

75
76
Writing Equations
Vice Versa
Now that we can go from equation to graph, we should also be able to go from graph to equation.

Let’s compare the graph to the left to

the equation:

𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 sin�𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶)� + 𝐷𝐷

Draw and label the midline.

Draw and label the amplitude.

Draw and label the period.

Find the “first” point in the cycle.

Let’s compare the graph to the left to

the equation:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 cos�𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶)� + 𝐷𝐷

Draw and label the midline.

Draw and label the amplitude.

Draw and label the period.

Find the “first” point in the cycle.

77
78
Writing an Equation to Fit a Scenario

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎 sin�𝑏𝑏(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐)� + 𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎 cos�𝑏𝑏(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐)� + 𝑑𝑑

79
 There is more than one way to write 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) using transformations of the sine or cosine function. The
most convenient choice for the starting graph is determined by the starting distance, as shown in the
following table.

80
Writing Equations Module Notes

81
82
Graphs of Secant and Cosecant
Cosecant
1
Recall that cosecant is the reciprocal of __________. csc 𝑥𝑥 =

The table below gives sine and cosecant values that relate to angles between 0 and 𝜋𝜋.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋

𝑥𝑥 0 𝜋𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
1 √2 √3 √3 √2 1
sin 𝑥𝑥 0 ≈ 0.71 ≈ 0.87 1 ≈ 0.87 ≈ 0.71 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
csc 𝑥𝑥 Undefined 2 ≈ 1.41 ≈ 1.15 1 ≈ 1.15 ≈ 1.41 2 Undefined
√2 √3 √3 √2

The graph of the cosecant function is

shown to the right.

The domain of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 is the set

of all real numbers except integer
multiples of 𝜋𝜋.

The range of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 is the set of

all real numbers less than or
equal to ____ or greater than or
equal to ____.

What is the period of the cosecant

function?

Graphing the Cosecant function in ALEKS

Begin by sketching the graph of the reciprocal function. Then turn the graph inside out; replace zeros
with vertical asymptotes and leave maximum and minimum points the same.

Replace zeros with asymptotes Click the connect the dots button
83
84
Secant
1
Recall that secant is the reciprocal of ____________. sec 𝑥𝑥 =

The table below gives cosine and secant values that relate to angles between 0 and 𝜋𝜋.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋

𝑥𝑥 0 𝜋𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
√3 √2 1 1 √2 √3
cos 𝑥𝑥 1 ≈ 0.87 ≈ 0.71 0 − − ≈ −0.71 − ≈ −0.87 −1
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
sec 𝑥𝑥 1 ≈ 1.15 ≈ 1.41 2 undefined −2 − ≈ −1.41 − ≈ −1.15 −1
√3 √2 √2 √3

The graph of the secant function is

shown to the right.

The domain of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 is the set

of all real numbers except odd
𝜋𝜋
integer multiples of 2 .

The range of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 is the set

of all real numbers less than or
equal to ____ or greater than or
equal to ____.

What is the period of the secant

function?

Graphing the Secant function in ALEKS

Begin by sketching the graph of the reciprocal function. Then turn the graph inside out; replace zeros
with vertical asymptotes and leave maximum and minimum points the same.

Replace zeros with asymptotes Click the connect the dots button

85
 Group
Activity
Problem

86
Graphs of Secant and Cosecant Module
Notes

87
88
 The Graphs of Tangent
𝜋𝜋
tan � � =
2
𝜋𝜋
tan � � =

and Cotangent
4

Tangent
The quotient identity for tangent is:
tan(0) =

tan 𝑥𝑥 =

Tangent is
undefined when
____________ 𝜋𝜋
tan �− � =
is zero. 4
𝜋𝜋
tan �− � =
2
The graph of tangent is shown to the right:

The domain of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 is the set of all real numbers except

𝜋𝜋
odd integer multiples of .
2

The range of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 is the set of ______ ________

______________.

What is the period of the tangent function?

Graphing the Tangent function in ALEKS

To graph 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 tan(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶), begin by plotting two consecutive
asymptotes. One full cycle of the tangent function will occur
between asymptotes.
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Note that the asymptotes are at 𝑥𝑥 = − and 𝑥𝑥 = when there
2 2
are no horizontal transformations. Evaluate the new locations
based on the transformations shown in the equation.

𝑦𝑦 = tan(𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶) Subtract 𝐶𝐶

𝑦𝑦 = tan(𝑥𝑥 − 𝐶𝐶) Add 𝐶𝐶

1
𝑦𝑦 = tan(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵) Multiply by 𝐵𝐵

Quick Plot
Finally, plot the three “quick plot” points. The quick plot points Points:
occur at equal intervals between the asymptotes. The 𝑦𝑦-values −𝐴𝐴, Zero, 𝐴𝐴
of these three points should be −𝐴𝐴, then 0, and then 𝐴𝐴.

89
90
Cotangent 𝜋𝜋
cot � � =
2
3𝜋𝜋
The quotient identity for cotangent is: cot � � = 𝜋𝜋
4 cot � � =
4

cot 𝑥𝑥 =

cot(𝜋𝜋) =

cot(0) =

Cotangent is
undefined when
____________
is zero.

The graph of the cotangent function is shown

to the right.

The domain of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 is the set of all

real numbers except integer multiples of
𝜋𝜋.

The range of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 is the set of

______ ________ ______________.

What is the period of the cotangent function?

Graphing the Cotangent function in ALEKS

To graph 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 cot(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶), begin by plotting two Quick Plot
consecutive asymptotes. One full cycle of the tangent function Points:
will occur between asymptotes. 𝐴𝐴, Zero, −𝐴𝐴

Note that the asymptotes are at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜋𝜋 when there

are no horizontal transformations. Evaluate the new locations
based on the transformations shown in the equation.

𝑦𝑦 = tan(𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶) Subtract 𝐶𝐶

𝑦𝑦 = tan(𝑥𝑥 − 𝐶𝐶) Add 𝐶𝐶

1
𝑦𝑦 = tan(𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵) Multiply by 𝐵𝐵

Finally, plot the three “quick plot” points. The quick plot points occur at equal intervals between the
asymptotes. The 𝑦𝑦-values of these three points should be 𝐴𝐴, then 0, and then −𝐴𝐴.

91
92
Graphs of Tangent and Cotangent Module
Notes

93
94
Test 2 Practice Quiz

95
96
 Unit 3
Trigonometric
Identities

97
98
Introduction to Proving Identities
Review
List all the trigonometric identities you know. Categorize each one as either reciprocal or quotient.

Reciprocals Quotients

Pythagorean Identities
Write the equation of the unit circle:

Use the definition for sine and cosine on the unit circle to replace 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 in the equation above.

This is one of the three Pythagorean identities.

Divide each side of the equation sin2 𝜃𝜃 + cos2 𝜃𝜃 = 1 by cos2 𝜃𝜃. Then use identities to simplify the
equation.

sin2 𝜃𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃𝜃 = 1

Now you have the second Pythagorean identity.

Divide each side of the equation sin2 𝜃𝜃 + cos2 𝜃𝜃 = 1 by sin2 𝜃𝜃. Then use identities to simplify the
equation.

sin2 𝜃𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃𝜃 = 1

Now you have the third of the Pythagorean identities.

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜃𝜃 = 1 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜃𝜃 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 𝜃𝜃 + 1 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 𝜃𝜃

99
 Once a trigonometric identity has been proven, it can be algebraically manipulated into its most useful
form.

Solve the trigonometric identity sin2 𝑥𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥𝑥 = 1 for sin2 𝑥𝑥.

Solve the trigonometric identity sin2 𝑥𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥𝑥 = 1 for cos2 𝑥𝑥.

Solve the trigonometric identity 1 + cot 2 𝑥𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥𝑥 for cot 2 𝑥𝑥.

Solve the trigonometric identity tan2 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = sec 2 𝑥𝑥 for tan2 𝑥𝑥.

Matching
Match each of the following trigonometric expressions to equations below.

1
= csc 2 𝜃𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃𝜃 =
sec 𝜃𝜃
cot 𝜃𝜃 = sin 𝜃𝜃 =
tan 𝜃𝜃 =
sin 𝜃𝜃 1
tan2 𝜃𝜃 + 1 = = =
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃

1= 1 1
= =
sin 𝜃𝜃 csc 𝜃𝜃
sin2 𝜃𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃𝜃 =
csc 𝜃𝜃 =
cos 𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃
=
sin 𝜃𝜃
sec 𝜃𝜃 =

100
Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions
Use identities and substitution to simplify trigonometric expressions.

Proving Trigonometric Identities

To prove a trigonometric identity, we transform the equation until both sides are identical. We often
start with one side and transform it until it is identical to the other side.

Prove the following identity:

sin2 𝑥𝑥 (1 + cot 2 𝑥𝑥) = 1 All trigonometric proofs will

follow a two-column format. The
Statement Rule
column on the left will contain
sin2 𝑥𝑥 (1 + cot 2 𝑥𝑥)
the statement and the column on
= sin2 𝑥𝑥 (csc 2 𝑥𝑥) Pythagorean
the right will contain the name of
= sin 2 1
𝑥𝑥 �sin2 𝑥𝑥� Reciprocal
the rule that is used to create the
=1 Algebra statement.

101
102
Fundamental Identities Module Notes

103
104
Fundamental Identities
Warmup
Fill in the blanks to complete each identity.

Lots of Examples
You get better at these by doing them. So, let’s do a lot of examples today.

Statement Rule Statement Rule

105
 Statement Rule

The Difference of Squares

Factor each of the expressions below:

𝑥𝑥 2 − 9 9 − 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 1 − 𝑥𝑥 2

sec 2 𝑥𝑥 − 1 1 − cos2 𝑥𝑥

Statement Rule

106
 Statement Rule

Getting a Common Denominator

When is it necessary to get a common denominator?

Practice with numbers… Practice with variables…

2 2
3+ = 𝑥𝑥 + =
3 𝑥𝑥

Practice with a trig function…

2
cos 𝑥𝑥 + =
cos 𝑥𝑥

Statement Rule

107
 Reversed Subtraction Order
The Pythagorean identity is often solved for one variable or the other to make it applicable to the
situation. For example,

1 − cos 2 𝑥𝑥 = sin2 𝑥𝑥

Pay close attention to the order of the subtraction. What would we get if we reversed this order? Hint:
Multiply the above equation by −1 on both sides of the equal sign.

cos 2 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = ___________

Statement Rule

108
Fundamental Identities Module Notes

109
110
Identities and Algebra
Because proving trigonometric identities can be done correctly in multiple ways, there is not one
singular algorithm to follow. However, some strategies are known to surface more often than others.

Strategy: Get a common denominator

Statement Rule Statement Rule

111
 Strategy: Multiply by One Strategy: Convert all trig
functions to either sine or
cosine

Statement Rule Statement Rule

112
Strategy: Factor to get a Square

Statement Rule Statement Rule

113
 Statement Rule

Statement Rule

114
Identities and Algebra Module Notes

115
116
Sum and Difference Identities
Warm Up Exercises
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥 2 .

1. Evaluate: 𝑓𝑓(3) + 𝑓𝑓(1)

Which did you add: Inputs or Outputs?

2. Evaluate: 𝑓𝑓(3 + 1)

Which did you add: Inputs or Outputs?

3. Did you end up with the same answer for numbers 1 and 2? Why?

4. True or False? 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏)

Evaluate each of the following expressions using your calculator.

5. cos 30° + cos 45°

6. cos(30° + 45°)

7. Did you end up with the same answer for numbers

5 and 6? Why?

8. True or False? cos(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) = cos 𝑎𝑎 + cos 𝑏𝑏

117
 Sum and Difference Formulas
The sum and difference formulas (or identities) are formulas expressing the cosine, sine, tangent,
secant, cosecant, and cotangent of the sum or difference of two angles in terms of trigonometric
functions of the angles.

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑦𝑦
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) =
1 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑦𝑦

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑦𝑦
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦) =
1 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑦𝑦

The sum and difference formulas allow us to find trigonometric function values for angles that are not
on the unit circle, all while still using unit circle values.

cos 75° =
= cos(30° + 45°)
= cos 30° cos 45° − sin 30° sin 45°

The proof of the sum and difference formulas may be found

at https://youtu.be/73lG_hOAgxE.

118
Find the exact value of sin(−165∘ ) by using a sum or
difference formula.

119
 Proving Identities with Sum and Difference Formulas

120
Sum and Difference Identities Module
Notes

121
122
Double Angle Identities
Warm-Up

Use the sum formulas above to find each of the following:

1. sin(2𝜃𝜃) = sin(𝜃𝜃 + 𝜃𝜃)

2. cos(2𝜃𝜃) = cos(𝜃𝜃 + 𝜃𝜃)

3. tan(2𝜃𝜃) = tan(𝜃𝜃 + 𝜃𝜃)

Double-Angle Formulas

The double angle formulas (or identities) for sine, cosine, and tangent
are…

123
 Verify the identities: cos2 𝜃𝜃 − sin2 𝜃𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 and cos2 𝜃𝜃 − sin2 𝜃𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃𝜃 − 1

Problem type 1

124
Problem type 2

125
 Proving Identities

126
Double Angle Identities Module Notes

127
128
Half-Angle Identities
Derivation
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
Replace 𝜃𝜃 with in the formula below and Replace 𝜃𝜃 with in the formula below and
2 2
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
simplify. Solve the resulting equation for sin 2 . simplify. Solve the resulting equation for cos 2 .

cos 2𝜃𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 cos 2𝜃𝜃 = 2 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 − 1

𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
cos 2 � � = 1 − 2 sin2 � � cos 2 � � = 2 cos2 � � − 1
2 2 2 2
2
𝛼𝛼
cos 𝛼𝛼 = 1 − 2 sin � � 𝛼𝛼
2 cos 𝛼𝛼 = 2 cos 2 � � − 1
1 − cos 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 2
2
= sin � �
2 2 cos 𝛼𝛼 + 1 𝛼𝛼
= cos2 � �
1 − cos 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 2 2
±� = sin � �
2 2
cos 𝛼𝛼 + 1 𝛼𝛼
±� = cos � �
2 2

Begin with the quotient identity for tangent:

𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
𝛼𝛼 sin � 2 � 2 cos� �
tan � � = Multiply the expression by 1 in the form of 2
𝛼𝛼 . Simplify this expression.
2 𝛼𝛼 2 cos� �
cos � 2 � 2

𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
sin � 2 � 2 cos � �
= 2
𝛼𝛼 ⋅ 𝛼𝛼 =
cos � 2 � 2 cos � 2 �

𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
2 sin � 2 � cos � 2 � Add zero to the denominator in the form of 1 − 1.
= 𝛼𝛼
1 + 2 cos2 � � − 1
2 Apply double angle identities to the expression and simplify.

The half angle formulas (or identities) for sine, cosine, and tangent are as
follows:

𝑥𝑥 1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � � = ±� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � � = ±� 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � � =
2 2 2 2 2 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥

129
 𝑥𝑥
The sign + or – is determined by the quadrant in which the angle lies.
2

Problem Type 1

𝑥𝑥 1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � � = ±� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � � = ±� 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � � =
2 2 2 2 2 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥

130
Problem Type 2

𝑥𝑥 1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � � = ±� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � � = ±� 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 � � =
2 2 2 2 2 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥

131
 Half-Angle Identities Module Notes

132
Test 3 Practice Quiz

133
134
 Unit 4
Solving
Equations and
Triangles

135
136
Inverses
All I Know About Inverse Functions from College Algebra

137
 Does EVERY Function have an Inverse Function?
The coordinate plane below and to the left is the graph of the function 𝑓𝑓. What test can confirm that
this is the graph of a function?

𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 −1

Use the empty coordinate plane above to the right to plot the graph of 𝑓𝑓 −1.

Using the same test as before, is 𝑓𝑓 −1 the graph of a function?

How can you tell, by looking only at the graph of 𝑓𝑓 (not the graph of its inverse), that 𝑓𝑓 −1 is not a
function?

Horizontal Line Test: If no horizontal line passes through the graph of a

function more than once, then the function is one-to-one.

138
Trigonometric Functions are Not One-to-One
Sketch the graph of your favorite trigonometric function.

Is this function one-to-one? Is the inverse of this function also a function?

Because trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, we will restrict the

domain of each of our trigonometric functions before we define its
inverse.

The Restriction on Sine

Two graphs are given below. On the left is the graph of the sine function and on the right is the graph of
the restricted sine function.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 , − ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤
2 2

The restriction on the graph of the sine function has been chosen in a very specific way.

1. The restriction makes the graph of the sine function one-to-one.

2. The restricted graph covers the entire range of the sine function.
3. The restricted graph contains (0,0) (the most centrally located point).

139
 Notice how this restriction relates to the unit circle…

−90°

𝜋𝜋
−
2

Unrestricted unit circle Unit circle with the restriction on Sine

Describe the differences in the unit circles above; pay close attention to quadrant IV.

Sine Inverse
Now that the sine function has been sufficiently restricted, we can define the inverse of sine:

𝜃𝜃 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑦𝑦 is a function that takes as its input 𝑦𝑦, the vertical displacement
from the horizontal diameter of a circle (measured in a percentage of the
length of the radius), and outputs the corresponding angle, for angles 𝜃𝜃,
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
such that − ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ . 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆−1 𝑦𝑦 may also be denoted as 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦.
2 2

Function Input Output Domain Range

𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃 𝑦𝑦 (−∞, ∞) [−1,1]

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 = sin−1 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝜃𝜃 [−1,1] �− , �
2 2

140
Restrictions for Cosine and Tangent
Consider the graphs of cosine and tangent given below:

Choose a restriction for each graph based on the following criteria:

1. The restriction makes the graph of the function one-to-one.

2. The restricted graph covers the entire range of the function.
3. The restricted graph contains (0,0) (the most centrally located point).

The restriction on cosine is… The restriction on tangent is…

Now that the cosine and tangent functions has been sufficiently restricted, we can define the inverse
functions:

𝜃𝜃 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 (𝑥𝑥) is a function that takes as its input 𝑥𝑥, the horizontal
displacement from the vertical diameter of a circle (measured in a
percentage of the length of the radius), and outputs the corresponding
angle, for angles 𝜃𝜃, such that 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋.

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 −1 (𝑥𝑥) may also be denoted as 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥).

𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1(𝑚𝑚) is a function that takes as its input 𝑚𝑚, the slope of the
terminal ray, and outputs the corresponding angle, for angles 𝜃𝜃, such that
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
− < 𝜃𝜃 < .
2 2

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇−1 (𝑚𝑚) may also be denoted as 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑚𝑚).

Complete the table below:

Function Input Output Domain Range

𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃 𝑦𝑦 (−∞, ∞) [−1,1]
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 = arcsin 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝜃𝜃 [−1,1] �− , �
2 2
𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃 = arccos 𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚 = tan 𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃 = arctan 𝑚𝑚

141
 Find the exact value of each of the following.

Write your answer in terms of 𝜋𝜋.

1
cos−1 � �
2

√2
arccos �− 2
�

tan−1 (1)
√3
arctan �− �
3

Inverses in the Calculator

Inverse trigonometric function can be approximated with a calculator.

How do you enter cosecant into your calculator?

How do you enter secant into your calculator?

How do you enter cotangent into your calculator?

142
Inverses Module Notes

143
144
Composition with Inverses
Composition of Functions

Evaluate functions from

the inside out.

To evaluate 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔(5)�,
find 𝑔𝑔(5) first.

If 𝑔𝑔(5) = 3, then we
find 𝑓𝑓(3) next.

Composing Trigonometric Functions

Use the unit circle and work your way from inside out.

145
 𝜋𝜋
Find the exact value of sin−1 �sin �− ��.
6

11𝜋𝜋
Find the exact value of arcsin �sin �.
6

3𝜋𝜋
Find the exact value of arccos �cos �.
4

5𝜋𝜋
Find the exact value of cos −1 �cos �.
4

𝜋𝜋
Find the exact value of tan−1 �tan �− ��.
4

7𝜋𝜋 √2
Find the exact value of arctan �tan �. Find the exact value of sin �sin−1 �− ��.
4 2

√2 √3
Find the exact value of cos �cos −1 �− ��. Find the exact value of tan �tan−1 �− ��.
2 3

If you know the domains and ranges…

The definition of inverses tells us that… 𝑓𝑓 −1 �𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 is in the range of 𝑓𝑓 −1

This means that 𝑥𝑥 is both the input (domain element) of 𝑓𝑓 and an output (range element) of 𝑓𝑓 −1 . Because all our
trigonometric inverses have restrictions on the range, the value of 𝑥𝑥 must also be restricted.

Fill in the table below to investigate each composition: DRAW THE ANGLE!

Function Composition Restrictions on output: 𝜃𝜃 IS THE ANGLE WITHIN THE RESTRICTION?

sin−1 (sin 𝜃𝜃) = 𝜃𝜃 If yes: The given angle is your answer!

cos −1 (cos 𝜃𝜃) = 𝜃𝜃 If no: Match the function value into the
tan −1 (tan
𝜃𝜃) = 𝜃𝜃 restriction.

Cosine Sine Tangent

146
 𝑥𝑥 is in the domain of 𝑓𝑓 −1
The definition of inverses also tells us… 𝑓𝑓�𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑥𝑥

This means that 𝑥𝑥 is both the input (domain element) of 𝑓𝑓 −1 and an output (range element) of 𝑓𝑓.

Fill in the table below to investigate each composition:

Function Composition Restrictions on input:
Is the input within the restriction?
sin(sin−1 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑦𝑦
If yes: You have the answer.
cos(cos −1 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥
If no: Undefined
tan(tan−1 𝑚𝑚) = 𝑚𝑚

When the Inverse Function is on the inside

If the inverse function is on the inside, we can assume that the angle, 𝜃𝜃 is unknown. When the angle is unknown,
we can use triangle trigonometry (SOHCAHTOA) to evaluate the expression.

Begin by replacing the inverse function with a variable, 𝜃𝜃.

Then eliminate the inverse function by rewriting it.

If sin−1 𝑦𝑦 = 𝜃𝜃, then sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑦𝑦.

If cos −1 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜃𝜃, then cos 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑥𝑥.

If tan−1 𝑚𝑚 = 𝜃𝜃, then tan 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑚𝑚.

Next, draw a picture and use right triangle trigonometry: SOHCAHTOA.

147
 Variable Expressions

148
Composition with Inverses Module Notes

149
150
Solving Basic Equations
Warm-Up
A wayward algebra student solved the following equation: 𝑥𝑥 2 = 9 using the work shown below. What
is the student missing? Give the correct solution(s).

Finding ALL Solutions

Similarly, in solving a trigonometric equation, one must consider ALL possible solutions. For example,
1
consider solving the trigonometric equation: cos 𝑥𝑥 =
2

151
 𝜋𝜋
A quick observation of the unit circle (to the right) will show us that is not the only angle that has a
3
1
cosine value of . What is the other solution shown on the unit circle?
2

Furthermore, because trigonometric functions are periodic, we must also include all coterminal angles.
Recall that coterminal angles are found by adding or subtracting any number of full rotations to an
1
angle. Therefore, the solutions to the equation cos 𝑥𝑥 = are…
2
𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥 = + 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℤ or 𝑥𝑥 = + 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℤ
3 3

152
153
 Multiple Angles

154
Finding Solutions in an Interval

Summary
Solve each of the following equations and give the number of solutions.

• tan 𝜃𝜃 = −√3
o Solution:
o Number of solutions:
• tan 𝜃𝜃 = −√3 for 𝜃𝜃 in the interval [0, 2𝜋𝜋).
o Solution:
o Number of solutions:
• 𝜃𝜃 = tan−1�−√3�
o Solution:
o Number of solutions:

155
 Solving Basic Equations Module Notes

156
157
 Solving Quadratics
Warm-Up
Solve the following quadratic equations:

1. 2𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 − 3) = 0 4. 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2 = 0

2. (2𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 − 4) = 0 5. 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 6 = 0

3. 𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 = 0 6. 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑥𝑥 − 5 = 0

Describe the strategy you used to solve problems 1 and 2 above.

Describe the strategy you used to solve problems 3 and 4 above.

Describe the strategy you used to solve problems 5 and 6 above.

158
Solving Equations in Factored Form

Solving Equations Quadratic in Form

159
160
Solving Quadratics Module Notes

161
162
163
 Blast from the Past
Solving By Graphing
You can use a graph to solve an equation because every point on the graph represents an ordered pair
that satisfies the equation.

164
165
 Solving Trigonometric Equations with Pythagorean Identities

166
Solving Trigonometric Equations with Double Angle Identities

167
 Blast from the Past Module Notes

168
169
 Solving with a Calculator
Solving a Sine (or Cosecant) Equation

Find all solutions of the equation in the interval [0, 2𝜋𝜋):

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑦𝑦

𝜃𝜃1 = 𝜃𝜃2 =

170
171
 Solving a Cosine (or Secant) Equation

Find all solutions of the equation in the interval [0, 2𝜋𝜋):

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑥𝑥

𝜃𝜃1 = 𝜃𝜃2 =

Solving a Tangent (or Cotangent) Equation

Find all solutions of the equation in the interval [0, 2𝜋𝜋):

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑚𝑚

𝜃𝜃1 = 𝜃𝜃2 =

172
Solving a Word Problem with a Calculator

173
174
Solving with a Calculator Module Notes

175
176
Introduction to Solving Triangles
Solving for Angles
Now that we know how to solve trigonometric equations, we can solve for
Find 𝑥𝑥. Round your angles in triangles. First, set up an equation using SOHCAHTOA.
answer to the nearest
13
tenth of a degree. sin 𝑥𝑥 =
22
Then solve for the angle by taking the inverse of both sides of the equation.
13
sin−1 (sin 𝑥𝑥) = sin−1 � �
22
13
𝑥𝑥 = sin−1 � �
22
Make sure that the mode of your calculator is set to degrees.

𝑥𝑥 ≈ 36.2°
Using a trigonometric ratio to find an angle Using trigonometry to find angles of elevation
measure in a right triangle or depression in a word problem

Find 𝑥𝑥. Round your answer to the nearest tenth of a A 12 ft ladder leans against the side of a house. The
degree. top of the ladder is 10 ft off the ground. Find 𝑥𝑥, the
angle of elevation of the ladder. Round your answer
to the nearest tenth of a degree.

177
 Solving Triangles
To “solve” a triangle, you must know the measure of every angle and the length of every side.

The sum of all three angles in a triangle is __________.

Solve the right triangle. Round
your answers to the nearest 50° + 90° + 𝐵𝐵 = 180°
tenth.
Solve for 𝐵𝐵.

Use SOHCAHTOA to find the length of a missing side.

25
cos 50° =
𝑐𝑐
Solve for 𝑐𝑐.

If you can avoid it, don’t use calculated values to solve for new values. For example, now that we
know 𝑐𝑐, we could use the Pythagorean theorem to find 𝑎𝑎. But that would require the use of 𝑐𝑐, which
is an approximated value. The rounding of the value of 𝑐𝑐 could throw off the calculation of 𝑎𝑎.

Use SOHCAHTOA and the given values to find the length of the other missing side.
𝑎𝑎
tan 50° =
25
Solve for 𝑎𝑎.
𝐴𝐴

Note that there is a very specific way to label triangles.

𝑐𝑐
• Use capital letters for the angles 𝑏𝑏
• Use lower case letters for the side lengths
• Matching letters should always be across from each other. For example,
angle 𝐴𝐴 is across from side 𝑎𝑎.
𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵

178
The Law of Sines
When working with right triangles, we use two main tools: SOHCAHTOA and the Pythagorean Theorem

If the triangle is not a right triangle, then you cannot use SOHCAHTOA and you cannot use
the Pythagorean Theorem.

Consider a sketch of an oblique (non-right) triangle:

𝐶𝐶

𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎

𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
𝑐𝑐

Notice that none of the angles are 90°. Since we need right angles, let’s put some in!

Follow the steps below:

1. Draw a vertical line from angle 𝐶𝐶 to side 𝑐𝑐. The line should be perpendicular to side 𝑐𝑐 and create
two right triangles.

2. Label the vertical line with the letter 𝑦𝑦 and draw boxes to represent the right angles in each
triangle.

3. Find an expression for sin 𝐴𝐴: sin 𝐴𝐴 =

4. Find an expression for sin 𝐵𝐵: sin 𝐵𝐵 =

5. Solve the equations created in steps 3 and 4 for the variable 𝑦𝑦.

6. Since the two right triangles share the side 𝑦𝑦, we can use it to link the two equations. Set the
two equations in number 5 equal. This will eliminate the variable 𝑦𝑦 from our calculations.

The Law of Sines: In any triangle with sides 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 and angles 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶:

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐

= = or = =
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶

179
180
Introduction to Solving Triangles Module
Notes

181
182
Law of Sines (SSA)
Investigation #1
Consider the following information.

𝑏𝑏 = 7, 𝑎𝑎 = 6.2, 𝐴𝐴 = 55°
Break a spaghetti noodle so that it is the same length as the line representing side length 𝑎𝑎 and place it
on the figure to create a possible triangle. Trace your noodle to draw the complete triangle.

Break a spaghetti noodle so that it is the same length as the line representing side length 𝑎𝑎 and place it
on the figure to create a different possible triangle. Trace your noodle to draw the complete triangle.

Solve the triangles using the law of sines.

Compare these solutions to the triangles.

183
 Investigation #2
Consider the following information.

𝑏𝑏 = 7, 𝑎𝑎 = 8, 𝐴𝐴 = 55°
Break a spaghetti noodle so that it is the same length as the line representing side length 𝑎𝑎 and place it
on the figure to create a possible triangle. Trace your noodle to draw the complete triangle.

Break a spaghetti noodle so that it is the same length as the line representing side length 𝑎𝑎 and place it
on the figure to create a different possible triangle. Trace your noodle to draw the complete triangle.

Solve the triangles using the law of sines.

Compare this solution to your triangles. Can the angle in a triangle be negative? ________

Finish the sentence: When side 𝑎𝑎 is larger than side 𝑏𝑏, there is only…

184
Investigation #3
Consider the following information.

𝑏𝑏 = 7, 𝑎𝑎 = 5, 𝐴𝐴 = 55°
Break a spaghetti noodle so that it is the same length as the line representing side length 𝑎𝑎 and place it
on the figure to create a possible triangle. Trace your noodle to draw the complete triangle.

Solve the triangle using the law of sines.

Compare this solution to the triangle above.

𝑎𝑎 = 5 was not long enough to complete the triangle. What is the minimum length needed to complete
this triangle?

185
 Conclusion #1
In the triangle to the left, when the length of 𝑎𝑎 is between the length of __________
and _____ , there are two triangles possible.

Conclusion #2
In the triangle to the left, if _____ > _____ , then there is only one triangle
possible.

Conclusion #3
In the triangle to the left, if _____<_________ , then no triangle is possible.

186
Law of Sines (SSA) Module Notes

187
188
Law of Cosines (SAS & SSS)
Derivation of the Law of Cosines
Consider a sketch 𝐶𝐶
of an oblique (non-
right) triangle: 𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏

𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
𝑐𝑐

Follow the steps below:

1. Draw a vertical line from angle 𝐶𝐶 to side 𝑐𝑐. The line should be perpendicular to side 𝑐𝑐 and create
two right triangles.

2. Label the vertical line with the letter 𝑦𝑦 and draw a box to represent the right angle in the
triangle. Also, label the side adjacent to angle 𝐴𝐴 as 𝑥𝑥 and the side adjacent to angle 𝐵𝐵 as 𝑐𝑐 − 𝑥𝑥.

Note that the sum of the two adjacent sides of the right triangles is the same as the
side 𝑐𝑐.
𝑥𝑥 + (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐
3. Use the Pythagorean theorem to write an equation using the side lengths of the smaller right
triangle.

4. Use the Pythagorean theorem to write an equation using the side lengths of the larger right
triangle.

Square the binomial and simplify:

5. Use the equation from number 3 to eliminate the 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 in your equation for number 4.

6. Write an expression for cos 𝐴𝐴: cos 𝐴𝐴 =

7. Solve this equation for 𝑥𝑥.

8. Eliminate 𝑥𝑥 from your answer in number 5 by using your answer to number 7.

189
 The Law of Cosines: In any triangle with sides 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 and angles 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶:
𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 cos 𝐴𝐴
𝑏𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝐵𝐵
𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝐶𝐶

Draw arrows to connect letters that should match in the formula below.

−1
side2 − side2 − side2
Angle = cos � �
−2 × side × side

190
191
 Law of Sines or Law of Cosines?

Use Law of
None
Cosines

Yes Use Law of Sines

How many angles
are given? Do you have
One
matching letters?
Use Law of
No
Cosines
Use the Law of
Two
Sines

192
Law of Cosines (SAS & SSS) Module Notes

193
194
Test 4 Practice Quiz

195
196
 Unit 5
Applications of
Trigonometric
Functions

197
198
Polar Coordinates

199
200
Conversions

201
202
Polar Coordinates Module Notes

203
204
Polar Equations
Formulas
Convert the polar coordinates (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃) to rectangular coordinates.

Convert the rectangular coordinates (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) to polar coodinates.

Rectangular to Polar

205
 Polar to Rectangular

206
207
 Polar Equations Module Notes

208
209
210
Complex Numbers
Plotting Complex Numbers

211
 Trigonometric Form of a Complex
Number
Use the image to the right and your knowledge of
the trigonometric functions to find equations for
𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 if 𝑟𝑟 and 𝜃𝜃 are known.

𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖
𝑏𝑏 −

𝜃𝜃
|
𝑎𝑎

The trigonometric form (sometimes called polar form) of the complex

number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 is…
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃)
…where the number 𝑟𝑟 is called the modulus of 𝑧𝑧, and 𝜃𝜃 is called the
argument of 𝑧𝑧.
This relationship implies the following equations:
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑟𝑟 =
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 =

212
213
214
Multiplying and Dividing Complex Numbers in Trigonometric Form
Let 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑟𝑟1 (cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃1 ) and 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟2 (cos 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃2 ).
Find an expression for 𝑧𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧𝑧2 :
𝑧𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧𝑧2 =
= 𝑟𝑟1 (cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃1 ) ⋅ 𝑟𝑟2 (cos 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃2 )
= 𝑟𝑟1 ⋅ 𝑟𝑟2 ⋅ (cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃1 )(cos 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃2 )
Multiply to expand the expression:
= 𝑟𝑟1 ⋅ 𝑟𝑟2 ⋅ ( )
Replace 𝑖𝑖 2 with −1 and rearrange the expression
= 𝑟𝑟1 ⋅ 𝑟𝑟2 ⋅ �(cos 𝜃𝜃1 cos 𝜃𝜃2 − sin 𝜃𝜃1 sin 𝜃𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑖 ⋅ (sin 𝜃𝜃1 cos 𝜃𝜃2 + cos 𝜃𝜃1 sin 𝜃𝜃2 )�
Where have we seen these expressions before???
= 𝑟𝑟1 ⋅ 𝑟𝑟2 ⋅ (cos(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 ))
The line above is called the “Product Formula”. A quotient formula can be derived in a similar manner.

Product Formula: 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 ))
𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1
Quotient Formula: = (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 ))
𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2

215
 Complex Numbers Module Notes

216
217
 De Moivre
Powers of Complex Numbers
Abraham De Moivre is credited with a theorem that can be used to raise complex numbers to positive integer
powers. Fill in the table to see what he discovered.

𝑧𝑧 2 𝑧𝑧 ⋅ 𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) ⋅ 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) ⬚ �cos ⬚ + 𝑖𝑖 sin ⬚ �

3 2
𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 ⋅ 𝑧𝑧 ⬚ �cos ⬚ + 𝑖𝑖 sin ⬚ � ⋅ 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) ⬚ �cos ⬚ + 𝑖𝑖 sin ⬚ �
𝑧𝑧 4 𝑧𝑧 3 ⋅ 𝑧𝑧 ⬚ �cos ⬚ + 𝑖𝑖 sin ⬚ � ⋅ 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) ⬚ �cos ⬚ + 𝑖𝑖 sin ⬚ �
𝑧𝑧 5 𝑧𝑧 4 ⋅ 𝑧𝑧 ⬚ �cos ⬚ + 𝑖𝑖 sin ⬚ � ⋅ 𝑟𝑟(cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) ⬚ �cos ⬚ + 𝑖𝑖 sin ⬚ �
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 ⬚ �cos ⬚ + 𝑖𝑖 sin ⬚ �

De Moivre’s Theorem:

If 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃) is the trigonometric form of a complex number,

and 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer, then…

𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛)).

218
Roots of Complex Numbers
Recall that we can rewrite radical expressions as exponential expressions. Rewrite the following expression in
𝑛𝑛
exponential form: √𝑧𝑧 =__________
𝑛𝑛
Use De Moivre’s formula to get an expression for √𝑧𝑧. Fill in the boxes below.
𝑛𝑛
√𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟 (cos + 𝑖𝑖 sin )
This gives us the basis of a formula for finding roots of complex numbers. BUT, it turns out, there are multiple
roots. Consider the following example:

Cube each of the complex numbers √3 + 𝑖𝑖, −√3 + 𝑖𝑖, and −2𝑖𝑖.
3
�√3 + 𝑖𝑖� = [2(cos 30° + 𝑖𝑖 sin 30°)]3 (−2𝑖𝑖)3 = [2(cos 270° + 𝑖𝑖 sin 270°)]3 =

= 23 (cos(30° ⋅ 3) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(30° ⋅ 3)) = 23 (cos(270° ⋅ 3) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(270° ⋅ 3))

= 8(cos 90° + 𝑖𝑖 sin 90°) = 8(cos 810° + 𝑖𝑖 sin 810°)

= 8(0 + 1𝑖𝑖) = 8𝑖𝑖 = 8(0 + 1𝑖𝑖) = 8𝑖𝑖

3
�−√3 + 𝑖𝑖� = [2(cos 150° + 𝑖𝑖 sin 150°)]3 =

= 23 (cos(150° ⋅ 3) + 𝑖𝑖 sin(150° ⋅ 3)) How are 90°, 450°

and 810° related?
= 8(cos 450° + 𝑖𝑖 sin 450°)

= 8(0 + 1𝑖𝑖) = 8𝑖𝑖

Consider your results: Take the cube root of both sides of the equation.
𝑥𝑥 3 = 8𝑖𝑖 → 3
𝑥𝑥 = √8𝑖𝑖
3 3
�√3 + 𝑖𝑖� = 8𝑖𝑖 → √3 + 𝑖𝑖 = √8𝑖𝑖
3 3
�−√3 + 𝑖𝑖� = 8𝑖𝑖 → −√3 + 𝑖𝑖 = √8𝑖𝑖
(−2𝑖𝑖)3 = 8𝑖𝑖 → −2𝑖𝑖 = 3√8𝑖𝑖
It follows that √3 + 𝑖𝑖, −√3 + 𝑖𝑖, and −2𝑖𝑖 are all cube roots of 8𝑖𝑖.

Root: For a given natural number 𝑛𝑛 and a number 𝑧𝑧, we say that the number 𝑥𝑥 is
an 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑧𝑧 if…
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑧𝑧.
If 𝑧𝑧 is a complex number, then 𝑧𝑧 has exactly 𝑛𝑛 complex roots.
If 𝑧𝑧 is written in the trigonometric form 𝑟𝑟(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃), the 𝑛𝑛th roots of 𝑧𝑧 are
given by the following formula…
1
𝜃𝜃 360° 𝜃𝜃 360°
𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � + 𝑘𝑘� + 𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � + 𝑘𝑘�� , for 𝑘𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛𝑛 − 1
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛

Show how this formula gives us the three cube roots of 8𝑖𝑖.

219
 Notice the Symmetry
𝜃𝜃 90°
Find = = 30°.
𝑛𝑛 3
360° 360°
Add or = 120° over and over until you’ve
𝑛𝑛 3
made it all the way around the circle once.

Now you know your angles to be 30°, 150°, and

270°.
1 1
Note that 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 = 83 = 2.

The three cube roots are…

√3 1
𝑥𝑥0 = 2 � 2 + 𝑖𝑖�
2

√3 1
𝑥𝑥1 = 2 �− 2
+ 𝑖𝑖�
2

𝑥𝑥2 = 2(0 − 1𝑖𝑖)

220
221
 De Moivre Module Notes

222
223
 Vectors
What is a Vector?
A vector is a geometric object that has magnitude (or length) and direction. https://youtu.be/bOIe0DIMbI8

How is a vector different from a scalar?

A variety of scalar and vector quantities are used in physical science courses. Some common scalar
quantities are distance, speed, mass, volume, and temperature. Common vector quantities are
displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force.

Not infinite length!

�����⃗ is symbolized as �𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

The magnitude of 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 �����⃗ �.

Calculate the magnitude as you would the

length of the hypotenuse of a triangle.

�����⃗ � = �(4)2 + (3)2

�𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

𝒊𝒊 and 𝒋𝒋 are called “unit” vectors because

they are 1 unit in length (magnitude).

224
 _________

What is the magnitude and direction angle (between 0° and 360° that v makes with the positive 𝑥𝑥-axis)
of the vector shown to the left?

225
 Suppose a vector 𝒕𝒕 makes an angle 𝜃𝜃 with the positive 𝑥𝑥-axis (measured
counterclockwise) and |𝒕𝒕| is the magnitude of 𝒕𝒕. Then 𝒕𝒕 = 𝑎𝑎𝒊𝒊 + 𝑏𝑏𝒋𝒋 for…

𝑎𝑎 = |𝒕𝒕| 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑏𝑏 = |𝒕𝒕| 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃.

226
Arithmetic with Vectors

227
 To subtract two vectors, do a combination of multiplication and addition.
That is,

𝒖𝒖 − 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒖𝒖 + (−1)𝒗𝒗

228
Vectors Module Notes

229
230
Dot Product

What the heck are we doing?

https://betterexplained.com/articles/vector-calculus-understanding-the-dot-product/

Alternate Dot Product

Solve this equation for cos 𝜃𝜃.

231
 https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/vectors-dot-product.html

For the vectors 𝒗𝒗 = −2𝒊𝒊 + 3𝒋𝒋 and 𝒘𝒘 = 6𝒊𝒊 − 9𝒋𝒋, notice that 𝒘𝒘 = −3𝒗𝒗. That is, the vectors are scalar multiples of
each other.

More generally, if two nonzero vectors, 𝒖𝒖 and 𝒗𝒗, are scalar multiples of each other, then they will be parallel
because the angle between them is either 0° or 180° and cos 𝜃𝜃 = ±1.

Vectors are orthogonal when the angle between them is 90° and cos 𝜃𝜃 = 0. This means the vectors are
perpendicular to one another.

232
Work

233
 Are Y’a Thirsty for More?
If you’re interested in the concept of work, check out these videos (and maybe take Physics next
semester).

https://youtu.be/0Oeywu5IR6s

https://youtu.be/Jz4Yc0UhY-E

https://youtu.be/TBzLni9s7-s

234
Dot Product Module Notes

235
236
Test 5 Practice Quiz

237
238